Research on Humanities and Social Sciences ISSN 2222-1719 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2863 (Online) Vol.3, No.

6, 2013

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Influences of the Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Graduate Social Studies Teachers on Questions they set in Senior High Schools in Ghana
Prof. Augustine Yao Quashigah Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Education-Winneba, Ghana. E-mail: ayquasgigah@uew.edu.gh. Tel: +233-208 079 183. Isaac Eshun Environmental/Social Studies Tutor, Enchi College of Education. Post Office Box 44, Enchi-Western Region, Ghana. E-mail: isaac_eshun@ymail.com. Tel: +233-266 634 610. Michael Franklin Mensah Environmental/Social Studies Tutor, Agogo College of Education. Post Office Box 26, Agogo-Ashanti Region, Ghana. E-mail: m.mensah90@yahoo.com. Tel: +233-205 883 720 Abstract This study investigated the pedagogical content knowledge of Social Studies teachers and their assessment practices in Senior High Schools in Ghana. This research question guided the study: How does trained graduate Social Studies teachers pedagogical content knowledge influence the questions they set at the Senior High School level? A sequential mixed method design was used for the study. Data from questionnaire was triangulated with interviews and document analysis of teachers questions designed for students end of term examination. Non-probability sampling method, that is, convenience and purposive sampling techniques, were used to select the sample of districts, schools and respondents for the study. In all, seventy-two (72) Social Studies teachers were selected from twelve (12) Senior High Schools. The data suggest that teachers conception of the subject influences their classroom assessment. Most teachers said they set questions that enhance the development of students conceptual understanding or problem-solving skills. However, there were irreconcilable differences between what teachers said they assessed and what they actually assessed. Key-Words: Social Studies. Content of Social Studies. Social Studies questions. Pedagogical content knowledge of Social Studies. 1. Introduction and Background According to Parkay and Stanford (2001), effective teachers use a repertoire of teaching models and assessment strategies depending upon their situations and the goals and objectives they wish to attain. Instruction would be viewed as incomplete if it is not assessed (Ajiboye, 2009). Ajiboye posited that assessment plays an integral role in teaching and learning of Social Studies. This implies that assessment is a dynamic process and should be based on the objectives which have been clearly selected from the content taught. In Ghana today, there has been general consensus that the fundamental purpose of Social Studies is Citizenship Education. This goes to support the view of the National Council for Social Studies (1996:23) in America that: The primary purpose of Social Studies is to help young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse democratic society in an interdependent world. The emphasis of Social Studies is on developing the relevant knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that will enable learners to make reflective decisions and act on them to solve both their personal and societal problems. This goes to say that there is the need for effective assessment towards the attainment of the goals of Social Studies whereby all the domains of educational objectives need to be taken care off. However, according to Eshun and Mensah (2013:194) test items addressed in the end of term examination in Social Studies were mainly those measuring cognitive outcomes. Within the cognitive domain, the only levels which were covered are knowledge of recall and a little bit of comprehension. More objective test questions were used than the essay type of questions. This implies in assessing end of term examination Social Studies teachers do not pay attention to the affective and the skills acquisition by their students, but concentrate on the cognitive domain. In teaching and learning of Social Studies, assessment plays an integral role. According to Oguneye (2002), assessment is a means whereby the teacher obtains information about knowledge gains, behavioural changes and other aspects of the development of learners. Assessment is used for different purposes within different levels of
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the educational system. For example, external assessment in most cases serves as accountability measures and, as a result, they induce teachers to devote significant amounts of instructional time to preparing students to excel in these examinations even when those examinations do not match the curricula. However, the primary aim of assessment is to foster learning of worthwhile academic content for all students. Education reformers agree that assessment and instruction are two sides of a coin and that an invisible thread connects assessment, curriculum and teaching in the service of learning (Kathy, 2000). Unfortunately, when we think of assessment, we think of the traditional tests. But Odetoyinbo (2004) citing Noori (1993) submitted that she was of contrary opinion when she stated that for years, tests have been designed to reflect the positivisticquantitative paradigm and have been developed to ensure that children are learning the basics. The assessment practices employed by the teacher is equally important as the other aspects of curriculum such as objectives and instructional strategies to be employed especially when assessment strategies are employed as instructional tools rather than measurement tool but unfortunately the core curriculum is silent on this issue. Assessment is expected not only to take care of students knowledge and comprehension but, beyond that, evaluation of skills, growth in application, analysis, synthesis as well as development of positive attitude are important. Educational researchers have always emphasized the three domains of educational objectives, which are: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Cognitive domain mainly emphasizes remembering or reproducing information, which have been learnt. This domain is knowledge or mind based. Affective domain emphasizes feelings and emotion. It also deals with behavioural aspects and beliefs. Psychomotor deals with manipulation of materials and objectives (Krathwohl & Bloom, 1993). It is important, therefore, for the Social Studies teacher to be familiar with the major objectives in the subject area in order to practice formulating objectives in all the domains of learning for specific topics following the different classifications by Bloom (1956), Krathwohl (1956) and Taba (1962). It appears that instructional testing has always placed more emphasis on the low-order level of thinking. The quality of test depends on the ability of the individual to capture most if not all the skills in thinking, from the content taught in the curriculum. A well-set test requires a skilful individual. Thus in most of the private and public schools, standardized tests have been employed (Lyman, 1998). It should also be noted that students learn best when they are asked questions that would require them to apply the skill on thinking and reasoning as suggested by Bloom, since application of them would promote citizenship. So, Social Studies teachers need to employ them as practice to prepare the child for citizenship responsibility. This brings the researchers to the issue of the questions teachers use in assessing students in the teaching and learning of Social Studies. One of the major duties of a Social Studies teacher is to promote thought and inspire inquiry in students, and one effective way of doing this, is through proper questioning in the classroom. Caram and Davis (2005) emphasized that, when teachers questions are used correctly, it can enhance student learning by developing critical thinking skills, reinforce student understanding, correct student misunderstanding, provide feedback for students and enliven classroom discussions. Teachers questions are of significant values for many instructional purposes, eliciting student reflection and challenging deeper student understanding and engagement in the classroom. According to Croom and Stair (2005), classroom questions are best used as problem-solving tools to help indicate students academic progress or to assess students critical thinking skills. This was supported by Vogler (2005) that questions can monitor comprehension, help make connections to prior learning and can stimulate cognitive growth. Classroom teachers are aware that it is possible to transfer factual knowledge and conceptual understanding through the process of asking questions. The problem under study is that, the pedagogical content knowledge of Social Studies teachers and their assessment practices are seemingly affecting the teaching and attainment of the objectives of Social Studies adversely at the Senior High School level in Ghana. Social Studies assessment, with a focus on the affective domain, occupies a critical position in both Junior High School and Senior High School curriculum in Ghana. The success of instruction can only be determined by a proper evaluation; hence it is important that teachers possess the necessary skills for affective evaluation. Pierre and Oughton (2007), claim that although many college teachers outline and plan lesson with affective outcomes, they fail to indicate how these will be taught and evaluated. This implies that there is an existence of an enormous gap between intended objectives and actual classroom practices in the teaching of Social Studies in Ghana. On this note, the purpose of the study is to provide an empirical basis for the background knowledge of Social Studies teachers and what they emphasize in their assessment in Social Studies at the Senior High Schools in Ghana. The research therefore sought to answer the question: How does the graduate Social Studies teachers pedagogical content knowledge influence the questions they set at the Senior High School level?
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2. Literature Review on Effective Assessment The Curriculum Research and Development Division of Ghana (CRDD, 2007; 2010) assert that Social Studies prepares the individual to fit into society by equipping him/her with knowledge about the culture and ways of life of their society, its problems, its values and its hopes for the future. This implies that teachers pedagogical content knowledge of Social Studies should be geared towards imbuing in student rightful ideals. It is obvious that instruction would be viewed as incomplete if it is not assessed. Assessment plays an integral role in the teaching and learning of Social Studies. Ajiboye (2009) views assessment as the process of gathering information about a student in order to make decisions about his or her education. Sharing a similar view, Rowntree (1987) asserts that, assessment in education occurs whenever one person interprets information and/or makes comment about the knowledge, comprehension, aptitude and/or mind-set of another. These imply that effective assessment in Social Studies education should not only aimed at finding out how much a learner or student has acquired in terms of learning skills but also takes into consideration the personal-social development of the student. Assessment is used for different purposes within different levels of the educational system. For instance, at the Senior High school level, external assessment in most cases serves as accountability measures and as a result they induce teachers to devote significant amounts of instructional time to preparing students to excel in these examinations. Traditionally, the primary aim of assessment is to foster learning of worthwhile academic content for all students. Education reformers agree that assessment and instruction are two sides of a coin and that an invisible thread connects assessment, curriculum and teaching in the service of learning (Kathy, 2000). This implies effective assessment is not just about the traditional tests. Odetoyinbo (2004) citing Noori (1993) submitted that for years, tests have been designed to reflect the positivistic-quantitative paradigm and have been developed to ensure that young people are learning the basics. A significant number of research has focused on ascertaining what effective assessment practice involves. It is suggested that there are four key principles which underpin effective assessment. They are that assessment is: (i) constructively aligned with the curriculum, teaching and learning, (ii) methodologically varied and valid, (iii) learning-oriented, and (iv) supported by clearly articulated criteria for success (Black & William, 1998; Biggs, 2003; Earl, 2003; James, 2006; Harlen, 2007; Aitken & Sinnema, 2008; Brown, Irving & Keegan, 2008; Gronlund & Waugh, 2009; Miller & Gronlund, 2009). These philosophical principles are often exhibited in teachers assessment practices through the six characteristics of effective assessment shown in Table 1 below.

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Table 1: Characteristics of Effective Assessment Characteristics Description

Reflective Planning Questions for Teachers What types of knowledge, understanding, or skills does the teacher expect his/her students to demonstrate? How will s/he measure these?

Clearly defined Simple and more complex intended a) outcomes of learning outcomes of the learning expressed in measurable statements of expected performance. b)

Constructively aligned

Assessment tasks reflect what has been Is there clear alignment taught and align with learning outcomes assessment task and what: that have been derived from the a) I taught my students? curriculum. b) I wanted them to learn?

between

this

Varied

A variety of assessment procedures are a) What type(s) of assessment task(s) could I used to assess learning like lower level use to assess this learning? and higher level questions. b) Have I given students multiple opportunities to demonstrate this learning? c) Have I catered for the specific needs of my students?

Valid and fair

The sample of learning that is selected to a) Will this assessment task allow me to be assessed provides accurate make accurate judgements about what I information about students mastery of wanted my students to learn? the intended learning. The assessment b) Have I considered the specific needs of my programme caters for students diverse students in designing this task? learning needs and minimises bias.

Clearly defined success criteria

Clearly defined performance criteria are a) constructed for each intended learning outcome so teachers and students have a good sense of the expected level of b) performance.

Is there clear demarcation between the various levels of achievement in my marking rubric? Will students understand what I expect them to do?

Assessment tasks aimed at assessing the a) Has this assessment task generated the same learning generate very similar types of results I expected? results. There is consistency between the b) Are my judgements the same as my judgements of all teachers who colleagues? administer the same assessment task. (Adapted from Brown, et al., 2008; Gronlund & Waugh, 2009; Miller, et al., 2009) The descriptions in column two describe the practical manifestations of these characteristics and that of column three highlights some of the reflective questions that teachers have been found to ask when constructing effective programmes of assessment. The characteristics of, and the principle which underpin, effective assessment need to be viewed as an interconnected whole. Clearly defined and measurable learning outcomes that are constructively aligned with curriculum goals and teaching and learning programmes mean teacher can potentially design assessment tasks that: (i) are relevant, (ii) assess things of value, (iii) challenge students thinking, and (iv) reinforce what they have learnt (Earl, 2003; Aitken & Sinnema, 2008; Brown et al, 2008; Grant & Salinas, 2008). This constructive alignment helps to improve the validity of any assessment and increases the chances of students viewing assessment as a non-threatening, integral part of their learning programme (Earl, 2003; Gronlund & Waugh,
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2009). Assessment that is manageable for students and teachers, varied in application and type, and reliably more accurately captures and conveys students achievements (Black & William, 1998; Harlen, 2007). One of the key principles of effective assessment described above is that it should be aligned with curriculum goals and teaching, and learning programmes. According to Ajiboye (2009), assessment is a dynamic process and should be based on the objectives of the subject in question, which have been clearly selected from the content taught. In the view of Parkay and Stanford (2001), effective teachers use a repertoire of teaching models and assessment strategies, depending upon their situations and the goals and objectives they wish to attain. This goes to say that an effective teacher makes use of effective and varied assessments which increase potential and cognitive skills as well as other domains of learning in students. However, in testing, questioning skills have become significant skills, which is apparent if we are to measure students thinking skills and attitudinal or behavioural change. Questioning is fundamental to learning because all knowledge start from a question. It is for this reason that some educators regard questioning as one of the first teaching skills of an effective teacher. Studies on what Social Studies teachers actually do in their classrooms show that approximately 30% of their class time is spent in verbally asking questions. Another quarter is devoted to reviewing, giving, grading test questions (ASESP, 1990). In short, on the average, about half of Social Studies class time is devoted to asking questions. It is necessary to study the types of questions that are being used to measure students attitudes and critical thinking skills in the Social Studies class. The use of questioning in teaching is as old as the Greek Philosopher, Socrates in the fifth century, when he used a method of questioning to challenge assumptions, expose contradictions, and lead to new knowledge and understanding (Harrop & Swinson, 2003). Questions have been labelled as the single most influential teaching act (Taba, Levine & Elzey, 1964). Similarly, Hunkins (1976:2) states, the question is of paramount importancewithout the question there is no processing of information. Reviews of research findings on questioning contend that it is an effective way to stimulate student interaction, thinking and learning (Wilen, Ishler, Hutchinson, & Kindsvatter, 2000). When assessing students understandings of what is read or taught, teachers have historically engaged in question asking (Dunkin, 1978; Raphael & Wonnacott, 1985). Whether written or oral, questions serve as powerful cues as to what teachers value in the text or lecture. By analyzing teachers questions, we have the ability to understand what the teacher values or their instructional objectives. Analysis of teachers questioning behaviours is by no means a new area of interest. As early as the 1900s, teachers questions were in the forefront of educational research. Stevens (1912) found that approximately eighty percent of a teachers instructional time was spent in asking questions. Over sixty years later, Leven and Long (1981) found that teachers were asking anywhere between 300 - 400 questions per day. Studies conducted by Appalachia Educational Laboratory (1994), Gall (1971) and Graessar & Person (1994) also reveal that, teachers questions vary from 30 to 120 questions per hour. Recent research on teacher questioning behaviours and patterns shows that this has not changed (e.g., Brualdi, 1998; Kawanaka & Stigler, 1999; Cotton, 2003). In other words, classrooms are still dominated with mostly teacher talk (Kawanaka & Stigler, 1999). These findings support that questioning sessions vary tremendously between teachers, settings, and situations. Questions in Social Studies, just as in the other subjects, play many different roles and serve a variety of purposes in the classroom and teachers have the daunting task of knowing what questions to ask, when to ask those questions, where to ask those questions, why to ask those questions and how to ask those questions. We wish to argue further that questioning is intimately associated with effective assessment practices. Good classroom questions act as prompts that help students to develop meaning as they engage content presented in Social Studies lessons. That is why some authorities regard teachers as professional question askers (Aschner, Gallagher, Perry & Asfar, 1961). Asking a good question is, however, a planned strategy; a sophisticated art which only few teachers are proficient. Students learn best when they are asked stimulating questions rather than being lectured to. This means that students learn best when they are asked different levels of questions. The foregoing shows that the Social Studies teacher needs to help his/her students to gain relevant knowledge, skills and right values about important information. 3. Methodology Both qualitative and quantitative (mixed method) was employed for this study. According to Hantrais (2005:399), attempts to make sense of variety have led to a blurring of the traditional methodological divide between quantitative and qualitative paradigms, opening up new perspectives and creating opportunities for synergies and complementarities. A sequential mixed method design was used to investigate the influence of the pedagogical content knowledge of Social Studies teachers in Senior High Schools (SHSs) in Ghana. Triangulation was used in order to test the consistency of findings obtained through different instruments used, whilst complementarity clarifies and illustrates results from one method with the use of another method.
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The target population for this present study comprised all graduates Social Studies teachers teaching the subject in Senior High Schools at Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan in the Western Region of the Republic of Ghana. The sample size for the study was seventy-two (72) Social Studies teachers teaching the subject. Non-probability sampling methods such as convenience and purposive sampling techniques were employed by the researchers to select the sample of district, schools and respondents (teachers) for the study. The Table 2 below shows the number of schools and respondents (teachers) selected for the study. Table 2: Number of Schools and Respondents Selected for the Study Name of School No. of Teachers Percent (%) Adiembra Senior High School Ahantaman Girls Senior High School Archbishop Porter Girls Senior High School Bompeh Secondary Technical School Diabene Secondary Technical School Fijai Senior High School Ghana Secondary Technical School Methodist Senior High School Sekondi College St. John's Senior High School Takoradi Senior High School Takoradi Technical Institute 5 4 4 9 8 7 5 6 7 5 5 7 6.9 5.6 5.6 12.5 11.2 9.7 6.9 8.4 9.7 6.9 6.9 9.7

Total 72 100.0 The Table 2 above shows the number of schools and respondents (Social Studies teachers) used for the study. Seventy-two teachers were selected out of the twelve Senior High Schools at Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan in the Western Region of Ghana. The researchers used close ended three-point Likert scale questionnaire administered to seventy-two (72) Social Studies teachers in the Senior High Schools, semi-structured items for ten (10) trained Social Studies teachers at Senior High School level and documents on Social Studies end of term examination questions and observation of teachers, whilst they teach a final year class. Data collection was done through the administration of questionnaire, interview and documents on Social Studies end of term examination questions. The question papers provided by five teachers were used for their end of second term examination for the third year students at the time of conducting the research. The examination papers were in two sections (A and B). The section A part of the paper was made up of objective tests whilst, section B part constituted the essay type of test. In all, a total of two hundred and ninety nine (299) questions were collected from the five teachers. The researchers used descriptive statistics to interpret the data from questionnaire. The qualitative data (end of term exams papers and interviews) was analyzed by the use of the interpretive method based on the themes arrived at in the data collection. Documents on Social Studies teachers end of term examination questions were also analyzed according to the Blooms taxonomy (Bloom, et al. 1964). 4. Influences of the Teachers Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Social Studies on Assessment The section is discussed under two sub-themes: 4.1 teachers understanding of Social Studies assessment and types of questions ought to be used; and 4.2 teachers perception of the nature and content of Social Studies questions. 4.1 Teachers understanding of Social Studies assessment and types of questions used The outcome is presented in Table 3 below:

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Table 3: Teachers Assessment and Types of Questions they used in Social Studies Items 1. Social Studies assessment should emphasis on gathering of information on the knowledge gained, behavioural changes and other aspects of the development of learners. 2. Questions in Social Studies should enhance the development of students conceptual understanding / problem solving. 3. Social Studies should emphasis on essay type of test. 4. Social Studies tests should emphasis on objective type of test. Responses from Questionnaire D (%) U (%) A (%) Total (%)

1(1.4)

10 (13.9)

61 (84.7)

72 (100)

1(1.4) 26 (36.1) 48 (66.7)

2 (2.8) 22 (30.6) 17 (23.6)

69 (95.8) 24 (33.3) 7(9.7)

72 (100) 72 (100) 72 (100)

D Disagree, U Undecided, A - Agree When this question was asked Social Studies assessment should emphasis on gathering of information on the knowledge gained, behavioural changes and other aspects of the development of learners shows that out of the 72 respondents, 61 (84.7%) agreed, 10 (13.9%) were not certain and only 1 (1.4%) disagreed. This indicates that most of the respondents agreed that Social Studies assessment should emphasize on gathering of information on the knowledge gained, behavioural changes and other aspects of the development of learners. When this question was asked Questions in Social Studies should enhance the development of students conceptual understanding/problem solving reveal that out of the 72 respondents, 69 (95.8%) agreed, 2 (2.8%) were not certain and only 1 (1.4%) disagreed. The above shows that almost all the respondents agreed that questions in Social Studies should enhance the development of students conceptual understanding or problem solving skills. The data on item 3 which is Social Studies should emphasize on essay type of test reveals that 24 (33.3%) out of the 72 respondents agreed, 22 (30.6%) were not certain and the remaining 26 (36.1%) disagreed. The above shows that as many as 26 (36.1%) respondents disagreed that Social Studies should emphasize on essay type of test. Also, on item 4 which reads Social Studies test should emphasize on objective type of test shows that out of the 72 respondents, 7 (9.7%) agreed, 17 (23.6%) were not certain and 48 (66.7%) disagreed. The above result indicates that most of the respondents disagreed to the issue that Social Studies test should emphasize on objective type of test. For clarification purposes on the responses to items 3 and 4 of Table 3, item on the interview guide which reads what are the types of questions you use to assess your students was asked. The result from this item indicates that out of 10 respondents interviewed, 8 (80.0%) said that they use both objectives and essay questions to assess their students in Social Studies, whilst 2 (10.0%) said they use questions such as essay and project work. The findings show that most of the interviewees used both objective and essay type of questions. This means, lower and higher order level questions are used by majority of the respondents. This shows that the response gathered on item 10 of the interview guide from respondents does not support the responses given to items 3 and 4 of Table 3. Analysing their test items contradict what they indicated in the questionnaire and the interviews conducted. Teachers were further interviewed on the theme after they have responded to the items on questionnaire for proper clarification. In discussing this under the above sub-theme emphasis was placed on teachers aim of assessment in Social Studies and types of questions they set. Interpretative technique was used to analyze the findings. Items 2 and 3 of the interview guide were considered in analyzing this research sub-theme. This subtheme was investigated through face to face interview. Item 2 on the interview guide reads How do you know whether your instructional objectives have been achieved? The data on item 2 of the interview reveals that out of the 10 interviewees, 8 (80.0%) said that they use assessment by asking oral and written questions, and project work to know whether their instructional objectives have been achieved, whilst 2 (20.0%) said that they use evaluation by asking oral questions only. This shows that most of the Social Studies teachers interviewed assess their students in class to find out whether their institutional objectives have been achieved. Item 3 on the interview guide reads What is the purpose of your assessment? With the above question, the respondents have the following to say. Richard (not real name) said that, one of the purposes of my assessment
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is to enable me to assess myself in terms of my methods of teaching and strategies employed To identify those students who were able to absorb what I taught Finally, to find out what I taught has been understood by students. Maxwell also has this to say the purpose of my assessment is to inform me whether I have achieved the objectives of the topic taught. Emmanuel (not real name) also has this to say, In the teaching and learning of Social Studies, the purpose of assessment is not about giving or awarding marks to students but rather finding out whether students have understood what I have taught. Mable had this to say, The purpose of my assessment in class is to ascertain whether my students have grasped the content of what I taught. The findings show that most of the respondents interviewed, assessment emphasised on gathering information on the knowledge gained by their students. This therefore means that effective assessment should emphasise the gathering of information about a student in order to make meaningful decisions about his or her education (Ajiboye, 2009). Although with varying reasons the interview conducted also supported the responses given to item 1 of Table 3. 4.2 Teachers Perception of the Nature and Content of Social Studies Questions The outcome is presented in Table 4 below. Table 4 Teachers Perception of the Nature and Content of Social Studies Questions Items Responses from Questionnaire D (%) 1. Social Studies tests should emphasis on students 34 (47.2) ability to recall facts. 2. Social Studies tests should emphasis on students ability to express their ideas and show understanding 0 (0) of what is learned 3. Social Studies tests should emphasis on students ability to apply relevant knowledge acquired in solving 0 (0) problems. 4. Social Studies tests should stress on students 2 (2.8) ability to determine cause and effect relationships. 5. Social Studies tests should emphasis on students 0 (0) ability to be creative. 6. Social Studies tests should stress on students skill 6 (8.3) of placing value judgment on issues. 7. Social Studies questions should stress on the learners ability to show awareness and sensitivity to 1 (1.4) issues. 8. Social Studies questions should emphasis on 3 (4.2) learners ability to be involved in an issue or activity. 9. Social Studies questions should emphasis on learners commitment to or conviction in certain goals, 5 (6.9) ideas or beliefs. 10. Social Studies questions should stress on learners ability to organise values, determine interrelationships and adapts behaviour to value system. 1 (1.4) U (%) 11 (15.3) 3 (4.2) A (%) 27 (37.5) 69 (95.8) Total (%) 72 (100) 72 (100)

1(1.4) 20 (27.8) 8 (11.1) 11 (15.3) 5 (6.9) 13 (18.1) 19 (26.4)

71 (98.6) 50 (69.4) 64 (88.9) 55 (76.4) 66 (91.7) 56 (77.8) 48 (66.7)

72 (100) 72 (100) 72 (100) 72 (100) 72 (100) 72 (100) 72 (100)

4 (5.6)

67 (93.1)

72 (100)

D Disagree, U Undecided, A - Agree When this question was posed Social Studies tests should emphasize on students ability to recall facts reveals that out of the 72 respondents, 27 (37.5%) agreed, 11 (15.3%) were not certain whilst 34 (47.2%) disagreed. The above indicates that 34 (47.2%) respondents disagreed that Social Studies tests should emphasize on students ability to recall facts.

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When this question was asked Social Studies tests should emphasis on students ability to express their ideas and show understanding of what is learned reveals that out of the 72 respondents, 69 (95.8%) agreed whilst only 3 (4.2%) were not certain. The above indicates that almost all the respondents agreed that Social Studies tests should emphasize on students ability to express their ideas and show understanding of what is learned. When this question was asked Social Studies tests should emphasis on students ability to apply relevant knowledge acquired in solving problems reveals that out of the 72 respondents, 71 (98.6%) agreed, 1 (1.4%) was not certain and none of the respondents disagreed. The above shows that almost all the respondents agreed that Social Studies tests should emphasis on students ability to apply relevant knowledge acquired in solving problems. Item 4 of which reads Social Studies tests should stress on students ability to determine cause and effect relationships shows that out of the 72 respondents, 50 (69.4%) agreed, 20 (27.8%) were not certain, whilst only 2 (2.8%) disagreed. The above shows that 50 (69.4%) respondents agreed that Social Studies tests should stress on students ability to determine cause and affect relationships. Item 5 which reads Social Studies questions should emphasize on students ability to be creative. The data on item 5 of Table 4.3.3 indicates that out of the 72 respondents, 64 (89.9%) agreed whilst only 8 (11.1%) were not certain. None of the respondents disagreed. The above shows that majority of the respondents agreed that Social Studies questions should emphasize on students ability to be creative. When this question was posed Social Studies tests should stress on students skill of placing value judgment on issues, shows that out of the 72 respondents, 55 (76.4%) agreed, 11 (15.3%) were not certain and 6 (8.3%) disagreed. The above shows that as many as 55 (76.4%) respondents agreed that Social Studies tests should stress on students skill of placing value judgment on issues. When this question was asked Social Studies questions should stress on the learners ability to show awareness and sensitivity to issues, shows that out of the 72 respondents, 66 (91.7%) agreed, 5 (6.9%) were not certain and only 1(1.4%) disagreed. The above shows that most of the respondents agreed that Social Studies questions should stress on the learners ability to show awareness and sensitivity to issues. Item 8 which is - Social Studies questions should emphasis on learners ability to be involved in an issue or activity, shows that out of the 72 respondents, 56 (77.8%) agreed, 13 (18.1%) were not certain, whilst 3(4.2%) disagreed. The above shows that most of the respondents agreed that Social Studies questions should emphasis on learners ability to be involved in an issue or activity. Item 9 on Table 4 which reads - Social Studies questions should emphasis on learners commitment to or conviction in certain goals, ideas or beliefs, shows that out of the 72 respondents, 48 (66.7%) agreed, 19 (26.4%) were not certain and 5(6.9%) disagreed. The above shows that 48 (66.7%) respondents agreed that Social Studies questions should emphasise on learners commitment to or conviction in certain goals, ideas or beliefs. When this question was asked - Social Studies questions should stress on learners ability to organise values, determine inter-relationships and adapts behaviour to value system, shows that out of the 72 respondents, 67 (93.1%) agreed, 4 (5.6%) were not certain and 1(1.4%) disagreed. The above shows that majority of the respondents agreed that Social Studies questions should stress on learners ability to organise values, determine interrelationships and adapts behaviour that reflects cherished value system. 5. Conclusions The pedagogical content knowledge of Social Studies teachers do influence the way they assess their lessons. Teachers perceive social studies as a problem solving subject. Most teachers said they set questions that enhance the development of students conceptual understanding or problem-solving skills which will results in behavioural change. However, there were enormous gap between teachers pedagogical content knowledge and what they actually assessed. It was realized teachers rather assess their students in the cognitive objectives than the affective and the skills components which falls in consonance of how West African Examination Council (WAEC) the external examination body set its questions. This was depicted in their end of term examination in Social Studies which were mainly those measuring cognitive outcomes. What teachers stated and said they assessed by using all the three domains (cognitive, affective and psychomotor) domains were contradicted by the content of their end of term examination which were mainly of the cognitive. The classroom observation also depicted that teachers emphasised cognitive questioning dealing with recalls neglecting the skills and the affective components of assessment. 6. Recommendations The assessment practices employed by the Social Studies teacher should be equally important as the other aspects of curriculum such as objectives and instructional strategies employed by teachers. The reason is that assessment is expected not only to take care of students knowledge and comprehension but beyond that,
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evaluation of skills, growth in application, analysis, synthesis as well as development of positive attitude are important. Teachers need to be reminded of their primary function which is to facilitate learning and if this will be possible they have to be familiar with the major objectives in their subject areas and to practise formulating objectives in all the domains of learning for specific topics following the different classifications by Bloom (1956), Krathwohl (1956) and Taba (1962). This is because, if objectives are formulated in all domains of learning, it will not be difficult for the teachers to assess the students in the three domains. Teachers should also realize that the inclusion of affective and psychomotor assessments, as distinctive features of assessment is a step at getting the truest possible picture of a learner. This calls for the continuous monitoring of students learning by authorities. This will provide feedback about teachers and students effectiveness. References Aitken, G., & Sinnema, C. (2008). Effective pedagogy in social sciences. Wellington: Ministry of Education. Ajiboye, J. O. (2009). Beyond cognitive evaluation in primary social studies in Botswana: Issues and challenges. European Journal of Social Science, 7, 4857 Appalachia Educational Laboratory. (1994). Questioning Understanding Improves Learning and Thinking (QUILT): A facilitators guide. Appalachia Mountains: Author. Aschner, M. J., Gallagher, J., Perry, J., & Asfar, S. (1961). A system for classifying thought process in the conduct of classroom verbal interaction. Urbana: The University of Illinois. Biggs, J. (2003). Teaching for quality learning at university (2nd ed.). Buckingham: Open University Press. Black, P., & William, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139-148. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co. Inc. Bloom, B. S, Englaehart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, handbook 1: The cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Brown, G. T. L., Irving, E., & Keegan, P. (2008). An introduction to educational assessment, measurement and evaluation (2nd ed.). New Zealand: Pearson Education New Zealand. Brualdi, A. C. (1998). Classroom questions: Practical assessment, research & evaluation, 6(6). Retrieved November11, 2012 from http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=6&n=6 Caram, C. A., & Davis, P. B. (2005). Inviting student engagement with questioning. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 22(6), 19-23. Cotton, K. (2003). Classroom questioning: School improvement research series. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Curriculum Research and Development Division (CRDD) (2007). Social Studies teaching syllabus for Senior High Schools. Accra: Ministry of Education. CRDD. (2010). Social Studies teaching syllabus for Senior High Schools. Accra: Ministry of Education. Croom, B., & Stair, K. (2005). Getting from q to a: effective questioning for effective learning. The Agricultural Education Magazine, 78, 12-14. Dunkin, M. (1978). Student characteristics, classroom practices, and student achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 998-1009. Earl, L. (2003). Assessment as learning: Using classroom assessment to maximize student learning. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press Inc. Eshun, I., & Mensah, M. F. (2013). Domain of educational objectives social studies teachers questions emphasise in Senior High Schools in Ghana. Journal of Education and Practice, 4(4), 185-196. Gall, M. D. (1971). The use of questions in teaching. Review of Educational Research, 40(5), 707-721. Graesser, A. C., & Person, N. K. (1994). Question asking during tutoring. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 104-137. Grant, S. G. & Salinas, C. (2008). Assessment and accountability in the social studies. In L. S. Levstik & C. A. Tyson (Eds.), Handbook of research in social studies education. New York: Routledge. Gronlund, N., & Waugh, C. K. (2009). Assessment of student achievement (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc. Hantrais, L. (2005). Combining methods: A key to understanding complexity in European societies? European societies, 7(3), 399-421. Harlen, W. (2007). Assessment of learning. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Harrop, A., & Swinson, J. (2003). Teachers questions in the infant, junior and secondary school, Educational Studies, 29(1).49-57.
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James, M. (2006). Assessment, teaching and theories of learning. In J. Gardner (Ed.), Assessment and learning (pp. 47-60). London: Sage. Kathy, C. (2000). How do we assess learning in Integrated Science in Bachelor of Science in Education (B.Sc {Ed.}), Making sense of Integrated Science: A guide for high schools. Colorado: Springs Co. Kawanaka, T., & Stigler, J. W. (1999). Teachers use of questions by eight-grade mathematics classrooms in Germany, Japan, and the United States, Mathematical Thinking & Learning, 22(6), 181-212. Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. New York: Longmans, Green. Krathwohl, D. R., & Bloom, B. S. (eds.) (1993). Taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing. New York: Longman. Leven, T. & Long, R. (1981). Effective Instruction. Washington, DC: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development. Miller, M., Linn, R., & Gronlund, N. (2009). Measurement and assessment in teaching (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc. National Council for the Social Studies. (1996). Expectations of excellence: Curriculum standards for Social Studies. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies. Noori, K. K. (1993). Authentic assessment in elementary science. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse. Odetoyinbo, B. B. (2004). Evaluation of the Nigerian Integrated Science Programme in Junior Secondary Schools in Oyo State. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Oguneye, W. (2002). Continuous assessment: Practice and prospects. Lagos: Providence Publishers. Pierre, E., & Oughton, J. (2007). The affective domain: Undiscovered country. College Quarterly, 10(4), 2128. Rowntree, D. (1987). Assessing students: How shall we know them? London: Kogan Press Ltd. Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice. New York: Harcourt Brace. Vogler, K. E. (2005). Improve Your Verbal Questioning. The Clearing House, 79(2), 98-103. Wilen, W., Ishler, M., Hutchinson, J. & Kindsvatter, R. (2000). Dynamics of effective teaching. (4th ed.). New York: Longman.

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