Co-Ordinated Control of Microgrids

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
NE 4020: Final Year Project Report
"Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Student Name: Student Number: Mark Roche 109479961 . .
Student Name: Student Number:
John Collins 109607081
. .
Project Supervisor:
Dr. Gordon Lightbody
. .
Date:
27/03/2013
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"
Mark Roche John Collins
Declaration
I confirm that this report is entirely the work of my project partner and I. All sources used have been appended in the Bibliography section, and while writing this document extreme caution was used to avoid plagiarism as defined by UCC regulations.
Signature: Date:
___________________ ___________________
Signature: Date:
___________________ ___________________
i|Page
Acknowledgements
The students would like to thank Dr. Gordon Lightbody, who supervised the project and was always very patient when explaining challenging material relating to the subject matter at hand. Also, the students appreciate the assistance which was provided by Dr. Michael Egan, who was also consulted on issues relating to the project material, such as the Park and Clarke Transformations as well as the quantification of the time lag associated with the buck converter in the wind energy conversion system.
ii | P a g e
Contents
Declaration ________________________________________________________________________________ i Acknowledgements __________________________________________________________________________ ii List of Figures______________________________________________________________________________ vi List of Tables ______________________________________________________________________________ ix Nomenclature ______________________________________________________________________________ x Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) ______________________________________________________ x Solar Array______________________________________________________________________________xiv DC Battery Bank _________________________________________________________________________xvi Complete Microgrid _____________________________________________________________________ xvii 1 2 3 Executive Summary _____________________________________________________________________ 1 Introduction ___________________________________________________________________________ 2 Wind Energy Conversion System ___________________________________________________________ 7 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.6 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.7 3.8 3.8.1 3.8.2 3.8.3 3.8.4 3.8.5 3.8.6 3.8.7 3.8.8 4 Wind Turbine ______________________________________________________________________ 7 Operational Parameters _____________________________________________________________ 8 Operation_________________________________________________________________________ 9 Power Regulation _________________________________________________________________ 11 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator ____________________________________________ 13 Choice of Electrical Generator ___________________________________________________ 13 Physical Construction __________________________________________________________ 15 Six Pulse Diode Rectifier and DC/DC Buck Converter _____________________________________ 24 Six -Pulse Rectifier ____________________________________________________________ 24 DC/DC Buck Converter _________________________________________________________ 25 Full Set of Modelling Equations ______________________________________________________ 27 Simulation of WECS ________________________________________________________________ 28 Open Loop Non Linear Model of WECS ____________________________________________ 28 Potential System Operating Points _______________________________________________ 29 Analysis of Operating Point Characteristics _________________________________________ 33 Linearization _________________________________________________________________ 36 Comparison of Linear & Non-Linear Model _________________________________________ 37 Nyquist Stability & Inversion of Linear Process ______________________________________ 39 Current Controller Design ______________________________________________________ 41 Maximum Power Point Tracking Controller ________________________________________ 49
Solar Array ___________________________________________________________________________ 52 4.1 4.2 4.3 Physical Construction ______________________________________________________________ 52 Operational Procedure _____________________________________________________________ 53 Full Set of Modelling Equations ______________________________________________________ 54
iii | P a g e

4.4 4.5 4.6 4.6.1 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 5
Parameterization __________________________________________________________________ 55 Implementation of Newton-Raphson Algorithm _________________________________________ 56 Solar Panel Performance ____________________________________________________________ 57 Selection of Diode Ideality Factor ________________________________________________ 57 Solar Array Model _________________________________________________________________ 62 Maximum Power Point Tracking Controller _____________________________________________ 65 Perturb & Observe (P&O) _______________________________________________________ 65 Incremental Conductance Algorithm______________________________________________ 67
Battery Model_________________________________________________________________________ 73 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Introduction ______________________________________________________________________ 73 Battery Cell Model _________________________________________________________________ 74 Layout of Battery Bank _____________________________________________________________ 77 Operation of the Battery Bank _______________________________________________________ 80
Complete Microgrid ____________________________________________________________________ 81 6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 Compilation of Models _____________________________________________________________ 81 Modelling of Loads ________________________________________________________________ 82 Critical and Non-Critical Loads ___________________________________________________ 82 Grid Imports/Exports ______________________________________________________________ 83 Supervisor Control _________________________________________________________________ 84 Scenario Analysis __________________________________________________________________ 86 Introduction to Scenarios _______________________________________________________ 86 Scenario 1 ___________________________________________________________________ 86 Scenario 2 ___________________________________________________________________ 88
7 8 9
Potential Project Improvements __________________________________________________________ 91 Bibliography __________________________________________________________________________ 93 Appendices __________________________________________________________________________ 104 9.1 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.1.3 9.1.4 9.1.5 9.1.6 9.1.7 9.1.8 9.1.9 9.1.10 Appendix A: Derivation of Modelling Equations for WECS ________________________________ 104 Derivation of Available Wind Power [110] ________________________________________ 104 Derivation of Extractable Wind Power [111] _______________________________________ 105 Derivation of Clarke and Park Transformations ____________________________________ 108 Amplitude Invariance _________________________________________________________ 115 Derivation of Inverse Park Transformation ________________________________________ 116 Modelling the Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator __________________________ 120 Derivation of Electromechanical Power Equation __________________________________ 125 Electromechanical Torque Equation _____________________________________________ 126 General Torque Expression ____________________________________________________ 127 Derivation of Rectifier Output Voltage and the Phase Voltage ________________________ 128
iv | P a g e

9.1.11 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.8.1 9.8.2 9.8.3 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13
Derivation of Current Injected onto DC Busbar ____________________________________ 129
Appendix B Calculation of the Optimum Operating Conditions ___________________________ 132 Appendix C - Calculation of the Initial Conditions for WECS Model _________________________ 133 Appendix D Linearization of WECS _________________________________________________ 134 Appendix E- Subsystems of the WECS ________________________________________________ 137 Appendix F- WECS Current Controller Test Configuration _________________________________ 139 Appendix G- Code for WECS Current Controller Design __________________________________ 140 Appendix H: Modelling of Solar Array ________________________________________________ 141 Shockley Diode Equation ______________________________________________________ 141 Current Flow within the Equivalent Circuit ________________________________________ 144 Series Resistance ____________________________________________________________ 146 Appendix I- Shell SP70 Solar Panel Datasheet __________________________________________ 147 Appendix J- Solar Array Subsystems __________________________________________________ 148 Appendix K M-File Example for the Complete Microgrid ________________________________ 151 Appendix L Indexes for Supervisory Switches _________________________________________ 154 Appendix M Supervisor Control Blocks of Complete Microgrid ___________________________ 156
v|Page
List of Figures
Figure 2-1: CO2 Levels in Earth's Atmosphere versus Time [6] ________________________________________ 2 Figure 2-2: Percentage Electricity Generation by Source (2010) [7] ____________________________________ 2 Figure 2-3: Schematic of a Community/Utility Microgrid [28] _________________________________________ 5 Figure 2-4: Schematic of Hybrid Microgrid System [34]______________________________________________ 6 Figure 3-1: Power Coefficient versus Tip Speed Ratio _______________________________________________ 8 Figure 3-2: Optimal Power Extraction Curve ______________________________________________________ 9 Figure 3-3: Power Extraction of a Variable Speed Fixed Pitch Wind Turbine [46]_________________________ 11 Figure 3-4: Difference between Control Using Passive Stall and Pitch Regulation [140] ___________________ 11 Figure 3-5: 3 Main Modes of Grid Connection for Modern Wind Turbines [49] __________________________ 13 Figure 3-6: Direct Drive PMSG Wind Turbine Generator [54] ________________________________________ 14 Figure 3-7: Cylindrical Rotor Design for High Speed Applications [67] _________________________________ 15 Figure 3-8: Sinusoidally Distributed Phase Windings on a Synchronous Machine [66] ____________________ 16 Figure 3-9: Typical Lamination of PMSG Stator [67] _______________________________________________ 16 Figure 3-10: Positioning of Direct and Quadrature Axes in a Four Pole Machine _________________________ 17 Figure 3-11: Equivalent Stator Winding Circuits [74] _______________________________________________ 19 Figure 3-12: Magnetically Salient Rotor Design (Ld>Lq) ____________________________________________ 22 Figure 3-13: Magnetic Saliency Characteristics of SPM & IPM [81] ___________________________________ 23 Figure 3-14: Circuit Configuration of Six Pulse Diode Rectifier & DC/DC Converter _______________________ 24 Figure 3-15: Balanced 3 Phase Line-to-Line Voltage Input to Rectifier _________________________________ 24 Figure 3-16: Output Voltage of Six-Pulse Rectifier _________________________________________________ 25 Figure 3-17: Simulink Diagram of the Open Loop Non Linear WECS ___________________________________ 28 Figure 3-18: Design Parameters for WECS _______________________________________________________ 29 Figure 3-19: Operating Values ________________________________________________________________ 29 Figure 3-20: Two Alternate Operating Points_____________________________________________________ 29 Figure 3-21: Power Output at Operating Point Corresponding to Id=3.666A,u=6.46 ______________________ 30 Figure 3-22: Power Output at Operating Point Corresponding to Id=77.095A,u=0.4562 ___________________ 30 Figure 3-23: Response to a Step in u of 0.5 at 300 seconds - Operating Point: (Id=3.666A,u=6.46) __________ 31 Figure 3-24: Response to a Step in u of 0.5 at 300 seconds - Operating Point: (Id=77.095A,u=0.4562) _______ 32 Figure 3-25: Variation of Electrical Frequency Operating Point with Desired Power ______________________ 33 Figure 3-26: Variation of Velocity Operating Point with Desired Power ________________________________ 33 Figure 3-27: Variation of Iq Operating Point with Desired Power _____________________________________ 34 Figure 3-28: Variation of u Operating Point with Desired Power (Root 2) ______________________________ 34 Figure 3-29: Variation of Id Operating Point with Desired Power (Root 2) ______________________________ 35 Figure 3-30: Variation of u Operating Point with Desired Power (Root 1) ______________________________ 35 Figure 3-31: Variation of Id Operating Point with Desired Power (Root 1) ______________________________ 35 Figure 3-32: Bode Magnitude and Phase Plots for WECS Linear Model ________________________________ 36 Figure 3-33: Response of Linear and Non-Linear Systems to a Train of Steps ___________________________ 37 Figure 3-34: Simulink Diagram of Test Configuration ______________________________________________ 38 Figure 3-35: Close Up View of Transient Step Response (Linear & Non-Linear) __________________________ 38 Figure 3-36: Initial Nyquist Plot for Inverted Linear Model __________________________________________ 39 Figure 3-37: Nyquist Plot of Inverted Linear Model Incorporating Time Lag ____________________________ 39 Figure 3-38: Nyquist Plot Corresponding to Marginal Stability _______________________________________ 40 Figure 3-39: Marginally Stable Response Achieved ________________________________________________ 40 Figure 3-40: Zeigler Nichols Tuning Parameters [85] _______________________________________________ 41 Figure 3-41: Step Response of Linear & Non-Linear System Using Zeigler Nichols PI Controller _____________ 41 Figure 3-42: Bode Magnitude & Phase Plots of Inverted Linear System incorporating Time Lag ____________ 43 Figure 3-43: Bode Magnitude & Phase Plots of Inverted Linear System ________________________________ 43 Figure 3-44: Step Responses Using PI Controller (Desired Phase Margin 30 Degrees) _____________________ 45
vi | P a g e
Figure 3-46: Step Responses Using PI Controller (Desired Phase Margin 40 Degrees) _____________________ 45 Figure 3-45: Step Responses Using PI Controller (Desired Phase Margin 50 Degrees) _____________________ 45 Figure 3-47: Step Responses Using PI Controller (Desired Phase Margin 60 Degrees) _____________________ 46 Figure 3-48: Step Responses Using PI Controller (Desired Phase Margin 80 Degrees) _____________________ 46 Figure 3-49: Step Responses Using Tweaked PI Controller __________________________________________ 47 Figure 3-50: Quadrature Current of Non-Linear Model Diverging from Setpoint as Machine Speed Drops ____ 47 Figure 3-51: Turbine Torque and Electrical Frequency for a Current Setpoint of 20A _____________________ 48 Figure 3-52: Complete Wind Energy Conversion System ____________________________________________ 49 Figure 3-53: Optimal Turbine Rotor Power & Actual Turbine Rotor Output _____________________________ 50 Figure 3-54: Wind Speed & Mechanical Speed____________________________________________________ 50 Figure 3-55: Tip Speed Ratio & Quadrature Current versus Time _____________________________________ 51 Figure 3-56: Actual and Optimal Electrical Power to DC Busbar ______________________________________ 51 Figure 4-1: Physical Construction of a PV Cell [87] _________________________________________________ 52 Figure 4-2: Principle of Operation of a PV Cell [89] ________________________________________________ 53 Figure 4-3: Solution of the Implicit Current Equation via Using the Newton Raphson Method ______________ 56 Figure 4-4: Solar Cell Model __________________________________________________________________ 57 Figure 4-5: Power- Voltage Characteristic of Solar Panel ___________________________________________ 58 Figure 4-6: Maximum Power point (1000W/m2) __________________________________________________ 58 Figure 4-7: I-V Curve of Solar Panel for Different Levels of Irradiance _________________________________ 59 Figure 4-8: Shell SP70 I-V Curves for Different Levels of Irradiance (From Datasheet) [94] _________________ 60 Figure 4-9: P-V Curves for Shell SP70 Solar Panel For Different Levels of Irradiance ______________________ 60 Figure 4-10: Increase in Device Temperature Results in Increased Short Circuit Current ___________________ 61 Figure 4-11: Scaled Voltage Output Achieved by Adding Multiple Panels in Series _______________________ 62 Figure 4-12: Scaled Current Output Achieved by Adding Multiple Panels in Parallel ______________________ 62 Figure 4-13: Solar Array Arrangement Consisting of 5 Rows of 6 Panels _______________________________ 63 Figure 4-14: Power Curves of Complete Solar Array For Different Levels of Irradiance ____________________ 64 Figure 4-15: P&O Control Logic [96] ____________________________________________________________ 65 Figure 4-16: Incremental Conductance Algorithm Control Logic [95] __________________________________ 67 Figure 4-17: Rate of Change of Voltage with Respect to Voltage For a Typical Solar Array [98] _____________ 68 Figure 4-18: Control Logic of Incremental Conductance Controller ____________________________________ 69 Figure 4-19: Implementation of Incremental Conductance Controller _________________________________ 70 Figure 4-20: Second Branch Subsystem _________________________________________________________ 70 Figure 4-21: Performance Achieved Using Incremental Conductance Algorithm _________________________ 71 Figure 4-22: Convergence of Operating Point to Maximum Power Point _______________________________ 72 Figure 5-1: Battery Cell Equivalent Circuit _______________________________________________________ 75 Figure 5-2: Battery Cell Model ________________________________________________________________ 76 Figure 5-3: VOC Variation with SOC _____________________________________________________________ 77 Figure 5-4: Battery Bank Configuration _________________________________________________________ 78 Figure 5-5: Battery Bank Complete Discharge at 4.8kW ____________________________________________ 79 Figure 6-1: Complete Microgrid Model on Simulink ________________________________________________ 81 Figure 6-2: Example of Multi-port Switch in Simulink ______________________________________________ 85 Figure 6-3: Scenario 1 Power Flows ___________________________________________________________ 87 Figure 6-4: Scenario 1 - SOC Variation __________________________________________________________ 87 Figure 6-5: Scenario 2 - Power Flows ___________________________________________________________ 89 Figure 6-6: Scenario 2 - SOC Variation __________________________________________________________ 89 Figure 9-1: Cylindrical Volume of Wind ________________________________________________________ 104 Figure 9-2: Control Volume for Derivation of Extractable Wind Power ________________________________ 105 Figure 9-3: Positive Sequence Network ________________________________________________________ 108 Figure 9-4: Negative Sequence Network _______________________________________________________ 108
vii | P a g e
Figure 9-5: Orientation of Alpha and Beta Axes with Respect to abc Axes _____________________________ 109 Figure 9-6: Projection of abc Phase Components for Clarke Transformation ___________________________ 110 Figure 9-7: Orientation of d and q Axes ________________________________________________________ 111 Figure 9-8: Development of Park Transformation ________________________________________________ 112 Figure 9-9: Alternative Reference Frame Used in [116] ____________________________________________ 114 Figure 9-10: Choices of Scaling Factor and Resulting Transformation Properties [117] ___________________ 115 Figure 9-11: Amplitude Invariant Park Transformation for 3 Phase Balanced Sine Waves ________________ 115 Figure 9-12: Amplitude Invariant Park Transformation for 3 Phase Exponentially Damped Sine Waves _____ 115 Figure 9-13: Equivilent Stator Circuit of a Synchronous Generator [76] _______________________________ 120 Figure 9-14: Direct Axis and Quadrature Axis Circuits for PMSG _____________________________________ 124 Figure 9-15: Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit and Phasor Diagram for PMSG [18] _________________________ 129 Figure 9-16: Scaling Procedure Required for Derivation ___________________________________________ 130 Figure 9-17: Inside the "Find Tt" Subsystem _____________________________________________________ 137 Figure 9-18: Inside the "Find Cp" Subsystem ____________________________________________________ 137 Figure 9-19: Inside the "Find e" Subsystem ____________________________________________________ 137 Figure 9-20: Inside the "Find m and tipspeed" Subsystem ________________________________________ 137 Figure 9-21: Inside the "Find Iq" Subsystem _____________________________________________________ 138 Figure 9-22: Inside the "Find Id" Subsystem _____________________________________________________ 138 Figure 9-23: Inside the "Find K" Subsystem _____________________________________________________ 138 Figure 9-24: Inside the "Find Iw" Subsystem ____________________________________________________ 138 Figure 9-25: Linear and Non-Linear System under Zeigler Nichols PI Controller _________________________ 139 Figure 9-26: Concentration of Holes and Electrons within a Solar Cell [123] ___________________________ 141 Figure 9-27: Ideal Solar Cell Model ____________________________________________________________ 142 Figure 9-28: Equivalent Circuit of Solar Cell Analysed (Single Diode & Series Resistance Only) [127] ________ 143 Figure 9-29: Shell SP70 Datasheet [93] ________________________________________________________ 147 Figure 9-31: Inside the "Ioact" Subsystem ______________________________________________________ 148 Figure 9-30: Inside the "Iphact" Subsystem _____________________________________________________ 148 Figure 9-32: Inside the "Rseries (Fixed Based on Reference Values)" Subsystem ________________________ 148 Figure 9-33: Inside the "f(x)" Subsystem ________________________________________________________ 149 Figure 9-34: Inside the "f(x)" Subsystem _______________________________________________________ 149 Figure 9-35: Inside the "6 Panels in Series" Subsystems ___________________________________________ 150 Figure 9-36: Inside the "First Branch" Subsystem ________________________________________________ 150 Figure 9-37: Inside the "Second Branch" Subsystem ______________________________________________ 150 Figure 9-38: Display of Top and Bottom Supervisor Blocks in the Microgrid Model ______________________ 156 Figure 9-39: Top Supervisor Block _____________________________________________________________ 157 Figure 9-40: Bottom Supervisor Block__________________________________________________________ 157
viii | P a g e
List of Tables
Table 3-1: Tuning Parameters for PI Controllers (Various Levels of Damping) ___________________________ 44 Table 4-1: Maximum Power Point Tracking- Results _______________________________________________ 72 Table 5-1: Battery Cell Parameters _____________________________________________________________ 74 Table 6-1: Supervisory Control - Price Levels _____________________________________________________ 84 Table 6-2: Index Example for Supervisor Control __________________________________________________ 85 Table 6-3: Scenario 1 Initial Conditions _________________________________________________________ 87 Table 6-4: Changes made throughout Scenario 1 _________________________________________________ 87 Table 6-5: Scenario 2 Initial Conditions _________________________________________________________ 88 Table 6-6: Changes made throughout Scenario 2 _________________________________________________ 88 Table 9-1; Indexing for PL > PWS _______________________________________________________________ 154 Table 9-2: Indexing for PWS > PL_______________________________________________________________ 155
ix | P a g e
Nomenclature
Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS)
x|Page
xi | P a g e
xii | P a g e
xiii | P a g e
Solar Array
xiv | P a g e
xv | P a g e
DC Battery Bank
xvi | P a g e
Complete Microgrid
xvii | P a g e
1 Executive Summary
The goal of this project was to complete the modelling of a grid-connected DC microgrid consisting of generation sources, an energy storage device and loads. The generating sources modelled include a Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) and a solar array. Energy storage is being provided in the form of a 9.6kWh battery bank. The WECS consists of a small 5kW variable speed wind turbine and a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) which provides alternating current to a downstream uncontrolled rectifier. The rectifier is connected to a DC/DC buck converter through a DC link capacitor. The power generated in the wind turbine flows through these components and onto a DC busbar, the voltage of which is maintained at a constant value determined by the DC battery bank. In order to achieve Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT), an inner loop PI current controller and an outer loop speed controller were designed for the system. Control is achieved through varying the duty cycle in the DC/DC converter in order to vary the voltage on the terminals of the generator. The solar array which was modelled consists of five rows of six multi-crystalline panels resulting in a rated power output of 2.1kW. Similarly to the WECS, MPPT is realised by varying the duty cycle of the downstream DC/DC converter. In order to achieve this performance, a control scheme known as the Incremental Conductance Algorithm is implemented. Unlike the WECS, there is no requirement for a rectifier as the power being generated is inherently DC. A key element for the microgrid was the modelling of the DC battery bank. This storage element helps to minimise the intermittency characteristics of the renewables sources, which improves the prospects for further integration of these green technologies. The presence of such a storage element is imperative to the operation of the microgrid as it enhances the security of power supply to local consumers. A lithium ion battery cell was modelled in Simulink and subsequently a battery bank consisting of five parallel branches, each containing fifteen cells in series, was designed. Each of the models above was culminated to form a complete microgrid in Simulink. The concepts of loads and grid-connection were introduced to the model in a very simplistic manner. Loads were subdivided into critical and non-critical loads. The microgrid has the ability to import/export power from/to the grid when required. Price levels were used in the simulations to make the scenarios more dynamic. A supervisory control was created to make the decisions on the power flows in the microgrid and ensure supply to the loads, based on information provided such as the State of Charge (SOC) of the battery, prices of importing power etc. The decisions are made in the interest of reliability of supply to the consumers, maximising the use of the renewables and the minimising the operating costs. The final section in the report tests the complete model in order to illustrate how the microgrid operates under different conditions.
1|Page
2 Introduction
There is strong evidence that the warming of the Earth over the last half-century has been caused largely by human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use, including agriculture and deforestation. [1] The Royal Society 2010 It has been demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt that the climate is changing due to man-made greenhouse gases. [2] Met Office Hadley Centre 2007. One of the major challenges confronting our generation is our over-reliance on fossil fuels. This dependence stems from advances in generating technologies, which occurred throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This facilitated the exploitation of the high level of energy density available from these fossil fuels, which is one of the key reasons for their popularity. [3] Aside from this, the relatively low cost, widespread availability and resulting consumer convenience have also contributed to their dominance within the energy market. [4] As shown in Figure 2-1, it is clear that corresponding to this surge in fossil fuel usage, there has been colossal increase in the level of CO2 measured within the earth's atmosphere. Resulting from this quandary are several other pressing predicaments such as rising sea levels, melting ice sheets, rising global temperature and glacial retreat, which together can be defined as climate change. [5] , [6] Evidently, these issues are a danger for humankind and nature alike, and hence must be counteracted.
Figure 2-1: CO2 Levels in Earth's Atmosphere versus Time [6]
Figure 2-2: Percentage Electricity Generation by Source (2010) [7]
2|Page
Despite this global realisation which is occurring, worldwide electricity generation is still dominated by fossil fuels. As shown in Figure 2-2, a sizeable portion (67.4%) of electricity generation was accounted for by fossil fuels in 2010. [7] Consequently, the power system currently being used consists of large conventional generating plants (coal, gas turbine etc.) which generate electrical energy via steam/gas turbine coupled to an electrical generator. [8] These conversion processes are quite inefficient: a conventional coal plant having an upper limit Carnot Efficiency of 63.6%. [3] Voltage produced by these machines is stepped up to a high level for transmission (up to 400kV [9]), which typically occurs over long distances to the end-user. [8] Due to the exponential trend that is evident relating to global energy consumption [9], it is clear that if the current means of electrical transmission and distribution are maintained, that a vast expansion of global electrical power grids is inevitable. [10] Expansion of the present power system however presents some challenges. For instance, the extension of a power grid inherently implies an increased necessity for long-distance transmission. Hence, this entails the need for installation of more High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) lines which diminish transmission losses over long distances by 30-50% compared to AC transmission. [10] This may appear to be an adequate solution; however the high expense which is associated with installing rectifiers and inverters at either end of the line is an issue. [11] Coupled with this is the predicament of power system blackouts which can occur in large power systems. Large, centralized power systems can be prone to suffering from severe power outages such as that which occurred on August 14, 2003 in the United States which left 50 million customers without electricity. [4] Therefore, apart from the large issue of Green House Gas (GHG) emissions associated with conventional fossil fuels, attempting to meet a constantly rising energy demand could potentially prove problematic within such a large interconnected system. As well as this, it is important to note that by definition fossil fuels are non-renewable and will deplete over time. This fact coupled with increasing energy demand will inevitably result in increasing fossil fuel prices over time, as by using common sense one could conclude that if supply drops then price will increase. This can already be seen by the increasing trend in coal and gas over the last 20 years. [12] "Renewable energy technologies provide many benefits that go well beyond energy alone. More and more, renewable energies are contributing to the three pillars of sustainable development the economy, the environment and social well-being not only in IEA countries, but globally." [13]International Energy Agency 2002 Hence, one might conclude that a better alternative to using fossil fuels as an energy source would be to integrate more renewable energy sources (wind, solar etc.) onto the power grid. The advantages of using renewable energy are numerous. For instance, aside from having a great potential for counteracting global climate change, utilising sources of energy such as wind, solar, tidal and wave also helps to reduce negative health problems associated with high levels of carbon in the atmosphere. Other benefits consist of increasing the security of energy supply and enhancing economic development. [14] The downside to utilising Renewable Energy Sources (RES), is that due to their intermittent nature, a constant power output is difficult to obtain, which is an issue for practical usage within the power grid. [15] The difficulty caused by this power fluctuation can be reduced by using programmable support systems in tandem with controlled microgrids. [16] The aforementioned dilemma of power variability is mitigated by integrating an energy storage device into the system such as a DC battery bank. [15], [17] The use of such energy storage devices allows 3|Page
for continuous power to be supplied to loads, despite the variable nature of the source. [18] Another method of dealing with this changeability in power output is to install a dump load within the system in order to dissipate unwanted intermittent power. [19] Compared to other means of coping with this problem, this is undesirable due to the fact that power being generated is effectively being intentionally wasted. In comparison to using a dump load, a more economical solution would be to utilise a fuel cell coupled with an aqua electrolyzer. In such a system, hydrogen is produced using the unwanted power. The hydrogen can then be stored and subsequently used to power a fuel cell. [19] Due to these technologies, and the ease with which they facilitate the effective implementation of RES, microgrids are becoming a more attractive option within future power systems. "Microgrids are systems that have at least one distributed energy resource and associated loads and can form intentional islands in the electrical distribution system" [20] Energy sources located close to the position of the load are termed Distributed Energy Resources (DER) and can be separated into Distributed Generation (DG) and Distributed Storage (DS). [20] A DG unit is the boundary between the microgrid and an energy source, which generates electrical power which is subsequently delivered to the microgrid. [21] A practical example of a DG unit is a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) connected to a Variable Speed Wind Turbine (VS-FP). DS components on the other hand assist in achieving the power requirements of the system loads. Throughout fluctuations in both the source and load, the DS system allows DG units to operate at constant output. Hence, a prime example of a DS unit is a D.C. battery bank/ fuel cell as mentioned previously, although flywheels and super-capacitors can equally play this role on such a system. [20] This combination of DG and DS units coupled with loads represents a microgrid. The advantages of microgrid systems are numerous when contrasted with the characteristics of conventional power grids. The most beneficial characteristic of a microgrid is the higher level of power quality which is achieved within the system, which is important for sensitive loads such as digital computers, digital clocks and programmable logic controllers. [22], [23] Aside from this, microgrids have lower associated feeder losses [24] and because of the lower transmission distance between energy sources and loads, electrical losses are reduced. By downsizing the system, transmission and distribution bottlenecks are eliminated. [25] Another major advantage however is the improved reliability which the system yields. A microgrid consists of numerous small generating sources- hence, in the event of losing a generator; the impact on the system is minimized. [26] Reliability is also improved on a local scale, provided that the system can operate in islanded mode. [27] The ability to operate in both grid-connected and autonomous (islanded) mode not only improves reliability of local power supply, but also improves efficiency of operation. [22] There is a diverse array of applications for microgrid technology ranging from off-grid and island microgrids which have no connection to the utility grid, to utility microgrids which are constantly connected to the main grid. Institutional/campus and industrial microgrids can also be designed, which operate in islanded mode continuously, but are connected to the utility grid for back up purposes. [28] Figure 2-3 shows a typical configuration for a utility microgrid. As shown, such a system is connected to the main grid via a Point of Common Coupling (PCC), which consists of an interconnection switch, which is governed by international standards IEEE 1547 and UL 1741. [20] In the case of a fault on the main grid or a drop in power quality, the purpose of the interconnection or static switch is to island the 4|Page
microgrid from the utility grid. [25] In order to recognise unsatisfactory conditions within the main grid, it is necessary to install a Voltage Monitoring Module (VMM). When connected to the main grid, the burden of balancing power generation and demand from loads is greatly alleviated [16]. However prior to reconnecting to the main grid, it is imperative to adjust the properties of the voltage, frequency and phase to match that of the main grid. This process is termed synchronization. [20] Once synchronized, it is typically necessary to maintain these characteristics for a short period before connecting back to the utility grid. [16]
Figure 2-3: Schematic of a Community/Utility Microgrid [28]
As stated, alternatives to utility microgrids are island or off-grid microgrids. An off-grid system is for use in remote areas which cannot be readily connected to the utility grid as in some cases, this may not exist (i.e. within developing countries). [28] The installation of conventional power plants is therefore not practical in such regions of the world [29], due to lack of required resources. The range of applications of these off-grid systems is numerous. In fact it is estimated that 40% of the worlds population live in remote areas without a connection to the utility grid [30] The high potential that these third world countries have for DG sources such as wind and solar energy, present a logical path to the conclusion that the implementation of off-grid microgrids are the solution to the energy issues plaguing these regions of the world. [31] Similarly, island microgrid systems operate unconnected to the utility grid and as their name suggests facilitate supply of power on isolated islands. These systems have a high potential for implementation in Japan which has the largest amount of isolated island specific power systems in the world. [32] However it is important to recognise the distinction between AC and DC microgrids. Clearly the implementation of an AC system has advantages in terms of connection to the utility grid, as there is no requirement for inverter which is the case when coupling a DC bus based system to the main grid. [33]Figure 2-4 shows a hybrid system illustrating the means of grid connection for AC and DC buses. [34] However there are certain issues which make implementation of AC systems challenging such as harmonics, 3 phase unbalance and the presence of reactive power in the system. [35] As well as this, due to the low bus voltage in a DC system, the risk of electric shock is reduced, making the concept of plug-and-play operation more feasible. [36] This phenomenon allows loads, DS or DG units to be connected/ disconnected at will from the system with ease [37] The ISO-95 standard defines the laws for implementation of control systems in such microgrid systems. [35] 5|Page
Figure 2-4: Schematic of Hybrid Microgrid System [34]
The microgrid in question within this report is a grid connected system with the capability to buy and sell electrical energy from the main grid, during times of insufficient or excess generation. The system contains a Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) made up of a variable speed wind turbine connected to a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG), rectifier and buck converter, which together facilitate power flow onto the systems DC bus which is home to a battery bank (DS). The voltage at the DC bus is dictated by the voltage of the battery bank, and the level of power flow between the wind turbine and the bus can be altered by varying the duty cycle of the intermediary buck converter. [18] In addition to the WECS, the microgrid to be analysed also incorporates a solar array which due to the nature of wind and solar resources act in a complementary manor. [30] The end goal of the project is to control the DG and DS in unison so that the microgrid load can be met during normal operation, energy can be sold/bought between the microgrid and the utility, and in times of high electricity prices and low generation certain noncritical loads can be shed.
6|Page
3 Wind Energy Conversion System

3.1 Wind Turbine
As mentioned in the introduction, the microgrid being analysed in this report incorporates a wind turbine which converts the kinetic energy of the wind into rotary mechanical energy, and is connected to a PMSG which subsequently converts this rotational energy to electrical energy. This section will illustrate the design, choice of operational parameters, power extraction process, and the derivation of modelling equations for the wind turbine. The wind turbine being analysed within this project is a Small Wind Turbine (SWT), meaning that it has a rated power of equal to or less than less than 100kW. [38] Dissimilar to large wind turbines, the most common blade design for a SWT is a fixed pitch configuration [39] (angle is a constant value between 0o and 10o [40]). Such machines are low in cost and simple in structure compared to larger commercial machines, and hence are suitable for small scale implementation such as within a microgrid, which is the focus of this report. [41] The variable speed nature of the wind turbine allows grid connection via a PMSG which is a gearless direct drive system [42]. Typically, upon installing the blades onto the rotor of a fixed pitch machine, the desired pitch is selected and once the blades have been attached, it is a fixed value. [39] An advantage of a fixed pitch system over a variable pitch configuration is that the rotor of such a system generally requires less maintenance compared to an equivalently rated variable pitch machine [43]. Other benefits include cheaper operational and construction costs, assuming that the turbine is situated in a suitable location. [40] Key characteristics of the Variable Speed-Fixed Pitch design are that maximum efficiency (i.e. power coefficient) is attainable at low wind speeds, and that rated power is only attainable at one wind speed. [44]
7|Page
3.2 Operational Parameters

The wind turbine analysed in this report is based on that used by Valenciaga and Puleson in [30]. The turbine has a VS-FP design and the rotor of the machine has 3 blades. The power coefficient of the machine, expressed as a function of the tip speed ratio is as shown below:
*where , , and other machine parameters are defined in Figure 3-19: report
Operating Values in Section 3.8.2 of the
A plot of the power coefficient of the machine versus tip speed ratio is shown below, which clearly identifies the optimal tip speed ratio as 7.198 and the maximum attainable power coefficient as 38.13% (0.3813), which as predicted is lower than the Betz Limit.
Figure 3-1: Power Coefficient versus Tip Speed Ratio
This optimum operating point has also been found via differentiation with respect to tip speed ratio, as shown in Section 9.2. N.B. It is important to realise that this curve defines the operational characteristics of the wind turbine and is valid for any wind speed/rotor speed combination. Subsequent plots in sections to come are done against angular velocity of the rotor, for various wind speeds, and hence are only valid for one position of the operating point.
8|Page
3.3 Operation
A typical value for the cut-in wind speed associated with an SWT is 2m/s. [45] Hence, below this value of wind speed, the wind turbine will generate no electrical output. The machine is to operate under Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT). This operational procedure entails the retention of optimal performance (maximum power coefficient) beneath the rated rotational speed of the machine (49.39 rad/s) in the case of a varying wind speed. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to maintain the tip speed ratio at its optimum value (7.198). To understand how this works on a physical basis, it is imperative to realise that for a fixed pitch rotor rotating at a constant speed, an increase or decrease in incident wind speed will result in a variation in the angle of attack between the wind and the blade aerofoil. In order to maintain a desired performance, it is necessary to vary the speed of rotation of the wind turbine proportionally to the variation in oncoming wind, hence maintaining this ratio as a constant value. [39] Hence, as MPPT is only possible below rated wind speed for a fixed pitch machine, it is intended that the wind turbine will only generate power above the cut-in wind speed and below the rated value of wind speed (12.629m/s). It is thought that this is a suitable assumption due to the small scale nature of the turbine, and the intended application within a microgrid. The locus of ideal performance of a wind turbine utilising MPPT control is shown in black in Figure 3-2: Optimal Power Extraction Curve. It is important to realise that at each of the wind speeds shown, the tip speed ratio has a constant value of (approximately) 7.198. (Slight deviations from this value are a result of rounding errors in the calculation of this value in the previous section).
Figure 3-2: Optimal Power Extraction Curve
For instance at a wind speed of 7.5m/s:
and at 10m/s: 9|Page
The black curve shown in the diagram is the ideal locus of the machine operating point below rated wind speed. Note that as the speed of the wind increases so does that of the turbine rotor and that rated power (5kW) is achieved at rated speed of the machine. This curve will be used as a reference later in a report in order to verify the performance of the model.
10 | P a g e
3.4 Power Regulation

The power curve achieved by a VS-FP turbine in reality is as shown in Figure 3-3: Power Extraction of a Variable Speed Fixed Pitch Wind Turbine :
Figure 3-3: Power Extraction of a Variable Speed Fixed Pitch Wind Turbine [46]
The dark black line shows the power output of a VS-FP machine over a range of wind speeds. Clearly, below cut-off wind speed ( , no power is generated. For wind speeds between those corresponding to the points A and E in the above diagram, MPPT is used to maintain maximum power extraction. In the diagram, rotor speed is constant at wind speeds above that at point E. Hence, maximum power extraction is not actually achieved although power output still increases (with the cube of wind velocity) until point D is reached, and rated power is achieved. The grey line shown in the diagram is the power curve of a VS-VP wind turbine. This type of machine is capable of tracking the maximum power point below rated power and maintaining this rated output at higher speeds by controlling the pitch of the blades (i.e. varying pitch in proportion to wind speed changes). It is important to note that the method of MPPT control used for the VS-FP machine in this project is equivalent to that of the VS-VP turbine in the above diagram. This is because the machine designed will not stall prior to nominal wind speed being achieved. Hence, rated power will be achieved at nominal wind speed as in the case of the VS-VP wind turbine shown above. As the machine is being designed for usage in low wind speed areas, it is likely that rated wind speed will not be reached very often. Hence the assumption that MPPT can be used up to rated speed, without the need for stalling is a safe assumption. If rated wind speed is exceeded for the turbine being designed, passive stall can be used to maintain constant rotor speed above this value of wind speed. In reality, the power curve for such a machine would be equivalent to that of the passive stall machine in Figure 3-4: Difference between Control Using Passive Stall and Pitch Regulation :
11 | P a g e

Figure 3-4: Difference between Control Using Passive Stall and Pitch Regulation [140]
Power output via MPPT is utilised when wind speeds are lower than the nominal value. [47] As mentioned, this technique effectively entails maintaining the tip speed ratio at the optimal value for power generation, between the cut-in and nominal wind speed, by varying the speed of rotation of the wind turbine rotor in direct proportion with the changing wind speed. In the event of high wind speeds, a fixed-pitch turbine is not capable of perform power regulation via active pitch control. Instead it is necessary to use passive stall to limit the power output. [40] [47]. It is important to note that above the rated speed of the machine, the speed no longer increases with wind speed to maintain a constant angle of attack. Once rated speed is reached, the speed of the rotor remains at a constant level, despite increasing wind speed. [48] Despite this fact, the wind turbine model designed by the students does not take this effect into account as it is expected that the turbine will predominantly be operating at below rated speed while operating as part of the microgrid.
12 | P a g e
3.5 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator

3.5.1 Choice of Electrical Generator In order to achieve an electrical power output from a wind turbine, it is necessary to employ an electrical generator to convert the rotational energy of the shaft into useable electrical energy. There are multiple choices of generator possible for wind power applications; however this choice is usually dictated by such things as the desired performance of the WECS. Figure 3-5: 3 Main Modes of Grid Connection for Modern Wind Turbines shows the 3 main grid interconnection methods being used in the world today: [49] Part (a) of the Figure 3-5: 3 Main Modes of Grid Connection for Modern Wind Turbines shows the connection of a wind turbine to an asynchronous Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG) via a mechanical gearbox. These machines are attractive due to their durability and low cost and maintenance requirements. [50] It is vital to realise that grid connection via a SCIG in this manner is a fixed speed design as the speed of such a generator typically varies from the rated value by approximately 1-2%. [51]. Within a fixed speed system such as this, the nature of the SCIG dictates that the rotor of the turbine must have a fixed speed, as the generator effectively does. Hence, in the case of a varying wind speed, it is the torque of the rotor which must vary- not the speed, as a changing wind speed means a changing power output. [52] This method of interconnection to the power system is classified as a direct grid connection as there is no need for a power electronic converter connected to the generator [53].
Figure 3-5: 3 Main Modes of Grid Connection for Modern Wind Turbines [49]
13 | P a g e
However when variable speed operation is desired (as in this project), it is classified as an indirect grid connection (i.e. connection aided by power electronic rectifiers and inverters). [53] The diagram in Part (b) of Figure 3-5: 3 Main Modes of Grid Connection for Modern Wind Turbines shows an indirect grid connection via a Double-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG). The implementation of a power electronic converter (taking power from the grid) on the rotor side of the machine allows for the production of constant amplitude and frequency voltage and current on the stator side of the machine. [52] Similar to the squirrel cage generator, the DFIG is also asynchronous and requires a gearbox between the wind turbine shaft and the generator rotor. The DFIG is a popular choice for use in large wind turbines, hence for the application illustrated in this report a DFIG would be considered unsuitable due to the low power rating of the wind turbine being used. [50], [52] Part (c) of Figure 3-5: 3 Main Modes of Grid Connection for Modern Wind Turbines gives an illustration of the grid interconnection method followed in this project. A synchronous generator is used to convert the mechanical energy of the wind turbine rotor to 3 phase electrical power, without the need to install an intermediary gearbox. The physical construction of a PMSG for wind energy applications should be a machine with projecting rotor poles having a large stator radius and short stator length (as shown in Figure 3-6: Direct Drive PMSG Wind Turbine Generator ), which is suited to low speed applications. Conversely, cylindrical pole machines with a short stator radius and long stator length are suited to high speed applications (note the clear difference by comparing Figure 3-6: Direct Drive PMSG Wind Turbine Generator and Figure 3-7). [55] As no gearbox is needed, the system is an example of a direct drive connection. [56]
Figure 3-6: Direct Drive PMSG Wind Turbine Generator [54]
Within the arena of wind energy, Permanent Magnet (PM) machines are most commonly used for low power applications, and hence are a suitable choice for use with a low power SWT (in particular up to 10kW). [50] [57] Synchronous generators are of two basic designs: those which have a rotor winding and obtain a rotor field via DC excitation of this winding, and those which obtain a rotor magnetic field via permanent magnets. The former are dubbed Wound Rotor Synchronous Machines (WRSM) and the latter are called Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines (PMSM). When compared to a WRSM, it is clear that the lack of rotor excitation means a higher associated efficiency when using a PMSM. [58] The main disadvantage of using permanent magnets within a generator is the high cost associated with acquiring the magnetic material (e.g. neodymium iron/samarium cobalt). [50] However, the main reason for the popularity of this design for low power applications is the reduction in the cost 14 | P a g e
of the material that is coupled with a reduction in the size of the machine (and hence the magnets). [59] It is evident that despite the high cost associated with the PMs, both the costs of these magnetic materials and the power electronics needed for the downstream converter are decreasing over time, and hence direct drive PMSG systems are likely to increase in popularity in the future. [58] In comparison to geared systems, this direct drive configuration offers advantages in terms of elimination of downtime due to gearbox maintenance. [60] Clearly, the lack of a gearbox also implies a lack of any associated losses/inefficiencies. [61] Another issue to be aware when operating a PMSM is that if the current (and hence the temperature) within the machine rises excessively high, it is possible that the magnetic material used in the poles of the machine can become demagnetized. [62] , [63]
Figure 3-7: Cylindrical Rotor Design for High Speed Applications [67]
3.5.2
Physical Construction
3.5.2.1 Stator Design The synchronous generator is capable of producing 3 phase AC current and voltage in its stator windings which oscillate with an angular frequency proportional to the rotational frequency of the rotor of the generator (which in this case is direct driven via the rotor of the wind turbine). This proportionality is dictated by the number of rotor poles : [64]
Hence, for a two pole machine, the electrical frequency of the output voltage and current will equal that of rotor. Due to the constant relationship between a constructed synchronous machine, such machines are classified as "constant speed machines" [55]. The relationship shown above is integral to the understanding of the operation of such machines, however in order to completely understand the operation a PMSG, it is fundamental to be aware of how the machine is constructed, both on the stator and rotor side. The stator configuration of a synchronous machine is exactly the same as that of an induction machine. [65] The phase windings on the stator of such machines are said to be sinusoidally distributed , which means that the conductor density of each of the phase windings is a sinusoidal function as shown below [66], (where a change in sign indicates a change in current direction):
15 | P a g e
This winding configuration is shown in Figure 3-8: Sinusoidally Distributed Phase Windings on a Synchronous Machine , for the phase A winding of a machine. It is clear that the number of phase A conductors wound on the stator peaks at angles of radians and radians, and is a minimum (0), at 0 radians and radians, hence following a sinusoidal function. All of the conductors shown in the diagram contribute to a magnetic flux acting along the phase A magnetic axis as shown in the diagram- this is due to the fact the current flows in opposite directions above ( radians < < radians) and below ( radians < < radians) the magnetic axis of the phase- this is denoted by the dots and x's on the conductors shown- respectively implying current out of the machine, and current into the machine. Therefore, based on the conductor density functions shown above for phases B and C of the machine, it is logical to conclude that the magnetic axes of these phases are in the direction of radians and radians respectively. [66]
Figure 3-8: Sinusoidally Distributed Phase Windings on a Synchronous Machine [66]
As an additional point of interest, it is interesting to note the manner in which the phase current flows through the respective stator winding. As shown above, the current enters the machine at 1, and exits at 7'. The order in which the current flows through each of the windings shown in the above diagram is as follows: 1-1'-2-2'-2-2'-3-3'-3-3'-3-3'-4-4'-4-4'-4-4'-4-4'-5-5'-5-5'-5-5'-6-6'-6-6'-77'. [66] Note that in reality, the number of windings on the stator of such a machine is much higher than the number shown in the diagram, and it is merely representative of the machine construction. The stator of the machine is constructed from a stack of laminations, an example of which is shown in Figure 3-9: Typical Lamination of PMSG Stator [67].The slots on the rotor side of the machine serve the purpose of holding the stator windings. The goal of using stacked laminations is the minimization of losses due to eddy currents in the material.
Figure 3-9: Typical Lamination of PMSG Stator [67]
16 | P a g e
It is important to realise that if the magnetic axis of the phase A winding is taken as an angular reference, the magnetic field and flux resulting from current flowing in the stator windings are cosinusoidal functions (with respective phase shifts of radians and radians in the case of the B and C phases). This may have already been apparent as Figure 3-8: Sinusoidally Distributed Phase Windings on a Synchronous Machine indicates that flux produced by the A phase peaks at 0 radians and is minimized at radians. In order to properly describe how the choice of rotor affects the performance of the machine, it is first necessary to introduce notation, which is imperative to understand if the machine is to be properly modelled and ultimately controlled. 3.5.2.2 DQ Theory As stated the generator has three phase components of current, voltage etc. (i.e. phases , , ). It is possible to represent these quantities in an alternative way. The Park Transformation can be used to change from a three phase reference frame (composed of 3 axes , and ), to a two axis reference frame (composed of axes and ). [68] The reference frame is fixed to the rotor of the machine, and hence reference frame rotates at the same speed as the machine (electrical rotational speed). This is dissimilar to the reference frame which is an intermediary step between transforming between and variables, as the reference frame is considered to be fixed to the stator of the machine and hence, does not rotate. [69] The reference frame consists of two axes- the direct ( ) axis and the quadrature ( ) axis, which are also respectively known as the polar and interpolar axes. [70] By definition, the direct axis lies along the axis of the rotor pole, [71] and the quadrature axis lies in the direction which corresponds to an electrical angle orthogonal to that of the direct axis. [72]. In order to explain this concept, it is essential to realise that by integration with respect to time the following relationship between electrical and mechanical angular displacement can be found:
Figure 3-10: Positioning of Direct and Quadrature Axes in a Four Pole Machine
17 | P a g e
Hence, if the electrical angle between the two axes must be radians at all times, it is clear that the mechanical angle between the two axes is dependent on the number of rotor poles. For instance, if a 4 pole rotor is analysed, the mechanical angle between the axes must be radians. This is demonstrated in Figure 3-10: Positioning of Direct and Quadrature Axes in a Four Pole Machine. It is also interesting to note that in the case of a two pole rotor, the mechanical angle of separation between the direct and quadrature axes equals - i.e. it equals the angle of electrical separation, indicating that in this case, the respective direct and quadrature axes of the electrical and mechanical system coincide. Note that the image shown in Figure 3-10: Positioning of Direct and Quadrature Axes in a Four Pole Machine is that of a synchronous machine with rotor windings. The purpose of this excitation is to produce a rotor magnetic field in the absence of permanent magnets. Hence, the mode by which magnetic field is generated in this machine is fundamentally different to the machine being used throughout this project, however for the purpose of demonstrating the positioning of the direct and quadrature axes in a multi-pole machine, this diagram achieves its goal. It seems logical to conclude that the quadrature axis is dubbed as the inter-polar axis, as in the mechanical system, when the quadrature axis is fixed to the rotating multipolar rotor, it will always point in a direction midway between adjacent rotor poles, as indicated by the diagram. At this point, it is important to clarify that these axes which are "placed" on the rotating rotor of the mechanical system are merely representative of the direct and quadrature axes of the electrical system. Hence, for the purpose of the derivation of the Park Transformation which will be carried out in a subsequent section, the angle between the direct and quadrature axes will be taken as radians and the speed of rotation of the axes will be - as for the purposes of this derivation it is the electrical system being considered. Therefore this transformation which is obtained is applicable to synchronous machines with an arbitrary number of pole pairs (not just two pole machines- which would be the case if the derivation of the Park Transformation was utilising the representative direct and quadrature axes within the mechanical system). It is important to note that in reality, when three phase ( ) variables are transformed to notation, the system still effectively has 3 axes. For the purposes of balanced machine analysis, the direct and quadrature axes are those of interest- however there is also another axis present when analysing the system using notation. This axis is sometimes called the normal ( ) axis [73], however quantities pertaining to this axis are more often given the subscript 0. The idea behind dubbing it the normal axis, is that if the direct and quadrature axes are analysed so that they lie on the same ( ) plane, the third axis is said point in a direction normal to this plane. [73] The variables represented by this axis however, are only of interest in the case of unbalanced operation as they represent the zero-sequence components of system variables (i.e. voltage/current), and hence have a constant value of 0 in the case of balanced operation. Therefore, for the purpose of modelling the generator, these components are not of interest. However in order to construct the 3 x 3 invertible Park Transformation matrix, it is necessary to note that:
Defining as phase vectors and as the corresponding zero sequence component, these two equations can be further generalized to: [68] 18 | P a g e
This conversion from a 3 axis reference frame to an effective 2 axis reference frame (for balanced operation), means that the way in which the operational procedure of the machine is perceived, can be changed. As previously stated, the physical construction of the stator consists of 3 sinusoidally distributed windings, which have three separate magnetic axes. After applying the Park Transformation, the number of magnetic axes is reduced from 3 to 2. However, it is also apparent that these magnetic axes are rotating in space, as the rotor of the machine rotates. This means that the machine can now be analysed as if it had two rotating sinusoidally distributed windings, which have separate magnetic axes parallel to the direct and quadrature axes respectively. The current flowing in these imaginary windings is and respectively, and at any instant in time, together these two rotating windings produce the same flux within the air gap as produced by the windings fixed to the stator.
Figure 3-11: Equivalent Stator Winding Circuits [74]
It is useful at this stage to acquire a representation for the stator equivalent circuit of the machine. This can be done prior to analysing the effects of different rotor configurations, and will in fact aid the process. Figure 3-11: Equivalent Stator Winding Circuits shows the equivalent stator circuits. There are 3 circuits to represent the three stator phase windings. Each of these windings has an equivalent ohmic resistance (synchronous resistance, [75]) which results in heating loss in the winding. The respective back emfs generated due to changing magnetic flux linking the windings is represented by the letter , with an appropriate subscript. Similarly the terminal voltages of each
19 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" winding are represented by the letter , with an appropriate subscript. The quantity synchronous reactance however, this term merits further analysis: The equations which describe the operation of the generator are as follows [76]:
Mark Roche John Collins is called the
* where
is the flux linkage, linking the nth winding.
It is vitally important to understand components that contribute to these flux linkage terms. To do this, the students analysed [76] and [77]. For instance, the machine analysed by Krause in [76] has rotor windings, as opposed to permanent magnets. Hence the analysis technique used here will differ somewhat. Krause (pp215) states:
Where: [68]
At this juncture, it is important to note that the statement in purple effectively states that the flux linkage across each of the phase windings has a component which is proportional to stator current and one which is proportional to rotor current. As a permanent magnet machine is being used, there is no rotor current and hence, the flux linkage due to the permanent magnets will be defined as:
Where:
Hence, it seems logical to conclude that:
As this is effectively the same statement which was made by Krause above.
However, as defined by Krause:
20 | P a g e
Where and are inductance parameters which quantify the extent to which the rotor of the machine is non-cylindrical. The quantity is the leakage inductance of each of the stator windings. [76] The direct and quadrature magnetising inductances are also defined as:
It is also evident that as: [76]
It must be true that:
And therefore:
It is important to note that the quantity is included within the above equations in order to account for the usage of non-cylindrical rotors. For instance, in the case of a cylindrical rotor, [76], and therefore the inductances associated with the rotating and windings are:
It is well known that if the rotor of a synchronous machine is cylindrical then: [78]
This is due to the constant air gap between the rotor and the stator of the machine. [79] In fact this is the conclusion which Yamamura draws in [77]. Yamamura also states that the value of is equal to the inductance of each stator phase winding ( ). Hence, now it is clear that for a synchronous machine with a cylindrical rotor:
Hence the inductance matrix now becomes:
21 | P a g e
3.5.2.3 Choice of Rotor Despite what was shown in the previous section- the rotor being used within the generator of the wind turbine is not cylindrical. As previously stated in the report, cylindrical rotors are usually used for high speed applications. For low speed applications a salient-pole machine is usually preferable. The term "salient" effectively means that the poles are projecting from the rotor and hence the air gap between the stator and rotor is not uniform as is the case with a cylindrical rotor. [79] At this point it is useful to analyse again the equation, used by Krause, in which the term was included to account for a non-uniform air gap along the and axes. When , the airgap is uniform, however it is clear that when , - and this is indicative of a salient pole machine. [80] As previously stated, a salient pole machine has projecting poles- which will of course be located along the direct axis of the machine. Hence, the air gap along the quadrature axis will be greater than that along the direct axis. This means that the air gap reluctance will be higher along the quadrature axis and as inductance is inversely proportional to reluctance, the inductance is logically greater along the direct axis than along the quadrature axis in this case.
Figure 3-12: Magnetically Salient Rotor Design (Ld>Lq)
The rotor being used by the students however, has surface mounted permanent magnets on the rotor which project from the surface of the rotor body. An example of such a configuration is shown in Figure 3-12 in which SPM denote a Surface Mounted Permanent Magnet Machine and IPM denotes an Internal Permanent Magnet Machine. [81] It is important to realise that despite the projecting nature of the magnets, the rotor is considered to be magnetically non-salient. [81], [82] This is effectively due to the fact that the permeability of the permanent magnets is very close to that of air- hence the effective air gap is uniform around the machine. [81], [83] This trait means that, from a magnetic perspective, the rotor can undergo the same analysis as the cylindrical machine, and hence the expressions for quadrature, direct and synchronous inductance which have been developed for a cylindrical rotor machine are valid in this case also. Hence: 22 | P a g e
[83], [81], [75] Also, as the SPM follows the same theory as the cylindrical rotor machine the inductance matrix can be defined as:
This matrix is important for the modelling procedure of the PMSG, and is used in Section 9.1.
Figure 3-13: Magnetic Saliency Characteristics of SPM & IPM [81]
Figure 3-13 also shows a rotor structure using imbedded magnets. Without exploring this in excess detail, it is interesting to note that the consequence of such a rotor design is (as shown in the diagram). This is due to the fact that (as stated previously), the low permeability of the permanent magnets means that their presence in the configuration can be treated as an effective air gap. As in the case of an IPM, the magnets are imbedded in the rotor and lie along the direct flux path, it is apparent that the direct axis reluctance is higher than that of the quadrature axis and therefore. 3.5.2.4 Design Parameters As in the case of the wind turbine, the parameters of the PMSG were chosen based on those used by Valenciaga and Puleston in [75]. Hence, the number of rotor poles was chosen to equal 28 and the synchronous resistance and inductance of the machine are equal to and respectively. The peak rotor flux is equal to .
23 | P a g e
3.6 Six Pulse Diode Rectifier and DC/DC Buck Converter

Shown in Figure 3-14 is a six-pulse diode rectifier, DC link capacitor and DC/DC buck converter which are installed between the PMSG and the DC busbar in order to inject a satisfactory level of DC current onto the busbar:
Figure 3-14: Circuit Configuration of Six Pulse Diode Rectifier & DC/DC Converter
3.6.1 Six -Pulse Rectifier The rectifier is fed with a three-phase voltage source. The corresponding line-to-line input voltage waveforms are shown in Figure 3-15:
Figure 3-15: Balanced 3 Phase Line-to-Line Voltage Input to Rectifier
The rectifier works in such a way that the highest line to line voltage will be the voltage that conducts the current in the rectifier. This results in each line to line voltage conducting for one sixth of the period of oscillation. The resulting output DC voltage from the rectifier is shown in Figure 3-16. [84]:
24 | P a g e
Figure 3-16: Output Voltage of Six-Pulse Rectifier
Each line to line voltage has the same amplitude, so the DC output voltage can be found for any single section of the waveform over a radians phase period. The calculations and derivation of the DC output voltage amplitude (shown below) is illustrated in Section 9.1.10.
As well as this, an important characteristic of this DC/DC converter is that it only allows active power to flow. Hence, the power factor associated with the power flowing from the generator terminals is 1 [64]:
This quality is important for the purpose of derivation of the modelling equations of the WECS. 3.6.2 DC/DC Buck Converter By design, the voltage is imposed on the terminals of the PMSG by varing the duty cycle of the DC/DC converter. [75] This is a very important characteristic as it will allow the speed of the wind turbine rotor to be varied in order to facilitate Maximum Power Point Tracking.
The derivation of this voltage is shown in Section 9.1.10. This equation gives the phase voltage on the terminals of the WECS which depends on the duty cycle . The duty cycle can hence be varied in order to change the magnitude of the voltage on the PMSG. This method for varying the voltages
25 | P a g e
on the PMSG by varying the duty cycle is the method used later in Section 3.8.7 to facilitate Maximum Power Point Tracking and Current Control.
26 | P a g e
3.7 Full Set of Modelling Equations

The full set of modelling equations for the WECS is:
The complete derivation of these equations can be found in Section 9.1 of this report.
27 | P a g e
3.8 Simulation of WECS

3.8.1 Open Loop Non Linear Model of WECS Using the equations given in the previous section, the following model of the WECS was formed using Simulink:
Figure 3-17: Simulink Diagram of the Open Loop Non Linear WECS
The relationships between the inputs and outputs of subsystems within this diagram are contained within Section 9.5 of the report.
28 | P a g e
3.8.2 Potential System Operating Points The design parameters used during this simulation are equivalent to those used in [75], except for the DC bus voltage. The parameters used are shown below:
Figure 3-18: Design Parameters for WECS
At this point, it is necessary to determine the operating point of the system. To do so, the students calculated the values of system variables for rated power output. For a desired power output of 5kW, the results gathered were as follows:
Figure 3-19: Operating Values
Figure 3-20: Two Alternate Operating Points
In order to calculate the operating values for and it was necessary to first calculate the results of a quadratic in and subsequently calculate the corresponding values of . It was then necessary to test both pairs of operating values and identify that which resulted in a power output of 5kW, which was the desired result. 29 | P a g e
The power output of the system at each of the operating points is shown in the below diagrams:
Figure 3-21: Power Output at Operating Point Corresponding to Id=3.666A,u=6.46
Figure 3-22: Power Output at Operating Point Corresponding to Id=77.095A,u=0.4562
30 | P a g e
As the power output in both cases is extremely close to the desired value (5000W), one might think that both of the operating points are equally viable. However this is not the case. The fact that both scenarios perform almost perfectly in order to output 5kW is to be expected due to the fact that the each condition ( and ) is a solution for this desired power, as was calculated by the students. However one must consider the viability of each of the operating points. For instance, an understanding for the stability at each condition can be developed by implementing a slight step from the designed value of u, at some stage during the simulation. The condition which results in the smallest variation in output power can be considered to be the more viable of the two operating points, and therefore the most attractive from a control perspective. Hence, for both cases, the system was simulated at the respective operating point for 10 seconds ( is stepped up by 0.5 from its operating point at 1 second). The results are as shown below:
Figure 3-23: Response to a Step in u of 0.5 at 300 seconds - Operating Point: (Id=3.666A,u=6.46)
31 | P a g e
Figure 3-24: Response to a Step in u of 0.5 at 300 seconds - Operating Point: (Id=77.095A,u=0.4562)
Hence, it is clear that using the value and yields a more stable operating point as a step change of 0.5 in u merely results in a drop in power of 200W. Conversely the impact of this step on the power output when the system is operated at the alternative operating point ( , ) is much larger, causing the power output to drop to zero. For this reason, it can be concluded that the desired operating point is , .
32 | P a g e
3.8.3 Analysis of Operating Point Characteristics As previously stated, an operating point has been designed for the system based on a desired power output of 5kW. However, it is interesting to analyse how this operating point varies for a range of power requirements. For the purpose of this analysis, the locus of the operating point values for velocity, electrical angular frequency , and will be examined as the required power varies from 0 to 10kW. Using this analysis, the locus of both roots of the quadratic and corresponding values of will be analysed.
Figure 3-25: Variation of Electrical Frequency Operating Point with Desired Power
Figure 3-26: Variation of Velocity Operating Point with Desired Power
33 | P a g e
Figure 3-27: Variation of Iq Operating Point with Desired Power
Before plotting the loci of operating points for and , it is important to recognise that Root 1 corresponds to the operating point ( , ) and Root 2 corresponds to the operating point ( , ), which are the two roots of the equation below:
Figure 3-28: Variation of u Operating Point with Desired Power (Root 2)
34 | P a g e
Figure 3-29: Variation of Id Operating Point with Desired Power (Root 2)
Figure 3-30: Variation of u Operating Point with Desired Power (Root 1)
Figure 3-31: Variation of Id Operating Point with Desired Power (Root 1)
35 | P a g e
3.8.4 Linearization Once the non-linear model was found to be accurate, it was necessary to take steps towards developing an inner loop controller for the system. This controller is to control the current . In order to do this, the students linearized the non-linear model for within the WECS. This was
done by hand and was cross checked against the transfer function given by the ss2tf function in Matlab. The linear transfer function obtained by hand was:
Upon comparison, it is clear that it is extremely similar to that achieved using state-space within Matlab. For all accounts these transfer functions can be assumed to be the same as differences in the two are only due to rounding errors within the hand calculation.
It is evident that this linearization has been a success as the bode magnitude and phase plots acquired for this transfer function are identical to those attained using the linearize block command within Simulink for the non-linear subsystem block. This bode plot is shown below:
Figure 3-32: Bode Magnitude and Phase Plots for WECS Linear Model
Note that the complete mathematical linearization of the non-linear system can be found in Section 9.4.
36 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" 3.8.5 Comparison of Linear & Non-Linear Model Factorizing the linear transfer function for the WECS it can be found that:
Hence, there the linear system has zeros at:
The poles of the linear system are:
The difference in performance between the linear and non-linear model can be demonstrated by analysing step responses of the two systems. The illustrate this, the value of which initially was set to the operating value 6.46, was increased in value by 0.05 every 3 seconds.
Figure 3-33: Response of Linear and Non-Linear Systems to a Train of Steps
Once 57 seconds has passed, the value of u has diverged by 1 from its design value of 6.46. This graph clearly shows the degree of non-linearity which is present in the system. The Simulink arrangement utilised to achieve these results is shown below:
37 | P a g e
Figure 3-34: Simulink Diagram of Test Configuration
The shape of the initial transient is analysed in more detail below:
Figure 3-35: Close Up View of Transient Step Response (Linear & Non-Linear)
In order to obtain a desirable power output from the machine, it is first necessary to design a current controller which will be capable of meeting a declared setpoint (assuming a roughly constant mechanical speed of the machine during controller testing). Prior to this however it is important to note that the complete linear and non-linear models of the system also contain another component which has gone unmentioned up to this point. This factor is the time delay associated with the buck DC/DC converter within the WECS. This time lag which was approximated to be 1ms is included in order to approximate the time lag caused in the WECS due to the delay between changes in system parameters caused by instantaneous changes in the PWM buck converter duty cycle.
38 | P a g e
3.8.6 Nyquist Stability & Inversion of Linear Process As shown previously, the linear transfer function incorporates a negative sign outside of the poles and zeros. This negative sign must be removed prior to design of a controller for the system (which inverts the model). The Nyquist Plot acquired for the modified linear system (-G(s)) is shown below in Figure 3-36. However, this plot does not account for the converter time delay. Once this parameter is incorporated into the system, the resulting Nyquist Plot of the inverted linear system is as shown in Figure 3-37:
Figure 3-36: Initial Nyquist Plot for Inverted Linear Model
The Nyquist Plot which was acquired whilst ignoring converter time lag clearly shows that regardless of the choice of proportional gain, the system cannot go unstable. This is due to the fact that the point -1+0j can never lie within the loop traced by the Nyquist Plot. However, once the time delay is introduced to the system it is clear that the stability of the closed loop system under proportional control is dependent on the choice of gain. For instance, for a proportional gain of 1, as shown above, the system will be unstable. However by decreasing the gain, stability can be achieved. Upon decreasing the gain of the P controller to 0.21809807, marginal stability was achieved as shown. 39 | P a g e
Figure 3-37: Nyquist Plot of Inverted Linear Model Incorporating Time Lag
Using this gain, it was found that the Nyquist Plot of the open loop system cuts the -1 point which corresponds with a steady state sinusoidal response ( ) from the system for a constant setpoint ( ).
Figure 3-38: Nyquist Plot Corresponding to Marginal Stability
Figure 3-39: Marginally Stable Response Achieved
40 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" 3.8.7 Current Controller Design
3.8.7.1 Zeigler Nichols Design Route The ultimate gain is 0.21809807 ( ), as previously stated. The period of oscillation of the resulting sinusoid is approximately 3.575ms ( ). Hence, following the Zeigler Nichols tuning rule for a PI controller as given in [85]:
Figure 3-40: Zeigler Nichols Tuning Parameters [85]
Hence for the PI controller:
It is clear that:
By implementing this controller on the linear and non-linear system, for a desired output of 20A, the following response was obtained:
Figure 3-41: Step Response of Linear & Non-Linear System Using Zeigler Nichols PI Controller
41 | P a g e
The Simulink diagram used to achieve this response is given in the Section 9.6. From this diagram, it can be seen that a gain of -1 is utilised in order to invert the linear model. The controller which is designed for this inverted linear model, is then itself subsequently inverted when being used to control the non-linear system- this is the cause of the gain of -1 present in series with the non-linear system. It is important to note that the integrator used within the controller of the linear system has an initial condition of 0. This is because, at 0 seconds the system is assumed to be at its operating point and hence the change from this operating point (i.e. delta values which are the quantities measured within the linear system) is 0. It is important to note that unlike the linearized model, the non-linear system deals with the actual system values, as opposed to the linearized model which quantifies the difference between the quantity of a variable and its operating value. However, this should be compared to the manner in which the non-linear system was configured. The integrator within the controller of the non-linear system was set to equal -6.46/0.0981441315. This is due to the fact that the variable which passes through the integrator ( ) is yet again presumed to be at its operating point initially. At the design operating point, has a value of 6.46. However, it is necessary to incorporate a negative sign due to the inversion which occurs downstream of the PI controller, and similarly it is necessary to divide by 0.0981441315 due to the proportional gain of the controller. Doing so guarantees that the value of is initially at the designed operating point. Despite the relatively satisfactory response which was obtained using the Zeigler Nichols design route, this design technique is generally not used in industry. Therefore, the students went about redesigning the controller based on a method used in class.
42 | P a g e
3.8.7.2 Bode Plot Design Route The bode plot design route for PI controller design first entails plotting the uncompensated bode plot of the open loop system. The controller design is to be based upon the inverted linear system as previously mentioned, and the resulting controller will subsequently be inverted for use with the non-linear system. The only difference between the bode plot of the regular linearized model and that of the inverted linearized model is that there is a constant phase shift of -180o. This can be seen by comparing the bode plot previously shown for the uncompensated linear system, to that shown below for the inverted system:
Figure 3-43: Bode Magnitude & Phase Plots of Inverted Linear System
This plot however, does not include the time lag associated with the buck converter. By incorporating this time lag, the phase plot is changed significantly:
Figure 3-42: Bode Magnitude & Phase Plots of Inverted Linear System incorporating Time Lag
43 | P a g e
The bode plot design route assumes second-order dominance within the system. The following approximation is used:
*where
is the phase margin, and is the level of damping of the response.
By selecting a desired level of damping for the system response, it is possible to calculate a desired phase margin ( .
This facilitates the location of the desired gain crossover frequency ( . The gain crossover frequency is the frequency at which the dB gain is equal to 0dB. Hence, the desired gain crossover frequency is the frequency at which the phase plot of the uncompensated system equals (-180o + ) i.e. -150o in this case. The desired gain crossover frequency is equal to 1256rad/s. This implies that the integral gain can be calculated to be:
However, in order to make the dB gain of the system equal to 0dB at the desired gain crossover frequency, it is necessary to remove 15.92dB of gain. Hence:
If this process is repeated for a number of desired levels of damping, the transient responses can be analysed and the most suitable chosen. A table of the PI tuning parameters for a number of different values of desired phase margin (and hence, desired closed loop damping) is shown below:
Table 3-1: Tuning Parameters for PI Controllers (Various Levels of Damping)
Desired Phase Margin (Degrees) 30 40 50 60 80
Desired Closed Loop Damping 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8
125.6 110.6 96.97 83.5 59.72
0.159956 0.14174 0.125314 0.10927 0.08147
44 | P a g e
Figure 3-44: Step Responses Using PI Controller (Desired Phase Margin 30 Degrees)
45 | P a g e
Upon comparison of the step responses, the most favourable response was that of the controller designed for a closed loop damping of 0.5. This is because of the relatively low peak overshoot and settling time which it achieves. However the parameters of the controller are now tweaked slightly to get an even more desirable response. The proportional gain of the controller was decreased in order to reduce the peak overshoot of the response, and the parameter was increased simultaneously in order to yield a shorter settling time. The response of the tweaked PI controller, ( , ) is shown below:
46 | P a g e
Figure 3-49: Step Responses Using Tweaked PI Controller
This response is almost perfect, due to the low level of overshoot. Apart from the mild overshoot, no oscillation is present and the signal converges rapidly to the setpoint. This PI controller will now be implemented permanently as the current controller of the WECS. It is important to note however, that over a large time scale, if the current setpoint is set to 20A and wind velocity is at it is operating value, the quadrature current is seen to diverge from the setpoint value and the speed of the rotor of the machine tends towards zero. This is due to the relationship between the angular speed within the system, and the quadrature current:
Figure 3-50: Quadrature Current of Non-Linear Model Diverging from Setpoint as Machine Speed Drops
47 | P a g e
Figure 3-51: Turbine Torque and Electrical Frequency for a Current Setpoint of 20A
It is possible however, to design a current controller for this system by analysing a very short time period, where the speed of the system is roughly constant (at its operating value). This process has been carried out above for a time period of approximately 0.02 seconds. However, in order to implement the current controller usefully within the system, it will be used in conjunction with an outer loop controller, which will change the current setpoint in such a way that the speed of the machine is controlled. This outer loop controller is the topic of the next section.
48 | P a g e
3.8.8 Maximum Power Point Tracking Controller As previously stated, regardless of the wind speed maximum power coefficient (and hence maximum power output) will be achieved if the tip speed ratio is equal to its optimum value (7.198). Hence, the optimum turbine torque is:
The relationship between the mechanical power of the wind turbine rotor and the electromechanical output power is defined by the following expression:
Within the model of the wind energy system, the rotor speed will be measured on an instantaneous basis. Hence, at any instantaneous measurement of rotor speed, the electrical frequency will be a constant value. Therefore, in order to calculate the current setpoint for a given rotor speed, it is necessary to let the derivative of electrical frequency with respect to time equal 0, hence equating the mechanical rotor power and the electromechanical power/torque.
Therefore, by measuring the instantaneous speed of the turbine rotor, it is possible to attain an instantaneous value for the current in the system required for maximum power point tracking. The quadrature current is then forced to meet this setpoint by the current controller which has been designed. The full control scheme is as shown below:
Figure 3-52: Complete Wind Energy Conversion System
49 | P a g e
The process was then simulated under a varying wind speed profile. The following graphs illutrate the performance of the WECS under full control (current control & MPPT). The first graph clearly illustrates that the maximum power point is being tracked accurately, as for wind speeds of 12.629m/s, 10m/s, 7.5m/s and 5m/s, the powers obtained from the machine correlate with those given in Figure 3-2 which show the maximum power available at a given windspeed.
Figure 3-53: Optimal Turbine Rotor Power & Actual Turbine Rotor Output
Figure 3-54: Wind Speed & Mechanical Speed
50 | P a g e
The following diagram shows the variance of the tip speed ratio of the machine with varying wind speed. As shown, if a change in wind velocity occurs, the mechanical speed of the rotor will gradually change which in turn will cause the current setpoint to change. As the mechanical speed of the machine changes, the tip speed ratio of the machine converges to the optimum value (this may take some timed depending on the magnitude of the velocity change). Once the optimal tip speed ratio is reached after a change in wind speed, the machine is once again taking maximum power from the wind for the given wind speed.
Figure 3-55: Tip Speed Ratio & Quadrature Current versus Time
Figure 3-56: Actual and Optimal Electrical Power to DC Busbar
51 | P a g e
4 Solar Array
4.1 Physical Construction
Photovoltaic (PV) systems are capable of producing DC voltage and current by absorption of sunlight. PV systems are divided into cells, modules and arrays. A PV cell is made of semiconductor material which makes up a p-n junction. [86] Many of these small cells may be combined to form solar modules which in turn make up a PV array. As previously stated, only solar energy which is absorbed by the cells within the array contributes to the useful power output. Hence, sunlight which is reflected from the array plays no part in electricity generation. [87]
Figure 4-1: Physical Construction of a PV Cell [87]
The diagram in Figure 4.1 is that of a PV cell [88], and agrees with that shown in [89]. As previously stated, a solar cell is made of semiconductor material. In order to adequately explain the operation of a solar cell, it is first necessary to illustrate some basic principles of semiconductor physics in order to outline the manner in which the device is constructed. A semiconductor is an element which exhibits characteristics between those of an insulator and a conductor. The most commonly used semiconductor element is silicon. [90] A semiconductor diode is formed when a p-type and an n-type semiconductor material are brought together (forming a p-n junction which defines the divide between the p-region and n-region [91]). This is effectively the principle behind the solar cell. [89] In order to create a silicon solar cell, it is first necessary to start with what is called intrinsicsilicon. [92] This is pure silicon with no added impurities. Impurities are subsequently added to the intrinsic semiconductor to change the properties of the semiconductor. This process is termed "doping". [89] In order to explain the formulation of the p-n junction, it is imperative to understand that silicon has 4 valence electrons in its outer shell. This is one electron more than is present in the outer shell of an element in Group III of the Periodic Table of the Elements, and one less electron than is present in the outer shell of a Group V element. Hence, the formation of p-type silicon is achieved by exposing the intrinsic-silicon to a Group III element (e.g. boron). This material is positively charged in comparison to the silicon material, and is said to possess a hole (i.e. lack of an electron). Therefore this is termed the p-region. Once the p-region is formed, it is necessary to expose the semiconductor to Group V elements (e.g. phosphorous), which results in the formation of the n-region, which for each phosphorus atom introduces results in the addition of one negatively charged electron. Hence, the resulting semiconductor is divided into two regions which are respectively positively charged and negatively charged compared to the original intrinsic-silicon material. The p-region is said to contain acceptor impurities (which will accept electrons), and conversely the n-region is said to contain donor impurities with donate electrons). The boundary between these two regions is termed the p-n boundary. [92] The PV cell is completed by the implementation of metallic conductors at each end of the semiconductor (i.e. both p and n regions). A metallic grid is used on the part of the solar cell which is facing the sun. This serves the purpose of allowing sunlight to make contact with the semiconductor. [88]
52 | P a g e
4.2 Operational Procedure

Sunlight is made up of packets of electromagnetic energy called photons, which travel through space at the speed of light. Photons are radiated from the surface of the sun and upon absorption by a solar cell the generation of electrical energy occurs. It is important to note that the energy levels of photons differ and the depth of penetration into the semiconductor material is a function of this energy level (i.e. deeper penetration is achieved by lower energy photons). [92]Upon being absorbed by the semiconductor material, photons of light will cause electrons of semiconductor atoms to be knocked from their respective atoms. In doing so, an electron-hole pair is created, the electron of which will be attracted to the n-region and the hole of which is attracted to the p-region. [86]. This process is illustrated in the diagram below [91]:
Figure 4-2: Principle of Operation of a PV Cell [89]
As shown, when connected to a load, an electron displaced by an incident photon is seen to initially gravitate towards the metallic grid at the edge of the n-region and subsequently flow through the connected load, finally reaching the metal contact at the edge of the p-region. [92] Subsequent to crossing this metallic contact, the electron "recombines" with the hole which was created due to the incident photons. [86] It is logical to conclude that if the electron-hole pair is produced in the nregion, that the electron produced will reach the metallic conductor at the edge of the n-region, and similarly that if the electron-hole pair is produced in the p-region of the semiconductor, the resulting hole will reach the base conductor of the cell with ease. One might question the prospects of holes leaving the n-region/electrons leaving the p-region prior to recombination due to the high respective levels of free electrons and holes in each of these regions. However, the design of PV cells is such that holes produced in the n-region of the material are highly likely to escape the n-region prior to recombination, and similarly for electrons produced in the p-region of the material- hence the majority of recombination is confined to the area near the p-layer metallic contact. [91] Once recombination occurs, the electron fills the hole, hence restoring the initial state of the system. This process recurs over time provided the supply of sunlight (i.e. photons) is not discontinued. It is important to realise that this effect only occurs provided that the incident photon carries enough energy to free an electron from the outer shell of its associated atom. [91]
53 | P a g e
4.3 Full Set of Modelling Equations

The full set of modelling equations for the solar array is:
The complete derivation of these equations can be found in Section 9.8 of this report.
54 | P a g e
4.4 Parameterization
The values of cell parameters have been chosen to image the performance of the Shell SP70 solar panel. The datasheet of this panel is shown in Section 9.9, however the cell-specific parameters used in the model are shown in this section:
55 | P a g e
4.5 Implementation of Newton-Raphson Algorithm

A solution for cell output current is obtained for the implicit current equation of the device via implementation of the Newton-Raphson algorithm (illustrated in Section 9.8). This is achieved by emulating the continuous process using zero order holds at the input and output of the solar cell model. It is important that the sample time chosen for these components is selected to be greater than the minimum sampling time of the simulation configuration parameters. Within the solar cell model, a delay block is used to set an initial condition for the output current of the solar cell. The sampling time of this integrator must be chosen to be less than that of the zero order holds used within the system (ideally more than 5 times less). This is imperative to the successful implementation of the algorithm. The function of the delay block is to provide the previously sampled value for cell output current to the and blocks. If the last sample of current is assigned the variable , this process leads to the acquisition of . At this point it is important to realise that the Newton-Raphson algorithm is an iterative solution. Hence, after feeding back the current once through the and blocks, the solution has not been attained, but the value of current has moved closer to the correct value. This is the reason for the importance of the correct selection of the sampling times of the zero order hold and delay block. Within the model created by the students, the sampling time of the zero order hold was selected as 0.1 seconds and the sampling time of the delay block was chosen as 0.01 seconds. Hence, 10 iterations will occur between two samples of the zero order hold. It was found that the model created by the students achieved convergence to the desired value of output current in 7 iterations if the initial condition of the delay block was set to 1.5A. In this case the terminal voltage was maintained constant at:
And the current was seen to converge to the value:
The result is shown below:
Figure 4-3: Solution of the Implicit Current Equation via Using the Newton Raphson Method
56 | P a g e
4.6 Solar Panel Performance

The solar cell which was modelled by the students is a 125mm*125mm silicon solar cell. The completed model of this component is illustrated below, and consists of a constant series resistance of 0.4387 calculated in Section 9.8.3. The delay block and input and output zero order holds can also be seen in the diagram:
Figure 4-4: Solar Cell Model
The model is based on the solar cell used within the Shell SP70 70W Solar Panel. The datasheet [93]of this product can be located within Section 9.9 of this report. The inner workings of each of the subsystems shown in the above diagram are also shown within Section 9.10 of the report. The input terminal voltage and output current were subsequently scaled in order to acquire a complete solar panel model consisting of 4 parallel rows of 9 series cells. Hence, input voltage to the panel is divided by 9 to acquire the voltage across a single solar cell and the output current from the solar cell is scaled up by a factor of 4 to account for the number of parallel rows of solar cells. 4.6.1 Selection of Diode Ideality Factor In order to meet the specifications on the product datasheet, and to achieve realistic solar panel I-V and P-V curves, it was first necessary to select an ideality factor for the solar cell. As previously mentioned, these typically range from 1-1.5. The solar panel was tested for numerous ideality factors at a constant solar irradiance of 1000W/m2. The results are shown below:
57 | P a g e
Figure 4-5: Power- Voltage Characteristic of Solar Panel
Upon closer inspection of the point (P=70.13W, V=16.5V):
Figure 4-6: Maximum Power point (1000W/m2)
This point in particular is worth examining as the datasheet of the solar panel specifically states that a rated power of 70W should be attainable at 16.5V. This is achieved regardless of the ideality factor chosen as the model which was built by the students specifies this as an obligatory requirement. However, only in the case of a=7 is this the maximum power point for the given irradiance of 58 | P a g e
1000W/m2. Hence, although not within the usual recommended limits (1-1.5), a value of 7 will be chosen for the ideality factor of the diode. The need for such a large ideality factor may have arisen for the following reasons: Simplification of the solar cell model (i.e. omission of shunt resistance and additional parallel diodes). Possible inaccuracy in the calculation of series resistance of the solar cells within the module. A high level of non-ideality associated with the physical solar cell being examined.
For this choice of ideality factor, the I-V and P-V characteristic of the panel was subsequently tested at different levels of solar irradiance as shown below. To gather these results, the temperature of the cell was maintained constant and equal to the reference temperature (25oC):
Figure 4-7: I-V Curve of Solar Panel for Different Levels of Irradiance
At this point, it is clear that the similarity of the Simulink model produced by the students is highly similar to the real solar panel as the I-V curves from the product datasheet are almost identical to those achieved above:
59 | P a g e
Figure 4-8: Shell SP70 I-V Curves for Different Levels of Irradiance (From Datasheet) [93]
The acquisition of such a high level of accuracy therefore indicates that the ideality factor chosen by the students was correct. The power curves achieved for the model are shown below:
Figure 4-9: P-V Curves for Shell SP70 Solar Panel For Different Levels of Irradiance
60 | P a g e
If the temperature of the cell is raised above the reference value, the following characteristic is observed for a constant level of irradiance (1000W/m2):
Figure 4-10: Increase in Device Temperature Results in Increased Short Circuit Current
The above results agree with those shown by Jeffers in [94]. As the temperature of the cell increases from the reference temperature, the short circuit current level increases. Although not clearly visible in the upper diagram, as the temperature increases, the open circuit voltage of the device also increases- a result which also agrees with [94].
61 | P a g e
4.7 Solar Array Model

In order to achieve a useful power output onto the microgrid it is necessary to connect together multiple of the solar panels designed above. In order to achieve a higher voltage output, several panels are connected in series:
Figure 4-11: Scaled Voltage Output Achieved by Adding Multiple Panels in Series
Alternately, by adding multiple solar panels in parallel, the current output can be scaled in a similar manner as the voltage was by adding panels in series:
Figure 4-12: Scaled Current Output Achieved by Adding Multiple Panels in Parallel
62 | P a g e
Hence, by combining a number of solar panels in series and parallel it is possible to choose the power output of the array. For this project, the students desired a maximum power output of approximately 2kW from the solar array which can play a complementary role to the wind turbine already modelled by the students. In order to achieve this, the students consulted the datasheet of the product. The maximum power point current and voltage at STC are given as 4.25A and 16.5V respectively for a single solar panel. Hence, by designing for ideal operation at an irradiance level of 1000W/m2 and a cell temperature of 298.15K, by combining 5 parallel rows of 6 series solar panels, a rated power output of 2103.75W is calculated:
The Simulink configuration used to achieve this design is shown below:
Figure 4-13: Solar Array Arrangement Consisting of 5 Rows of 6 Panels
63 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" The resulting power curves for this array are shown below:
Figure 4-14: Power Curves of Complete Solar Array For Different Levels of Irradiance
This plot is incredibly important as it will be used in coming sections to validate the maximum power point tracking controller which is to be designed for the array. The upper diagram shows that if the system is constantly operating at Maximum Power Point, even at low levels of irradiance the terminal voltage of array does not fall below 48V (the voltage at the DC bus). Hence, this implies that the method of connection from the output terminals of the array to the DC bus will be via a step down DC/DC buck converter. The values of power and voltage corresponding to Maximum Power Point are given on the above plot, as well as the trend which occurs through these points. The trend plot was achieved using the polyfit and polyval functions in Matlab while approximating the Maximum Power Point curve as a 2nd order polynomial: p=polyfit([89,94.4,96.2,97.8,99],[376.9,799.6,1233,1669,2104],2); f=polyval(p, [89,94.4,96.2,97.8,99]); plot([89,94.4,96.2,97.8,99],f,'k')
64 | P a g e
4.8 Maximum Power Point Tracking Controller

There are a number of methods which are used to track maximum power for changing levels of irradiance. In fact, [95] describes 19 such methods. Two methods of tracking maximum power were attempted for the solar array designed by the student, and both will be discussed however more detail will be given on the final control methodology used. Both of the methods which were researched by the students are examples of "hill climbing" algorithms. Several other methods are also possible, such as of feedback control, DC link capacitor droop control, current sweep, Ripple Correlation Control (RCC), fuzzy logic control, fractional short-circuit current and fractional open circuit voltage methodologies. [95] 4.8.1 Perturb & Observe (P&O) The diagram below shows the control logic which is followed by the P&O control algorithm:
Figure 4-15: P&O Control Logic [96]
Effectively the algorithm will increment or decrement the voltage on the terminals of the array based on the effect which the previous voltage perturbation had on the output power of the array. As explained by the upper diagram, if the previous perturbation of voltage was implemented in a positive direction (i.e. if the voltage was increased) and resulted in an increase in power output, the algorithm will choose to further increase the terminal voltage of the array in an effort to further increase power output. Similarly, if the previous perturbation was negative (i.e. the voltage was decreased), and resulted in a decrease in power output, the algorithm will attempt to work in opposite direction and climb the hill to the maximum power point by increasing t he voltage. The bottom half of the diagram above operates in a similar manner. As stated above, the purpose of implementation of this algorithm is to control the power output of the array by incrementally changing the terminal voltage of the array. It is important to realise that in reality, this process is carried out by the DC/DC converter between the solar array and the DC bus of the microgrid- hence the goal of the P&O algorithm is to incrementally change the duty cycle of this converter to achieve the above task. This process is similar to the role of the DC/DC converter within the WECS previously designed by the students.
65 | P a g e
The operation of this algorithm is such that once the maximum power point is reached, an oscillation occurs from the left hand side of the maximum power point to the right hand side of the max power point. If the size of the voltage perturbation used by the algorithm. By minimizing this value, the amplitude of oscillation which occurs at maximum power point can be minimized. Conversely, minimizing this value has an inherent disadvantage as it causes the operation of the algorithm to slow considerably. For instance, if a small perturbation size is used (0.01 for instance)- performance is considerably worsened in the case of the emergence of the sun from behind a cloud. In such a case, there is effectively a step increase in the level of solar irradiance. If this step increase is of the order of 100s of W/m2, and the choice of perturbation size is small then it might take over a minute to reach maximum power point (however this is also dependant of the sampling time of the algorithm). This is of course an undesirable effect as due to the unpredictability of the weather, maximum power point may not be reached at all if another cloud moves to block the sun before the minute has passed. Another problem associated with the operation of the P&O algorithm is that it is incapable of determining the cause of the increase/decrease in power level. For instance, in the case that the solar irradiance is initially at a constant level and the operating point of the device is oscillating about the maximum power point (i.e. changing from just right to just left of the maximum power point). If the terminal voltage of the array is initially just higher than the maximum power point voltage, the subsequent iteration will cause the voltage at the terminals of the array to decrease to slightly lower than the maximum power point voltage. If however, when this perturbation is made the level of solar irradiance increases and continues to increase, then the result will be a continuous decrease in the array terminal voltage and divergence from maximum power point. However the extent of this decrease will be dependent on the rate and duration of increase of the solar irradiance. The deviation will come to an end once the rate of change of irradiance decreases. This issue is described in more detail in [97]. As well as this, it is clear that P&O is somewhat less efficient compared to other control methodologies as the average daily efficiency of a device using P&O control is 81.5% compared to 89.9% which is achievable using the Incremental Conductance Algorithm which will now be discussed. [97]
66 | P a g e
4.8.2 Incremental Conductance Algorithm The flow chart shown below clearly illustrates the control logic behind the operation of the incremental conductance algorithm.
Figure 4-16: Incremental Conductance Algorithm Control Logic [95]
By analysing the power curve of the solar array, it can be found that:
It is also worth noting that the power curves shown in previous sections of the report clearly shown that:
67 | P a g e
It is also important to distinguish between the incremental conductance and the instantaneous conductance of the array:
By comparing the instantaneous and incremental conductance it is possible to track maximum power point. The instantaneous conductance is calculated from measured values of current and voltage at the present time. The changes in current and voltage can be calculated by comparison of the present values of current and voltage with those from the previous cycle. Hence, the incremental conductance can be obtained in this manner. Decisions are made based on these two quantities by following the flow chart shown above. It is imperative to understand that at the maximum power point, as the rate of change of power with respect to voltage is equal to zero. By basic calculus this is concluded by virtue of the fact that maximum power point is a local maximum of the power function:
This condition is checked within the algorithm, and if it is seen to be true it is clear that the operating point of the array has reached the maximum power point and no change in terminal voltage is required. At this point, analysing Figure 4-17 is a worthwhile activity [98]:
Figure 4-17: Rate of Change of Voltage with Respect to Voltage For a Typical Solar Array [98]
68 | P a g e
It is clear from the above diagram that the rate of change of output power with respect to voltage is positive for voltages less than that corresponding to the maximum power point and is negative for voltages greater than this. Hence, rearranging the equation given earlier it is clear that:
Regardless of whether operating at voltages higher or lower than current from the array are positive. Hence, it is clear that:
, the output voltage and
Hence, when the operating point is seen to be to the left of the maximum power point, the terminal voltage is incremented, and when the operating point is seen to be to the right of the maximum power point, the voltage is decremented. Both of these perturbations result in movement of the operating point of the array closer to that which corresponds to maximum power. 4.8.2.1 Implementation of Incremental Conductance Controller The Incremental Conductance algorithm was subsequently modelled within Simulink. The configuration used by the students is shown in the diagram below:
Figure 4-18: Control Logic of Incremental Conductance Controller
The purpose of the memory block which is present within the upper diagram is to delay the input to the block for one integration time step. An initial condition must be set for this block so that the 69 | P a g e
output of the block has a starting point for the first time step of the simulation. Subsequent to that time step, the output of the block is equal to the input of the block during the previous time step. The inclusion of this block is imperative to the successful simulation of the incremental conductance algorithm, as its exclusion results in an algebraic error within Simulink. The blocks shown in the upper diagram are expanded within the Appendices of the report. It is important to note that the subsystem "First Branch" handles cases during which , and the subsystem "Second Branch" handles cases which comply to the condition . The controller has been implemented within the solar array as shown below:
Figure 4-19: Implementation of Incremental Conductance Controller
Within the First Branch and Second Branch subsystems, decisions are made based on current and voltage measurements. This process was made possible by utilising multiport switch blocks and comparison blocks. For instance, the internal configuration of the Second Branch subsystem is shown below:
Figure 4-20: Second Branch Subsystem
70 | P a g e
This system demonstrates the logic which was used to model the incremental conductance algorithm For instance, if there has been no change in voltage but a change has occurred in current, the output of the pink multiport switch will be 1. Using the yellow block, the change in current is analysed and therefore if the change in current is greater than 0, the output of the subsystem is 1, however is the change in current is not positive, the output of the Second Branch subsystem will be -1. A negative number indicates that the terminal voltage is to be decremented to converge to MPPT, and a positive output indicates that the terminal voltage of the array must be incremented in order to converge to MPPT. Hence, in this case where over the previous two samples, no change has occurred in terminal voltage however array current has decreased, a decrease in array voltage is necessary. This complies with the incremental conductance flow chart which was shown at the beginning of this section. This method of using multiport switches and comparison blocks was replicated in order to model the entire incremental conductance algorithm. The performance achieved by from the full system is shown below:
Figure 4-21: Performance Achieved Using Incremental Conductance Algorithm
It is important to note that in order to achieve the above response; the level of solar irradiance was stepped from 200W/m2 to 400W/m2 to 600W/m2 to 800W/m2 to 1000W/m2, and subsequently stepped back down to 200W/m2 in reverse order. Comparing the above response with the plot of the arrays P-V curves previously shown, it can be seen that the incremental conductance algorithm tracks maximum power point perfectly at each level of irradiance tested. One should realise that there is a very slight oscillation in system voltage at maximum power point, and hence the values voltage values achieved in the above graph do not exactly match those shown on the arrays P -V curves earlier in the report.
71 | P a g e

Table 4-1: Maximum Power Point Tracking- Results
Ideal MPP 200W/m 400W/m2 600W/m2 800W/m2 1000W/m2

2
Achieved Values
Power (W) Voltage (V) Power (W) Voltage (V) 376.9 89 376.9 89 799.6 94.4 799.6 94 1233 96.2 1233 96.6 1669 97.8 1669 98 2104 99 2104 98.8
A more detailed view of the convergence to maximum power point is shown below for a step change in solar irradiance from 200W/m2 to 400W/m2 at 50 seconds. Convergence to maximum power point is achieved in approximately 5 seconds which is a satisfactory response.
Figure 4-22: Convergence of Operating Point to Maximum Power Point
As shown in the upper diagram, ten incremental adjustments to the power output (and therefore the terminal voltage) occur within a period of 1 second. This is due to the fact that a sampling time of 0.1 seconds was chosen for the zero-order holds within the system.
72 | P a g e
5 Battery Model
5.1 Introduction
A battery was required in the microgrid model to help provide more reliability to the consumers. With wind and solar energy being unpredictable, it was necessary to introduce a device that could provide/consume the difference between the power being generated and the load requirement. When the load was greater than the combined wind and solar power, the battery would be required to provide the remainder of the power. On the other hand, when there is excess power being generated by the renewables, this power is intended to flow into the battery for use in a period of reduced renewable generation. This method is much more economic and useful than simply using a dump load, which wastes the power by letting it flow to ground. The use of a battery in the microgrid also helps to minimize the intermittency characteristic of renewable generating sources like wind and PV. The introduction of a storage element in the microgrid is what sets it apart from the main utility grids that currently operate globally in developed countries [99]. The integration of renewables into the electricity generation market is hugely benefitted by having the ability to store the excesses of power being generated when power demand is low. Curtailment is a huge issue with having wind turbines connected to a main utility grid. If generation of power from renewables is too high, then the operators of the grid will prevent all of this power being supplied to the grid in order to maintain system balance and reliability [100]. Hence this renewable energy is simply dumped. During the period of January to November 2010, 26GWh of wind energy generated went unused in Ireland [101]. This report also details how, in the absence of Turlough Hill (Irelands only pumped storage facility) there was less room for the wind and hence the amount of wind energy wasted increased. This pumped storage facility acts in the same way as the battery bank in the DC microgrid. Without the storage of the battery bank, the amount of energy unused would increase. While there is a heavy reliance on wind and solar energy in the microgrid, any quick variations of power being generated can be handled by the battery bank whether it is required to supply/absorb the changes in power.
73 | P a g e
5.2 Battery Cell Model

A Lithium-Ion battery was the desired battery type for the microgrid. The initial battery cell model was obtained from [102]. Lithium-Ion batteries are the chosen battery type for many electric vehicle manufacturers including Nissan [103], Tesla [104] and Renault [105]. This confirms a good maturity of the technology and gives confidence to users that the battery would be reliable. Lithium-Ion batteries offer a host of advantages: greater energy-to-weight ratio, no memory effect and low selfdischarge when not in use [106]. The final two advantages listed are very important to the microgrid. With no memory effect, the maximum capacity of the battery remains unchanged despite its irregular charging and discharging. Low self-discharge is also highly advantageous as it means the SOC within the battery varies very slowly over time. Hence in times when the battery is expected to just remain idle and hold the charge, it can do so without much loss of energy. Many considerations must be taken into account when choosing a battery type. For the purpose of this project, energy capacity is the most important of these characteristics. The sole purpose of the battery in this project is to store/supply power to the load when necessary. Hence, the more energy the battery can store, the more advantageous the battery is to this project. A cell type with a capacity of 40Ah was chosen and all of the details of the cells parameters were also obtained [106] and are shown below in Table 5-1.
Table 5-1: Battery Cell Parameters
Capacity (Ah) 40 Where,
v0(V) 3.5
R () 0.01
K0 (V) 0.0025
A (V) 0.2
B (Ah)-1 0.375
Vnom (V) 3.2
The values above were obtained through complex testing which requires special equipment [107]. These parameters help in determining the open-circuit voltage ( ) of the battery at a defined charge ( ).
This equation describes how the open-circuit voltage varies as the charge on the battery varies. An example of the variation of the can be seen in Figure 5-3. The State of Charge (SOC) of the battery at any time is the ratio of the instantaneous charge on the battery to the nominal or maximum charge of the battery. It is a very useful parameter for analysing the current status of the battery. In other words the SOC of the battery indicates how full the battery is. For example, if the battery is half full it has a SOC of 0.5. 74 | P a g e
The SOC of the battery is the key parameter in this project. It informs the user of the backup that the microgrid has at any period in time. This is very important when it comes to controlling the full microgrid which is detailed further in Section 6.3. The equivalent circuit for the battery cell is shown in Figure 5-1. The resistor in the diagram represents the internal impedance within the battery cell.
Figure 5-1: Battery Cell Equivalent Circuit
The direction of the current in the diagram indicates that the battery is charging. The terminal voltage ( ) is the terminal voltage and is the voltage that appears across a load when it is attached to the terminals of the battery. Using Kirchoffs Voltage Law, the power flow can be determined within the battery cell. The charging current ( ) is taken as positive.
This equation is solved to find the current in the Simulink model. The resulting equation used in Simulink is shown below:
The charge of the battery varies as the current flows in/out of it. A fundamental law of electricity is that current is the flow of charge. This is described by the equation below.
Hence the current in the simulation can be integrated with respect to time to obtain the new charge on the battery. This is the method used in the Simulink model. The charge on the battery is determined in an on-going basis depending on the current flowing in/out of the battery.
This is the final equation used in the Simulink model of the battery cell. A picture of the model is shown in 75 | P a g e
Figure 5-2: Battery Cell Model
The battery power flow in the battery cell was controlled in order to prevent the current from flowing when the battery reaches its maximum SOC. Without the controller the power flowed continuously even when the battery reached maximum capacity. This is not in accordance with how the battery acts in reality. When the battery begins to reach a SOC of 1, the current falls off to 0A [107]. The controller itself is made up of Multi-Port Switches and Relational Operators in Simulink. Once the limits outlined by the controller are reached, the power flow that wanted to flow into the model would be switched off. The limits chosen for the battery were chosen in order to preserve the lifetime of the battery. These limits maintain the SOC between 0.2 and 0.9 [107]. These restrictions obviously have an effect on the storage capacity of the battery but they were still implemented to preserve the health of the battery.
76 | P a g e
5.3 Layout of Battery Bank

The selected DC bus voltage was 48V (See Section 3.8.2). The battery is what maintains the DC bus at this voltage and so the battery bank must have a nominal voltage close to 48V. As noted in Table 5-1, the nominal battery voltage is 3.2V. In order to get a nominal battery bank voltage of 48V, the bank requires = 15 battery cells in series. This is the nominal voltage and so the actual voltage does vary from this throughout the operation of the battery and is a function of the SOC. Figure 5-3 shows the variation of the open-circuit voltage of the battery bank as the battery discharges from an SOC of 0.9 to an SOC of 0.2 (7% increase).
Figure 5-3: VOC Variation with SOC
The number of parallel branches the battery contains determines the energy capacity and power output of the battery. Obviously the more battery cells the model has, the better it is for the stability for the consumers. Yet it was considered to design the battery based on the requirements of the microgrid and size the battery accordingly. Hence a nominal power of 4.8kW (close to the size of the WECS) was decided upon for the battery bank. This value would require a current of 100A at the nominal voltage of 48V. The recommended current for the battery cells is 0.5C [108]. The C-value is defined as the amount of current a cell can discharge for an hour in going from a SOC of 1 to a SOC of 0 [107] [109]. Table 5-1 shows that the capacity of the battery cells in this project is 40Ah. Hence the C-value for these cells is 40A. This means that the desired current for each battery cell is 20A. In order to achieve this at the nominal power, the battery bank must have Figure 5-4 shows the layout of the battery bank. parallel branches.
77 | P a g e
Figure 5-4: Battery Bank Configuration
When creating the effect of a series connection for the currents, the mean value of the currents in all of the cells is taken. When a parallel effect is desired, the sum of the currents is calculated. It is the opposite case when considering the voltages. This battery bank now contains 75 battery cells. With each cell having a capacity of 40Ah at a nominal voltage of 3.2V, the battery bank has a total energy capacity of 9.6kWh. In order to have an idea of the size of such a combination of battery cells, the capacity of the Renault Fluence ZE battery pack was researched and found to be 22kWh [105]. Hence the battery bank used in the microgrid corresponds to approximately 43.64% the size of an EV battery. The size of the battery can very easily be increased by increasing the number of parallel branches in the layout. The battery bank was sized from a nominal power of 4.8kW. The battery bank should thus be able to discharge fully (from a SOC of 0.9 to 0.2) at this power, for 1.41 hours. This figure was arrived at by following the calculations below.
But the battery has limits for the SOC and hence the operating capacity is 0.7 * 9.6 = 6.72kWh. The time that the battery can supply a power of 4.8kW is:
Figure 5-5 shows how the model of the battery discharges at 4.8kW. The time corresponds with the previously calculated value.
78 | P a g e
Figure 5-5: Battery Bank Complete Discharge at 4.8kW
79 | P a g e
5.4 Operation of the Battery Bank

The battery bank model must have the power input defined at the beginning of the simulation. It is the power that determines of the rest of the parameters in the battery bank. An initial value for the charge in the battery must be set in the integrator block. This determines the initial SOC of the battery. Once the simulation begins, the power input determines all changes in current, SOC and . The SOC is the most important parameter in the battery when it comes to this project. As stated earlier it defines the backup that the microgrid has. In Section 6.3, it will become apparent how important the SOC is when it comes to making decisions on the power flows in the complete microgrid model. Section 6 also introduces the concept of grid connection for the microgrid which provides alternative charging options for the battery.
80 | P a g e
6 Complete Microgrid
6.1 Compilation of Models
With all of the distributed generation and storage elements now modelled, they are all put together to commence the complete model of the microgrid. Figure 6-1 shows the complete model in Simulink. The picture shows a close up of all the major elements. The rest of the model just contains scopes, summing blocks etc.
Figure 6-1: Complete Microgrid Model on Simulink
The power being generated by the solar (orange) and wind (green) models are output from their respective blocks depending on the parameters defined in their individual blocks. In contrast to this the battery (blue) has its power as an input, which is decided by the supervisor controller (yellow). This controller also takes the loads (grey) into account when making decisions. The controller is further described in Section 6.4. An m-file with all of the parameters for each individual block was created and hence changes for all of the blocks are made easily. The code in this m-file is shown in the Appendices (Section 9.11). The m-file allows the following common changes to be made in a simple manner: Critical and non-critical load changes Initial SOC of battery Wind speed Solar Irradiation Buying/Selling prices to/from the utility grid
81 | P a g e
6.2 Modelling of Loads

Loads are required in the microgrid model to make it as realistic as possible. The main purpose of the microgrid is to supply these loads with the power they require. For the main utility grids, the loads are made up of households, commercial buildings, hospitals etc. The loads can generally be broken down into two sectors: Critical and non-critical loads. 6.2.1 Critical and Non-Critical Loads Critical loads must always be supplied with electricity, regardless of the method for which the electricity has to be obtained. So in times of low electricity generation the first and most important loads to be supplied will be critical loads. In the event that all loads cannot be supplied power, some of the non-critical loads will be shed. These loads can be shed incrementally depending on how much power the generators can supply. If the generators cannot supply the critical load, then the grid will have to use extra generators or import the electricity from elsewhere. Data centres are an example of a critical load in a commercial building, while within a main utility grid a hospital would be considered a critical load.
82 | P a g e
6.3 Grid Imports/Exports

As mentioned earlier, a microgrid can be completely islanded which means no grid connection is available. In this project though, the microgrid has the ability to import/export electricity from/to the grid. In reality connections to the main utility grids are quite complex. A Point of Common Coupling (PCC) is required as a connection point for both systems. A grid forming unit is usually used to regulate the voltage and set the system frequency before the microgrid can be connected with the main grid [21]. Frequency-droop and voltage-droop controls are used to share real and reactive power components. For electricity export, a DC-AC inverter would be required to convert the DC power into AC power before the electricity could be sent to the grid. When importing electricity, an AC-DC rectifier would be used to change the AC power to DC power before it can be sent to the DC bus. A DC-DC converter would also be required more than likely to change the voltage level to that of the DC bus. With the DC microgrid in this project, the implementation of the utility grid is very simply achieved. The supervisory control decides when the grid is required to receive/supply power. There is no code built to allow for the converters and control. Hence the presence of the utility grid in this project is more about giving an understanding of how the microgrid would operate in grid-connected mode, as opposed to modelling a detailed connection point. Its presence in the microgrid is similar to that of the loads. The grid connection is important in this microgrid due to the heavy reliance on the intermittent renewable generators. If the microgrid was to be completely islanded then a much larger battery would be required in order to secure power for the loads for prolonged periods of time.
83 | P a g e
6.4 Supervisor Control

With all the different situations that can occur in the microgrid, some sort of controller had to be implemented to decide on the power flows. The loads are the centre of the microgrid as they are the reason the microgrid is needed. So the most important aspect for the controller to consider is to ensure supply power to the loads. Once the loads are receiving the required power, the microgrid can decide on what to do with any remaining power. There are two main sections in the supervisor control: 1. 2.
Where = Power Generated by Wind and Solar and = Load Power Requirement
These two scenarios have completely different implications for the microgrid. When the power being generated within the microgrid exceeds the power required by the loads, then the microgrid must decide what to do with the excess power. The only options for this are to send the power to the battery or export the electricity to the utility grid. When the load power cannot be supplied by the renewables in the microgrid, then the remaining power must be sourced from elsewhere. Once again the two options are the battery and the grid. As mentioned earlier though, the microgrid has the ability to shed non-critical loads in this event. There are three key parameters within the microgrid which facilitate decision making: 1. SOC of the battery 2. Import price from the grid 3. Export price to the grid The ability of the microgrid to make decisions on import and export prices means that the economic effects for the microgrid operators are now also being considered. Similarly to the introduction of loads and the utility grid, the prices being introduced are more about the concept than the actual modelling. In other words real prices and figures were not used. Instead price levels were introduced which are summarised in Table 6-1. Price Level High Medium Low M-File Value Range >2 1-2 <1 Price Level High Low M-File Value Range >3 <3
Table 6-1: Supervisory Control - Price Levels
In the importing scenario, a high price is representative of as being very expensive and would only be purchased when absolutely necessary. The medium level is just an average price. If electricity is required for non-critical loads then the microgrid will import the electricity. Finally the low price represents a bargain. The electricity is extremely cheap and should be exploited when available. The exporting scenario is different as it generally is not desired of the microgrid to export electricity to the main grid. The only times power will be exported are when the battery is full and the excess power might as well be sold. Or else if the price of electricity export is extremely high and a lot of money is to be made.
84 | P a g e
In order to implement the decisions that would be made by the controller, Multi-port switches were used. These switches decide on the output for a particular power flow based on a list of indexes. Each index describes a particular condition of the microgrid. Table 6-2 is an example of how the indexes operate.
Pws < Pload

Grid-Load
SOC 0.2 0.2-0.4 0.4-0.6 0.6-0.9 0.9 High Price 7 15 10 2 1 Medium Price 140 300 200 40 20 Low Price -7 -15 -10 -2 -1 Conditionally Supplied Supply Total Load - WS Supplied Loads No Supply
Table 6-2: Index Example for Supervisor Control
This table shows how the power will flow from the utility grid to the loads for all possible scenarios while the renewable power is lower than the load power requirement. The green cells illustrate the events that will cause power to flow to the loads from the grid while the orange cells indicate when there will be no power flow from the grid to the loads. The blue cell is a special scenario. In this event, the loads need more power but the battery is completely discharged (0.2). Hence the only other source of power is the grid. Yet the price is too high for importing and so the grid will shed some non-critical loads instead. The rest of the index tables are shown in Section 9.12. The corresponding Multi-Port Switch in Simulink is shown below in.
Figure 6-2: Example of Multi-port Switch in Simulink
85 | P a g e
6.5 Scenario Analysis

6.5.1 Introduction to Scenarios In order to illustrate the application of all the above decisions and events, several scenarios were simulated and the results analysed. Real life situations were simulated in order to give an idea as to how the microgrid model could be utilised. It should be noted that simulation times are very prolonged for the complete microgrid. This is due the long time it takes for changes to occur in the battery (hours) in comparison the quick changes that happen in the wind and solar models (seconds). Previously it was seen that the battery model completely discharges in about 1.41 hours (at 4.8kW, see Figure 5-5). When analysing the battery on its own, this wasnt an issue as the battery model could be simulated having the simulation time as hours. But when the models are required to be simulated in one complete model, the simulation must have one defined simulation time scale. The resulting solution involved adjusting the battery model to operate in terms of seconds instead of hours (Capacity of 40Ah now defined as 144000As). So now in order to see the battery complete an entire discharge, the model is required to simulate for 5076 seconds. In real time, this would take close to nine hours. Each scenario is simulated for 1000 simulation seconds (Approx. 17 minutes). The aim of the scenarios is to show all of the capabilities of the complete microgrid including wind/solar power variations, load shedding, impact of price changes etc. The initial conditions will be stated at the beginning of the scenarios. Next the changes that occur and the times that they occur will be noted. Finally a brief synopsis of the scenario will detail what happened at each key point with the aid of the resulting graphs. A convention was agreed upon to ensure the correct direction of the power flows could be understood easily. If power is flowing into a module (e.g. Battery charging, loads being supplied etc.) then the power flow for that module is positive. If the power is flowing out of a module (e.g. Power generated by renewables, Battery supplying power etc.) then the power for the module is taken as negative.
*Note that while some of the changes seem to look like ramp changes, they actually occur as step changes. This may be confusing like in the case in Scenario 1 where it appears as though the battery and grid are simultaneously charging (circa. 200 seconds). The reason for this occurrence is due to the sample time being 10. This had to be introduced to reduce the memory being taken up by the results. It was attempted previously to run the simulations as normal but the program kept crashing.
6.5.2 Scenario 1 As stated in Section 6.5.1, the scenarios try to relate to common real-life events that may happen to a microgrid. Scenario 1 deals with the event in which the battery becomes fully charged by the renewables, when the wind speed drops off and the microgrid needs to call on an alternative source of power. 6.5.2.1 Initial Conditions Wind Speed Solar Irradiance Buying Price Selling Price 86 | P a g e
12.629ms-1 1000W/m2 High High
SOC Critical Load Non-Critical Load
0.88 2kW 3kW

Table 6-3: Scenario 1 Initial Conditions
6.5.2.2 Changes Change Made In: Selling price Wind Speed (m/s)
Initial Value High 12.629
Final Value Low 8
Time of Change (s) 200 700
Table 6-4: Changes made throughout Scenario 1
6.5.2.3 Analysis Before the analysis begins the results of the simulation are shown in Figure 6-3 and Figure 6-4.
Figure 6-3: Scenario 1 Power Flows
Figure 6-4: Scenario 1 - SOC Variation
At the beginning of the simulation, it is evident that the power being generated by the renewables (pink) was greater than the power required by the loads (blue). Hence the
87 | P a g e
supervisor control had to decide what to do with the excess of power. The two options that can absorb this power were the grid and the battery. Table 9-2 details how the decision was made in this case. The result is seen as the excess power being generated flows to the grid (black). This means the microgrid was availing of the extremely good prices for exporting at that time. The SOC of the battery was an important parameter to consider in this decision also. In this case, the battery had enough charge to allow exporting to the grid to occur. A change in the price at 200s, caused the microgrid to reconsider the previous decision made. The price of exporting was no longer such a good deal and so the supervisor control changed the path of power flow to the battery. This is shown by the decaying of the grid power to zero and the increase in battery power (red) to a value of about 2kW. It is here that the problems with the large sampling time are experienced as referred to in the note at the end of Section 6.5.1. The effect of this power flow to the battery is shown in Figure 6-4 also as the SOC began to ramp up. This increase in SOC came to a halt at around 560 seconds, as the battery reached the maximum allowable SOC of 0.9. The excess power could no longer flow to the battery bank. Hence the next most advantageous choice was to export the power to the grid (Decisions detailed in Section 9.12 again). This is seen in the stepping up of the black line in Figure 6-3. At 700 seconds, the wind speed decayed to 8m/s. The result was that the power delivered by the renewables was not large enough to supply all of the loads. Hence backup was required to provide the difference in power. The battery is seen to track the difference in power and hence maintained the supply of power to the loads at 5KW. This particular action is the key to the operation of the microgrid. The battery allows changes in the wind speed to occur while having no impact on the power supplied to the loads. Hence the intermittency effects of the renewables are minimised. The effect of the battery supplying power is also seen in Figure 6-4 with the SOC decaying at a constant rate.
6.5.3 Scenario 2 This scenario deals with a more complicated issue for the microgrid. The battery runs out of charge and the solar irradiance drops for a period, as if a cloud is passing over the PV panels. The scenario shows how the microgrid deals with this incident. 6.5.3.1 Initial Conditions Wind Speed Solar Irradiance Buying Price Selling Price 6.5.3.2 Changes Change Made In: Solar Irradiance (W/m2) Buying Price Buying Price Solar irradiance (W/m2)
12.629ms-1 1000W/m2 High Low
SOC Critical Load Non-Critical Load
0.21 5kW 1.8kW
Table 6-5: Scenario 2 Initial Conditions
Initial Value 1000 High Medium 200
Final Value 200 Medium Low 1500
Time of Change (s) 20 430 550 700
Table 6-6: Changes made throughout Scenario 2
88 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" 6.5.3.3 Analysis As in Scenario 1, the results from the simulation are shown in Figure 6-5 and Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-5: Scenario 2 - Power Flows
Figure 6-6: Scenario 2 - SOC Variation
The cloud passes over the sun causing the solar irradiance to decay almost immediately in the simulation causing the power being generated to decrease accordingly (Pink). Before this change occurred the renewable were able to supply the full load requirement (Blue) but the reduction in solar irradiance has resulted in the need of backup. With the price of electricity import being high, the microgrid does not want to import to supply non-critical loads. There is some charge left in the battery though, so the battery acts as the backup (Red). This is fine until the battery runs out of charge, which is seen to occur at around 260 seconds. The result of this is seen in Figure 6-5. The power being supplied to the load is seen
89 | P a g e
to drop, illustrating that some of the loads have been shed. The critical load of 5kW is still being supplied by the renewables. The renewables also supply as many of the non-critical loads as possible. Taking a close look at the Total Power Flow (turquoise), a small increase can be seen. This is a characteristic of the load shedding. In the model, the non-critical loads are made up of 100W loads. The microgrid supplies as many of the 100W loads as possible in this case. When there is an excess left over (< 100W) then the remaining power cannot supply any of the loads. Hence there is a small amount of power leftover. The power can simply be wasted to ground via a dump resistor. Alternatively these excess powers may be used for Combined Heat and Power for the local area or some other alternative which uses the power more efficiently. At 430 seconds the price of importing from the grid changes to medium. The supervisory control now decides that it is acceptable to import electricity from the grid. This is seen in Figure 6-5 where the Load Power Flow increases again to the magnitude of the full load requirement. The power can also be seen to be flowing from the grid (black). At 550 seconds, there is a further decrease in import prices which causes the price to enter the Low level. The result of this is seen immediately. The power being imported from the grid increases dramatically. The microgrid is availing of the cheap import prices to charge the battery and increase the reliability of the system. With the battery being charged again at a cheap price, the microgrid doesnt have to fear the prices of importing electricity increasing again. The cloud has now passed and the solar irradiance increases accordingly. This causes the power being generated to jump beyond the load requirement and so the operation of the microgrid is changed by the supervisor controller again. The battery continues to charge but now the energy is free. The microgrid no longer requires power from the grid and so the black line in Figure 6-5 falls to zero again.
Operations experienced in Scenario 2: Load Shedding Battery Discharge to minimum SOC Decrease in Solar Irradiation Varying Import Prices and their Impacts Balancing of Power
90 | P a g e
7 Potential Project Improvements

Predictive Control on Battery With predictive control on the battery, a more accurate and sensible plan of energy storage can be obtained. The use of this control scheme has the ability to make economic savings in the operation of the microgrid. For an example of how this control is designed and implemented see [102]. Introduction of Real Wind and Solar Data The wind and solar models in this project is very complex and accurate. The control systems in place help the microgrid extract the maximum power from the natural resources. By inputting real wind and solar data from a certain period of time, the performance of the microgrid can be analysed under those conditions. An example of an application for this could be in the testing of a site for the construction of a microgrid. Wind and solar data from the area in question could be recorded. By providing this data to the models, it would be possible to examine the power outputs of the generators and hence the feasibility of the site. Modelling of Realistic Loads (Critical and Non-Critical) A continuation of the previous idea in Section 0 would be to model the loads in the microgrid in question. The ability of the microgrid to supply the loads on daily basis could be tested. Daily load curves from similar buildings could be obtained and the performance of the microgrid could be analysed (in terms of its ability to supply the loads). Different days with different characteristics could give an indication of how favourable the weather must be in order to supply the loads. By viewing weather sheets, it can be seen how often these conditions would actually occur in the desired area. The models could be adjusted to suit different sized sites. The feasibility tests outlined above could also give an indication into whether the microgrid would require further generators (including fossil fuelled generators to increase reliability) and also may help in sizing the DC battery bank. Extension of the Current Generating Sources In line with Section 0, the group of generators in this project could be extended to enhance reliability and capacity of the Microgrid. The list of potential additions is long and varied depending on the requirements. Fossil fuel generators may help in extending reliability of supply and supplement the intermittency of the renewables especially if the microgrid is intended for islanded operation. Augmentation of the Microgrid Models Another point raised in Section 0 was increasing the size of the models. For the battery this is a simple matter. The number of parallel branches in the battery bank can be increased to improve the energy storage capacity. It must be noted that battery cells are expensive and limit the size of a practical battery bank. The wind model would prove to be a bit more complicated considering the model is based on a particular wind turbine which was obtained from [75]. If changing the turbine a new set of parameters would be required along with a vs. curve. Also, the very fact that the wind turbine model is non-linear implies that in order to scale up the model, linearization about a new system operating point would be necessary. This would be used to find the operating point of the new machine. Obviously new controllers would have to be designed but the same method could be followed as outlined in Section 3. The solar array was modelled by first designing a solar cell model, and then scaling the current and voltage from the device- hence creating a larger model would not be a significant challenge.
91 | P a g e
Improvement of the Supervisor Control The supervisor controller is very basic. The operation of the full microgrid is satisfactory in the model but the controller could definitely be improved. It basically has a set of if statements deciding on the power flows. Due to its simplicity, further improvement may be possible. Introduction of Real Electricity Import/Export Prices Similarly as outlined in Sections 0 and 0, real data could be introduced to give a more realistic look at scenarios. Once again this could help optimise feasibility tests.
92 | P a g e
8 Bibliography
[1] The Royal Society, Publications: Policy: The Royal Society, September 2010. [Online]. Available: http://royalsociety.org/uploadedFiles/Royal_Society_Content/policy/publications/2010/429 4972962.pdf. [Accessed 06 12 2012]. Met Office Hadley Centre, 2007. [Online]. Available: http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/b/1/informing.pdf. [Accessed 06 12 2012]. G. Boyle, B. Everett and J. Ramage, Energy Systems and Sustainability (Power For a Sustainable Future), Milton Keynes, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2003. J. Tester, E. Drake, M. Driscoll, M. Golay and W. Peters, Sustainable Energy (Choosing Among Options), Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2005. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Evidence: Climate: NASA, NASA, [Online]. Available: http://climate.nasa.gov/evidence. [Accessed 07 12 2012]. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Key Indicators- CO2 : Climate: NASA, NASA, [Online]. Available: http://climate.nasa.gov/key_indicators#co2. [Accessed 07 12 2012]. International Energy Agency (IEA), Key World Energy Statistics, SOREGRAPH, Paris, 2012. M. El-Hawary, Introduction to Electrical Power Systems, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2008. M. Egan, Electrical Power Systems Lecture Notes (EE4010) [Section 1: Energy Systems], Cork, Ireland. Siemens, Pictures of the Future ( The Magazine for Research and Innovation), Fall 2012, p. 24. J. Arrillaga, Y. Liu and N. Watson, Flexible Power Transmission (The HVDC Option), Chichester, West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2007. BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2012, June 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.bp.com/assets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_public ations/statistical_energy_review_2011/STAGING/local_assets/pdf/statistical_review_of_wo rld_energy_full_report_2012.pdf. [Accessed 07 12 2012]. International Energy Agency (IEA), Renewable energy ... into the mainstream, 2002. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Renewable Energy Sources and Climate
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7] [8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13] [14]
93 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" Change Mitigation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. [15]
M. Singh and A. Chandra, Control of PMSG Based Variable Speed Wind- Battery Hybrid System in an Isolated Network, 2009. H. Gaztanaga, I. Etxeberria-Otadui, S. Bacha and D. Roye, Real- Time Analysis of the Control Structure and Management Functions of a Hybrid Microgrid System, 2006. American Physical Society (APS) , Integrating Renewable Energy onto the Grid, Washington D.C.. F. Valenciaga, P. Puleston, P. Battaiotto and R. Mantz, Passivity/Sliding Mode Control of a Stand-Alone Hybrid Generation System, IEEE Proc.-Control Theory Appl., vol. 147, no. 6, 2000. T. Senjyu, T. Nakaji, U. Katsumi and T. Funabashi, A Hybrid Power System Using Alternative Energy Facilities in Isolated Areas, 2005. B. Kroposki, R. Lasseter, T. Ise, S. Morozumi, S. Papathanassiou and N. Hatziargyriou, A Look at Microgrid technologies and Testing Projects from Around the World, IEEE Power & Energy Magazine, May/June 2008. F. Katiraei, R. Iravani, N. Hatziargyriou and A. Dimeas, Microgrids Management: Controls and Operation Aspects of Microgrids, IEEE Power & Energy Magazine, May/June 2008. I. Chung, W. Liu, D. Cartes and K. Schoder, Control Parameter Optimization for a Microgrid System Using Particle Swarm Optimization, 2008. CenterPoint Energy, CenterPoint Energy, [Online]. Available: http://www.centerpointenergy.com/services/electricity/residential/powerqualityandreliabil ity/bulkpowervspremiumpower/a3a4d352c49f3110VgnVCM10000001a10d0aRCRD/. [Accessed 08 12 2012]. R. Lasseter, MicroGrids, 2002. P. Piagi and R. Lasseter, Autonomous Control of Microgrids, p. 2, 2006. C. Yuen and A. Oudalov, The Feasibility and Profitability of Ancillary Services Provision from Multi-Microgrids, p. 1, 2007. P. Piaga and R. Lasseter, Extended Microgrid Using (DER) Distributed Energy Resources, p. 1, 2007. Siemens AG, White Paper: Microgrids, 2011. N. Ahmed and M. Miyatake, A Stand-Alone Hybrid Generation System Combining Solar Photovoltaics and Wind Turbine with Simple Maximum Power Point Trancking Control, p. 1,
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24] [25] [26]
[27]
[28] [29]
94 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" 2006. [30]
F. Valenciaga, P. Puleston and B. Battaiotto, Power Control of a Solar/Wind Generation System Without Wind Measurement: A Passivity/ Sliding Mode Approach, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, vol. 18, no. 4, p. 501, 2003. K. Nigim and W. Lee, Microgrid Integration Opportunities and Challenges, p. 2, 2007. T. Kojima and Y. Fukuya, Microgrid Systems for Isolated Islands, Smart Community, vol. 57, no. 4, p. 125. D. Bo, Y. Li and Z. Zheng, Energy Management of Hybrid DC and AC Linked Microgrid, IEEE International Symposiom on power Electronics for Distributed Generation Systems, p. 713, 2010. L. Roggia, L. Schuch, C. Rech, H. Hey and J. Pinheiro, Design of Sustainable Residential Microgrid System with DC and AC Buses Including PHEV and Energy Storage Device, International Conference on Renewable Energies and Power Quality, 2010. J. Guerrero , J. Vasquez and R. Teodorescu, Hierarchical Control of Droop-Controlled DC and AC Microgrids A General Approach Towards Standardization, IECON 2009 Proceedings, p. 4341, 2009. RenweableEnergyFocus, RenweableEnergyFocus, [Online]. Available: http://www.renewableenergyfocus.com/view/3199/dc-microgrids-a-new-source-of-localpower-generation/. [Accessed 2012 12 10]. A Plug and Play Operational Approach for Implementation of an Autonomous-Micro-Grid System, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, vol. 8, no. 3, p. 616, 2012. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Small Wind Turbine Research, [Online]. Available: http://www.nrel.gov/wind/smallwind/. [Accessed 5 1 13]. P. Gipe, Evaluating the Technology- What Does and Doesn't Work, in Wind Power: Renewable Energy for Home, Farm & Business, Vermont, Chelsea Green Publishing, 2004, pp. 83- 146. D. Rivkin, . L. Anderson and V. Silk, Strategies of Control, in Wind Turbine Control Systems, Burlington MA, Jones & Barlett Learning LLC, 2013, pp. 101-118. Y. MA, H. Zurong, J. Wang, R. Lai and Y. Xing, Research on Fixed-Pitch Wind Turbines Running in Deep-Stall Region, 2009. Z. Ivanovski, Direct-Drive Wind Turbines, International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, vol. 2, no. 10, pp. 1-11, 2011.
[31] [32]
[33]
[34]
[35]
[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
95 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" [43]
P. Gipe, Operation, Performance & Maintenance, in Wind Power, Vermont, Chelsea Green publishing Company, 2004, pp. 349-355. National Instruments, Wind Turbine Control Methods, National Instruments, [Online]. Available: http://www.ni.com/white-paper/8189/en. [Accessed 6 1 13]. Level: The Authority on Sustainable Buildings, Wind Turbine Systems, Level: The Authority on Sustainable Buildings, [Online]. Available: http://www.level.org.nz/energy/renewableelectricity-generation/wind-turbine-systems/. [Accessed 13 1 13]. DEVI- Renewable Energies, Wind energy I. Lesson 9. Control strategies, [Online]. Available: http://www.slideshare.net/Jupiter276/1-9th-lesson. [Accessed 21 01 2013]. S. S. a. S. C. Bunlung Neammanee, Control Strategies for Variable- Speed Fixed Pitch Wind Turbines, [Online]. Available: http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/9574/InTechControl_strategies_for_variable_speed_fixed_pitch_wind_turbines.pdf. [Accessed 6 1 13]. ABB, Technical Application Papers No. 13 Wind Power Plants, ABB, Bergamo, Italy, 2011. Renewable Energy World, Inside Wind Turbines: Fixed vs. Variable Speed, [Online]. Available: http://www.uni-hildesheim.de/~irwin/inside_wind_turbines.html. [Accessed 8 1 13]. E. Hau, Electrical System, in Wind Turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies, Applications, Economics, 82152 Krailling, Germany, Springer, 2006, pp. 317-356. S. Muyeen, J. Tamura and T. Murata, Wind Turbine Modelling, in Stability Augmentation of a Grid-Connected Wind Farm, Stringer, 2009, pp. 23-65. Lab-Volt, Principles of Doubly-Fed Induction Generators (DFIG), Lab-Volt, [Online]. Available: http://www.labvolt.com/downloads/download/86376_F0.pdf. [Accessed 8 1 13]. Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Wind Power Fundamentals, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , [Online]. Available: http://web.mit.edu/windenergy/windweek/Presentations/Wind%20Energy%20101.pdf. [Accessed 8 1 13]. Wind-Energy-The-Facts.org, Alternative Drive Train Configurations, MTorres, [Online]. Available: http://www.wind-energy-the-facts.org/en/part-i-technology/chapter-3-windturbine-technology/current-developments/alternative-drive-train-configurations.html. [Accessed 8 1 13]. I. Kosow, AC-Dynamo Torque Relations- Synchronous Motors, in Electric Machinery and Transformers, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., PRENTICE-HALL INC., 1972. Windpower Engineering & Development, Direct drive turbine needs no gearbox, [Online]. Available: http://www.windpowerengineering.com/design/mechanical/gearboxes/direct-
[44]
[45]
[46]
[47]
[48] [49]
[50]
[51]
[52]
[53]
[54]
[55]
[56]
96 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" drive-turbine-needs-no-gearbox/. [Accessed 8 1 13]. [57]
J. Manwell, J. McGowan and A. Rogers, Electrical Aspects of Wind Turbines, in Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Applications, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2002, pp. 197246. Isolated Operation of a Variable Speed Driven PMSG for Wind Energy Conversion, IACSIT International Journal of Engineering and Technology, vol. 1, no. 3, 2009. Canton State University New York, MMME2104 : Design & Selection of Mining Equipment Electrical Component - Synchronous Generator, [Online]. Available: http://eet.canton.edu/~eet/Spring2004/elec222/Lecture%207%20%20Synchronous%20Generators.pdf. [Accessed 8 1 13]. K. Huang, L. Zheng, S. Huang and L. Xiao, Sensorless Control for Direct-Drive PMSG Wind Turbines based on Sliding Mode Observer. M. Ahmadian, B. Jandagh, H. Oraee, A. Oraee and P. Sotoodeh, Economic Comparison of BDFG and Conventional Generators in Wind Turbine Applications, ELECTRIC POWER ENGINEERING & CONTROL SYSTEMS 2010, 2010. R. H. (ECN), Summary of Discussions of Electrical Power Systems, [Online]. Available: http://www.ecn.nl/fileadmin/ecn/units/wind/docs/Dutch_Wind_Workshop/Workshop_1/ Workshop_1c_Summary.pdf. [Accessed 9 1 13]. A. Hughes, Synchronous, Switched Reluctance and Brushless D.C. Drives, in Electric Motors and Drives, Heinemann Newnes, 1990, p. 269. F. Valenciaga, P. Puleston, P. Battaiotto and R. Mantz, Passivity/sliding mode control of a stand-alone hybrid generation system, IEE Proc.-Conlrol Theory Appl., vol. 147, no. 6, pp. 680-689, 2000. B. Bose, Synchronous Machine, in Power Electronics and AC Drives, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1986, pp. 52-67. N. Mohan, Introduction to AC Machines and Space Vectors, in Electric Drives: An Integrative Approach, Minneapolis, MNPERE, 2000, pp. 9-1 - 9-39. University of Technology Sydney, Chapter 6: Synchronous Machines, [Online]. Available: http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/cempe/subjects_JGZ/eet/eet_ch6.pdf. [Accessed 11 01 13]. O. Wallmark, Control of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor with Non-Sinusoidal Flux Density Distribution, Goteburg, Sweden, 2001. R. Begamudre, Synchronous Machines, in Electromechanical Energy Conversion with Dynamics of Machines, New Age International Publlishers, p. 341.
[58]
[59]
[60]
[61]
[62]
[63]
[64]
[65]
[66]
[67]
[68]
[69]
97 | P a g e
P. Bimbhra, Polyphase Synchronous Machine, in Electrical Machinery, Khanna Publishers, 2009, pp. 540-702. S. Nasar, Synchronous Machines, in Electric Machines and Power Systems, McGraw-Hill, 1995, pp. 203-254. U. o. C. Florida, dq Theory for Synchronous Machine- Without Damper Winding, [Online]. Available: https://docs.google.com/a/umail.ucc.ie/viewer?a=v&q=cache:4g7hynO0jWQJ:www.eecs.uc f.edu/~tomwu/course/eel6208/notes/13b%2520dq%2520Theory%2520for%2520SM%2520 without%2520Damper.pdf+&hl=en&gl=ie&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESh0GshVAOnuvpMZwFG3__NKMPn9pB73Tv6G8rr6l3-2. [Accessed 12 01 2013]. T. Lipo, Reference Frame theory - Transformation of Three-Phase Circuit Variables to a Rotating Reference Frame, in Analysis of Synchronous Machines, Madison, Wisconsin, 2008, pp. 81-96. L. U. Texas, Lecture 7: Synchronous Machines, [Online]. Available: http://www.ee.lamar.edu/gleb/power/Lecture%2007%20%20Synchronous%20machines.pdf. [Accessed 12 1 13]. F. Valenciaga and P. Puleston, High-Order Sliding Control for a Wind Energy Conversion System Based on a Permanent Magnet Synchrononus Generator, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 23, no. 3, p. 861, 2008. P. Krause, Theory of Synchronous Machines, in Analysis of Electric Machinery, McGrawHill, 1986, pp. 211-267. S. Yamamura, Transient Phenomena Without Damper Winding, in AC Motors for HighPerformance Applications , New York , Marcel Dekker, 1986, pp. 101-107. H. Minh, N. Frdric, E. Najib and H. Abdelaziz, Control of permanent magnet synchronous generatorwind turbine for stand-alone system using fuzzy logic, pp. 720-727, July 2011. S. Ghosh, Basic Concepts of Rotating Electric Machines, in Fundamentals of Electric and Electronics Engineering, Prentice Hall, 2003, pp. 420-430. J. Fang, C. Heising, V. Staudt and A. Steimel, Modelling of Anisotropic Synchronous Machine in Stator- Reference Frame including Torque Calculation, p. 1, 2010. J. Kang, Control Engineering: Sensorless Control of Permanent Magnet Motors, April 2010. B. Wu, Y. Lang, N. Zargari and S. Kouro, Wind Generators and Modelling, in Power Conversion and Control of Wind Energy Systems, Canada, John Wiley & Sons, 2011, pp. 7275.
[71]
[72]
[73]
[74]
[75]
[76]
[77]
[78]
[79]
[80]
[81] [82]
98 | P a g e
M. R. e. al., Motor Drives, in POWER ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK, Elsevier Inc., 2011, pp. 899-905. A. M. Trzynadlowski, Introduction to Modern Power Electronics, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.. [Online]. Available: http://webber.physik.unifreiburg.de/~hon/vorlss02/Literatur/Ingenieurswiss/pid/pid+matlab/PID%20systems%20tut orial.htm. [Accessed 01 02 2013]. G. Blake, The Solar Subsystem, in A Matlab/Simulink simulation of a hybrid power system supply for rural villages in the developing world, Cork, 2007, pp. 30-51. U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Basics- Photovoltaic Cells, [Online]. Available: http://www.eere.energy.gov/basics/renewable_energy/pv_cells.html. [Accessed 24 01 2013]. M. Villalva, J. Gazoli and E. Filho, Comprehensive Approach to Modeling and Simulation of Photovoltaic Arrays, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 1198-1208, 2009. A. Luque and S. Hegedus, The Physics of the Solar Cell, in Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, West Sussex, England, John Wiley & Sons, 2003, pp. 61-112. R. Boylestad, Introductory Circuit Analysis, Prentice Hall, 1997. Solar Energy Research Institute , Basic Photovoltaic Principles and Methods, Technical information Office, February 1982. H. S. Rauschenbach, Solar Cell Array Design Handbook, New York: Litton Educational Publishing, 1980. Solarcell Sales, [Online]. Available: http://www.solarcellsales.com/techinfo/docs/Shell_SP70.pdf. [Accessed 28 02 2013]. D. Jeffers and P. Moynihan, Hybrid Wind/Photovoltaic Supply, p. 32, 2008. T. Esram and P. Chapman, Comparison of Photovoltaic Array Maximum PowerPoint Tracking Techniques, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 22, no. 2, 2007. V. Ramchandani, K. Pamarthi, N. Varma and S. Chowdhurya, Implementation of Maximum Power Point Tracking Using Kalman Filter for Solar Photovoltaic Array on FPGA, International Journal of Smart Grid and Clean Energy, vol. 2, no. 2, 2013. K. Hussein, I. Muta, T. Hoshino and M. Osakada, Maximum photovoltaic power tracking : an algorithm for rapidly changing atmospheric conditions, IEE proC.-Gener. Trans. Distrib., Vol. 142, NO. I , january 1995, vol. 142, no. 1, 1995.
[84] [85]
[86]
[87]
[88]
[89]
[90] [91]
[92]
[93]
[94] [95]
[96]
[97]
99 | P a g e
B. Liu, S. Duan, F. Liu and P. Xu, Analysis and Improvement of Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithm Based on Incremental Conductance Method for Photovoltaic Array, pp. 637-641, 2007. T. Ackermann, Wind Power in Power Systems, John Wiley & Sons, 2005. J. Cheszes. [Online]. Available: http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2012/03/impact-of-curtailmenton-wind-economics. Eirgrid, Ensuring a Secure, Reliable and Efficient Power System in a Changing Environment, 2011. K. Daly and D. Doody, Electric Vehicle Charge Optimisation Using Predictive Control, Cork, 2013. Nissan. [Online]. Available: http://www.nissan.ie/vehicles/leaf/?gclid=CP_3tt_D4LUCFcQ82wodBWoAzw. Tesla. [Online]. Available: http://www.teslamotors.com/models/specs. Renault. [Online]. Available: 22kWh - http://www.renault.com/en/vehicules/aujourdhui/renault-vehicules-electriques/pages/fluence-ze.aspx. S. Amjad, S. Neelakrishnan and R. Rudramoorthy, Review of design considerations and technological challenges for successful development and deployment of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. F. Marra, G. Y. Yang, C. Traeholt, E. Larsen, C. N. Rasmussen and S. You, Demand Profile Study of Battery Electric Vehicle under Different Charging Options. O. Tremblay, L.-A. Dessaint and A.-I. Dekkiche, A Generic Battery Model for the Dynamic Simulation of Hybrid Electric Vehicles. T. Sky, LFP Battery User Manual, 2010. J. Manwell, J. McGowan and A. Rogers, Available Wind Power, in Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Applications, Chichester, West Sussex, England, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2002, p. 31. J. Manwell, J. McGowan and R. A.L., One- Dimensional Momentum Theory and the Betz Limit, in Wind Energy Explained: Theory Designs and Applications, Chichester, West Sussex, England, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2002, pp. 84-88. J. Persson, Innovative Standstill Position Detection Combined With Sensorless Control of Synchronous Motors, 2005.
[99] [100]
[101]
[102]
[103]
[104] [105]
[106]
[107]
[108]
[109] [110]
[111]
[112]
100 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" [113] [114]
S. Campbell and H. Toliyat, DSP- Based Electromechanical Motion Control, CRC Press, 2003. C. L. Wadhwa, Electrical Power Systems, New Dehli, India: New Age International Publishers, 2005. S. Chattopadhyay, M. Mitra and S. Sengupta, Electric Power Quality, Springer, 2011. P. Krause, Reference- Frame Theory, in Analysis of Electric Machinery, McGraw Hill Book Company, 1986, pp. 135-136. University of Minnesota, dq Transformations, [Online]. Available: http://www.ece.umn.edu/users/riaz/animations/dqtranformeq.pdf. [Accessed 07 01 13]. T. Lipo, The d-q Equations of a Synchronous Machine, in Analysis of Synchronous Machines, Madison Wisconson, 2008, pp. 137-191. O. Wallmark, Control of a Permanent- Magnet Synchronous Motor with Non- Sinusoidal Flux Density Distribution, Goteburg, Sweden, 2001. N. Mohan, T. Undeland and W. Robbins, Three-Phase, Full-Bridge Rectifiers, in Power Electronics: Converters, Applications and Design, Canada, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1995, pp. 103-106. Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers (IEEE), Six-Pulse Bridge Rectifier, [Online]. Available: http://www.ewh.ieee.org/soc/es/Nov1998/08/CONVERTR.HTM. [Accessed 15 1 13]. A. Goetzberger, J. Knobloch and B. Voss, Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells, John Wiley & Sons, 1988. G. I. o. T. (. Allen), Depletion Region of a PN Junction, [Online]. Available: http://users.ece.gatech.edu/phasler/Courses/ECE4430/Unit1/LectureNotes/day01.pdf. [Accessed 26 01 2013]. G. Lutz, Semiconductor Radiation Detectors, Springer, 2001. SunEnergySite, Solar Cells, [Online]. Available: http://www.sunenergysite.eu/en/solarcells.php. [Accessed 26 01 2013]. A. Oli, Design and Simulation of photovoltaic water pumping system, Masters Thesis, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, California, USA, September 2005. M. Villalva, J. Gazoli and E. Filho, Modeling and Circuit based Simulation of Photovoltaic Arrays, pp. 1244-1254. J. G. and C. M. , Development of a Photovoltaic Array Model for use in Power-Electronics
[115] [116]
[117]
[118]
[119]
[120]
[121]
[122]
[123]
[124] [125]
[126]
[127]
[128]
101 | P a g e
Simulation Studies, IEE Proc. Elect. Power Appl., vol. 146, no. 2, pp. 193-200, 1999. [129] K. Nishioka, N. Sakitani, Uraokay and T. Fuyuki, Analysis of Multicrystalline Silicon Solar Cells by Modified 3 Diode Equivalent Circuit Model Taking Leakage Current Through Periphery into Consideration, vol. 91, no. 13, pp. 1222-1227, 2007. Georgia Institute of Technology, The Junction Diode, [Online]. Available: http://users.ece.gatech.edu/mleach/ece3050/NewNotes/chap02.pdf. [Accessed 24 02 2013]. D. Peftitsis, Photovoltaic System MPPTracker Investigation and Implementation using DSP engine and Buck-Boost DC-DC converter, 13th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, pp. 1840-1846, 2008. Suntech, 175 Watt Monocrystalline Solar Panel Datasheet, [Online]. Available: http://www.wholesalesolar.com/pdf.folder/module%20pdf%20folder/suntech.160-175.pdf. [Accessed 24 02 2013]. W. Xiao, W. Dunford and A. Capel, A Novel Modeling Method for Photovoltaic Cells, 2004 35th Annual IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, pp. 1950-1956, 2004. M. Wanzeller, R. Alves, J. Neto and W. Fonseca, Current Control Loop for tracking of Maximum Power point Supplied for Photovoltaic Array, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 1304-1310, 2004. G. Blake, A Matlab/Simulink simulation of a hybrid power system supply for rural villages in the developing world, 2007. J. Manwell, A. Rodgers, G. Hayman, C. Avelar and J. McGowan, Hybrid2- A Hybrid System Simulation Model theory Manual, 2006. [Online]. Available: http://ceere.ecs.umass.edu/rerl/projects/software/hybrid2/Hy2_theory_manual.pdf. [Accessed 24 02 2013]. S. Kawachi, J. Baba, T. Kikuchi, E. Shimoda, S. Numata, E. Masada and T. Nitta, State of Charge Control for Energy Storage by use of Cascade Control System for Microgrid, 2009. G. Johnson, Wind Turbines with Asynchronous Electrical Generatrs, in Wind Energy Systems , Manhattan, KS, Prentice-Hall, 2001, p. Ch. 6. P. Krause, Analysis of Electric Machinery, in Theory of Synchronous Machines, McGrawHill, 1986, p. 215. I. Munteanu, Basics of the Wind Turbine Control Systems, in Optimal Control of Wind Energy Systems: Towards a Global Approach, Springer, 2008, pp. 72-99. J. Hindmarsh, Synchronous Machines, in Electrical Machines and their Applications, Exeter,
[130]
[131]
[132]
[133]
[134]
[135]
[136]
[137]
[138]
[139]
[140]
[141]
102 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" A. WHeaton & Co. Ltd., 1977, pp. 485-490. [142]
Dynamics of a Stand-Alone Wind Energy Conversion System with Battery Energy Storage to a Wind Gust, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 12, no. 1, 1997. P. Sen, Salient Pole Synchronous Machines, in Principles of Electric Machines and Power Electronics, John Wiley & Sons, 1989, pp. 352-326. J. Pyrhnen, Electrical Drives, [Online]. Available: https://docs.google.com/a/umail.ucc.ie/viewer?a=v&q=cache:dOqszeCACR8J:https://noppa .lut.fi/noppa/opintojakso/bl30a1001/luennot/kaytto7_en.pdf+&hl=en&gl=ie&pid=bl&srcid= ADGEESgDPdZdmgW2g1sEOo4GEmGlE3q18sUcEaZbq6OvXWbDw99gUsho8N9s9XRiJhbJCzn oL3oevCPZLCQFdx. [Accessed 11 1 13]. Definition of Symmetrical Components, in Power System Analysis & Design (With Personal Computer Applications), Boston, MA, PWS Publishing Company, 1994, pp. 52-53. Wireless Networks, Information Processing and Systems, Berlin: Springer, 2008. Analog, [Online]. Available: http://www.analog.com/static/importedfiles/application_notes/PI_ctrl.pdf. [Accessed 01 02 2013].
[143]
[144]
[145]
[146] [147]
103 | P a g e
9 Appendices
9.1 Appendix A: Derivation of Modelling Equations for WECS
9.1.1 Derivation of Available Wind Power [110] Before the characteristics of the turbine are inspected, it is important to gain an understanding of the nature of the wind from which the turbine acquires energy/power. Firstly, it is necessary to acquire an expression for the maximum available power in the wind. Given a cylindrical volume of wind flowing towards a wind turbine rotor disk as shown below:
Figure 9-1: Cylindrical Volume of Wind
The kinetic energy of the wind is clearly:
Where:
The mass of the wind is expressed as:
This leads to:
This is an expression for the power contained within a cylindrical stream of wind, prior to making contact with the wind turbine blades. However, it is important to realise that the power that is extractable by the wind turbine is much lower than this, and is limited by the Betz Limit. 104 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" 9.1.2 Derivation of Extractable Wind Power [111]
Figure 9-2: Control Volume for Derivation of Extractable Wind Power
The above diagram shows a control volume, containing wind flowing in the direction of a wind turbine rotor disk. The vertical red line denotes a wind turbine rotor through which the wind flows resulting in power extraction. This analysis is in many ways simplified compared to the operation of a wind turbine in reality, for instance: Assumptions: -An infinite number of rotor blades. -Homogenous, incompressible, steady state flow. -Non rotating rotor wake. -Uniform thrust on rotor area. -Static pressure upstream is equal to static pressure downstream. -No frictional drag. Clearly, each of these assumptions takes away from the accuracy of the derivation, however the analysis of wind turbine power extraction characteristics is not the objective of this report- hence, by taking into account each of these assumptions, a desirable level of accuracy is still attainable. The thrust on the rotor disk may be expressed as:
The rate of change of mass may be expressed as:
* Note that the term thrust is effectively the rate of change of momentum of the wind between the cross-sections 1 & 4
105 | P a g e
Using Bernoullis Equation to balance the pressures within each section of the stream tube:
And as:
From earlier, this equals:
Hence:
Now introduce the axial induction factor:
This implies that: & And so:
Therefore:
Now introducing the power coefficient of the wind turbine [111], [75]:
By letting
and
It will be shown at a later stage in the report that an optimum tip speed ratio exists at which power extraction is constantly a maximum: 106 | P a g e
Also, it is clear that:
Via differentiation with respect to the axial induction factor:
This is the Betz Limit, which states that a maximum of 59.26% of the power in a wind gust can be extracted by a horizontal axis lift based wind turbine. Note that in reality, it is impossible to reach this value for , due to the assumptions made at the beginning of the derivation. The tip speed ratio is the ratio of the linear speed at the tip of the wind turbine rotor to the linear speed of the oncoming wind. [111], [75]
This implies that:
Now letting
and
for simplicity: [111], [75]
Where:
107 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" 9.1.3 Derivation of Clarke and Park Transformations
Figure 9-3: Positive Sequence Network
Figure 9-4: Negative Sequence Network
Figure 9-3 and Figure 9-4 above show two different sets of co-ordinate systems. Figure 9-3 illustrates a positive sequence configuration. This is the standard representation used to analyse balanced systems. Figure 9-4 however shows a negative sequence network, which is used in the analysis of
108 | P a g e
unbalanced systems, and also for the derivation of the Clarke and Park Transformations as in within [112] and [113]. From [114], positive and negative sequences are defined as: Positive Sequence: Three vectors of equal magnitude but displaced in phase from each other by 120o and has the same phase as the original vectors Negative Sequence: Three vectors of equal magnitude but displaced in phase from each other by 120o and has the phase sequence opposite to the original vectors" There is a need to define these alternate coordinate systems, as the derivation of the Clarke and Park Transformations is carried out using negative sequence notation as will be shown below. The purpose of the Clarke Transformation is to represent a 3 phase system ( ) in terms of a 2 phases ( ). The first step in carrying out this transformation, is to define the and axes. The representation used within this report will take the and axes to point in the directions shown below: The positioning of the and axes shown in Figure 9-5 is equivalent to that used within [112] , [113] and [115]. This pair of axes is stationary, and can be perceived as being fixed to the stator of the machine. The transformation procedure effectively consists of resolving 3 phase , and vectors onto the and axes. It is important to note that in doing this, a scaling factor is included. The purpose of incorporating this scaling factor is to yield certain relationships between variables and variables, depending on the value of the scaling factor. This facilitates easier analysis of certain machine properties such as voltage and power, depending on what is desired by the operator. This will be explained in more detail subsequent to the derivation of the Clarke and Park Transformations
Figure 9-5: Orientation of Alpha and Beta Axes with Respect to abc Axes
109 | P a g e
As stated above, in order to convert from to representation, it is necessary to resolve the phase components onto the and axes, while incorporating a scaling factor. This process is shown in Figure 9-6 and is illustrated mathematically below, using phase vectors , and corresponding vectors and . A scaling factor is utilised.
Figure 9-6: Projection of abc Phase Components for Clarke Transformation
By resolving phase components onto the
axis it is clear that:
Where a superscript implies the projection of the non-superscripted variable onto the axis in the superscript. Hence:
Similarly by following the same procedure for the
axis:
110 | P a g e
In order to form a 3x3 invertible matrix, it is necessary to include the zero sequence component within the transformation. The zero sequence component within a balanced system is always equal to zero. Hence, assuming balanced operation:
These three equations define the Clarke transformation, which can represent a set of 3 phase components on two stationary and axes:
Which is equivalent to the transformations developed in [115] and [113].
Therefore, the Clarke Transformation Matrix has been defined as:
Now that the phase components can be represented on this pair of fixed axes, it is possible to rerepresent them on the axes (direct) and (quadrature), which rotates about the origin at an angular frequency of . In order to carry out this transformation it is again necessary to define the orientation of the and axes within the coordinate system.
Figure 9-7: Orientation of d and q Axes
111 | P a g e
The axes will be positioned as shown in Figure 9-7. It is important to note however, that carrying out research on the topic, it is clear that different authors position the and axes differently and consequently, the resulting transformation is slightly different (for instance incorporates a change of sign (and use of sine as opposed to cosine and vice versa) in one or more directions). An example of this is the representation used in [113], which is not the same as that used within this report, or within [112] which is equivalent to the representation shown in Figure 9-7. The transformation from the and axes to the and axes will be carried out from first principles using trigonometry. A detailed diagram which explains the derivation is shown in Figure 9-8 below, where:
(rad) is the initial electrical angular displacement at 0 seconds.
Also:
Figure 9-8: Development of Park Transformation
112 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" But:
This implies that:
Therefore:
Similar to when deriving the Clarke Transformation, a third equation must be included which defines the zero sequence component. As this has already been defined within the Clarke Transformation, there is no need to redefine it, as the zero sequence does not change when changing representation from to . Regardless of whether the components are being viewed in or representation, the zero sequence component is exactly the same. Hence:
However by combining this expression and the previously derived Clarke Transformation:
Now, by selecting the scaling constant , to yield an amplitude invariant transformation (i.e. letting ), [68], the following transformation takes the following form:
113 | P a g e
This is the Park Transformation (also known as the Blondel-Park Transformation) [68].
Figure 9-9: Alternative Reference Frame Used in [116]
If the reference frame is set up as shown in the below diagram, as done by Krause in [116], the following version of the transformation is obtained:
This transformation is clearly different to that derived above; however the only reason for these differences arising is the initial choice of axis directions.
114 | P a g e
9.1.4 Amplitude Invariance It is important to be aware that there are multiple options for the choice of the scaling factor . As stated, this effectively means that the value of a quantity (for example voltage/current), will be equal to the magnitude of the phase value of this quantity, effectively acting as an envelope for the sinusoid. Other values for the scaling constant can be chosen in order to yield different transformation properties as shown in the below table [117].
Figure 9-10: Choices of Scaling Factor and Resulting Transformation Properties [117]
In order to demonstrate the phenomenon of amplitude invariance, a set of 3 phase sinusoids was transformed into representation using the Park Transformation. To demonstrate the useful nature of the amplitude invariant quality, this procedure was also carried out for an exponentially damped set of sinusoids, and the envelope was maintained. Hence, throughout reading the report it is useful to note that the component of currents/voltages is effectively a negative envelope of the sinusoidal quantities.
Figure 9-11: Amplitude Invariant Park Transformation for 3 Phase Balanced Sine Waves
115 | P a g e
Figure 9-12: Amplitude Invariant Park Transformation for 3 Phase Exponentially Damped Sine Waves
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" 9.1.5 Derivation of Inverse Park Transformation Defining a 3x3 matrix A as:
Letting =
, the Park Transformation is:
However, in order to use this matrix practically, it is necessary to find the inverse matrix From matrix theory, the inverse of the matrix A is:
Where:
Note the trigonometric identities:
By comparison of the matrices A and
116 | P a g e
First it is necessary to form the determinant of matrix A:
117 | P a g e
This implies that:
118 | P a g e
Therefore:
119 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" 9.1.6 Modelling the Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
9.1.6.1 Voltage Equations In order to obtain a correct model of the PMSG, it is first necessary to define the equivalent circuit of the machine. The stator electrical equivalent circuit for a synchronous machine operating in generating mode is as shown in Figure 9-13 below. Assuming a generator convention (current out of machine terminals taken as positive), it can be found that (if the stator winding resistance per phase is assumed to be constant), the stator voltage equations of the machine may be expressed as:
Figure 9-13: Equivilent Stator Circuit of a Synchronous Generator [76]
These equations which agree with the method shown in [76], are a result of summing the voltages in each phase of the machine. This also correlates to [118], although a motoring convention (current into machine terminals taken as positive), is assumed in this case. It is important to note that is the resistance of each stator winding, and is the total flux linking the nth stator winding. Note that the above terms of the form changing flux. Due to the relationship: represent the back emf in each of the windings due to a
- It is also possible to express this term as the voltage across an inductance as shown in [73]. However, for the purposes of this derivation, the key reference exploited was [119], and hence the equations listed above are used. The above equations can also be represented in vector form as shown below:
120 | P a g e
Which could also be written as: [76]
Letting: , , ,
Clearly, the flux linking each stator winding will be the sum of the flux from the rotor magnets and from the stator winding itself. At this point it is necessary to define the as the flux linkage in the th n winding due to the rotor magnets. The flux linkage related to the rotor magnets as seen by each of the stator windings is hence:
Where:
At this juncture, it is useful to note that magnetic flux linkage due to the rotor magnets is at a peak when the magnetic axis of the rotor and the stator are aligned, which is the reason for the cosinusoidal nature of the above functions. As the goal of this section is to express the voltage equations of the machine in terms of and variables, it seems appropriate at this stage to convert into notation, using the Park Transformation which was derived earlier.
Therefore:
Clearly by utilising Park and Inverse Park Transformations:
Now denote: 121 | P a g e
From previous work:
By carrying out matrix multiplication (utilising the Inverse Park Transformation developed in Section 9.1.5), the following expression for the inductance matrix in terms of and variables ( ) can be developed:
Now, the original voltage vector equation can now be reintroduced:
It then follows that:
From matrix theory:
Where is the Identity Matrix:
122 | P a g e
Letting:
This implies that:
So:
123 | P a g e
Hence, as stated in [75]:
&
At this stage it is possible to draw the direct and quadrature equivalent circuits for the generator:
Figure 9-14: Direct Axis and Quadrature Axis Circuits for PMSG
124 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" 9.1.7 Derivation of Electromechanical Power Equation It is clear that:
Hence, it is now necessary to express this equation in terms of direct and quadrature current/backemfs:
Now, using a well-known matrix equation:
This implies that [68]:
Therefore:
125 | P a g e
9.1.8 Electromechanical Torque Equation Hence, it is now possible to quantify the back-emf on each winding in terms of and components. It is important to note that assuming balanced conditions; the back-emf has no zero sequence component. Noting that the back-emf vector is:
The electromechanical torque in a synchronous motor is produced solely by the stator back-emf as stated my Wallmark [68]. Hence, it is straightforward to assume that in the case of a synchronous generator, the electromechanical torque of the machine is the sole contributor to the generation of the back-emf (which from the earlier explanation of machine operation, is a simple deduction). However, as shown in of Wallmark's document :
And as:
126 | P a g e
9.1.9 General Torque Expression The equation relating the mechanical speed of the rotor to the torques acting on the system is as shown below:
This equation effectively states that the rate of change of rotor rotational speed is directly proportional to the torques acting on the system. For the purpose of analysing this machine, only two torques are acting on the rotor- a driving mechanical torque (from the wind turbine rotor), and a electromechanical load torque. This analysis is similar to that used in [112], although this document also takes into account friction and cogging torque. Clearly a machine working in generating mode will have a mechanical torque greater than the electromechanical torque which produces the generator output voltages. Hence:
where is the mechanical torque due to the rotation of the wind turbine rotor and is the inertia of the rotational system. However:
Hence:
However, as shown earlier, the turbine torque can be expressed as:
Utilising MPPT however the expression becomes:
Therefore:
127 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" 9.1.10 Derivation of Rectifier Output Voltage and the Phase Voltage in Figure 3-15 has the following equation:
So in order to get the DC output voltage, the equation above must be integrated for the time that it is the conducting [120]:
This is the average voltage output from the six-pulse rectifier. is the rms line-line voltage on the input side of the rectifier- i.e. it is equal to the rms line to line voltage across the terminals of the PMSG.
Hence:
The resulting voltage output from the DC/DC buck converter is therefore (Note the conversion from to ):
where
and
is the peak phase to neutral voltage output from the PMSG [120] [121](It is
important to note also, that this implies that the generator is star connected). This also correlates with the per-phase equivalent circuit shown in the next section. It is important to note that this implies that the quantities shown in this figure are all peak- phase values.
128 | P a g e
9.1.11 Derivation of Current Injected onto DC Busbar The phasor diagram for the PMSG in terms of and components is shown in Figure 9-15. From this diagram it is easy to conclude that the variables and can be expressed as:
and:
At this point it should also be noted that:
As shown in the below diagram, it can be deduced that:
Figure 9-15: Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit and Phasor Diagram for PMSG [18]
This method of scaling is illustrated in the below diagram. These results can be used to modify the voltage equations for the WECS:
129 | P a g e
Figure 9-16: Scaling Procedure Required for Derivation
and as:
it is clear that: [75]
and:
Now, if the current flowing onto the DC Bus from the WECS is defined as , the operation of the WECS in full can be described by the diagram in Figure 9-15. In order to complete the model of the WECS, it is necessary to perform a power balance between the output terminals of the generator and the output of the DC/DC converter. It is essential to realise that the power flow at each of these stages in the system is exactly the same. The power coming from the DC/DC converter is:
130 | P a g e
Therefore this is equal to the output power of the PMSG. This power can be expressed as:
And using the equation derived for generator power, it can be deduced that:
No zero sequence current flows in balanced 3 phase operation- hence:
Hence:
131 | P a g e
9.2 Appendix B Calculation of the Optimum Operating Conditions

The power coefficient of the turbine is defined as follows:
In order to find the max possible
we must differentiate it with respect to :
This yields the following:
For the model being used this yields:
And:
132 | P a g e
9.3 Appendix C - Calculation of the Initial Conditions for WECS Model

Constants Vbus 48V sr 0.2867Wb Now that we have , Pn 5kW r 1.84m P 28 opt 7.198 J 7.856kgm2 Cp,opt 0.381 Rs 0.3676 1.225kgm-3 Ls 3.55mH
can be found:
Now seeing as
During steady state
Letting
and
, yields a quadratic equation in
This yields: , By letting , the following equation is obtained:
These two results for
will give two values for , given respectively: ,
133 | P a g e
9.4 Appendix D Linearization of WECS

This section details the linearization of the three characteristic non-linear equations that describe the operation of the model, shown below:
In order for the equation to be linear we need the equation in the form:
AND
Begin with linearizing the
equation:
Working out the individual elements:
So,
Therefore,
To make the maths easier, some of the constants were combined to give one single constant. These constants are detailed below.
135 | P a g e
So,
By using simultaneous equations with the three main equations derived, the following equation is obtained. In the Laplace domain:
Using this, the transfer function for the linear system is obtained:
136 | P a g e
9.5 Appendix E- Subsystems of the WECS
Figure 9-17: Inside the "Find Tt" Subsystem
Figure 9-18: Inside the "Find Cp" Subsystem
Figure 9-19: Inside the "Find e" Subsystem
Figure 9-20: Inside the "Find m and tipspeed" Subsystem
137 | P a g e
Figure 9-21: Inside the "Find Iq" Subsystem
Figure 9-22: Inside the "Find Id" Subsystem
Figure 9-23: Inside the "Find K" Subsystem
Figure 9-24: Inside the "Find Iw" Subsystem
138 | P a g e
9.6 Appendix F- WECS Current Controller Test Configuration
Figure 9-25: Linear and Non-Linear System under Zeigler Nichols PI Controller
139 | P a g e
9.7 Appendix G- Code for WECS Current Controller Design

A=[-242.905, -52.655, 77.09; 1330.66, -3033.61, 16.81; -10.73, 0, -0.26]; B=[-7987.14, -1074.94, 0; -1741.87, -234.43, 0; 0, 0, 43.162]; C=[1,0,0]; D=[0,0,0]; [num, den]=ss2tf(A,B,C,D,1); G=minreal(tf(num, den)); Td=1*10^(-3); s = zpk('s'); d = exp(-Td*s); L=d*G; nyquist(L); w=logspace(-2,4,100000); [mag,phase]=bode(-G,w); M(1:length(mag))=mag(1,1,1:length(mag)); MdB=20*log10(M); P(1:length(phase))=phase(1,1,1:length(phase)); semilogx(w,P) subplot(211), semilogx(w,M) subplot(212), semilogx(w,P) phi=-w.*Td.*180/pi(); New_P=phi+P; subplot(211), semilogx(w,M) subplot(212), semilogx(w,New_P) bode(-L); hold on subplot(211), semilogx(w,MdB,'r'), grid, title('Magnitude Bode Plot of Inverted Linearized Model Incorporating Time Lag (dB)'), xlabel('Frequency (rad/s)'), ylabel('Magnitude (dB)') subplot(212), semilogx(w,New_P,'r'), grid, title('Phase Bode Plot of Inverted Linearized Model Incorporating Time Lag (Degrees)'), xlabel('Frequency (rad/s)'), ylabel('Phase (Degrees)')
140 | P a g e
9.8 Appendix H: Modelling of Solar Array

9.8.1 Shockley Diode Equation Due to the doped nature of the semiconductor material which makes up a solar cell, the concentration of free electrons within the n-region of the material is higher than that of the pregion. Similarly, the concentration of free holes in the p-region is much higher than that of the nregion. [92] This difference in concentration causes electrons to diffuse from the n-region to the pregion. Similarly holes follow a path of negative concentration gradient, diffusing from the p-region to the n-region. The resulting current densities are quantified below [122]:
At this point, it is important to note that between the p and n-regions, there exists an area of separation called the depletion region. [92] Respectively, within the p and n-regions the density of free holes and free electrons decreases with distance from the depletion region. The depletion region contains no free charge carriers due to the effect of recombination which occurs due diffusion of the high density of holes and electrons on either side of the gap. The result is as shown in Figure 9-26. [123].
Figure 9-26: Concentration of Holes and Electrons within a Solar Cell [123]
141 | P a g e
The depletion layer is divided into two regions- one containing negative ions and one containing positive ions. Due to the electric charge differential caused by these ions, an electrostatic potential which acts conversely to the effect of diffusion. The electric field produced causes holes from the nregion to cross over into the p-region, and electrons from the p-region to cross into the n-region. [92] The "drift" current density resulting from the respective crossings of holes and electrons due to this effect is quantified in terms of the particles' mobility, concentration, and the magnitude of the electric field [89]:
The Einstein equation shown below relates the mobility of holes and electrons to the diffusion constants [124]:
The expressions for the total hole and electron current densities are shown below:
By conservation of electric charge, it can be found that:
*where
is the saturation current density.
This is known as the diode equation. However, it is important to realise that this equation only represents a portion of the current flowing in the PV cell. The photo current flow generated by illumination ( ) is the sum of the diode current and the load current-hence:
*where, is the saturation current, and

Figure 9-27. [125]
is the solar cell load current. This results in the ideal solar cell model shown in
Figure 9-27: Ideal Solar Cell Model
142 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" The current through the p-n junction is therefore:
In order to improve this model, it is possible to take into account other factors which have been ignored thus far [126]: A series resistance is included in order to account for the resistance of the metallic grid/base contacts at the edge of the p and n regions, as well as the resistance of the conductor used to connect adjacent cells in the array. The resistance is often neglected as it is normally very small. A parallel shunt resistance can be incorporated in order to account for the effect of leakage within the semiconductor. This resistance is usually neglected as it generally has a very large value, and hence results in a low level of leakage current which is often disregarded. [127] Additional diodes are added to the equivalent circuit in order to account for additional effects. For instance, the two diode model (so called double exponential model) used in [128] accounts for the recombination of charge carriers. [88] A three diode model has also been designed which incorporates the effects of grain boundaries within the model. [129] Despite the additions which can be made to the solar cell model, the goal of this project does not involve the detailed analysis of the performance of solar cells. It is generally accepted that a single diode model incorporating a series resistance gives satisfactory and relatively accurate performance. The equivalent circuit of such a solar cell is shown below:
Figure 9-28: Equivalent Circuit of Solar Cell Analysed (Single Diode & Series Resistance Only) [127]
Hence, now the equation for the current through the p-n junction becomes:
The thermal voltage of the diode is expressed as: [129]
Therefore this implies that: 143 | P a g e
By incorporating the diode ideality factor ( ), this becomes:
This is known as the Shockley Diode Equation. [127] The diode ideality factor is included for the purpose of accounting for diode non-idealities. For instance, in the case of the ideal diode, , however a non-ideal device usually has an ideality factor of . The effect of varying from its ideal value of 1 is the curvature of the device I-V (and hence P-V) characteristic. The value of should be chosen in order to optimise the accuracy of the model once it has been designed. [88] Hence, the equation for the diode current of a single solar cell is:
9.8.2 Current Flow within the Equivalent Circuit As stated earlier it is clear that:
It is now necessary to obtain expressions for the photo current and saturation current of the solar cell. The photo current corresponding to the reference temperature of the device is given by the expression below: [131]
At this point it is important to note that reference conditions (i.e. irradiance and temperature) are specified on the device data sheet and correspond to STC (Standard Test Conditions) of: [132]
The actual photo current can be expressed as: [131], [133]
The upper expression shows that when the actual temperature of the device equals the reference temperature, the actual photo current is equal to the reference photo current which is to be expected. The short circuit temperature coefficient is given on some datasheets of the in terms of . As expected, the photo current of the device is directly proportional to the level of solar irradiance absorbed by the solar cell: 144 | P a g e
However for the Shell SP70 solar panel which is being analysed in this report, the temperature coefficient is instead given in terms of . Hence, the equation can be modified as follows:
Where
is given in
At this point it is necessary to acquire an expression for the reverse saturation current in the solar cell. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to analyse the performance of the solar cell under open circuit conditions at the reference temperature. As there is no path for the current, under such conditions the current flowing from the terminals of the cell is in this case. Therefore:
As there is no current flowing through the series resistance of the device, the voltage across the diode is equal to the voltage across the terminals of the device which is the open circuit voltage of the cell (given on the datasheet of the solar panel).
It is approximated by authors ( [127], [134]) at this point in the derivation that the photo current in this condition is equal to the reference level of short circuit current. This implies that:
However as the temperature of the solar cell deviates from the reference value, the reverse saturation current is given by the expression below: [135]
As previously stated, the relationship between the currents flowing in the circuit is:
It is important to realise at this point that this expression is an implicit function of . This is due to the fact that the output current variable appears on both sides of the equation and cannot be isolated to find a solution. In order to implement this relationship within the model of the solar
145 | P a g e
Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids" array, it is necessary to acquire an iterative solution for the variable the Newton-Raphson algorithm. This procedure is carried out below:
Mark Roche John Collins . This is achieved by utilising
Hence the Newton-Raphson algorithm states that:
Where:
This leads to the iterative solution:
The implementation of this solution will be explained in detail later in the report when the formation of the Simulink model of the process is demonstrated. 9.8.3 Series Resistance The series resistance of a solar cell varies with temperature in reality. However, for the purposes of this project, a simplified model of the series resistance was developed equivalent to that shown in [135] , [94], [136]. The approximation used assumes that the series resistance of a solar cell is equal to its value at maximum power point and reference temperature and irradiance (25oC, 1000W/m2). The formula used is as shown below:
It is important to note that the solar cell series resistance calculated using the above formula is 0.4387 .
146 | P a g e
9.9 Appendix I- Shell SP70 Solar Panel Datasheet
Figure 9-29: Shell SP70 Datasheet [93]
147 | P a g e
9.10 Appendix J- Solar Array Subsystems
Figure 9-31: Inside the "Ioact" Subsystem
Figure 9-30: Inside the "Iphact" Subsystem
148 | P a g e
Figure 9-32: Inside the "Rseries (Fixed Based on Reference Values)" Subsystem
Figure 9-33: Inside the "f(x)" Subsystem
Figure 9-34: Inside the "f(x)" Subsystem
149 | P a g e
Figure 9-35: Inside the "6 Panels in Series" Subsystems
Figure 9-36: Inside the "First Branch" Subsystem
Figure 9-37: Inside the "Second Branch" Subsystem
150 | P a g e
9.11 Appendix K M-File Example for the Complete Microgrid

%%Solar Array%% Voc3=3.65; Isc2=0.856667; Voc1=7.3; Isc1=0.428333; Imp2=0.805; Vmp2=2.9333; Vmp1=5.866667; Imp1=0.4025; Ksc=2*10^-3; Koc=-76*10^-3; q=1.60217646*10^(-19); k=1.3806503*10^(-23); Eg=1.12*q; a=7; Gref=1000; Tref=25+273.15; Tact=Tref; Vtref=k*Tref/q; Vtact=k*Tact/q; Gact=1000; Nseries=9; Nparallel=4; Vocref=21.4/9; Impref=4.25/4; Vmpref=16.5/9; Iscref=4.7/4; t=1000; %seconds %%Wind Turbine%% Rwind=.3676; L=3.55e-3; P=28; J=7.856; flux=0.2867; rho=1.225; vb=48; u=6.46; v=12.629; r=1.84; tipspeedopt=7.198; pi=pi(); %%Battery%% %Lithium-Ion Battery Parameters V0=3.5; R=0.01; K=0.025; A=0.2; B=0.375; Q=144000; % As Vnom = 3.2; %V Voc=3.675; %IC=0A ncells=15; Vbpack=ncells*Vnom; Qnom=Vbpack*Q; %------------------Integrator Parameters-----------------qhigh = 0.9*Q; qlow = 0.2*Q;
151 | P a g e

%-------------- Function Parameters -----------------------------tsampi = -1; tsampvoc = -1; %--------------------------------------------------------%(CP) - Variables for Constant Power qic = 0.21*Q; tsamp = 0.01; %------------Grid to Batter Charging Power-----------------------% Power_From_Grid_To_Battery=-4800; %----------------------------------------------------------------% %------------------Wind Changes -------------------------% Wind_Slope_Time = 700;%hours.... Wind_Slope_Duration = 60; Wind_Speed_Initial=v; %Initial Condition: Do not change Desired_Final_Value=v; Wind_Speed_Slope = (Desired_Final_ValueWind_Speed_Initial)/Wind_Slope_Duration;
%0 for no ramp
Wind_Slope_Counter_Time = Wind_Slope_Duration + Wind_Slope_Time; Wind_Speed_Initial_Counter = 0; %Keep 0 %----------------------------------------------------------------% %------------------Solar Array Changes---------------------------% %---Change 1---% Gact_Slope_Desired = 200; Time_For_Slope =20; Gact_Slope_Time =20; Gact_Slope = (Gact_Slope_Desired - Gact)/Time_For_Slope; Gact_Slope_Counter_Time = Gact_Slope_Time + Time_For_Slope; %This stops the intitial ramp to desired value %------------% %---Change 2---% Gact_Slope_Desired_2 = 1500; Time_For_Slope_2 =20; Gact_Slope_Time_2 =700; Gact_Slope_2 = (Gact_Slope_Desired_2 Gact_Slope_Desired)/Time_For_Slope_2; Gact_Slope_Counter_Time_2 = Gact_Slope_Time_2 + Time_For_Slope_2; %This stops the intitial ramp to desired value %------------% %------------------Pricing -------------------------% Buy_High = 2;
152 | P a g e
Buy_Low = 1; Actual_Buying_Price_Initial=2.5; Actual_Buying_Price_Final = 1.5; Buying_Step_Time = 430; Buying_Step_Change_Time=550; New_Buying_Value=0.5; Buying_Change_Required=New_Buying_Value - Actual_Buying_Price_Final; Sell_High = 3; Actual_Selling_Price_Initial = 2; Actual_Selling_Price_Final = 2; Selling_Step_Time = 9; %--------------------------------------------------% %------------------Load Changing -------------------------% %-----Non-Critcial-----% Non_Crit_Load_Size = -100; NonCrit_Load_Change=-800; %Negative to increase load NonCrit_Load_Step_Time = 0; NonCrit_Load_Change2=0; %Negative to increase load NonCrit_Load_Step_Time2 = 3; NonCrit_Load_Change3=0; %Negative to increase load NonCrit_Load_Step_Time3 = 6; NonCrit_Load_Change4=0; %Negative to increase load NonCrit_Load_Step_Time4 = 8; %----------------------% %-------Critcial-------% Crit_Load_Init=-5000; %Negative to increase load Crit_Load_Change=0; %Negative to increase load Crit_Load_Step_Time = 2; Crit_Load_Change2=0; %Negative to increase load Crit_Load_Step_Time2 = 4; Crit_Load_Change3=0; %Negative to increase load Crit_Load_Step_Time3 = 6; %----------------------% %---------------------------------------------------------%
153 | P a g e
9.12 Appendix L Indexes for Supervisory Switches
Pws < Pload

Grid-Battery
SOC 0.2 0.2-0.4 0.4-0.6 0.6-0.9 0.9 High Price 7 15 10 2 1 Medium Price 140 300 200 40 20 Low Price -7 -15 -10 -2 -1 Supply 4.8kW to Battery No Supply
Battery-Loads
SOC 0.2 0.2-0.4 0.4-0.6 0.6-0.9 0.9 High Price 7 15 10 2 1 Medium Price 140 300 200 40 20 Low Price -7 -15 -10 -2 -1 Supply Total Load - WS Supplied Loads No Supply
WS - Load
Condition No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Combinations 1,3,5 1,3,6 1,4,5 1,4,6 2,3,5 2,3,6 2,4,5 2,4,6 Condition PWS<PLoad PWS>PLoad SOC = 0.2 + High Price SOC Not Equal to 0.2 + High Price PWS<Pcrit PWS>Pcrit Condition Value -6 -3 1 0 20 10 Value 15 5 14 4 18 8 17 7
Table 9-1; Indexing for PL > PWS
Supply the Complete Generated Power Rounding the Generated Power due to Load Shedding
154 | P a g e
*Note that the combinations including option 1 apply to the top block (See Section 0) for the supervisor control while the options including option 2 apply to the bottom block. Hence in the top block, the selections including option 2 output a value of zero. If this did not occur, both the top and bottom blocks would output the desired value and the resulting power to the loads would be doubled.
Pws > Pload

WS-Grid
SOC <=0.5 0.5<SOC<0.9 0.9 High Price Low Price 15 15 10 1 -10 -1 No Power to Grid PWS - Pload to Grid
WS-Battery
SOC <=0.5 0.5<SOC<0.9 0.9 High Price 15 10 1 Low Price 15 -10 -1 No Power to Batt PWS - Pload to Batt
Table 9-2: Indexing for PWS > PL
These tables can be quite confusing so a set of flow charts were designed to show more simply how the decisions are made.
155 | P a g e
9.13 Appendix M Supervisor Control Blocks of Complete Microgrid
Figure 9-38: Display of Top and Bottom Supervisor Blocks in the Microgrid Model
156 | P a g e
Figure 9-39: Top Supervisor Block
Figure 9-40: Bottom Supervisor Block
157 | P a g e

Co-Ordinated Control of Microgrids

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Co-Ordinated Control of Microgrids

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

NE 4020: Final Year Project Report

"Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Student Name: Student Number:

John Collins 109607081

Dr. Gordon Lightbody

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Derivation of Current Injected onto DC Busbar ____________________________________ 129

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Figure 2-1: CO2 Levels in Earth's Atmosphere versus Time [6]

Figure 2-2: Percentage Electricity Generation by Source (2010) [7]

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Figure 2-3: Schematic of a Community/Utility Microgrid [28]

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

Figure 2-4: Schematic of Hybrid Microgrid System [34]

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

3 Wind Energy Conversion System

Final Year Project Report "Co-ordinated Control of Microgrids"

Mark Roche John Collins

3.2 Operational Parameters