You are on page 1of 53

SNOW-TOOLS

Research and development of remote sensing methods for snow hydrology

Identification of electromagnetic signatures and data gaps of snow related to microwave and optical measurements
WP 310

Daniel Hiltbrunner1, Tazio Strozzi1, Christian Mtzler1, Andy Standley2

Institute of Applied Physics, University of Bern, Switzerland 2 Centre for Remote Sensing, University of Bristol, UK

Version 1.0, 29 January 1997

Contract no.: ENV4-CT96-0304


An Environment and Climate project supported by the Commission of the European Community

Contents
1. Introduction .........................................................................................................................................3 2. Snow-signature review........................................................................................................................4 2.1 Active microwave signatures ......................................................................................................4 2.2 Passive microwave signatures .....................................................................................................6 2.3 Visible and infrared signatures....................................................................................................7 3. Papers discussing snowpack measurements........................................................................................9 3.1 Active microwave measurements................................................................................................9 3.2 Passive microwave measurements.............................................................................................21 3.3 Combined active and passive microwave measurements..........................................................24 3.4 Dielectric measurements and models ........................................................................................29 3.5 Visible and infrared measurements and models........................................................................33 4. Identified problem areas and data gaps.............................................................................................37 5. References .........................................................................................................................................40 5.1 Microwave and dielectric measurements ..................................................................................40 5.2 Visible and infrared measurements ...........................................................................................49

Snow-Tools Project Participants ............................................................................................................51

1.

Introduction
The objectives of the WP 310 are threefold. In a first step, the user needs for electromagnetic signatures of snowpacks are to be assessed. Then, available signature data sets have to be reviewed, enabling to identify data gaps and to plan further measurements. In the following, the term "microwave signature" describes the characteristic behavior of a surface type, whose state is sufficiently well known, with respect to its interaction with microwave radiation dependent on frequency, polarization and observation geometry,

The present documentation is a compilation of electromagnetic signatures of snowpacks in the optical and microwave range, with emphasis on active and passive microwave part. The review was guided by [1] and [2], and complemented with works of the last three years. Special attention should be also paid to EMAC (1995), though results are not yet available from this campaign. We analyzed in particular the signatures obtained from in-situ and airborne measurements. Spaceborne campaigns are considered only if extensive ground-information was collected simultaneously and if atmospheric influence was addressed. A review of models was also accomplished, with the goal to identify the signature measurements used to validate the models.

The present documentation is a list of available data sets containing snowpack signatures (Section 2), a list of papers discussing snowpack measurements (Section 3) and a list of identified data gaps (Section 4). In Section 2 we list works containing quantitative indications of the measured variables, which can be directly used for a general signature catalogue. Active and passive microwave measurements are analyzed separately. In Section 3 short descriptions of the instruments, the testsites, the ground-information and the main investigation are given for papers discussing snowcover measurements. Papers describing measurements performed with radars, radiometers and concurrently with active and passive microwave sensors are presented in separate subsections. Papers dealing with dielectric properties of the snowpacks are listed in a separate subsection as well. In Section 4 we indicate data gaps and problem areas which are evident from the analyzed papers.

It should be noted that the term "ground information", which is used throughout the following sections, is used in the meaning of "informations gathered independently from the microwave measurements".

2.

Snow-signature review
2.1 Active microwave signatures

An extensive effort in order to obtain a complete signature catalogue of terrain was performed by Ulaby and Dobson [2]. The statistical behavior of the radar measurements performed by different research groups using different instruments are summarized for several terrain categories. However, for snowcover only two categories were defined: dry and wet snow. Wet snow is defined as snow with a liquid-water content larger than 1% by volume. This is not an adequate definition for dry snow, where the liquid water content is well below 0.1% (cf. Fig. 1). No minimum or maximum snow depth, no surface parameters and no ground conditions were given.

1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 E' 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 Dry Snow Fit Liquid Water: 1% by Volume

snow density (g/cm3)

Figure 1: Measured permittivity of dry snow versus measured density. The solid line is the fit by d' = 1+1.5995+1.8613 (<0.45g/cm3) which approaches the mixing formula of Polder and van Santen, and the dotted line is the behavior of '() for W=1% according to ' = d'+0.187W+0.0045W2 where W is the volumetric liquid-water content in % (experimental results from [79]).

In-situ measurements performed during the 1993/94, 1994/95 and 1995/96 winters of various natural snowcovers with scatterometers operating at 5.3 and 35 GHz by the University of Bern have been

collected in a catalogue [3]. Most of the measurements were made at a test-site above Davos in the Swiss Alps at 2540 m above sea level (a.s.l.), but studies were conducted also at other test-sites in Switzerland and Austria at altitudes between 500 and 2200 m a.s.l. The backscattering coefficient was measured at hh-, vv-, hv-and vh-polarization together with physical parameters of the snowcover, like snow height, stratification, temperature, density and permittivity. Based on ground information and on a simple distribution of signatures different object classes were identified in [4]. The signatures were used in order to evaluate the capability of active microwave sensors at 5.3 and 35 GHz for the classification of snowcovers. In addition, semi-empirical algorithms for the retrieval of physical parameters of the snowcover, such as water equivalent, liquid-water content and thickness of the refrozen crust, were defined.

Extensive radar backscattering experiments were conducted at 35 and 94 GHz [5] in order to measure the response of snow-covered ground to snow depth, liquid-water content and grain size. The measurements included observations over a wide angular range extending between normal incidence and 60 for all linear polarization combinations. A numerical radiative transfer model [6] was developed and adapted to fit the experimental observations. Next, the radiative transfer model was exercised over a wide range of conditions and the generated data was used to develop relatively simple semi-empirical expressions that relate the backscattering coefficient (for each linear polarization) to incidence angle, snow depth, grain size, and liquid-water content. Although applicable only for homogeneous snowcovers, this simple semi-empirical model permits a reasonable estimation of the snow signatures for a wide range of situations at 35 and 94 GHz. The effect of the underlying ground is not taken into consideration, because it is discussed in a further publication [8], where appropriate models were developed in order to relate the backscattering coefficients to soil surface and volume properties.

In another experimental approach, homogenous, dry snow slabs were investigated in order to get the extinction behavior of dry snow at 10, 18, 35, 60 and 90 GHz [9], [10]. These measurements are useful in order to elaborate the quantitative relationships between snow properties and microwave signatures. A free-space transmission system with a variable distance between transmitting and receiving antennas of 60 to 75 cm was set up. Different natural snow types ranging from newly fallen snow to refrozen snow with variable thickness comprised between 1 and 20 cm were measured at HUT. Ground information included average grain size, surface roughness and density. Relationships between extinction loss and snow sample thickness, extinction coefficient between snow particle size

and extinction coefficient between frequency were investigated. A comparison between the experimental extinction coefficients and theoretical analysis was also performed.

Further extensive signature studies with ground-based, airborne and space-borne microwave systems were performed at the University of Innsbruck [e.g. 83]. Data from this research team can presumably be directly used for a the signature catalogue. However, we have not yet investigated this possibility, and papers from Rott et al. (including works performed by Shi as first author) are now listed in Section 3.

2.2

Passive microwave signatures

An extensive signature catalogue of passive microwave measurements was prepared by Mtzler [11], [12]. The behavior of ground-based measured emissivities at 4.9, 10.4, 21, 35, 94 GHz, linear horizontal and vertical polarization, and incidence angles between 50 and 75 are discussed. The catalog includes spectral and angular plots of the reflectivities together with complete ground information. Bare soil, grass, oat and barley canopies with and without snowcover on frozen and unfrozen ground were measured at Moosseedorf, about 10 km north of Bern and at 570 m a.s.l. Alpine snowcovers under various conditions were investigated at Weissfluhjoch, Davos, at 2540 m a.s.l. near the Swiss Federal Institute of Snow and Avalanche Research. (SFISAR) [12,60].

In [13] the signatures of landscapes in winter at 50 incidence angle were identified. Mean values for object classes were computed. The discussion of the behavior of the emissivities versus frequency lead the author toward a classification algorithm for almost all object classes. Difficulties occurred with fresh powder snow if 94 GHz data were not available. The problem of wet snow has found a solution by using a certain combination of observables. The applicability of the signatures for the estimation of physical parameters like snow coverage, snow liquid water content, water equivalent of dry snow was also investigated. The author found that the estimation of the surface temperature, especially for snow-free land, and of the liquid-water content at the surface from passive measurements seem to be feasible. Lower frequencies (e.g. 1.4 GHz) should be used in order to estimate soil moisture. For the estimation of the water equivalent a solution using the polarization difference is proposed.

A further development from the signature studies [11] and [12] lead to another extensive passive microwave signature catalogue [14]. A multi-frequency system based on portable radiometers was

operated on several locations in the Alps and in the Swiss Central Plains. The system covered the frequency range from 11 to 94 GHz. The temporal and spatial behavior of the emissivity and brightness temperature was investigated for different snow and snow-free situations. The passive microwave measurements were complemented by ground observations. The ground information includes temperature, permittivity, density, and wetness profiles.

In an experimental approach in order to derive the microwave emission as a function of snow structure [15], [16], [17], homogenous, dry snow slabs were investigated. These measurements are very useful in order to elaborate in detail the quantitative relationships between snow properties and microwave signatures. The measurements were performed during the 1993/94, 1994/95 and 1995/96 winters outdoor at the alpine test-site Weissfluhjoch. Homogeneous samples of dry snow with a typical size of 45 x 45 x 10 cm3 were cut within the natural snowcover and investigated. A procedure for computing the radiometric properties (expressed as emissivity, transmissivity and reflectivity) from the measured brightness temperatures was presented. Digitized snow sections were used in order to characterize the snow samples by their three-dimensional autocorrelation function. The data show that the radiometric quantities are clearly sensitive to snow structure, i.e. they depend on the correlation length. A first comparison between experimental results and model simulations according to the "strong fluctuation theory" was performed.

2.3

Visible and infrared signatures

A basic signature of snow is its high reflectivity, also called reflectance or spectral albedo, in the visible part of the spectrum, leading to a significant reduction of absorption of solar radiation. The presence of any light-absorbing impurity reduces the spectral albedo of pure snow. With increasing wavelength towards the near infrared, the spectral albedo decreases and at the same time, it becomes sensitive to the grain size - or more exactly - to the specific surface of the snowpack, whereas impurities become less important, especially beyond 900nm. In the thermal infrared snowpacks are nearly black bodies. A review of these optical snow properties including their modeling with simplified radiative transfer was presented by Warren (1982). Up today the model of Wiscombe and Warren (1980) has been the standard for the entire solar spectrum. This model suggests that for pure snow the grain size is the controlling parameter and that snow density is unimportant. Experimental results confirmed the model, see e.g. Grenfell et al. (1981) and references cited therein. Further modeling include the infrared range (Dozier and Warren, 1982; and Wald, 1994), and directional effects were measured by Hall et al. (1993).

The most important optical property of ice, which causes spectral variation in the reflectance of snow in visible and near-infrared wavelengths, is that the absorption coefficient (i.e. the imaginary part of the refractive index) varies by seven orders of magnitude at wavelengths from 0.4-2.5 micrometers. The presence of liquid water in the snow does not by itself greatly affect the reflectance. The changes in reflectance that occur in melting snow result mainly from the increased grain sizes. At visible wavelengths, reflectance is insensitive to grain size, but is affected by two variables, finite depth and the presence of absorbing impurities. The optical and near IR instruments are used to derive snow area based on the visible appearance of snow, which is vastly different from most other natural surface types. The combined use of visible and near-infrared wavelengths has been the most successful approach to mapping snow cover. However, these techniques are not without their problems and discrimination of snow cover from clouds is and will remain a major problem. New work undertaken by Salisbury (Salisbury et al., 1994) has provided spectral information for various snow covers at VNIR, SWIR, MWIR and TIR that can be used as the basis for the signature database along with field campaign and past satellite work.

3.

Papers discussing snowpack measurements


3.1 Active microwave measurements

The papers are listed in alphabetical order. A short description of the instruments, the test-sites, the ground-information and the main investigation is given. Selected highlights were extracted from the corresponding papers. Full references including page numbers are given in Chapter 5.1.

[18]

Millimeter-wave backscatter measurements on snow-covered terrain Baars E.P., H. Essen IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 26, No. 3, 1988. instrument: polarimetric radar 94 GHz depression angle: 15 - 55 polarization: circular LL, LR height above ground: 31.5 m radar scans continuously in azimuth angle sample: snowcover freshly fallen, aging nonmetamorphic, aging metamorphic location: flat snow area, 130 m by 60 m. valley in German Alps, plateau in Eifel mountains, northwest Germany ground information: air temperature, snow depth, surface state, type of crystal, layer structure (density, hardness index, temperature), liquid water content investigations: reflectivity vs. depression angle; reflectivity vs. liquid water content; mean reflectivity vs. time (several days) for different snow conditions; spatial variations remarks: -

[19]

Observations of the backscatter from snow at millimeter wavelengths Berger R., Layman R., Van Zandt T., Walsh J., Knox J. In: Snow Symposium V, Hanover, New Hampshire, August 1985, Vol. 1, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH, CRREL Special Report 86-15, pp. 311-316. remarks: Paper not available.

[20] cover

The Potential of Time Series of C-Band SAR Data to monitor dry and shallow snow

Bernier M., J.-P. Fortin Submitted to IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., 1995

instrument:

C-Band SAR 5 GHz Convair-580 of the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing polarization: HH incidence angle: 45 - 74 airborne-based sample: snowcover dry, wet, snow-free ground location: watershed in the Appalachian Mountains in Southern Quebec (Canada) ground information: depth, density, snow water equivalent, liquid water content, temperature and dielectric profile investigations: backscattering power ratio vs. snow water equivalent backscattering power ratio vs. soil surface temperature backscattering power ratio vs. thermal resistance of the snow cover remarks: estimation of the liquid water content by means of the ratio of the scattering coefficient of a field covered by snow to the scattering coefficient of a field without snow [21] Two-parameter backscatter model of snowcover at millimeter wavelengths Chang P., J. Mead, S. Lohmeier, P. Langlois, R. McIntosh Proc. 12th Annual International Geoscience & Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS '92, May 26-39, Houston, Texas. pp. 1667-1669. instrument: polarimetric radar 225 GHz incidence angle: 25 ,60 - 80 height above ground: 25 m sample: snowcover dry, refrozen location: athletic field and sloping hillside, Amherst, MA, USA ground information: gravimetric liquid water content, snow density, surface roughness, particle size investigations: polarization synthesis remarks: + data at 95 GHz a two parameter model was developed for snowcover consisting of near spherical crystals [22] A Detailed Study of the Backscatter Characteristics of Snowcover Measured at 35, 95

and 225 GHz Chang P.S., J.B. Mead, R.E. McIntosh Proceedings of IGARSS, Pasadena, CA, pp. 1932-1934, 1994. instrument: polarimetric radar 35, 95 225 GHz incidence angle: 60 - 80 height above ground: 24 m sample: snowcover melt-freeze cycles location: athletic field and sloping hillside, Amherst, MA, USA ground information: detailed in-situ data including microstructural anisotropies within the snowpack investigations: normalized radar-cross section, correlation coefficient, average phase

10

remarks: [23]

difference comparison with a simple radiative transfer model

Polarimetric Backscatter from Fresh and Metamorphic Snowcover at Millimeter

Wavelengths Chang P.S., J.B. Mead, E.J. Knapp, G.A. Sadowy, R.E. Davis, R.E. McIntosh IEEE Trans. on Antennas and Propagation, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 58-73, 1996. instrument: polarimetric radar 35, 95 225 GHz incidence angle: 60 - 80 height above ground: 24 m sample: snowcover melt-freeze cycles location: athletic field and sloping hillside, Amherst, MA, USA ground information: detailed in-situ data including microstructural anisotropies within the snowpack investigations: normalized radar-cross section, correlation coefficient, average phase difference remarks: comparison with a simple vector radiative transfer model [24] Millimeter-wave measurements and analysis of snow-covered ground Currie N.C., J.D. Echard, M.J. Gary, A.H. Green, T.L. Lane, J.M. Trostel IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 26, No. 3, 1988. instrument: radar depression angle: 35, 94 GHz 13 - 35 [tower] 10 - 60 [airborne]

raster scans in azimuth polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH [tower] RR, LL, RL, LR [airborne] simultaneous tower and airborne tests height above ground: 30 m [tower] 200, 400, 800 ft [airborne] sample: snowcover multiple snow conditions location: Houghton, MI, USA ground information: liquid water content, surface roughness, air and snow temperature, snow depth, density, grain size and type investigations: backscattering coefficient as function of wavelength, coherent bandwidth, polarization, incidence angle; diurnal measurements remarks: SNOWMAN test program by US Army and Georgia Tech presentation of the data collection procedure and of examples of results identification of gaps in the data

[25]

The Use of Microwave FMCW Radar in Snow and Avalanche Research Gubler H. and M. Hiller 11

Cold Regions Science and Technology, 9 (1984), pp. 109-119. instrument: FMCW radar at X-Band either buried in the ground looking into the snow cover or towed on skis looking downward into the snow sample: snow location: Weissfluhjoch, Davos ground information: investigations: estimation of the height of dense flow in avalanches determination of the geometrical layering, density, water equivalence, settlement, total snow height, percolation of water and moisture content remarks: -

[26]

140-GHz scatterometer system and measurements of terrain Haddock T.F., F.T. Ulaby IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 28, No. 4, 1990. instrument: scatterometer at 140 GHz incidence angle: 0 - 70 polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH truck-mounted sample: grasses, trees, snow location: near Ann Arbor, MI, USA ground information: investigations: backscattering coefficient vs. incidence angle for different targets and frequencies remarks: sample measurements in order to test the system

[27]

Radar Polarimeter Measurements of Snow Hallikainen, M., Pulliainen, J., Digest 1989 IEEE Inernational Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS'89), pp. 1829-1831, Vancouver, Canada, 10-14 July 1989. instrument: NA-based scatterometer at 35 GHz incidence angle: 0 - 60 polarizations: RCP-V, RCP-H, LCP-V, LCP-H measurements from rooftop and using a movable boom (height 15 m) sample: dry and wet snow location: Southern Finland ground information: snow density, water content, grain size, snow depth, temperature investigations: backscattering coefficient vs. incidence angle polarization synthesis remarks: no further experiments with the NA-based scatterometer at 35 GHz were performed at HUT

[28]

12

Scattering from snow backgrounds at 35, 98, and 140 GHz Hayes D.T., U.H.W. Lammers, R.A. Marr Report RADC-TR-84-69, Rome Air Development Center, Air Force Systems Command, Griffis Air Force Base, New York, 1984. instrument: CW scatterometer at 35, 98 and 140 GHz grazing angle: 15, 45, 90 polarization: HH, VV, HV continuous azimuthal sweep sample: snowcover melting, refreezing location: flat snow field, 66 m a.s.l. ground information: depth, density, hardness, temperature, stratigraphy, microstructure, surface characteristics, liquid-water content investigations: averaged backscattering coefficient of dry and wet snow vs. grazing angle averaged backscattering coefficient of dry and wet snow vs. frequency remarks: grazing angle = 90 - nadir angle

[29]

"Radar Measurements on Artificial Snow of Varying Depth" in Microwave Remote

Sensing of Snow: An Empirical/Theoretical Scattering Model for Dense Random Media Kendra J.R. Ph.D.-Thesis, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Michigan, 1995. instrument: frequency: 1.25, 5.3 and 9.5 GHz polarization: full polarized grazing angle: 20-60 truck mounted sample: artificial snow dry and melt-refreeze cycles location: Mt. Brighton Ski Area, Michigan ground information: extensive investigations: backscattering coefficient vs. incidence angle for different frequencies and depths of dry snow comparison with discrete-particle-based theories for dry snow diurnal variation of the backscattering coefficient for wet snow evaluation of a wetness retrieval algorithm (Shi and Dozier, 1995) remarks: includes also "Snow Probe for In Situ Determination of Wetness and Density" and "A Hybrid Experimental / Theoretical Scattering Model for a Dense Random Media"

[30]

Millimeter-wave polarimetric radar scattering from snow Kuga Y., A. Nashashibi, F.T. Ulaby IGARSS '91 instrument: polarimetric radar at 35 and 94 GHz

13

coherent on-receive at 6 polarization states truck mounted sample: snow-covered terrain location: ? ground information: snow liquid water content investigations: polarization synthesis: Mueller matrix and degree of polarization as a function of incidence angle and terrain roughness diurnal measurements remarks: abstract only [31] Millimeter-wave multipath measurements on snow cover Lammers U.H.W., D.T. Hayes, R.A. Marr IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 26, No. 3, 1988. instrument: radar at 35.1, 98.1 at 140.1 GHz height-gain patterns between 0.2 and 4 m pathlength 179.5 m grazing angle: 0.5 - 2 sample: snowcover frozen, dry, freshly fallen matted grass location: plane field, grass cut during summer ground information: air and snow temperature, density, grain size, snow depth investigations: effect of different snow types and depths remarks: measure of the interference patterns [32] Permittivity and attenuation of wet snow between 4 and 12 GHz Linlor W.I. Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 51(5), May 1980, pp. 2811-2816. instrument: 2 pairs of microwave horns f = 4-6, 6-8 and 8-12 GHz, network analyzer

sample: wet snow location: laboratory conditions ground information: investigations: permittivity and attenuation of prepared wet snow samples, empirical relations between attenuation and wetness at frequency between 4 and 12 GHz remarks: [33] A comparison of normalized radar cross section measurements and models for snow

cover at 35, 95 and 225 GHz Lohmeier S.P., P.M. Langlois, J.G. Colom, R.E. Davis, H.S. Boyne, R.E. McIntosh IGARSS '92, pp. 1655-1657. instrument: polarimetric radar at 35, 95 and 225 GHz incidence angle: 20, 40, 60 [35], 25 - 80 [95,225]

14

polarization: VV, VH [35], VV,HH,VH,HV [95,225] sample: snowcover location: terrain of medium roughness: Hanover, NH, USA [35] Amherst, MA, USA [95,225] ground information: liquid water content, surface roughness, layer thickness, snow temperature, crystal size and type, density investigations: normalized radar cross section (NRCS) versus incidence angle remarks: comparison with theoretical model [34] Review of the Radar Experiments of the Seasonal Snow Cover Mtzler C. Workshop on the Interaction of Microwaves with the Seasonal Snow Cover, CRREL, October 17 -19 1984 instrument: review of ground-based and airborne experiments emphasis on radar measurements made at 10.4 GHz at Weissfluhjoch comparison with the radar imagery obtained during a SAR experiment sample: snowcover ground information: Operational data collected by SFISAR investigations: backscattering coefficient vs. incidence angle SAR imagery remarks: Simultaneous passive microwave observations [35] Polarimetric scattering from natural surfaces at 225 GHz Mead J.B., P.M. Langlois, P.S. Chang, R.E. McIntosh IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagation, Vol. 39, No. 9, 1991. instrument: noncoherent polarimetric radar at 225 GHz 6 combinations of linear and circular polarization sample: natural surfaces like trees, grass, snowcover and sand location: Amherst, MA, USA ground information: investigations: measurement of Mueller matrix and the depolarization ratio; degree of polarization vs. depolarization ratio normalized Mueller matrices of a limited class of natural targets may be closely predicted by a single parameter, the depolarization ratio remarks: summary of various polarimetric quantities for a variety of natural distributed targets [36] Polarimetric observations and theory of millimeter-wave backscatter from snow cover Mead J.B., P.S. Chang, S.P. Lohmeier, P.M. Langlois, R.E. McIntosh IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagation, Vol. 41, No. 1, 1993. instrument: noncoherent polarimetric radar at 95 and 225 GHz 6 combinations of linear and circular polarization 15

incidence angle: 55-80 height above ground: 25 m sample: fresh and refrozen snowcover location: Amherst, MA, USA ground information: measured following standard procedures investigations: measurement of the Mueller matrix depolarization ratio, degree of polarization, phase differences remarks: analysis of backscatter from snowcover consisting of spherical ice particles [37] Millimeter-wave backscatter characteristics of multilayered snow surfaces Narayanan R.M., R.E. McIntosh IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 38, No. 5, 1990. instrument: pulsed radar at 215 GHz incidence angle: 25 - 45, 66 [rooftop], 75.6, 83.2 polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH height above ground: 80 m sample: snowcover winter season location: snowfield and rooftop Amherst, MA, USA ground information: surface roughness, moisture content, density, hardness, temperature, layer thickness, grain size and type investigations: normalized radar cross section vs. incidence angle; effect of wetness, roughness, density, grain size remarks: comparison with a simple model based on geometrical optics and Mie scattering theory

[38] Cover

Temporal Variations in Radar Backscatterer Coefficients of Vegetation and Snow

Nystrom A., A. Stjernman, J. Vivekananden Proceedings of IGARSS'94, pp. 2483-2485. instrument: NA-based scatterometer between 1 and 18 GHz incidence angle: polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH height above ground: 17 m sample: birch trees and multilayered snow location: Kiruna, Sweden ground information: investigations: estimation of snow pack water equivalent diurnal variations of the scattering coefficient angular variation of the scattering coefficient remarks: preliminary analysis

16

[39]

Multifrequency and Polarimetric SAR Observations Alpine Glaciers Rott H., R.E. Davis Annals of Gaciology, 17, 1993 instrument: AIRDAR (440 MHz, 1.25 GHz, 5.3 GHz, polarimetric) sample: snowcover and glaciers location: Rofental, Austria ground information: dielectric, structural and surface roughness properties investigations: seasonal variations of the backscattering remarks: comparison with Landsat TM and SPOT

[40]

Capabilities of ERS-1 SAR for Snow and Glacier Monitoring in Alpine Regions Rott H., T. Nagler Proceedings of the Second ERS-1 Symposium, 11-14 October 1993, Hamburg, Germany instrument: ERS-1 SAR (5.3 GHz, VV-Pol., 23 incidence angle) sample: snowcover and glaciers location: Innsbruck-Leutasch and tztal, Austria ground information: snow depth, standard deviation of surface roughness, volumetric liquidwater content, snow temperature investigations: seasonal variations of the backscattering remarks: procedure for mapping the extent of melting snow

[41]

Snow and Glacier Parameters Derived from Single Channel and Multi-Parameter SAR Rott H., T. Nagler, D.-M. Floricioiu International Symposium on the Retrieval of Bio- and Geophysical Parameters from SAR Data for Land Applications. Toulouse, France, 10-13 October 1995 instrument: ERS-1 (5.3 GHz, VV-Pol., 23 incidence angle) SIR-C/X-SAR (1.25 and 5.3 GHz, polarimetric; 9.6 GHz, VV-Pol.; incidence angle between 15 and 60) sample: snowcover and glaciers location: tztal, Austria ground information: standard deviation of surface roughness, median value of surface correlation length, volumetric liquid-water content, mean grain diameter, density investigations: backscattering signatures of snow-covered areas and of glaciers e.g. angular dependence of the backscattering remarks: summary on the use of SAR for snow and glacier applications

[42]

17

Microwave Snowpack Studies Made in the Austrian Alps During the SIR-C/X-SAR Experiment Mtzler Ch., Strozzi T., Weise T., Floricioiu D.-M., Rott. H. Int. J. Remote Sensing, in press (1997) instrument: SIR-C/X-SAR (1.25 and 5.3 GHz), polarimetric; Polarimetric scatterometers at 5.3 and 35 GHz Radiometers at 21 and 35 GHz dielectric probes sample: snowcover and glaciers in the Austrian Alps location: tztal, Austria ground information: liquid water profiles of the snowpacks, snow-physical observations investigations: backscattering and emission signatures of snow-covered areas and of glaciers, temporal variations remarks: -

[43]

Inferring Snow Wetness Using C-Band Data from SIR-C's Polarimetric Synthetic

Aperture Radar Shi J. and J. Dozier IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., Vol. 33, No. 4, July 1995 instrument: SIR-C-SAR (5.3 GHz, polarimetric, 25-75 incidence angle) sample: snow location: Mammoth Mountain, Sierra Nevada, California ground information: density, wetness, grain radius and surface roughness parameters investigations: comparison between measured and SAR-derived wetness remarks: retrieval model for the volumetric liquid-water content in the top layer of a wet snow pack

[44]

Polarimetric Backscattering Measurements of Alpine Snowcover at 5.3 and 35 GHz Strozzi T., C. Mtzler Submitted to IEEE Trans. on Geosc. and Rem. Sens., 1996 instrument: NA-based scatterometers at 5.3 and 35 GHz incidence angle: 40 polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH platform height above ground: 4m sample: dry and wet snowcover location: Weissfluhjoch, Davos, Switzerland ground information: temperature, depth, density, permittivity, grain shape and size investigations: seasonal variations of the backscattering coefficient backscattering coefficient vs. snow depth, liquid-water content, thickness of a refrozen crust remarks: -

18

[45]

Scatterometric Measurements of Snow Samples Strozzi T., A. Wiesmann, C. Mtzler in Ph. D. Thesis T. Strozzi, Institute of Applied Physics, University of Bern, 1996 instrument: scatterometer 35 GHz incidence angle: 50 polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH tripod mounted sample: homogeneous dry samples of snowcover location: Weissfluhjoch, Davos, Switzerland ground information: snow temperature, sample thickness, density, permittivity, grain shape and size, structural analysis with digitized snow sections investigations: backscattering coefficients vs. snow sample parameters backscattering coefficients vs. snow sample thickness remarks: disturbing effects of the edges of the snow samples

[46]

Radar reflectivity of land at 94 GHz Sume A. FOA Report C 30599-8.2,3.3, National Defense Research Establishment, Department of Information Technology, Linkping, Sweden, 1990. instrument: incoherent radar at 94.5 GHz depression angle: 4 - 54 polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH tower-mounted height above ground: 40 m sample: terrain with trees and open ground summer and winter conditions location: near Mjlby, Sweden ground information: investigations: normalized radar cross section as a function of terrain type, depression angle, polarization, and season images of scene remarks:

[47]

The relation of millimeter-wavelength backscatter to surface snow properties Williams L.D., J.G. Gallagher IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. GE-25, No. 2, 1987. instrument: pulsed radar at 94 GHz incidence angle: 2 - 72 polarization: 6 combinations of linear and circular RL, RR, VV, VH, 45/45, 45/-45 helicopter-mounted 19

sample: location:

snowcover dry and wet flat, open soccer field Bavaria, Germany ground information: snow surface roughness, liquid water content, grain size, porosity, temperature profile investigations: backscattering coefficient vs. incidence angle effect of liquid water content, surface roughness, grain size remarks: stepwise multiple regression [48] Surface snow properties effects on millimeter-wave backscatter Williams L.D., J.G. Gallagher, D.E. Sudgen, R.V. Birnie IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 26, No.3, 1988. instrument: radar at 94 GHz depression angle: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55 polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH height above ground 25 m sample: snowcover dry and wet location: flat, open soccer field in a mountain valley, Bavaria, Germany ground information: liquid water content, snow surface roughness, porosity, grain size and shape, conductivity, pH, snow temperature profiles, density investigations: backscattering coefficient vs. depression angle as function of snow surface wetness and of wet snow surface roughness remarks: for terrain covered by dry snow, the 94 GHz backscatter does not appear to depend significantly on any of the measured snow properties backscatter from wet snow is found to be sensitive to volumetric liquidwater content and surface roughness [49] Millimetric radar backscatter from snowcover Williams L.D., D.E. Sugden, R.V. Birnie Final report to: Royal Signals and Radar Establishment, Malvern, United Kingdom on Ministry of Defense Agreement No. 2116/017. instrument: pulsed radar at 94 GHz incidence angle: 2 - 72 polarization: 6 combinations of linear and circular RL, RR, VV, VH, 45/45, 45/-45 tower-mounted and helicopter-mounted height above ground: 25 m [tower] sample: snowcover under different conditions (melting, refreezing) location: flat, open soccer field in a mountain valley Oberjettenberg, Bavaria, Germany ground information: snow surface liquid water content, snow temperature profile, density of the upper centimeter of snow, snow surface roughness, for each layer: thickness, density, grain size and type, wetness, hardness, conductivity, pH investigations: backscattering coefficient vs. incidence angle

20

remarks:

effect of liquid water content, surface roughness, grain size and surface crystal type stepwise multiple regression extensive description of ground information data

3.2 Passive microwave measurements

[50]

Remote sensing of snowpack properties by microwave radiometry Chang A.T.C. Hydrologic Applications of Space Technology (Proc. of the Cocoa Beach Workshop, Florida, August 1985). IAHS Publ., No. 160, 1986. instrument: Nimbus-7 SMMR 37 GHz + other radiometers 50 [SMMR] H, V

incidence angle: polarization: sample: snowcover location: Colorado Rockies, USA [other] Central Russia, high plains of Canada [SMMR] ground information: investigations: brightness temperature vs. snow depth remarks: [51] Snow property measurements correlative to microwave emission at 35 GHz Davis R.E., J. Dozier, A.T.C. Chang IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. GE-25, No. 6, 1987. instrument: radiometer 35 GHz polarization: H, V incidence angle: 10 - 70 hand-held about 1 m above the snow sample: from new snow, variable layered snow and melting snow location: Mammoth Mountain, Sierra Nevada, CA, USA ground information: grain size, snow density, ice volume fraction, number and distances of ice-pore and pore-ice transitions (by optical means), wetness, volume fraction of liquid water, temperature investigations: brightness temperature vs. incidence angle effect of liquid water content, different snow types remarks: [52] Microwave radiometry of snow Hallikainen M. COSPAR, Adv. Space Res., Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 267-275, 1989.

21

instrument: sample: location: ground information: investigations: remarks: review [53] Results from ground-based radiometry of snow Hallikainen M., V. Jskelainen, J. Talvela IGARSS '89, Vol. 3, pp. 1231 - 1234, 1989. instrument: radiometer 1, 16.5, 37 GHz incidence angle: 10 - 60 tower-mounted sample: snowcover various conditions location: Metshovi, Finland ground information: snow depth, snow water equivalent, density profile, snow temperature profile, grain size, profile, snow layering information, transmission loss profile of snow layer, ground temperature profile, weather data investigations: brightness temperature as a function of time using vertical polarization and 50 incidence angle brightness temperature vs. crust depth effect of snow water equivalent, structure and grain size; diurnal variations remarks: semi-empirical brightness temperature model developed based on measured data

[54]

Microwave Dielectric Properties of Surface Snow Mtzler C., Aebischer H., Schanda E., 1984 IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, Vol. OE-9, No. 5., December 1984. instrument: tower mounted radiometer (4.9, 10.4, 21, 35, 94 GHz ) (V and H po.) noise scaterrometer (10.4 GHz) open-ended coaxial resonator (resonance frequency 1.4 GHz) sample: wet snow location: Alpine test site at Weissfluhjoch, Switzerland ground information: Operational ground data collected by SFISAR investigations: the radiometer and dielectric data are used to derive spectra of complex dielectric constants of wet snow between 1 and 100 GHz remarks: A way of resolving the contradicition between the resulting Deby relaxation spectra (with a constant relaxation frequency of 9 GHz) and the mixing formula of Polder and van Santen is presented

[55]

22

Investigations on Snow Parameters by Radiometry in the 3- to 60-mm Wavelength Region Hofer R. and C. Mtzler Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 85, No. C1., January 1980. instrument: tower mounted radiometer (4.9, 10.4, 21, 35, 94 GHz) polarization: H, V sample: snowcover (different types) location: Weissfluhjoch, Davos, Switzerland ground information: Operational ground data collected by SFISAR investigations: brightness temperature vs. nadir angle brightness temperature vs. frequency diurnal variation of brightness penetration experiments remarks: models for interpretation of penetration experiments ( absorption and scattering coefficients)

[56]

Analysis of brightness temperature of snow-covered terrain Jskelinen V., M. Hallikainen IGARSS '91 instrument: radiometer 1, 16.5, 37 GHz [tower] 24, 34, 48 GHz [helicopter] polarization: V, H tower-mounted and helicopter-borne snowcover snow-covered terrain with different forest types dry and wet Metshovi, Finland

sample:

location: ground information: investigations: effect of snow water equivalent, structure, grain size effect of forest on brightness temperature of snow-covered terrain (see: FOREST AND TREES, "A multifrequency microwave radiometer", Panula-Ontto) remarks: sensitivity analysis helicopter-borne experiment during SAAMEX-campaign, 1990 semi-empirical brightness temperature model developed based on measured data

[57]

Terrain Radiation: Measurement Investigation at 94 GHz N.V. Ruzhentsev, V.P. Churilov International Journal of Infrared and Millimeter Waves, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1996 instrument: 94 GHz radiometer operated on board of a helicopter and from tower horizontal and vertical polarization various surface types including snowcover 23

sample:

location: ground information: biogeophysical parameters of the surfaces investigations: brightness temperature vs. incidence angle remarks: snowcover measurements only discussed, no figures

[58]

Passive Microwave Measurements of Tundra and Taiga Snow Covers in Alaska, U.S.A. Sturm M., Grenfell T.C., D.K. Perovich Annals of Glaciology 17, 1993 instrument: 18.7 and 37 GHz radiometers mounted on a 1.5 m tall bipod horizontal and vertical polarization sample: taiga and tundra snow location: Fairbanks and Imnaviat Creek (Alaska) ground information: density, crystal structure and grain size investigations: effective emissivity vs. snow depth remarks: snow layers were removed

3.3 Combined active and passive microwave measurements

[59]

Microwave Remote Sensing of Snowpack Properties: Potential and Limitations Bernier P.Y. Nordic Hydrology, 18, 1987, 1-20 instrument: active and passive microwave systems sample: snowcover (overlying vegetation also discussed) location: ground information: investigations: remarks: review from a user's point of view of the possibilities and limitations of microwave-based techniques for remote sensing of snowpack properties

[60]

RASAM: A Radiometer-Scatterometer to Measure Microwave Signatures of Soil,

Vegetation and Snow Hppi R. Ph.D.-Thesis, IAP University of Bern, 1987 instrument: GHz active and passive microwave systems at 1.5, 2.5, 3.1, 4.6, 7.2, 10.2, 11 polarization: incidence angle: H and V (radiometer) HH, VV, VH, HV (radar) 0-80 24

truck mounted sample: snowcover (soil and vegetation) location: Frutigen, Riffenmatt, ground information: snow depth, density, temperature, real part of the dielectric constant investigations: brightness temperature vs. frequency and incidence angle backscattering coefficient vs. frequency and incidence angle remarks: Not all channels useful due to radio interference depending on location

[61]

Towards the definition of Optimum Sensor Specifications for Microwave Remote

Sensing of Snow Mtzler C., E. Schanda, W. Good IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., Vol. 20, No. 1, January 1982 instrument: radiometer 1.8, 4.9, 10.4, 21, 36, 94 GHz polarization: H, V scatterometer 10.4 GHz polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH sample: snowcover different types location: Weissfluhjoch, Davos, Switzerland ground information: Ground data collected by SFISAR investigations: microwave response to the water equivalent of dry snow microwave contrast between wet snow and snow-free land remarks: -

[62]

Applications of the interaction of microwaves with the natural snow cover Mtzler C. Remote Sensing Reviews, Vol. 2, pp. 259-387, 1987. instrument: radiometer 4.9, 10.4, 21, 35, 94 GHz polarization: H, V scatterometer 10.4 GHz polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH dielectric probes 0.3-1.4 GHz sample: snowcover (different types) location: Weissfluhjoch, Davos, Switzerland ground information: Ground data collected by SFISAR; dielectric measurements of snow (temperature, depth, water equivalent, density, snowtype) investigations: e.g. emissivities vs. frequency for different snow types e.g. backscattering coefficient vs. incidence angle for different snow types variation of brightness temperatures during formation of a refrozen crust penetration experiments remarks: -

[63]

25

Review of signature studies for microwave remote sensing of snowpacks Mtzler C., R. Hppi COSPAR, Adv. Space Res., Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 253-265, 1989. instrument: radiometer 4.9, 10.4, 21, 35, 94 GHz polarization: H, V scatterometer 1.4 - 11 GHz polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH dielectric probes 0.3-1.4 GHz snowcover (different types) Weissfluhjoch, Davos, Switzerland

sample: location: ground information: investigations: e.g.: emissivities vs. frequency for different (discriminated) snow types e.g. backscattering coefficient vs. incidence angle for different (discriminated) snow types brightness temperature vs. frequency, development during early stage of snow season variation of brightness temperatures during formation of a refrozen crust brightness temperature vs. crust thickness during formation remarks: review of the following research topics: discrimination of different snow types, snow mapping, strongly layered snowpacks, inhomogeneous surface layers, determination of the liquid water content, monitoring of melt-refreeze cycles, measurement of the crust thickness, estimating the net energy loss, estimating the water equivalent of a winter snowpack

[64]

Microwave Snowpack Studies Made in the Austrian Alps During the SIR-C-X

Experiments in April 1994 Mtzler C., T. Weise, T. Strozzi, D. Floricioiu and H. Rott Research Report IAP No. 96-3, 1996 instrument: radiometer 21, 35 GHz polarization: H, V scatterometer 5.3, 35 GHz GHz polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH dielectric sensors near 1 GHz SIR-C/X-SAR (1.25 and 5.3 GHz, polarimetric; 9.6 GHz VV-Pol.) sample: snowcovers and glaciers location: tztal, Austria ground information: extensive investigations: profiles of the permittivity emissivities vs. incidence angle diurnal variation of the brightness temperature of snow over a metal plate backscattering coefficient vs. incidence angle scattering profiles SAR imagery and SAR derived backscattering coefficients vs. incidence

26

remarks:

angle -

[65]

Microwave signatures of snow crusts: modeling and measurements Reber B., C. Mtzler, E. Schanda Int. J. Remote Sensing, Vol. 8, No. 11, pp. 1649-1665, 1987 instrument: radiometer 4.9, 10.4, 21, 35, 94 GHz polarization: H, V (scatterometer 1.4 - 11 GHz polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH) sample: snow samples location: Weissfluhjoch, Davos, Switzerland ground information: thin sections, permittivity, snow and air temperature, density investigations: effect of crust remarks: Modelling with Born Approximation

[66]

Active and Passive Microwave Signatures of Antarctic Firn by Means of Field

Measurements and Satellite data Rott H., K. Sturm, H. Miller Annals of Glaciology, 17, 1993 instrument: radiometer 5.2 10.3 GHz polarization: H, V scatterometer 5.2, 10.3 GHz polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH incidence angle 10-80 ERS-1 (5.3 GHz, VV-Pol., 23 inc. angle) sample: polar firn location: Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica ground information: accumulation rate, density, temperature investigations: microwave penetration backscattering coefficient and brightness temperature vs. inc. angle remarks: -

[67]

The Active and Passive Microwave Response to Snow Parameters. 1. Wetness Stiles W.H., Ulaby F.T. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 85, No. C2, pp. 1037-1044, February 20, 1980 instrument: radiometer polarization scatterometer polarization 10.7, 37, 94 GHz H (V at 37 GHz) 1-18 GHz and 35.6 GHz HH, HV, VV (RR,RL,LL at 35 GHz)

27

incidence angle 0-80 truck-mounted sample: snow location: near Steamboat Springs, Colorado ground information: snow parameters at approximately 2 hours intervals investigations: diurnal observations of the variation of the backscattering coefficient and of the apparent radiometric temperature with snow wetness remarks: -

[68]

Ground-based experiments of snow for validation of ERS-1 SAR data Strozzi T., T. Weise, C. Mtzler Report, Institute of Applied Physics, University of Bern, 1992 instrument: scatterometers at 2.6 and 35 GHz polarization: HH, VV, HV, VH radiometers at 21 and 35 GHz polarization: H, V incidence angle: 30-70 truck mounted platform sample: snowcover melting-refreezing location: Stilli, Davos, Switzerland Amherst, MA, USA ground information: snow temperature, depth, density, structure, grain size investigations: backscattering coefficients vs. incidence angle diurnal variations of backscattering coefficient diurnal variation of reflectivity remarks: -

[69]

The Active and Passive Microwave Response to Snow Parameters. 2.. Water Equivalent

of Dry Snow Ulaby F.T., Stiles W.H. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 85, No. C2, pp. 1045-1049, February 20, 1980 instrument: radiometer 10.7, 37, 94 GHz polarization H (V at 37 GHz) scatterometer 1-18 GHz and 35.6 GHz polarization HH, HV, VV (RR,RL,LL at 35 GHz) incidence angle 0-80 truck-mounted sample: snow location: near Steamboat Springs, Colorado ground information: density, temperature, snow depth investigations: measurements of the variation of the backscattering coefficient and of the emissivity with water equivalent of dry snow remarks: snow pile experiments comparison with a simple semi-empirical scattering and emission model 28

[70]

Microwave Remote Sensing: Active and Passive Ulaby F.T., R.K. Moore, A.K. Fung Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, Vol. I (1981) + II (1982) + III (1986)

3.4 Dielectric measurements and models

[71]

Microwave Effective Permittivity Model of Media of Dielectric Particles and

Applications to Dry and Wet Snow Boyarskii D.A., Tikhonov V.V. Proceedings IGARSS'94, pp. 2065-2067 frequency: sample: location: independent data: investigations: remarks: [72] 1-37 GHz range dry snow, wet snow dielectric model comparison of model results with the experimental data of 0]

Snow Dielectric Measurements Denoth A. Adv. Space Res., Vol. 9, No.1, pp. (1)233-(1)243,1989 frequency: sample: location: independent data: investigations: remarks: different measurements techniques from 100 Hz to 10 GHz Alpine snow Stubai Alps (?) snow porosity, grain size and shape, snow wetness, density dielectric constant and dielectric loss -

[73]

Review of the microwave dielectric and extinction properties of sea ice and snow Hallikainen M. Proceedings IGARSS '92, pp.961-965. frequency: sample: location: independent data: investigations: remarks: 0.5 to 40 GHz range sea ice and snow experimental dielectric and extinction/absorption properties review with main references

29

[74]

Dielectric Properties of Snow in the 3 to 37 GHz Range Hallikainen M., Ulaby F.T., Abdelrazik M. IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, Vol. AP-34, No. 11, November 1986, pp.1329-1339. frequency: sample: location: independent data: investigations: 3 to 18 GHz range, 37 GHz dry and wet snow open area dielectric measurements for the following parametric ranges: liquid water content 0 to 12.3 percent by volume, snow density 0.09 to 0.42 g cm-3 , temperature 0 to -15C, crystal size 0.5 to 1.5 mm. Comparison with an empirical (Deby-like) and a theoretical (Polder-Van Santen) model. -

remarks: [75]

Extinction Behavior of Dry Snow in the 18- to 90-GHz Range Hallikainen M., Ulaby F.T., van Deventer T.E. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. GE-25, No. 6, November 1987, pp. 737-745 frequency: sample: location: independent data: investigations: 18-90 GHz range several natural dry snow types (fresh, refrozen) laboratory conditions (HUT) snow density, average grain size, surface roughness measurements of transmission loss as a function of sample thickness; extinction coefficient; surface scattering loss. Comparison of experimental data with model according to the strong fluctuation theory. -

remarks:

[76]

Snow Probe for In Situ Determination of Wetness and Density Kendra J.R., F.T. Ulaby, K. Sarabandi IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., Vol. 32, No. 6, November 1994 instrument: sample: location: independent data: investigations: hand held electromagnetic sensor near 1 GHz (resonance frequency) snow probes laboratory conditions liquid water content, snow density complex dielectric constant of the snow medium retrieval of snow density and of liquid-water content by means of empirical and semi-empirical models -

remarks:

30

[77]

Dielectric properties of ice and snow at 26.5 to 40 GHz Koh G. Proc. IGARSS '92, pp. 820-822. instrument: sample: location: independent data: investigations: remarks: step frequency radar at 26.5 to 40 GHz snow samples Greenland ice sheet snow volume fraction wave velocity and attenuation relative permittivity and extinction loss minimum penetration depth of 87 cm into the firn

[78]

Dielectric Permittivity and Scattering Measurements of Greenland Firn at 26.5-40 GHz Lytle V.I., K.C. Jezek IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., Vol. 32, No. 2, March 1994 instrument: sample: location: from independent data: investigations: sample. remarks reflectometer arrangement (step frequency radar) 26.5 - 40 GHz snow and ice samples Firn samples from the north central Greenlend ice sheet, snow samples around Hanover, NH, USA. Number of snow layers, snow grain size, density, depth. propagation velocity and attenuation of generated pulses effect of ice volume fraction. Estimation of scattering loss through snow -

[79]

Microwave Properties of Ice and Snow Mtzler C. International Symposium on Solar System Ices, Toulouse, France, 27-30 March 1995 instrument: sample: location: independent data: investigations: remarks: ice and dry snow review paper

[80]

Microwave Permittivity of Dry Snow Mtzler C. IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., Vol. 34, No. 2, March 1996 instrument: resonator near 1 GHz 31

sample: location: independent data: investigations:

remarks: [81]

90 different types of dry snow (fresh, old, wind-pressed , depth hoar, refrozen crust), temperature -8 to -1C Weissfluhjoch-Davos (Swiss Alps) and Getschalp-Kaunertal (Austrian Alps) density Measurements of the permittivity of dry snow with a specially designed resonator, interpretation of data in terms of physical mixing theory (Poldervan Santen model) Derivations of axial radius of grains as a function of snow density

Dielectric properites of fresh-water ice at microwave frequencies Mtzler C., Wegmller U. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys 20 (1987) pp. 1623-1630, Erratum Vol. 21 (1988) p.1660. instrument: sample: location: independent data: investigations: discussed. remarks: resonator (2-10 GHz), radiometer (10-100 GHz) pure and slightly saline ice at different temperatures Measurements for the 2-100 GHz range. Influence of small impurities is Comparison with review of Warren (1984).

[82]

Snow Fork for Field Determination of the Density and Wetness Profiles of a Snow Pack Shivola A., Tiuri M. IEEE Trans. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. GE-24, No. 5, September 1986. pp. 717721. instrument: sample: location: independent data: investigations: remarks: Snow fork at 1 GHz resonance frequency natural dry and wet snow technical paper presenting the design and use of a snow fork for measuring density and wetness profiles of s snow pack -

[83]

The Complex Dielectric Constant of Snow at Microwave Frequencies Tiuri M., Shivola A., Nyfors E.G., Hallikainen M.T. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, Vol. OE-9, No. 5, December 1984, pp. 377-382 instrument: sample: location: independent data: investigations: cylindrical cavity sensors. f = 850 MHz, 1.9 GHz, 5.6 GHz and 12.6 GHz. coarse old, aged, new fine-grained, undisturbed and prepared snow laboratory conditions (HUT) Measurements of the complex dielectric constant of snow at microwave frequencies. Nomograph for determining the density and wetness of wet snow from its dielectric constant. Extension of density range by compressing snow samples.

remarks:

32

3.5 Visible and infrared measurements and models1

Snow and Ice Spectra Until recently, frost and snow spectra were calculated using the optical constants of ice in a Mie theory and radiative transfer model (Dozier and Warren, 1982). Field measurements (Warren et al., 1986) show that the Dozier and Warren Model is accurate in the visible near infrared (VNIR2) and the short wave infrared (SWIR) regions. The directional hemispherical reflectance spectra were recently measured for the first time in the medium wavelength infrared (MWIR) and thermal infared (TIR) bands (Salisbury et al., 1994), and they find that the calculated spectra for frost are correct, but calculated snow spectra are in error by up to 6%, depending on grain size and degree of cementation (sintering). They also developed an improved scattering model to explain the differences (Wald, 1994). As might be expected, the measurement of the spectrum of smooth ice agrees with that calculated from the Fresnel equations. Directional reflectance and emittance (bidirectional reflectance distribution function, BRDF) for frost and snow have been calculated with the same models used to calculate spectra. Again, the Dozier and Warren (1982) model appears accurate in the VNIR and SWIR range, and we find little difference between the results of their model and that of Wald (1994) for loose snow grains, which have Lambertian-type behavior at all wavelengths. Crusted snow, however, has a very strong specular component in the thermal infrared, as discussed more fully below. Smooth, clear ice, of course, is specular at all wavelengths.

Vegetation Spectra Vegetation is quoted here as the main object class to which snow has to be discriminated. The spectral properties of individual leaves have been well understood for quite a long time (e.g., Gates et al., 1965), especially in the VNIR and SWIR. Until recently, laboratory instrumentation was not available to make equivalent measurements in the thermal infrared, but recent spectroscopic studies have provided confirmation of general information derived from earlier broad-band measurements (Salisbury and Milton, 1988). Although leaf spectra are readily available, good canopy spectra are not, because of the technical difficulty of making such measurements. In the reflective part of the

Input to Chapter 3.5 was taken from ftp://rocky.eps.jhu.edu/pub/veg%26snow/VEG%26SNOW.TXT,

which was written and last updated by J.W. Salisbury (February 28, 1996), Department of Earth and Planetary Science, John Hopkins University, Laurel, MD 20723.

33

spectrum, difficulties arise - particularly in the SWIR - from the strong water vapor absorption bands in solar radiation illuminating the canopy, which leave large gaps in the spectrum where they absorb completely, and introduce observational difficulties even where they do not (Biehl et al., 1984). Atmospheric absorption of emitted radiation is a problem in the thermal infrared region, along with an historical limitation on the availability of portable field spectrometers. These difficulties have been at least partially remedied by spectral measurements of leaf piles and canopy parts in the laboratory to provide simulated canopy spectra relatively untroubled by water vapor absorption (e.g., Salisbury and Milton, 1988).

Ever since the pioneering measurements of directional scattering properties of individual leaves by Breece and Holmes (1971), gradually more sophisticated models of canopy scattering have been developed, as best summarized by Kimes (1984). Such models are not simple, because canopy scattering is complicated by the fact that individual leaf reflectances vary with wavelength, from predominantly surface scattering in the visible and TIR regions, to predominantly volume scattering in the near infrared (NIR) and SWIR regions; and typical leaf orientation varies during different growth stages for a given species, and from one species to another. To provide real data input to such models, Goddard Space Flight Center developed a sphere-scanning radiometer, called the PARABOLA, for field measurements of the BRDF of natural surfaces (Deering and Leone,1984). This field instrument typically measures BRDF in three narrow bandpasses in the visible, near-infrared, and short-wave infrared. Typical scattering data for soils and vegetation have been summarized by Deering (1989), and have been made available by Don Deering in digital form. Other field measurements have been made in the VNIR and SWIR regions of the spectrum by Ranson et al. (1985). Few measurements of directional emittance have been made because of the unavailability, until recently, of appropriate field instruments. We have made field measurements that show that conifers are Lambertian emitters because of the strong canopy scattering produced by randomly-oriented needles. However, some preliminary measurements by others appear to show small, but inconsistent, directional effects on grass canopy emissivities (Norman and Balick, 1992), which may be due to the quasi-parallel surfaces produced by the bent tips of long grass. Such directional effects could be even greater for deciduous leaf canopies, where leaf orientations tend to be more horizontal (depending on species).

Spectral behavior of frost, snow and ice Our thermal infrared directional hemispherical reflectance measurements of frost and snow (Salisbury et al., 1994) were matched at 2.0 m with VNIR/SWIR spectra calculated using the Dozier and

34

Warren (1982) delta Eddington model. The grain size of our frost is not given, and our snow spectra are labeled simply "fine", "medium granular", and "coarse granular". Precise grain sizes are not given because, as explained more fully in Salisbury et al. (1994), and Wald (1994), grain shape, size range, and cementation effects make a single grain size description misleading. However, the VNIR/SWIR delta Eddington calculation uses a single grain size. The single "effective" grain size that matched the reflectance of our measured samples at 2 m wavelength was 10 m for the frost, 24 m for the fine snow, 82 m for the medium granular snow, and 178 m for the coarse granular snow. The physical grain size of the granular snow was much larger under the microscope, averaging about 400 m and 1500 m for the medium and coarse granules, respectively. The optical grain size was much smaller, because it is the size of spheres with the same surface to volume ratio as is present in the real snow. Recently, Mtzler (1997) showed that the grain size defined in this way corresponds to the correlation length, and this quantity is close to the minimum extent of the typical snow grains. Caveat: As is typical for aged snow, medium and coarse granular snow grains are cemented into a crust, which introduces a strong specular reflectance component in the thermal infrared, as discussed briefly above. In fact, we find that as snow ages and grains become larger and more completely cemented together into a continuous crust, snow approaches the spectral and directional behavior of ice in the thermal infrared. It should be noted here that, just as crusted snow resembles ice in its spectral and BRDF behavior in the thermal infrared, ice tends to resemble coarse, crusted snow in the VNIR/SWIR. That is, smooth, clear ice has an extremely low reflectance in the VNIR/SWIR, forming what is called "black ice", which is rare. Natural ice typically has some snow on its surface, and/or the surface is rough, and its interior contains grain boundaries and air bubbles. The presence of these scattering centers results in strong diffuse scattering, especially in the VNIR. As the wavelength increases beyond the scale of these scattering centers, and predominantly volume scattering is replaced by surface scattering, the BRDF changes from largely diffuse in the VNIR/SWIR to largely specular in the thermal infrared. Thus, an analyst should not use the spectral and scattering characteristics of smooth ice for an ice-covered surface in the VNIR/SWIR, except under unusual (black-ice) circumstances. Most ice has the spectral and BRDF properties of our coarse, granular, crusted snow in both reflectance and emittance. Both frost and fresh, fine snow should be Lambertian at all wavelengths, just as smooth, clear ice should be specular at all wavelengths. Aged, crusted snow should be predominantly Lambertian in the VNIR/SWIR and predominantly specular in the thermal infrared.

35

Spectral behaviour of vegetation Spectra were assembled from two segments; the VNIR and SWIR comprising segment one, and the MWIR and TIR comprising segment two. The first segment for trees used simulated canopy spectra measured by Barry Rock of the University of New Hampshire on leaf piles and canopy parts using a GER IRIS Mark IV field spectrometer in the laboratory. The tree leaves or branches were illuminated from directly above and measured at a reflectance angle of about 30. The grass VNIR/SWIR spectrum was measured in the laboratory at JHU, also with a GER IRIS Mark IV, using a large piece of fresh sod. The grass was illuminated from directly above and measured at a reflectance angle of 60 to avoid viewing the thatch. The artificial illumination sources used by emit much less radiation in the blue region of the spectrum than does the sun. This results in an instrumental artifact in GER IRIS Mark IV spectra, characterized by an apparent increase in reflectance of the sample from the blue into the UV (the so-called "blue tail"). Spectra of vegetation measured outdoors are not affected in the blue region by atmospheric water vapor absorption, and so have been used to check the true reflectance spectra of vegetation, which actually decline through the blue and into the UV. Thus, the VNIR/SWIR segments of the vegetation spectra were corrected by hand to remove the blue tail before being joined with the thermal infrared segments. The thermal infrared segments were generated from directional hemispherical reflectance spectra of needle and leaf piles. Conifer needles, deciduous tree leaves and grass blades all have a very low reflectance (high emissivity) throughout the thermal infrared range, although the conifer needles are consistently lower in reflectance than the other two. There are subtle spectral features associated with differences in cuticular waxes that could be diagnostic of deciduous species in the laboratory (Salisbury and Milton, 1988). The diagnostic differences in these features vary, however, typically only about 2%, and canopy scattering will further reduce this spectral contrast by a factor of at least two. Thus, spectral features are of interest for laboratory applications, but not usually for remote sensing. Because spectral features are so subdued, we selected one typical deciduous leaf spectrum to represent all deciduous species, one conifer to represent all conifers, and one grass species to represent all grasses. Each thermal infrared spectrum was reduced in reflectance by a factor of two to conservatively account for canopy scattering (conifers, in particular, should undergo more intense scattering, and field measurements show conifers to exhibit black body behavior within measurement error of about 1%). The thermal infrared segments were then joined with the VNIR/SWIR segment of the appropriate species by making a straight-line interpolation between 2.5 and 3.0 m.

4.

36

Identified problem areas and data gaps


There appear to be few parts of the visible and infrared spectrum that have insufficient knowledge to complete a database. The question is whether the database contains sufficient knowledge for different snow types, snow depths, illumination types, vegetation cover etc. The main problem with insufficient knowledge is the lack of data for an accurate characterization of the snowpack, especially grain size, but also impurities.

In the case of microwave measurements of snow, there is a lack of generally available instruments to measure the key parameters relevant for microwave remote sensing, specifically: Snow structure (grain size, and shape, correlation length) Liquid water content and its profiles

Some investigations were performed with artificially treated snow (e.g. [32]). It is unclear, how well these experiments are useful for assessing signatures of the natural snow. On the other hand, naturally disturbed snow surfaces are rarely investigated topics. Since snow measurements in the microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum exhibit a highly sensitive response to local density variations, disturbed snow (e.g. by hail, from avalanches, by snow falling from trees, by creeping on slopes) may produce special microwave signatures. Such studies of special features have not yet been reported.

Generally, the distinct microwave signatures of snow is the outcome of the influence of the following parameters: Instrumental parameters (frequency range, incidence angle range, polarization) Geographical area (terrain, underlying snow, vegetation) Climatic area Temporal scale: season, short and longtime variations Typical/special snow conditions

A large number of snow types can develop in areas where snow is persistent for months. Effects by wind, solar radiation, vapor transfer, melting and refreezing and different kinds of precipitation can interact in many ways. Apart from selected special cases the observation so far have been concentrated on typical snowcover conditions as they appear in the investigated areas.

37

The usefulness of a snow signatures for a specific remote sensing application depends on The quality of the microwave measurements The existence, quality and completeness of ground information. Following the definition of the term "microwave signature" in Chapter 1, a simple brightness temperature as measured at a certain frequency and incidence angle without proper knowledge of the state of the object (i.e. ground information) cannot be regarded as a useful signature. Nevertheless, such data should not be discarded. Additional ground information for certain measurements may exist (e.g. from operational weather stations), but one may be unaware of them or they may be not readily accessible. The application and the parameters to be retrieved. For example, certain applications may require signatures at less frequencies, while other require full information at all frequencies and polarizations.

Several problems arise when addressing the uniqueness and representativity of a specific snow signature: At which level can we call a signature complete? For a certain case, measurements at one frequency may not have been performed (e.g. due to an instrumental failure). Should we discard such a signature, interpolate the missing value or extract it from a model? Different research groups may use different instrumental parameters (e.g. frequency). For certain measurement objects, this may pose a serious problem when comparing measurements from different sources, while for other objects the differences may be neglected.

Having these considerations in mind, an exhaustive and detailed overview of data gaps covering the whole range of observational parameters and natural objects can not be presented in this review. This is the scope of a following report. However, a few examples of data gaps are identified already now: Active microwave measurements of snow-free and snow-covered, frozen, rocky or grassy ground at 5.3 and 35 GHz are missing in the catalogue [3]. Passive microwave measurements of these objects were performed with radiometers by Christian Mtzler [11], [12], [13]. The influence of the vegetation (grass, shrubs, short vegetation and trees) on the radar measurements of snowcover was never studied in detail. Similar passive microwave measurements were instead probably performed at HUT. The influence of the underlying ground is very important. The experiments tend to concentrate

38

only on the snow, and little attention is given to the ground. Therefore, contrasting results regarding the effect of the depth of dry snow were for instance observed by Strozzi [1], [2] and Kendra [28] at C-Band. There are virtually no signatures of naturally disturbed snow, e.g. by wind drift, precipitation (rain, hail) and avalanches.

5.

39

References
5.1 Microwave and dielectric measurements

[1]

Weise T., 1993: Millimeter-Wave Signature Studies of Natural Surfaces and Objects: A Literature Survey. Report on Behalf of GR, IAP, University of Bern.

[2]

Ulaby F.T. and Dobson M.C., 1989: Handbook of Radar Scattering Statistics for Terrain. Artech House Inc., Norwood, MA.

[3]

Strozzi T., 1996: Active Microwave Signature Catalogue of Snowcover at 5.3 and 35 GHz. Research Report IAP No. 96-6.

[4]

Strozzi T., A. Wiesmann and C. Mtzler, 1997: Active Microwave Signatures of Snowcovers at 5.3 and 35 GHz. Submitted to Radio Science (in press).

[5]

Ulaby F.T., T.F. Haddock, R.T. Austin, and Y. Kuga, 1991: Millimeter-wave radar scattering from snow: Part II - Comparison of theory with experimental observations. Radio Science, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 343-351.

[6]

Kuga Y., F.T. Ulaby, T.F. Haddock, and R. DeRoo, 1991: Millimeter-wave radar scattering from snow: Part I - Radiative Transfer Model wit Quasi-Crystalline Approximation. Radio Science, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 329-341.

[7]

Ulaby F.T., P. Siqueira, A. Nashashibi and K. Sarabandi, 1996: Semi-Empirical Model for Radar Backscattering from Snow at 35 and 94 GHz. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 34, No. 5, pp. 1059-1065.

[8]

Nashashibi A., F.T. Ulaby and K. Sarabandi, 1996: Measurement and Modeling of the Millimeter-Wave Backscatter Response of Soil Surfaces. IEEE Trans. on Geosc. and Rem. Sens., Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 561-572.

[9]

Hallikainen M.T., 1985: Microwave scattering loss of dry snow. 3rd Int. Colloquium on Spectral Signatures of Objects in Remote Sensing, pp. 289-292, Les Arcs, France, 16-20 December.

[10] Hallikainen M., F.T. Ulaby, and T.E. van Deventer, 1987: Extinction behavior of dry snow in the 18- to 90-GHz range. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. GE-25, No. 6, pp. 737-

40

745. [11] Mtzler C., 1992: Passive Microwave Signature Catalogue 1989-1992. IAP-Report, University of Bern. [12] Mtzler C., 1994: Passive Microwave Signature Catalogue: Volume 2. IAP-Report, University of Bern. [13] Mtzler C., 1994: Passive Microwave Signatures of Landscapes in Winter. Meteorol. Atmos. Phys. 54, pp. 241-260. [14] Wiesmann A., T. Strozzi and T. Weise, 1996: Passive Microwave Signature Catalogue of Snowcovers at 11, 21, 35, 48 and 94 GHz. Research Report IAP No. 96-8. [15] Weise T. and C. Mtzler, 1995: Radiometric and Structural Measurements of Snow Samples. Proceedings of IGARSS, Firenze, pp. 1762-1764. [16] Weise T., 1996: Radiometric and Structural Measurements of Snow. Ph.D.-Thesis, IAP University of Bern. [17] Wiesmann A., T. Weise and C. Mtzler, 1996: Radiometric and Structural Measurements of Snow Samples. 5th Specialist Meeting on Microwave Radiometry and Remote Sensing of the Environment, Boston, MA (paper to published in Radio Science). [18] Baars E.P., H. Essen, 1988: Millimeter-wave backscatter measurements on snow-covered terrain. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 282-299. [19] Berger R., Layman R., Van Zandt T., Walsh J., Knox J., 1985: Observations of the backscatter from snow at millimeter wavelengths. In: Snow Symposium V, Hanover, New Hampshire, August 1985. Vol. 1., U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,

Hanover, NH, CRREL Special Report 86-15, pp. 311-316. [20] Bernier M. and J.-P. Fortin, 1995: The Potential of Time Series of C-Band SAR Data to monitor dry and shallow snow cover. Submitted to IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens. [21] Chang P., J. Mead, S. Lohmeier, P. Langlois, and R. McIntosh, 1992: Two-parameter backscatter model of snowcover at millimeter wavelengths. IEEE Int. Geosci. Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS '92, pp. 1667-1669. [22] Chang P.S., J.B. Mead and R.E. McIntosh, 1994: A Detailed Study of the Backscatter Characteristics of Snowcover Measured at 35, 95 and 225 GHz. Proceedings of IGARSS,

41

Pasadena, CA, pp. 1932-1934. [23] Chang P.S., J.B. Mead, E.J. Knapp, G.A. Sadowy, R.E. Davis and R.E. McIntosh, 1996: Polarimetric Backscatter from Fresh and Metamorphic Snowcover at Millimeter Wavelengths. IEEE Trans. on Antennas and Propagation, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 58-73. [24] Currie N.C., J.D. Echard, M.J. Gary, A.H. Green, T.L. Lane, and J.M. Trostel, 1988: Millimeter-wave measurements and analysis of snow-covered ground. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 307-317. [25] Gubler H. and M. Hiller, 1984: The Use of Microwave FMCW Radar in Snow and Avalanche Research. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 9, pp. 109-119. [26] Haddock T.F., and F.T. Ulaby, 1990: 140-GHz scatterometer system and measurements of terrain. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 492-499. [27] Hallikainen, M., Pulliainen, J., Radar polarimeter measurements of snow. Digest 1989 IEEE Inernational Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS'89), pp. 1829-1831, Vancouver, Canada, 10-14 July 1989. [28] Hayes D.T., U.H.W. Lammers, and R.A. Marr, 1984: Scattering from snow backgrounds at 35, 98, and 140 GHz. Report RADC-TR-84-69, Rome Air Development Center, Air Force Systems Command, Griffis Air Force Base, New York. [29] Kendra J.R., 1995: "Radar Measurements on Artificial Snow of Varying Depth" in Microwave Remote Sensing of Snow: An Empirical/Theoretical Scattering Model for Dense Random Media. Ph.D.-Thesis, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Michigan. [30] Kuga Y., A. Nashashibi, and F.T. Ulaby, 1991: Millimeter-wave polarimetric radar scattering from snow. IEEE Int. Geosci. Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS '91, p. 2309. [31] Lammers U.H.W., D.T. Hayes, and R.A. Marr, 1988: Millimeter-wave multipath measurements on snow cover. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 259-267. [32] Linlor W. I., 1980: Permittivity and attenuation of wet snow between 4 and 12 GHz. J. Appl. Phys. 51(5), May 1980, pp. 2811-2816. [33] Lohmeier S.P., P.M. Langlois, J.G. Colom, R.E. Davis, H.S. Boyne, and R.E. McIntosh, 1992: A comparison of normalized radar cross section measurements and models for snow cover at

42

35, 95 and 225 GHz. IEEE Int. Geosci. Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS '92, pp. 16551657. [34] Mtzler C., 1984: Review of the Radar Experiments of the Seasonal Snow Cover. Workshop on the Interaction of Microwaves with the Seasonal Snow Cover, CRREL, October 17 -19. [35] Mead J.B., P.M. Langlois, P.S. Chang, and R.E. McIntosh, 1991: Polarimetric scattering from natural surfaces at 225 GHz. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagation, Vol. 39, No. 9, pp. 14051411. [36] Mead J.B., P.S. Chang, S.P. Lohmeier, P.M. Langlois, and R.E. McIntosh, 1993: Polarimetric observations and theory of millimeter-wave backscatter from snow cover. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagation, Vol. 41, No. 1, 1993. [37] Narayanan R.M. and R.E. McIntosh, 1990: Millimeter-wave backscatter characteristics of multilayered snow surfaces. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 38, No. 5, pp. 693-703. [38] Nystrom A., A. Stjernman and J. Vivekananden, 1994: Temporal Variations in Radar Backscatterer Coefficients of Vegetation and Snow Cover. Proceedings of IGARSS'94, Pasadna, California, August 8-12, pp. 2483-2485. [39] Rott H. and R.E. Davis, 1993: Multifrequency and Polarimetric SAR Observations Alpine Glaciers. Annals of Gaciology, 17, 1993 [40] Rott H. and T. Nagler, 1993: Capabilities of ERS-1 SAR for Snow and Glacier Monitoring in Alpine Regions. Proceedings of the Second ERS-1 Symposium, 11-14 October, Hamburg, Germany. [41] Rott H., T. Nagler and D.-M. Floricioiu, 1995: Snow and Glacier Parameters Derived from Single Channel and Multi-Parameter SAR. International Symposium on the Retrieval of Bioand Geophysical Parameters from SAR Data for Land Applications. Toulouse, France, 10-13 October. [42] Shi J. and J. Dozier, 1995: Inferring Snow Wetness Using C-Band Data from SIR-C's Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar. IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., Vol. 33, No. 4. [43] Mtzler Ch., Strozzi T., Weise T., Floricioiu D.-M., Rott. H., 1997: Microwave Snowpack Studies Made in the Austrian Alps During the SIR-C/X-SAR Experiment. Int. J. Remote Sensing, 1997 (in press).

43

[44] Strozzi T. and C. Mtzler, 1996: Polarimetric Backscattering Measurements of Alpine Snowcover at 5.3 and 35 GHz. Submitted to IEEE Trans. on Geosc. and Rem. Sens. [45] Strozzi T., A. Wiesmann and C. Mtzler, 1996: Scatterometric Measurements of Snow Samples. In Ph. D. Thesis T. Strozzi, Institute of Applied Physics, University of Bern. [46] Sume A, 1990: Radar reflectivity of land at 94 GHz. FOA Report C 30599-8.2,3.3,

National Defence Research Establishment, Department of Information Technology, Linkping, Sweden. [47] Williams L.D. and J.G. Gallagher, 1987: The relation of millimeter-wavelength backscatter to surface snow properties. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. GE-25, No. 2, pp. 188-193. [48] Williams L.D., J.G. Gallagher, D.E. Sudgen, and R.V. Birnie, 1988: Surface snow properties effects on millimeter-wave backscatter. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 26, No.3, pp. 300-306. [49] Williams L.D., D.E. Sugden, and R.V. Birnie, Millimetric radar backscatter from snowcover. Final report to: Royal Signals and Radar Establishment, Malvern, United Kingdom on Ministry of Defence Agreement No. 2116/017. [50] Chang A.T.C., 1986: Remote sensing of snowpack properties by microwave radiometry. Hydrologic Applications of Space Technology (Proc. of the Cocoa Beach Workshop, Florida, August 1985). IAHS Publ., No. 160, pp. 201-207. [51] Davis R.E., J. Dozier, and A.T.C. Chang, 1987: Snow property measurements correlative to microwave emission at 35 GHz. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. GE-25, No. 6, pp. 751-757. [52] Hallikainen M., 1989: Microwave radiometry of snow. COSPAR, Adv. Space Res., Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 267-275. [53] Hallikainen M., V. Jskelainen, and J. Talvela, 1989: Results from ground-based radiometry of snow. IEEE Int. Geosci. Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS '89, Vol. 3, pp. 1231 - 1234. [54] Hofer R. and C. Mtzler, 1980: Investigations on Snow Parameters by Radiometry in the 3- to 60-mm Wavelength Region. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 85, No. C1. [55] Mtzler C., Aebischer H., Schanda E., 1984: Microwave Dielectric Properties of Surface Snow. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, Vol. OE-9, No. 5, December 1984. pp. 366-371.

44

[56] Jskelinen V., and M. Hallikainen, 1991: Analysis of brightness temperature of snow-covered terrain. IEEE Int. Geosci. Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS '91, pp. 2323-2327. [57] Ruzhentsev N.V. and V.P. Churilov, 1996: Terrain Radiation: Measurement Investigation at 94 GHz. International Journal of Infrared and Millimeter Waves, Vol. 17, No. 2. [58] Sturm M., Grenfell T.C. and D.K. Perovich, 1993: Passive Micorwave Measurements of Tundra and Taiga Snow Covers in Alaska, U.S.A. Annals of Glaciology 17. [59] Bernier P.Y., 1987: Microwave Remote Sensing of Snowpack Properties: Potential and Limitations. Nordic Hydrology, 18, 1-20. [60] Hppi R., 1987: RASAM: A Radiometer-Scatterometer to Measure Microwave Signatures of Soil, Vegetation and Snow. Ph.D.-Thesis, IAP University of Bern. [61] Mtzler C., E. Schanda and W. Good, 1982: Towards the definition of Optimum Sensor Specifications for Microwave Remote Sensing of Snow. IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., Vol. 20, No. 1. [62] Mtzler C., 1987: Applications of the interaction of microwaves with the natural snow cover. Remote Sensing Reviews, Vol. 2, pp. 259-387, 1987. [63] Mtzler C., and R. Hppi, 1989: Review of signature studies for microwave remote sensing of snowpacks. COSPAR, Adv. Space Res., Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 253-265, 1989. [64] Mtzler C., T. Weise, T. Strozzi, D. Floricioiu and H. Rott, 1996: Microwave Snowpack Studies Made in the Austrian Alps During the SIR-C-X Experiments in April 1994. Research Report IAP No. 96-3. [65] Reber B., C. Mtzler, and E. Schanda, 1987: Microwave signatures of snow crusts: modelling and measurements. Int. J. Remote Sensing, Vol. 8, No. 11, pp. 1649-1665. [66] Rott H., K. Sturm and H. Miller, 1993: Active and Passive Microwave Signatures of Antartic Firn by Means of Filed Measurements and Satellite data. Annals of Glaciology, 17. [67] Stiles W.H. and Ulaby F.T:, 1980: The Active and Passive Microwave Response to Snow Parameters. 1. Wetness. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 85, No. C2, pp. 1037-1044. [68] Strozzi T., T. Weise, and C. Mtzler, 1992: Ground-based experiments of snow for validation of ERS-1 SAR data. Report, Institute of Applied Physics, University of Bern. [69] Ulaby F.T. and Stiles W.H., 1980: The Active and Passive Microwave Response to Snow

45

Parameters. 2.. Water Equivalent of Dry Snow. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 85, No. C2, pp. 1045-1049. [70] Ulaby F.T., R.K. Moore and A.K. Fung: Microwave Remote Sensing: Active and Passive, Vol. I (1981) + II (1982) + III (1986). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. [71] Boyarskii D.A., Tikhonov V.V., 1994: Microwave Effective Permittivity Model of Media of Dielectric Particles and Applications to Dry and Wet Snow. Proc. IGARSS'94, pp. 2065-2067. [72] Denoth A., 1989: Snow Dielectric Measurements. Adv. Space Res., Vol. 9, No.1, pp. (1)233(1)243. [73] Hallikainen M., 1992: Review of the microwave dielectric and extinction properties of sea ice and snow. IEEE Int. Geosci. Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS '92, pp. 961-965. [74] Hallikainen M., Ulaby F.T., Abdelrazik M., 1986: Dielectric Properties of Snow in the 3 to 37 GHz Range. IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, Vol. AP-34, No. 11, November 1986, pp.1329-1339. [75] Hallikainen M.T., Ulaby F.T., van Deventer T.E., 1987: Extinction Behavior of Dry Snow in the 18- to 90 GHz Range. IEEE Trans. Geosc. and Remote Sensing. Vol. GE-25 No. 6, November 1987, pp.737-745. [76] Kendra J.R., F.T. Ulaby and K. Sarabandi, 1994: Snow Probe for In Situ Determination of Wetness and Density. IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., Vol. 32, No. 6, pp.1152-1159. [77] Koh G., 1992: Dielectric properties of ice and snow at 26.5 to 40 GHz. IEEE Int. Geosci. Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS '92, pp. 820-822. [78] Lytle V.I. and K.C. Jezek, 1994: Dielectric Permittivity and Scattering Measurements of Greenland Firn at 26.5-40 GHz. IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., Vol. 32, No. 2. [79] Mtzler C., 1995: Microwave Properties of Ice and Snow. International Symposium on Solar System Ices, Toulouse, France, 27-30 March. [80] Mtzler C., 1996: Microwave Permittivity of Dry Snow. IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., Vol. 34, No. 2, pp.573-581. [81] Mtzler C., Wegmller U., 1987: Dielectric properties of fresh-water ice at microwave frequencies. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys 20 (1987), pp. 1623-1630. Erratum, Vol. 21 (1988), p.1660. [82] Shivola A., Tiuri M., 1986: Snow Fork for Field Determination of the Density and Wetness

46

Profiles of a Snow Pack.. IEEE Trans. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. GE-24, No. 5, September 1986. pp. 717-721. [83] Tiuri M., Shivola A., Nyfors E.G., Hallikainen M.T., 1984: The Complex Constant of Snow at Microwave Frequencies. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, Vol. OE-9, No. 5, December 1984, pp. 377-382. [84] hreneder C., 1995: Funktionsanalyse des Mikrowellen-Radio-Scatterometers RSM und Signature-Messung ber alpiner Grasheide (diploma thesis). Institut fr Meteorologie und Geophysik, Leopold-Franzens-Universitt Innsbruck / Institut fr Nachrichtentechnik und Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universitt Wien.

The following references provide further information on snow signatures, but were not reviewed in detail:

[85] Retrieval of Geophysical Parameters with Integrated Modelling of Land Surfaces and Atmosphere (Models/Inversion Algorithms). Task Report for Work Packages I and II, ESTEC Contract No. 11706/95/NL/NB(SC). HUT, IAP, GAMMA, September 1996. [86] Aschbacher J., H. Rott, 1989: Microwave emission of snow-covered and snow-free terrain from satellite measurements. COSPAR, Adv. Space Res., Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 289-295. [87] Chang A.T.C., J.L. Foster and A. Rango, 1991: Utilization of surface cover composition to improve the microwave determination of snow water equivalent in a mountain basin. Int. J. Remote Sensing, Vol.12, No. 11, pp. 2311-2319. [88] Fiore J.V. Jr. and N.C. Grody, 1992: Classification of snow cover and precipitation using SSM/I measurements: case studies. Int. J. Remote Sensing, Vol.13, No. 17, pp. 3349-3361. [89] Hiltbrunner D., 1996: Land Surface Temperature and Microwave Emissivity from SSM/I Data. PhD Thesis, Institute of Applied Physics, University of Bern, 1996. [90] Nagler T. and H. Rott, 1992: Development and intercomparisons of snow mapping algorithms based on SSM/I data. IGARSS '92.

[91] Srivastav S.K. and R.P. Singhi, 1991: Microwave radiometry of snow-covered terrains. Int. J. Remote Sensing, Vol.12, No. 10, pp. 2117-2131.

47

[92] Wang J.R., A.T.C. Chang and A.K. Sharma, 1991: Estimation of total precipitable water and snow cover in Alaska using radiometric measurements near 90 and 183 GHz. Proc. IGARSS '91, IEEE Cat. No. 91CH2971-0, Vol. 4, pp. 1961-1964. [93] Wang J.R., A.T.C. Chang and A.K. Sharma, 1992: On the estimation of snow depth from microwave radiometric measurements. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 30, No. 4. [94] Stiles W.H., F.T. Ulaby and A. Rango, 1981: Microwave measurements of snowpack properties. Nordic Hydrology, Vol. 12, pp. 143-166. [95] West R., L. Tsang, D.P. Winebrenner and Y. Kuga, 1992: Extinction behaviour of snow between 18 GHz and 90 GHz: comparison between theory and experiments. IGARSS '92. [96] Boyarskij D.A., V.V. Dmitriev, N.I. Kleeorin and V.G. Mirovskij, 1993: Theoretical and experimental studies of snow covers microwave emissivity. J. Electrom. Waves. Apll., Vol. 7, pp. 959-970. [97] Chang A.P., P. Gloersen, T Schmugge, T. Wilheit and H. Zwally, 1976: Microwave emission from snow and clacier ice. J. of Glaciology, Vol. 16, pp. 23-39. [98] Hallikainen M., F.T. Ulaby and M. Abdelrazik, 1986: Dielectric properties of snow in the 3 to 37 GHz range. IEEE Trans. on Ant. and Prop., Vol. 34, No. 11, pp. 1329-1340. [99] Hallikainen M. and V. Jskelinen, 1988: Microwave emission behaviour of snow. IGARSS'88, pp. 437-438. [100] Hallikainen M. and P. Jolma, 1992: Comparison of algorithms for retrieval of snow water equivalent from Nimbus-7 SMMR data in Finnland. IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 124-131. [101] Jskelinen V., 1991: Thermal emission from snow-covered terrain. M.Sc. Thesis, HUT. [102] Kong J. and R. Shin, 1979: Theory and experimental results for passive microwave remote sensising of snowpack. J. of Geophysical Research, Vol. 84, pp. 5669-5673. [103] Kurvonen L., 1994: Radiometer measurements of snow in Sodankyl 1991-93. HUT, Laboratory of Space Technology, Report 16. [104] Sherjal I. and M. Fily, 1994: Temporal variations of brightness temepratures over Antartica. Annals of Glaciology, Vol. 20, pp. 19-25. [105] Stogryn A., 1986: A study of the micorwave brightness temperature of snow from the point of

48

view of strong fluctuation theory. IEEE Trans. Geosc. Rem. Sens., Vol. 19, pp. 733-736.

5.2

49

Visible and infrared measurements [106] Breece, H. T. and Holmes, R. A., 1971: Bidirectional scattering characteristics of healthy green soybean and corn leaves in vivo: Applied Optics, v. 10, p. 119-127. [107] Biehl, L. L., Daughtry, C. S. T., and Bauer, M. E., 1984: Vegetation and soils field research data base: Experiment summaries, LARS Technical Report 042382, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 21 pp. [108] Condit, H. R., 1970: The spectral reflectance of American soils: Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, v. 36, p. 955-966. [109] Deering, D. W., 1989: Field measurements of bidirectional reflectance: in Theory and Applications of Optical Remote Sensing, .edited by G. Asrar, J. Wiley and Sons, New York, p. 14-61. [110] Deering, D. W. and Leone, P., 1984: A sphere-scanning radiometer for rapid directional measurements of sky and ground radiance: The PARABOLA field instrument: NASA Technical Memorandum 86171, 87 pp. [111] Dozier, J., and Warren, S. G., 1982: Effect of viewing angle on the infrared brightness temperature of snow: Water resources Research, Vol. 18, pp. 1424- 1434. [112] Eaton, F. D., and Dirmhirn, I., 1979: Reflected irradiance indicatrices of natural surfaces and their effect on albedo: Applied Optics, v. 18, p. 994-1008. [113] Gates, D. M., Kegan, H. J., Schleter, J. C., and Weidner, V. R., 1965: Spectral properties of plants: Applied Optics, v. 4, p. 11-20. [114] Grenfell T.C., D.K. Perovich and J.A. Ogren, 1981: Spectral albedos of an alpine snowpack, Cold Regions Science and Technology, Vol. 4, pp. 121-127. [115] Hall, D.K., J.L. Foster, J.R. Irons, and P.W. Dabney, 1993: Airborne bidirectional radiances of snow covered surfaces in Montana, USA, Annals of Glaciology, Vol. 17: pp. 35-40. [116] Kimes, D. S., 1984: Modeling the directional reflectance from complete homogeneous vegetation canopies with various leaf-orientation distributions: Jour. of the Optical Society of America, Vol. 1, pp. 725-737. [117] C. Mtzler, 1997: "Autocorrelation functions of granular media with free arrangement of spheres, spherical shells or ellipsoids", J. Applied Physics., to appear Febr. 1 (1997).

50

[118] Norman, J.M., and Balick, L. K., 1992: Directional temperature and emissivity of vegetation: Model and measurements: Abstracts of the World Space Congress, 28 August-5 September, 1992, Washington, DC, p. 320. [119] Ranson, K. F., Daughtry, C. S. T., Biehl, L L.., and Bauer, M. E., 1985: Sun-view angle effects on reflectance factors of corn canopies: Remote Sensing of Environment, Vol. 18, p. 147-161. [120] Salisbury, J. W. and D'Aria, D. M., 1992: Emissivity of terrestrial materials in the 8-14 m atmospheric window: Remote Sensing of Environment, v. 42, p. 83-106. [121] Salisbury, J. W. and Milton, N. M., 1988: Thermal infrared (2.5 to 13.5-5m) directional hemispherical reflectance of leaves: Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, Vol. 54, p. 1301-1304. [122] Salisbury, J. W., DAria, D. M., and Wald, A. E., 1994: Measurements of thermal infrared spectral reflectance of frost, snow, and ice: Jour. of Geophysical Research, Vol. 99, pp.2423524240. [123] Shepard, M. K., Arvidson, R. E., and Guinness, E. A., 1993: Specular scattering on terrestrial playas and implications for planetary surface studies: Jour. of Geophysical Research, v. 98, p. 18707-18718. [124] Stoner, E. R., Baumgardner, M. F. Biehl, L. L., and Robinson, B. F., 1980: Atlas of soil Reflectance properties: Research Bulletin 962, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN. [125] Wald, A. E., 1994: Modeling thermal infrared (2-14 m) reflectance of frost and snow: Jour. of Geophysical Research, v. 99, p. 24241-24250. [126] Warren, S. G., T. C. Grenfell, and P. C. Mullen, 1986: Optical properties of Antarctic snow, Antarctic Journal of the United States, v.21, p. 247-248 . [127] Warren S.T., 1982: Optical properties of snow. Reviews of Geophysics and Space Science, Vol. 20, pp. 67-89 (1982). [128] Wiscombe W.J. and S.G. Warren, 1980: "A model for the spectral albedo of snow, I. pure snow", J. Atmosph. Sciences, Vol. 37, pp. 2712-2733.

51

SNOW-TOOLS Project Participants


Project Coordinator:
Tore Guneriussen NORUT Information Technology Ltd. 9005 Troms, Norway Phone: +47 776 29421 Fax:+47 776 29401 E-mail: tore.guneriussen@itek.norut.no

Contractors:
Martti Hallikainen Helsinki University of Technology Otakari 5 A, FIN-02150 Espoo Finland Phone: +358-9-451 237 Fax: +358-9-451 2898 E-mail: hallikainen@avanet.hut.fi Andrew Harrison University of Bristol University Road Bristol BS8 1 SS UK Phone:+44 117 9288303 Fax:+44 117 9287878 E-mail: a.r.harrison@bristol.ac.uk Sjur Kolberg SINTEF, Civil and Environmental Engineering N-7034 Trondheim Norway Phone: + 47 73 59 60 94 Fax:+47 73 59 02 01 E-mail: sjur.A.kolberg@civil.sintef.no Christian Mtzler University of Bern Sidlerstr. 5, CH 3012 Bern Switzerland Phone: +41 316 314589 Fax: +41 316 313765 E-mail: matzler@iap.unibe.ch Rune Solberg Norwegian Computing Center Box 114 Blindern N-0314 Norway Phone: +47 22 85 25 00 Fax: + 47 22 69 76 60 E-mail: rune.solberg@nr.no Co-worker: Josef Noll ESA/ESTEC, Postbus 299AG, Noordwijk Netherland Phone: 31-71-565-5158 Fax: 31-71-565-4999 E-mail: josef@xe.estec.esa.nl

52

53

You might also like