ALSTOM POWER BOILER INSPECTION SEMINAR

Student Information Manual

Session 101 Common Points for All Boiler Inspections

AES Ventanas, Chile
November 2008

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Power Services

Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Book 101 INDEX

Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Disclaimer
Disclaimer..........................................................................................i 1. BOILER INSPECTION INTRODUCTION ......................................1 2. EARLY STEAM GENERATOR DESIGN ......................................3 3. MODERN STEAM GENERATORS ...............................................3 4. FOSSIL FUEL ASH AND SLAG ...................................................4 5. FOSSIL FUEL CORROSION ........................................................4 6. SELECTION OF BOILER PRESSURE PART STEEL..................5 7. BOILER WATER CHEMISTRY CONCERNS ...............................7 8. CAUSES OF BOILER TUBING DETERIORATION ......................8 9. BOILER TUBE FAILURE PHOTO GALLERY ............................18 10. UTILITY VERSUS INDUSTRIAL BOILERS ..............................20 11. VP AND A TYPE SHOP-ASSEMBLED BOILERS ...................21 12. VU-40 BOILER ..........................................................................21 13. VU-60 BOILER ..........................................................................21 14. MARINE BOILER ......................................................................23 15. MU BOILERS ............................................................................24 16. AU BOILERS.............................................................................24 17. MODULAR CFB INDUSTRIAL FLUIDIZED BED BOILER.......26 18. UTILITY CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED BED BOILER.................29 19. CHEMICAL RECOVERY [CRU] BOILER .................................33 20. PULVERIZED COAL FIRED UTILITY BOILER ........................36 21. COAL FIRED BOILER ASH HANDLING SYSTEMS................39 22. HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATOR [HRSG].................42 23. BOILER AND POWER PLANT EMISSIONS ............................46 ADDENDUM 1 FEEDWATER & BOILER WATER CHEMISTRY 52 ADDENDUM 2 BOILER MATERIAL SELECTION ......................59 ADDENDUM 3 OIL & GAS FIRED BOILER ARRANGEMENTS.65
"This Student Information Manual and any training material, whether written or oral, furnished as part of any seminar or course presented by ALSTOM Power, Inc. is for general, informational purposes and is not intended to be used as a comprehensive instruction for operation or maintenance of equipment. By enrollment and attendance in an ALSTOM Power course, the attending company agrees that (i) ALSTOM Power, Inc. shall not be liable in contract or negligence or other cause of action for any damages of any kind and, in particular, for any special, incidental or consequential damages, including, but not limited to, loss of profits and revenue and loss due to business interruption and (ii) ALSTOM Power, Inc. provides information to the attending company without express or implied warranties or guarantees of any kind, and that use of any information furnished by ALSTOM Power, Inc. is at the sole risk of the attending company."

List of Figures Figure 1: Heros Engine .....................................................................3 Figure 2: Stephenson Locomotive ....................................................3 Figure 3: Furnace Sizes for Coal vs. Oil vs. Gas ...............................4 Figure 4: Furnace Sizing for Various Coals .......................................4 Figure 5: Average Exit Temperatures per Sulfur in Coal ...................5 Figure 6: Strength Versus Temperature, T-22 ...................................5 Figure 7: Color Coded Pressure Part Unit Material Diagram (UMD) .6 Figure 8: Effect of pH on Rate of Corrosion of Steel..........................7 Figure 9: Internal Tube Deposits & Tube Metal Temperatures..........7 Figure 10: Repair and Reinforcements for Bottom Slope Tubes .......9 Figure 11: Characteristics of Molten Ash .........................................10 Figure 12: Long Retract Blower Alignment ......................................11 Figure 13: X-ray of Weld for Defects................................................13 Figure 14: Cyclone Burner ...............................................................13 Figure 15: Typical High Heat Flux Area ...........................................14 Figure 16: Example of Form for Submission of Tube Sample .........14 Figure 17: Tube Failure Inspection Form.........................................17 Figure 18: Tube Failure Repair Sheet..............................................17 Figure 19: Sample Letter to Metallurgist ..........................................17 Figure 20: Acid Dew Point Corrosion...............................................18 Figure 21: Acid Phosphate Corrosion ..............................................18 Figure 22: Caustic Gouging .............................................................18 Figure 23: Coal Ash Corrosion (Fireside) ........................................18 Figure 24: Corrosion Enhanced Thermal Fatigue............................18 Figure 25: Corrosion Fatigue ...........................................................18 Figure 26: Falling Slag Impact Damage...........................................18 Figure 27: Fatigue in Water-Cooled Tubing.....................................18 Figure 28: Hydrogen Damage .........................................................18 Figure 29: Low Temperature Creep and Crack Growth...................18 Figure 30: Oxygen Pitting, Waterside ..............................................18 Figure 31: Short Term Overheating .................................................18 Figure 32: Wallblower Erosion .........................................................18 Figure 33: Waterwall Corrosion (Fireside) .......................................18 Figure 34: Fatigue in Steam Touch Tubes.......................................18 Figure 35: Fireside Corrosion (Coal Fired) .....................................18 Figure 36: Flyash Erosion ................................................................18 Figure 37: Gouging Rubbing Damage .............................................18 Figure 38: Long Retract Sootblower Erosion ...................................19

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008
Figure 39: Overheating - Long Term or Creep.................................19 Figure 40: Overheating Short Term ................................................19 Figure 41: Pitting in Steam Touch Tubes.........................................19 Figure 42: Stress Corrosion Cracking..............................................19 Figure 43: Weld Failure - Dissimilar Metal .......................................19 Figure 44: Chemical Excursion Damage Acid Cleaning QC ............19 Figure 45: Embrittlement - Liquid Metal ...........................................19 Figure 46: Flow Assisted Corrosion .................................................19 Figure 47: Maintenance Cleaning Damage QC ...............................19 Figure 48: Material Defects Supply Selection QC............................19 Figure 49: Shockwave .....................................................................19 Figure 50: Steam or Condensate Erosion........................................19 Figure 51: Strain Inducted Precipitation Hardening .........................19 Figure 52: Vibration Fatigue.............................................................19 Figure 53: Welding Defects - Skill or Procedure QC........................19 Figure 54: Exfoliation .......................................................................19 Figure 55: Coal Particle Erosion ......................................................19 Figure 56: Ranges in Industrial Boiler Size, Pressure and Capacity20 Figure 57: Type VP Industrial Boiler ................................................21 Figure 58: Type A Industrial Boiler...................................................21 Figure 59: VU-40 Industrial Boiler....................................................22 Figure 60: VU-60 Industrial Boiler....................................................22 Figure 61: Marine Boiler...................................................................23 Figure 62: Modular Unit [MU] Boiler.................................................24 Figure 63: Australian Unit [AU] Boiler ..............................................24 Figure 64: Modular CFB (FiCirc) Fluid Bed Furnace Bottom ...........25 Figure 65: Furnace Bottom Variations .............................................25 Figure 66: Modular Industrial CFB Boiler.........................................28 Figure 67: CFB Process Chemistry Summary .................................29 Figure 68: FlexTech CFB Boiler and Auxiliary Systems ..................31 Figure 69: FlexTech CFB Boiler Backend Systems .........................32 Figure 70: Paper Mill Chemical Recovery [CRU] Boiler...................35 Figure 71: Low NOx Burners ...........................................................36 Figure 72: Coal Pulverizer ...............................................................37 Figure 73: Pulverized Coal Utility Boiler...........................................38 Figure 74: Submerged Scraper Conveyor (SSC) ............................40 Figure 75: SSC External View .........................................................40 Figure 76: Coal Fired Boiler Utility Boiler Ash Removal Systems ....41 Figure 77: HRSG Temperature Profile.............................................42 Figure 78: Horizontal Heat Recovery Steam Generator ..................44 Figure 79: Vertical Heat Recovery Steam Generator ......................44
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Figure 112: Creep Rate (Upper) & Rupture Strength (Lower) for a 21/4 Cr-1 Mo Steel....................................................................63 Figure 113: Use of ASME Boiler Code Criteria to Establish Allowable Stress for a 2 1/4 Cr-1Mo Steel ...............................................63 Figure 114: Effect of Temperature on ASME Boiler Code Allowable Stress for Grades of Steel........................................................63 Figure 115: Amount of Oxidation (Scaling) of Carbon, Low Alloy, and Stainless Steels in 1000 Hours in air at Temperatures from 1100F to 1700F.....................................................................64 Figure 116: Maximum Temperature without Excessive Scaling ......64 Figure 117: Oil-Gas Burner..............................................................65 Figure 118: Precautionary Steam Temperature Curves ..................65 Figure 119: Natural Gas Fired 410 Mw Boiler Upper Press. Parts ..66 Figure 120: Natural Gas Fired 410 Mw Boiler w/ Gas Recirculation 66 Figure 121: Natural Gas Fired 750 Mw Boiler..................................67 Figure 122: Oil Fired 600 Mw Boiler Upper Pressure Parts.............68 Figure 123: Oil Fired 600 Mw Boiler ................................................68 Figure 124: Oil Fired Boiler Color Coded Unit Material Diagram .....69

Figure 80: Once Through Heat Recovery Steam Generator ........... 44 Figure 81: Bottom Supported HRSG (1990s Vintage).................... 45 Figure 82: Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) System................. 48 Figure 83: Rigid Frame Precipitator ................................................ 49 Figure 84: Wet Flue Gas Desulphurization System......................... 51 Figure 85: pH Scale......................................................................... 52 Figure 86: Specific Conductivities ................................................... 52 Figure 87: Comparative Sensitivity of Condenser Leakage Monitoring Methods ................................................................. 53 Figure 88: Feedwater Quality Limits for Drum Type Units .............. 53 Figure 89: Feedwater Quality Limits for Combined Circulation Units ................................................................................................. 53 Figure 90: Feedwater and Steam Generator Systems Cleanup Flow Path ......................................................................................... 54 Figure 91: Typical Iron Concentration Around the Cycle................. 54 Figure 92: Corrosion and Oxygen Concentration at Different Salt Contents (NaCl)....................................................................... 54 Figure 93: Economizer Inlet Chemistry Guidelines Values for OT Chemistry ................................................................................ 54 Figure 94: Schematic of Operating Ranges of Boiler Water on Equilibrium Phosphate Treatment (EPT) Congruent Phosphate Treatment (CPT) and Phosphate Treatment (PT) ................... 54 Figure 95: Corrosion Pitting Type Failure........................................ 56 Figure 96: Controlled Circulation Unit Steam Drum Internals.......... 57 Figure 97: Density vs. Pressure at Saturation (Vapor & Liquid) ...... 57 Figure 98: Carryover vs. Load......................................................... 57 Figure 99: Silica in the Boiler Water vs. Drum Pressure ................. 58 Figure 100: Solids in Steam vs. Solids in Boiler Water ................... 58 Figure 101: Vaporous Carryover vs. Press and Concentration ppm Na+ .......................................................................................... 58 Figure 102: Distribution Ratio of Silica ............................................ 58 Figure 103: Distribution of Ammonia Between Steam and Water ... 58 Figure 104: Face-Centered Cubic ................................................... 59 Figure 105: Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram ........................................ 59 Figure 106: Effect of Cooling Rate on Microstructure and Properties of 0.8%Carbon Steel. (Values in Parenthesis are for 0.2% Carbon Steel) .......................................................................... 59 Figure 107: Quenched Overheated Microstructure ......................... 60 Figure 108: Pearlite Structure ......................................................... 60 Figure 109: Partially Spheroidized .................................................. 60 Figure 110: Intergranular and Transgranular Cracking ................... 61 Figure 111: Stress-Strain Curve for Two Steel with Different Strength and Ductility ............................................................................. 61

List of Tables
Table A: Melting Characteristics for Coal Ash ...................................4 Table B: Boiler Pressure Part Steels .................................................5 Table C: Operation of Drum Type Boilers (1001-1800 PSIG)..........55 Table D: Operation of Drum Type Boilers (1801-2350 PSIG)..........55 Table E: Operation of Drum Type Boilers (2351-2600 PSIG)..........55 Table F: Operation of Drum Type Boilers (2601-2900 PSIG) ..........55 Table G: Vaporous Carryover of Chemicals ....................................58 Table H: Recommended Boiler Water Limits...................................58 Table I: Materials Used in Boiler Construction.................................62 Table J: Gas Fired Boiler Design Data (410 Mw) ............................66 Table K: Gas Fired Boiler Design Data (750 Mw)............................67 Table L: Oil Fired Boiler Design Data (600 Mw) ..............................68 Table M: Oil Fired Boiler Color Coded Unit Material Diagram Data.70

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 maintenance of the boiler subsystems that can only be 1. BOILER INSPECTION INTRODUCTION repaired when the unit is down. We have prepared a series of four boiler inspection manuals to Outage Objectives serve as a general guide to boiler and auxiliary equipment inspection. We do not intend to cover all possible variations in The ultimate goal of the inspection and outage is to increase equipment, or to provide for specific problems, which may the unit and plant availability and improve overall plant capacity arise. These are the four, and their instructional goals: as well as unit efficiency. Any major scheduled outage should be structured around five objectives: Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections:
Identify critical inspection points for any fossil fueled boiler. Prioritize activities and plan ways to maximize the equipment reliability.

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Outage Planning Initial Tasks

As an initial series of steps, five elements of performance and physical input/output information needs to be compiled in the week prior to the outage:

Past Operating History (5-10 years) Current Standard Board Data Selective Thermocouple Data Fuel and Air Input Furnace Internal Distribution of Non-Combustibles (Ash/Slag)

Perform known maintenance tasks Identify Areas Needing Repairs Performing Preventive Maintenance Tasks (off-line) Upgrade Equipment For Plant Betterment Establish a Maintenance History

Book 201 - Boiler Systems Failure Root Causes and Corrective Repairs
List the most common stresses that limit boiler component life. Differentiate the causes for multiple points of fatigue and wear that can rapidly diminish pressure part and non-pressure part reliability.

Review of Unit Operating History

Outage Planning Concepts

This training manual is an aid to, and not a substitute for, skilled inspection and maintenance personnel. Predictive and Preventative Maintenance Ensuring unit availability requires a constant effort by the maintenance staff, but a key element in the success of this staff is the timely input from the operations and engineering. This requires:

Planning for an outage inspection should begin many months before the scheduled downtime. At some large plants, this planning task can be a full time job. The first step in outage planning should be to address the outage schedule. There are several things to take into consideration in establishing the schedule.

A review of the unit operating history should begin at least four to six months before the scheduled outage inspection. The intention of this review is to study the historical operating data on the following:

Boiler performance Boiler availability Forced outage rates Tube failures Boiler maintenance history Number of start ups and shutdowns

The projected date the outage is to begin Consider the areas to be inspected and work to be performed along with the number and type of maintenance personnel available because this will dictate the length of the outage. Determine a method of prioritizing work orders so that the work that must be done is accomplished first. Establish a method for tracking the work in progress. This can be accomplished with the use of a critical path chart. This will act as a guide in the outage progress. Once the existing work orders are prioritized, conduct an inventory of tools and supplies to ensure the necessary part and equipment is on hand to perform the known tasks. Equipment vendors can supply the expertise needed in particular areas during an outage. Contract labor can supply the extra hands needed during an outage where a considerable amount of work must be performed.

There are three major resources that can be utilized in order to gather sufficient data for analysis and to make valid predictions and assumptions.

Day-to-day preventive maintenance (PM) program while the unit is on-line (Lubrication of rotating equipment on a daily basis). Comprehensive input of work order tags, and review followup. Safe tag-out of sub-components such a pulverizers with a minimum of load loss.

Plant records Industry wide information available from the electrical associations such as the North American Electric Reliability Counsel and the Edison Electric Institute Original equipment manufacturer

Planned Outages

A daily preventive maintenance program alone, however, is not enough to maintain unit availability. There are many tasks that can only be performed when the unit is down. To bring the unit down for only a few minor problems can be very costly. Therefore, a planned outage inspection becomes a very necessary part of the maintenance schedule. A planned outage inspection provides the time necessary to repair problem areas and the opportunity to spot other potential problems before they occur. A well planned and properly executed inspection program should identify those areas of the boiler and auxiliary equipment in need of repair and help to schedule preventive

The third step in outage planning should be to assemble the inspection team and outage coordinators to discuss the outage plan and divide the areas of responsibility.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Current Operating Board Data Once an inventory has been established, generate a parts list of the materials that will be required for the upcoming outage. The current operating data can be an important and useful tool in planning the outage inspection and the work to be Outage Inspection Overview performed. During the outage, inspect every portion of the unit. This Compare the data to the original contract data to determine if inspection should be divided into three general categories:
the unit is still performing in accordance with original design parameters.

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Use data sheets throughout the inspection with specialized data sheets for the furnace and auxiliary equipment.

Pre-Outage Operational Unit Walkdown

Take sets of "base line data" during the early stages of operation of a new unit on all areas of the steam generator as well as on all of the auxiliary and ancillary equipment. Take the data at various loads and operating conditions and use as a base line against which future-operating data is compared. The original base line data is the true indication of the operating capability of the unit. Use the data as a map, to locate areas of potential problems, which should be checked closely during the internal inspection. Use the data to confirm areas that are experiencing problems. Employ the data when planning a preventive maintenance program. To be effective, gather the operating data not only from the boiler, but from all of its subsystems as well.

The pre outage operational unit inspection during which the entire unit and its subsystems are inspected in their operating modes. The internal inspection of the unit and its subsystems during the outage. The post outage start up inspection in which all the equipment is checked as it is returned to service.

The pre outage operational unit walkdown is a very important key in any outage planning. During a pre outage operational unit walkdown, the inspectors can assess the operating condition of the unit and note any discrepancies that require further attention during the outage. A pre outage unit walkdown should cover the complete unit from top to bottom and all the auxiliary systems.

The outage itself comes next, at which time all the plans are put into action.

The inspection team thoroughly combs the unit from top to bottom, inside and out. Adjust the actual work schedule based on the results of the internal inspection. The repair team moves in next to implement the necessary repairs and or modifications. When the repair work is completed, the operations team should begin their check out of the equipment in order to

Supplemental Data

Expand your board data with such things as:

Selective Thermocouple Data Ash/Slag Survey Airflow Testing Unit Expansion Data Fuel Particle Size - Fineness Tests

This list item is specific to coal, but if your boiler is oil fired, atomization quality should be visually reviewed as well.
Inventory of Resources

Conduct a thorough inventory of spare parts several months before the scheduled outage.

Generate an accurate list of spare parts on hand including part descriptions, part numbers, quantity, and storage location. Clearly mark and tag all parts on hand with a description and part number. Generate a second list of parts on order. Also include the part numbers, quantity, and storage location. As parts are received, inspect and verify them for defects and accuracy before storing. To keep records accurate, keep track of parts on hand, inventory, and parts order lists.

line things up for their return to service. Documentation of the outage, one of the most important tasks of all, occurs in the final stages of the outage. The lead inspector should oversee this task. The outage should be documented by the lead inspector, either alone or with a technical writing specialist, to ensure that the findings are clearly and concisely represented in written, tabular, and graphical forms. The procedures followed for a unit inspection will differ with each utility and may even differ between plants. In order to minimize discrepancies in an inspection, follow these basic guidelines:

Establish a labeling system for the unit noting the sides as front, rear, left and right. To avoid confusion, avoid using north, south, east, and west. When conducting the external inspection, start at the top of the unit and work downward in circles around the unit. Teams of at least two experienced people should conduct inspections. Teams should swap areas of responsibility for subsequent outages.
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Less than two decades later John Fitch, an America, applied 2. EARLY STEAM GENERATOR DESIGN the idea of using a steam powered engine, rather than just From ancient history, the earliest example of a fossil fueled oars or sails to propel boats. Two decades later, Robert Fulton steam generator may be Heros Engine. Heros boiler was accredited commercializing steamboats. concept was to set a copper sphere between two bushings on Just after the turn of the 19th century, Richard Trevithick of pipes fed by a water-steam kettle. A fire below the kettle South Wales built a steam powered tram road engine to provided the energy. Two jets on opposite sides of the sphere transport miner. This was the predecessor of the steam train. created thrust to the spin the copper sphere. Some historians Two decades after that George Stephenson, another Brittan, insist the idea, dating from 100 B.C. was for a toy to amuse the improved on Trevithicks concept and produced the early King, but only sketches exist. It is believed that Hero never steam powered locomotives that became one of the world made the device. largest industries.

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There was a commercially driven realization that advanced boiler designs with greater generating capacity, higher pressure, and increased efficiency was needed. More modern water-tube boilers and turbine propulsion systems from shoreside applications needed to be modified to fit into the restrictive space within the ships. Early water-tube boilers evolved to become the basic arrangement known today as the cross-drum sectional-header boiler. In parallel with the development of the boiler was the design of fuel-air systems to burn fossil fuels, from wood, to charcoal to oil, gas and coal. The Grieve Grate Company and the American Stoker Company brought together two well-known manufacturers of fuel-burning equipment to become Combustion Engineering Corp. Grieve had a specialized grate capable of burning anthracite while American Stoker Company manufactured a screw-type stoker to burn bituminous coal. Stoker fired boilers eventually reached a practical limit for how much energy they could release and so in 1918, Combustion Engineering began the development of a pulverized coal firing technology where very fine coal dust would be suspended midfurnace for combustion, rather than on a steel grate surface. Taking advantage of a steam locomotive firing system concept, Combustion Engineering successfully adapted pulverized coal firing to a stationary utility boiler at Milwaukee Electric Railway and Light Companys Oneida Street and Lakeside Stations. By consolidating the Locomotive Superheater Company, Heine Boiler Company, and the Hedges-Walsh-Weidner Boiler Company, Combustion Engineering was able to combine the subsystems of the steam generation boiler, water-cooled furnace, superheater assembly, fuel burning and heat recovery equipment into one coordinated design. 3. MODERN STEAM GENERATORS Variations of Combustion Engineering Inc.s sectional header boilers were used during the World Wars on many classes of merchant ships. The design was ideally suited for mass production. The marine sectional header boiler was designed for capacities up to about 150,000 lb of steam per hour and pressures up to 850 psig. Superheated steam assemblies could be offered in two arrangements depending on temperature requirements. The first boiler to achieve 1,000,000 pounds of steam per hours was in 1929 when Combustion Engineering constructed the East River Station for New York Edison Companys. Furnace walls were bare tubes spaced well apart behind a refractory casing. Modern boilers furnaces evolved a couple decades later with the introduction of fusion-welded tubes, closely spaced. Operating pressures, temperatures and efficiencies increased to the point where utility boilers,
3

Figure 2: Stephenson Locomotive

Figure 1: Heros Engine

Thomas Savery invented one of the earliest workable steam engines in the late 17th century in Brittan. A steam piston was counterbalanced with a water pump piston to offset flooding in deep mines. A few years later Thomas Newcomen and John Calley improved upon the steam driven mine water pumps. A half century later James Watt at the University of Glasgow was repairing a Newcomen engine. I time, he redesigned the concept that became the leading power source for the coming industrial revolution. Most notable was Watt's 1769 patent for a separate condenser connected to a cylinder by a valve. Unlike Newcomen's engine, Watt's design had a condenser that could be cool while the cylinder was hot. Watt's engine soon became the dominant design for all modern steam engines and helped bring about the Industrial Revolution.
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At the heart of Heros Engine to Fitches Steamboat through to Stephenson Locomotive are steam generation boilers. Mobile steam generators have always had special considerations, particularly in shipboard application. Initially space and weight limitations may not have been as important as other factors for ships, but as power increases advanced, early ship designs had to be reshaped. By 1870, marine-boiler pressures had reached only 60 psig; by 1900 they had increased to about 300 psig. The earliest types of marine boilers were relatively large pressure vessels, with furnaces located underneath them. But it soon became apparent that such exterior furnaces were far from satisfactory. To overcome the structural weaknesses and at the same time reduce cost of fabrication, the boiler shell was made cylindrical replacing the earlier box construction. The design was called the Scotch marine fire-tube boiler. This boiler as finally developed met with wide and enthusiastic approval by marine engineers. Even though the Scotch marine boiler proved to be popular and well suited for shipboard installations, the fact that its pressure was limited to 300 psig retarded progress.
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 regardless of manufacturer, now typically operate between 2400 - 3000 psi and 960 - 1000F. Each manufacture has pioneered a wide variety of fossil fuel firing hardware, but overall, most of the boiler designed around steel tubes and large steam drums have a multitude of common physical features. The arrangements chosen for this text are based on the Combustion Engineering, Inc. designs, including the auxiliary hardware for fuel firing systems. Within each boiler manufacturers series of designs, the first question asked, before the process of design begins, is what fuel is to be fired. The primary difference among the boiler surface choices that burn anthracite coal, bituminous coal, lignite coal, heavy oil, light oil, or gas result from the noncombustible products, and the characteristics of this ash. The first figure below suggests the boiler surface differences between coal, oil and gas. The next goes one set further to Figure 4: Furnace Sizing for Various Coals address different coal sources. 4. FOSSIL FUEL ASH AND SLAG The Wilcox seam mentioned above is comparable to low slagging lignite. In addition to more height overall, the space between the pendant hanging assemblies in the furnace must we wider to allow for higher gas loading with fouling ash and resultant higher velocities of ash and gas between the assemblies. The furnace width or the lignite may need to be 15 - 20% wider to keep ash erosion to a minimum. Research has carefully defined the characteristics for fossil fuel ash (Table A). Translating the scientific research into practical design information has not been as straight forward. Fieldtesting has been necessary to compare results from, particularly with respect to different coals, and blends of coals.
Element Silica Alumina
Figure 3: Furnace Sizes for Coal vs. Oil vs. Gas

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The management of ash and slag requires a basic knowledge of the types of ash deposits that can build up in the various parts of the unit. When inspecting the internals of a coal-fired steam generator, attention should be paid to the location, quantity, and types of ash and slag deposits encountered. Three types of ash deposits are found in a steam generator: Molten ash - generally encountered in the burner zone of the furnace cavity Sintered ash - deposited in the high temperature convection areas, such as the surfaces of superheater and reheater elements Dust-like ash deposits or buildups are prevalent on convection surfaces and found in the backpass of the unit, including the economizer and air heaters In summary, one of the first components in boiler inspection is the understanding of what the designed planned for the modern boilers fossil fuels selection and the character of the ash. If the boiler was designed for one type of fossil fuel, and its current operating fuel s different, that will have a direct impact on internal surface conditions, such as erosion. Keep the empirical rule for Erosion in mind, and it becomes obvious that changing fuels, and the resultant changes in mass gas flow through the furnace and between the superheater and economizer assemblies can have a significant impact on wear.

E = c x V3 . The net effect is that if velocities are increased

only 25%, erosion will nearly double 5. FOSSIL FUEL CORROSION A second component in boiler design is the impact of corrosive compounds typically found in fossil fuels. The three elements considered here are: Sulfur Common in Eastern US coal in concentration of <1% to >4% Chlorine Not common in US coals, but severe in concentration in refuse fired boiler flue gas Vanadium Low in US oils, but high in Venezuelan oil Other compounds can create corrosive environments, particularly at elevated temperatures, but for this text, these are three of the more common items of concern. Sulfur can be an aggressive corrosive coal-ash component in high temperature sections (900F to 1200F) when it is compounded as an iron-alkali-sulfate. Sulfur an also be a slow but persistent corrosion compound at low temperatures when it condenses from the flue gasses (170F) below the economizer, and in the air heater.

Oxide SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O K2O Fe2O3 CaO

Melting F 3120 3710 2330 * 660 ** 2850 4570

Compounded Oxide Na2 SiO3 Al2O3 Na2O 6 SiO2 Al2O3 K2O 6 SiO2 CaO Fe2O3

New Melting F 1610 1790

Coal furnaces are larger to compensate that tube surfaces are covered in a layer of ash and slag. On average, just 1/8th of an inch of dense slag will reduce heat transfer into the water by 45%. Oil furnace surface design factors in a cleaner tube surface and the risk of high heat flux that can rapidly overheat near the burner. Gas fired furnace design is similar to oil, except the inherently lower localized heat absorption permits a smaller furnace with lo risk of hot spots.

Sodium Potassium Iron Calcium

2100 2280

* Sublimates, or vaporizes ** Decomposes

Table A: Melting Characteristics for Coal Ash

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Chlorides found in higher concentrations in Illinois coal, British 6. SELECTION OF BOILER PRESSURE PART STEEL coal and refuse (trash incinerators) can convert to different Boiler pressure parts, as selected by the design engineer, must forms. Volatilized NaCl (salt) or HCL (hydrochloric) acid can meet two basic criteria: the material must survive for the accumulate on furnace tubes and lead to additional reactions planned life of the pressure part, and the cost must not be that consume the iron in the boiler. Accumulation in higher prohibitive. Market demand versus supply plays a major part temperature regions (superheater) appears to form unstable in the second criteria, but the first criteria can be very complex. chloride or oxychloride compounds that are extremely With few exceptions, the boiler material for the boiler pressure aggressive. Where tube life in a coal fired utility boiler is parts is steel. Steel used for boiler construction is a blends of measured in years and decades, refuse boiler tube life may be Iron with carbon (Table B), and/or any of the following: better measured in months and years. Molybdenum, Chromium, Nickel, Titanium, Niobium High temperature corrosion from oil ash is from a molten form (Columbium). They are listed under the terms Carbon Steels, of sodium-vanadium compounds. When the ratio of sodium Ferritic Alloys, and Austenitic Stainless Alloys. The following oxide to vanadium oxide (Na2O : V2O5) is 1 : 5, and the tube table list a few of the most common plate and tube materials metal surface temperatures are just below 1200F, wastage is that are formed into thick wall members like drums and at its most extreme. Fuel additives are an effective remedy. headers, and thin wall tubes for economizers, furnace waterwalls, superheaters and reheaters. Low temperature corrosion from oil ash is from the formation of SO3 in the combustion gasses. Although SO3 is not Type ASME Fab. Tensile commonly created in high concentrations, when it is formed, it Grade Form Strength can condense in the gas outlet section and blend with water to form the corrosive sulfuric acid. Maintaining flue gas exit Carbon Steel temperatures above corrosive levels minimizes the problem. Low Strength SA-192 Tube 47,000 ksi The curve below applies to exit gas temperature versus sulfur in the fuel. Int. Strength SA-106-B Pipe 60,000 ksi
Ferritic Alloys Chrome Moly 1 Chrome Moly 2 SA-213-T11 SA-213-T22 Tube Plate 60,000 ksi 60,000 ksi

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Figure 6: Strength Versus Temperature, T-22

Austenitic Stainless Alloys Chrome Nickel Chrome - Ni - Cb SA-213-TP304 SA-213-TP347H Tube Tube 75,000 ksi 75,000 ksi

Table B: Boiler Pressure Part Steels

Figure 5: Average Exit Temperatures per Sulfur in Coal

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One obvious question that would come from a scan of the above table is: Why does the higher chrome steel have the same strength, and what would be the advantage of selecting T-22 over T-11? A portion of the answer is that the higher chrome steel would be better able to tolerate elevated temperatures and the deteriorating effects of oxidation and corrosion. The following chart lists five different strength characteristics that a boiler designer considers when selecting steels ability to tolerate high temperatures. Note the vertical dividing line at 800F. Below that limit, the tube life appears to have unlimited life (time). Its strength is time independent. Above the 800F limit, the time to failure is shortened considerably because the material strength drops off rapidly (Time Dependent).
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Were the tube material made of Austenitic Stainless Alloys, the strength limits would be raised to 1000F due to its superior ability to tolerate temperatures. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Code lists six criteria for selecting tubing that will have adequate strength: Minimum tensile strength at room temperature - 25% Minimum tensile strength at elevated temperature - 25% Minimum yield strength at room temperature - 67% Minimum yield strength at elevated temperature - 67% Stress to produce creep rate of 0.01 percent in 1000 hours - 100% Average stress to produce rupture at the end of 100,000 hours - 67% (or 80% of minimum stress rupture over the same time period). Tube failures still take place because localized stresses can weaken the wall to the point of rupture under pressure. NOTE: Figure 7 on the following page is an example of the variety of tube materials applied from section to section in a controlled circulation boiler. NOTE: For more on the topic of Boiler Pressure Part Material Selection, refer to the attached structure information provided in ADDENDUM 2.
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 7: Color Coded Pressure Part Unit Material Diagram (UMD)

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Again, keeping Total Dissolved Solids low reduces foaming 7. BOILER WATER CHEMISTRY CONCERNS and carryover of solids out of the steam drum, and reduced the The inside surface of the tubes can be stressed by a wide odds of scale in tubes. variety of thermal and chemical problems which can weaken The last point concerning alkalinity control is the relative the tube to the point of failure. Tubes that are badly scaled on degree of attack. Managing the drum pH for high-pressure the ID and are exposed to acid can be ruined in a matter of a boilers with a pre-boiler system containing copper alloys in a few hours. When the boiler is new, or cleaned internally, a thin safe range of 8.8 to 9.2 will reduce the chance of caustic oxide skin will line each tube. This black oxide layer attack. This is of particular concern in areas where caustic can (magnetite) will not rust and will survive for years. To maintain concentrate on the tube ID. The following figure shows the a secure inner scale layer requires daily management of boiler relative degree of attack on a steel tube relative to pH. water chemistry. The following sets of guidelines will keep impurities to a minimum, and prevent tube failures from creating a boiler that is reliable year after year. Good boiler inspection begins with a review of water chemistry logs to determine if this prevention has been at it best, or identify the source of the problem and introduce corrective measures. Makeup Water Boilers that operate above 600 psig should demineralize the water from a mixed bed ion exchange system before injecting it into the boiler. Oxygen Deaerate the feedwater before the boiler and limit any introduction of oxygen into the boiler during shutdowns and repairs. It is particularly important to limit oxygen during start up when the deaerator is not fully functional. Hold residual oxygen from the deaerator to 0.005 ppm and use oxygen scavengers (sodium sulfite [Na2SO3] or hydrazine [N2H2]) to eliminate residual oxygen. Alkalinity Control Boiler water needs to be caustic (not acidic) to maintain the black oxide internal layer. There are a couple of techniques that can be employed. All volatile treatment based primarily on ammonia functions well, but lacks buffering from problems like a condenser tube leak. This approach does hold total dissolved solids (TDS) low, which reduces possible carryover of minerals into the superheater or on to the turbine. The more traditional method for lowpressure boilers is phosphates and sodium hydroxide. For higher-pressure boilers, the sodium hydroxide presents risks, so just careful coordination of three types of sodium ppm HCL ppm NaOH phosphates is used. Figure 8: Effect of pH on Rate of Corrosion of Steel Monosodium Phosphate In lower pressure boilers, this mild caustic (NaH2PO4) has a mild impact on boiler water Although the following data is simplified and does not factor in pH. all operating conditions for the boiler, these numbers suggest the relative concentration of common constituents: Disodium Phosphate In both lower and higher-pressure boilers, this caustic will increase pH increasing TDS Total solids 50 ppb max. moderately. Total iron 10 ppb max. Trisodium Phosphate Similar in application to disodium, Total copper 10 ppb max. but relatively speaking, this increases pH while having even Total silica 20 ppb max. less of an impact on TDS. Oxygen 5 ppb max.
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Figure 9: Internal Tube Deposits & Tube Metal Temperatures

NOTE: For more on the topic of water chemistry, refer to the attached chemistry references provided in ADDENDUM 1.

Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 18. Boiler casing 8. CAUSES OF BOILER TUBING DETERIORATION 19. Coal pulverizers One national organization has the mission of tracking the many causes for why a utility power generation facility becomes less 20. Other feedwater system problems and less reliable (North American Reliability Council, NERC). 21. High pressure heater tube leaks By extrapolation, it can be seen that many of these same 22. Turbine main stop valves causes will plague the effective production of steam for 23. Tube modifications, including addition and removal industrial facilities. The list of top 25 causes listed represents 24. Other miscellaneous balance of plant problems FOSSIL FUEL - 200-299 Mw 2000-2004 DATA. In many ways this represents an average sampling for our boiler 25. LP turbine buckets or blades industry. It shows that of the top 25, thirteen are directly related to the boiler or one of its auxiliary systems. If you NOTE: For a selection of photos for the following tube failure further study that list of 13 boiler system problems, it is obvious mechanisms, refer to: that tube leaks represent approximately half of the causes. Section 9. BOILER TUBE FAILURE PHOTO GALLERY Viewed another way, tube leaks would appear to be a power plants Achilles heel. To expand on that, the following section of this boiler Water Touch Tubes Problems (Alphabetical) inspection fundamentals text will list and describe the major Acid Dew Point Corrosion This may be more common on causes of tube leaks, organized by three major categories: older or industrial boilers where flue gas temperatures can go Water touch tubes (furnace walls and economizer) below acid dew point. The thin edge fracture may have a white layer of iron sulfate present at tube/deposit interface. Causes Steam touch tubes (superheaters, and reheaters) include: operating temperature below dew point with a high Special case tube problems sulfur fuel and allowing a cold end temperatures that is too low. Understanding the primary causes is the first step in Firing rates may cause low exit gas temperatures, such as with understanding how best to inspect for the source of the trouble low load operation. Air preheaters between FD fan and Air to either prevent or correct the problem, or minimize the impact Heaters might not be operational. Inspection: Wash with a on the overall facilitys reliability. neutralized solution, do visual examinations, ultrasonic Top 25 Power Plant Failure Causes (200-299 Mw, all fuels)
1. Major boiler overhaul 2. Furnace waterwall tube leak 3. Other boiler inspections 4. Major turbine overhaul 5. Minor boiler overhaul 6. Boiler, miscellaneous 7. First reheater tube leaks 8. Second superheater tube leaks 9. First superheater tube leaks 10. Light-off (igniter) systems, including fuel supply 11. Other fuel quality problems 12. Plant modification strictly for compliance 13. Turbine inspection 14. Feedwater pump 15. Turbine control valves 16. Economizer tube leaks 17. Generator rotor windings
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and tracking the accumulation rates of hard scale in the high heat flux zones. UT high heat zones for irregular thinning. Coal Ash Corrosion - Not only can many coals contain a corrosive ash, but a few coals in the US have Iron Alkali Sulfates (Na, K) 3Fe(SO4)3 which can become a molten corrosive layer below 900F (Liquid Phase). This will have impact on furnace walls. Above 900F can impact steamcooled tubes. The result is very rapid wastage that leaves behind a characteristic alligator hide on the tube surface. Causes include: Eastern coals with higher sulfur concentrations (Western Pennsylvania in particular) are corrosive, but low oxygen concentrations in the furnace can be a contributing factor. Coarse particles in the fuel stream will aggravate in-situ burning in the walls ash. This can relate to firing for lower NOx emissions. Inspection: An inspection must determine the rate of wastage. Five factors tended to produce the worsening conditions: NHI per Plan Area > 1.8, Sulfur percent > 1.5%, Eight cornered furnace, Supercritical pressure, History of corrosive fuel chemistry. Close examination of wall surfaces in a small grid will prevent missing localized wastage. Corrosion Enhanced Thermal Fatigue - Thermal fatigue has been an issue for any boiler tube, particularly in the high radiant heat flux zones of the furnace. Corrosion enhancement has primarily been a sulfur oxide problem that is located in the zones where heat and corrosive force has been the greatest. One of the best examples is in the upper burner zone. Causes include: Firing moderately higher sulfur coals may be one contributor. Increasing the firing rate for moderately higher loads or running with a lowered economizer inlet temperature can be another. Use of Water cannons and Water deslaggers may be necessary where PRB coals are used. Net firing rates may be higher with blends of wet low Btu coals where wet gas losses and lowered furnace performance are a new reality. Inspection: As with ash corrosion, close visual examination of cleaned wall surfaces in a small grid will prevent missing localized cracking. With supercritical boilers, examine near the outlet end of the tube. Lab inspection of samples cracking will confirm severity. Corrosion Fatigue - A healthy boiler tube is actually a tube within a tube. The outer tube is typically a strong carbon steel wrapping surrounding the inner tube, which is a thin weak layer of magnetite. The inner layer can be broken down by corrosion exposing the carbon steel. A variety of stresses are always working the inner layer opening fissures, exposing the carbon steel that cannot tolerate a corrosive environment. The second component is fatigue often brought on by hundreds of boiler start-ups and shutdowns. Non-uniform flexibility aggravates the tube ID.
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measurement, and sample tube with surface deposit analysis. Acid Phosphate Corrosion - Locations where the water/fluid flow adjacent to the tube wall is disrupted can have phosphate hide out. Possible locations include welded joints, locations with existing internal deposits, bends or sharp changes in direction. Causes include: Concentration of phosphate salts in hide out location, along with high localized heating. But, another is when a new or inexperienced water technician chases boiler water phosphate numbers during a start up in which salts are being added and phosphate levels are dropping for no apparent reason. Inspection: Check water chemistry logs; check at weld repairs, scope and/or UT hideout areas (generating bank), and tracking the accumulation rates of hard scale in the high heat flux zones. Caustic Gouging Can occur where the water/fluid flow adjacent to the tube wall is disrupted. Welded joints, under internal deposits, bends or sharp changes in direction, high heat flux or local hot spots, or along the top of a roof tube. Causes include: Breakdown in the protective oxide layer under a deposit in a hot zone, flow disruption, burner misalignment, excessive firing rate, poorly managed pH. Inspection: Check water chemistry logs; check at weld rings,
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Causes include: Obviously age is a big factor. If a normally operated, well maintained boiler is 25 years old, it can have a thousand tiny points where corrosion fatigue has developed. Not insisting on regular acid cleaning followed by caustic boilout will make matters worse. A tube configuration where stress concentrates is the other major factor. Inspection: Base loaded boiler need less attention; where as, an older boiler that is dispatched on/off frequently would need more, and more extensive inspection. Review water chemistry and internal cleaning logs. Cracks and leaks forming under pad welds should be destructively examined. Falling Slag Impact Damage - Impact from slag falling in the furnace takes on three levels of damage. Very large clinkers have the ability to crush tube panels and the structural steel in the dead air spaces. Smaller clinkers can partially flatten tubes leading to an overheating stress rupture. Slow and steady wastage can erode tubes to a ductile rupture when the minimum wall thickness is reached. This last form of wear is often concentrated along the base of the sidewall where the fall distance is longest. Causes include: Although it may take two decades, the thinning particularly along the sidewalls may be come severe. Some boilers experience clinker falls on a regular basis. Letting them grow to large under the right firing conditions can be a big mistake. Check excess air for clinkering concerns. Increased ash content per Btu of coal heating value can increase this wastage. Certain blends of coal are more prone to clinker formation. Inspection: Focus UT examinations along 10 band along the base of the sidewalls. Also check where the front and rear walls bend to form the furnace bottom. Overheated wall tubes may have a dented restriction near the coutant bottom tube bends. Watch Figure 10: Repair and Reinforcements for Bottom Slope Tubes for clinkering on the superheater pendant assemblies. More extreme measures can include a repair to bottom slope tubes that shield the impacted surface (Figure 10). Hydrogen Damage This failure mechanism can reduce a Fatigue in Water-Cooled Tubing - Several locations in a perfectly good carbon steel tube wall to a brittle failure in a furnace has very high-localized stress where mechanical matter of hours. Special conditions are required to put this bending moments can lead to a thick edge break. The failure mechanism into motion, but they are not difficult to create. progresses from the outside in and does not appear to be a First, allow a hard deposit to grow on the tube ID. Next, drop ductile failure. Tube to tube membranes, tight tube bends and the boiler water from caustic to acidic from a bad condenser points for attachment welds are the most stressed locations. leak, and add wave of high heat flux, and the affected zones Causes include: One normal start up event could trigger the will have their internal iron carbide layers (in the pearl grain crack. Some designs seem to have a predictable life limit and structures) converted to methane under extreme pressure. accordingly were eliminated. Poorly applied weld repairs can Causes include: A small condenser leak that gets out of increase local stress. Harmonic acoustic vibrations in the control or a condensate polisher malfunction can drop backpass economizer area can stress supports and tube feedwater pH. Inspection: Operators must watch the cation attachments. Inspection: Visual examination can prevent conductivity values and respond without hesitation (drop load) repeat failures. Internal video probes can gauge the extent of if a rapid drop in pH begins. Annually, sample tubes in high internal damage, particularly in thick wall pressure parts. heat flux zone to track hard scale accumulation. Ultrasonic attenuation measurements can gauge the span of attack.
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Lab analysis of samples can confirm the loss of ductility. Microstructure examination can identify the loss of iron carbide. Low Temperature Creep and Crack Growth - In some low temperature section of the boiler, over time, the low carbon steels (typically) can begin to harden. The forces that stress the steel can come from original residual source (fabrication of a bend), heat or from external mechanical strain (poor support) or a combination of all three. An intergranular fracture (following the grain) can slowly grow until a leak appears. Causes include: A combination of high tensile stress: residual stress, thermal stress, mechanical stress can result in cracking. Over a long period of time, steels chemical composition, as to impurities I.e., unwanted copper, etc., can contribute to this failure. Inspection: Cold-worked bends in tube or pipe that have 8% or greater ovality are high probability candidates. Lab analysis can confirm the failure cause, but prefailure identification is difficult. Oxygen Pitting, Waterside - Once a boiler is warm, the dissolved oxygen concentration drop to a very low level, but during lay-up, or outages or start-up, there are periods where either untreated feedwater or a vented section can bring oxygen in contact with the magnetite layers. Water filled sections (Economizer or Waterwalls) with imperfections in the magnetite layer are particularly prone to the accumulation of a series of pits that can line up into a crack. Once the oxide pit begins, it will seed further attack, particularly if the surface is mechanically stressed. Causes include: Pre-boiler system malfunctions that lead to oxygen carryover may be a shortterm event, but each event can cause further damage. Proper oxygen scavenging chemicals must be used during outages and periods of lay-up. Prolonged outages where maintenance activity has several replacement areas underway ay require special care to keep oxygen out, or a post-outage treatment program may be needed to pickle the boiler to repair the magnetite layer throughout the boiler. Inspection: Monitor boiler water during start-up for the presence of oxygen scavenging chemicals. Check maintenance policies and procedures and confirm that maintenance staff follows proper isolation of tube IDs, if not fully dried. Internal tube video scope inspection can confirm the mechanism. Post outage hydrostatic testing tracks the pinholes that have penetrated to the surface. Short Term Overheating, Waterside - A short term overheating rupture can take on more than just the classic wide fish mouth failure appearance because there is a range in potential grain damage (distortion) as well as a steel reformulation based on how hot the effected zone reached. Some sections overheat a little because there are thick internal deposits, while still others are quickly overheated when coolant
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 flow stops suddenly. Causes include: In the water-cooled species. As riffle distributors plug, and coal distribution changes, wall slag formation will increase downstream of the sections, the more likely cause is a maintenance error nozzles that carry the most coal. Fuel switching and blending (upstream plug), assuming nothing has changed. A less likely may alter the composition and corrosivity of the ash on the problem is flame impingement from some form of burner walls Approximately 10% of low T-fired NOx burners noted damage (one tilting corner pointing down). Because the corrosion. Nearly all wall fired burners noted increased classification of short term overheating has more than one corrosion. Inspection: Allowing a even a small number of realm, it is possible to experience it gradually where one system change aggravates another. For example, with the combustion air dampers to be frozen shut can create localized introduction of low NOx burners, the heat flux above the main zones of oxygen starved combustion. Similarly, identifying burners can increase overheating risk. Inspection: Check causes for fuel rich streams is important. Check O2 sensor previous repair history. Shift by shift inspections need to track maintenance logs. Visual examination after extensive surface the shape of the fire and the tilting system reliability. Ignition cleaning will identify this mechanism. Ultrasonics measurement distances in a T-fired boiler are driven by several factors that may be able to gauge wastage in the more polished areas. can deteriorate rapidly. Visual examination for swelling addresses the slower working causes. Sampling adjacent Steam Touch Tubes Problems (Alphabetical) tubes can confirm deposits and partial blockage concerns. Fatigue in Steam Touch Tubes - There are multiple designs Wallblower Erosion - Copes Vulcan wall blowers (Clyde for bundling and tieing tubes together to balance flexibility and Berggeman) in particular, and wall blowers in general have assembly strength. If the restraint is too inflexible, fatigue can refractory boxes at the point of penetration into the furnace. develop. Additionally, an accumulation of stress can be found This box has a structural support requirement that helps to in fabricated bends. The more cycles a bend experiences, the keep the short stroke nozzles perfectly perpendicular to the shorter its life. Causes include: Excessive mechanical stress walls plane. If this support overheats from a loss of refractory, due to poor design or manufacture, excessive strains due to or if the external support allows the blower to change its angle resistance to expansion, vibration, poor weld geometry. when the boiler is fully warmed, the result can be polished Surface pits and gouging can accelerate the time to failure. tubes that thin to a ductile failure when the minimum wall Increases in cyclic operation can have a similar effect. thickness is passes. Causes include: The blower support Inspection: Check logs to see if superheaters and/or reheaters system weakens as the boiler warms permitting the blower to were exposed to > 1000F gas temperatures when there was droop. Steam spray angle cuts into the tube. Poorly operating no steam flow. Check installation detail before repairs. Each of drains on the blower steam supply can allow water slugs to the tube ties has very specific installation requirements such polish the tube offsets. Fuel changes (higher ash) and firing as: Style application, Weld procedure based on tube base can change the rate of blower use in general. Some plants metal, Spacing, Not having all the right information can be a have found that the higher volume of ash requires that wall cause for a tube failure. Visual external examinations at welds blowers operate non-stop. Inspection: Check the wall blower and stress points (ties) are required. Liquid penetrant may angle when the unit is at load, and visually examine around the locate smaller stress points. blower opening. Check the blower penetration adjustment Fireside Corrosion (Coal Fired) Superheater, Reheater bolts. Test the circular stroke of the spray pattern. UT tubes Similar to coal ash corrosion, this problem relates to the more that are polished. Check blower piping and drains. aggressive corrosion found when the ash becomes molten at Waterwall Corrosion (Fireside) This mechanism may, or or near 1000F. If ash transitions from a dry state to a molten may not have an ash related cause. Wastage of furnace wall or liquid phase, it becomes corrosive (Figure 11). Some ash tubes can come in varying degrees with the most severe compositions have an unusually low melting point (Eutectic) losses being from high sulfur coals, and in a few cases, high that is less that the normal operating range of the tube. This is chloride coals. Annual tracking of wastage at select elevations the case with several steam-cooled tubes in the finishing or is a good way to determine if things have changed. Even high temperature superheat and reheat assemblies. simple oxidation or localized combustion from coal dust Causes include: If the boiler has always fired a coal known for embedded, but still burning, in the ash can be a problem. liquid phase ash, the failure mechanism may only get worse if Locations where the ash has turned in molten lava can also the operational norm is to run with low furnace O2 levels. Tube experience accelerated wastage. Causes include: As excess misalignment may develop from rapid start-up without air levels are reduced or as overfire air volumes are increased monitoring of exit gas temperatures. Blended coals can melt at to lower NOx, a net result can be increased corrosive sulfur
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lower temperatures. Inspection: Three locations on the superheat and reheat assemblies just above the furnace where this form of corrosion can take place are: Outer assemblies near the outlet header, leading or wrapper tube edges, pendant assemblies that are out of alignment.

Figure 11: Characteristics of Molten Ash

Flyash Erosion The general philosophy for ash removal or management is to use blowers as little as possible at a system pressure that is as low as possible. Fouling material (sodium and potassium based ash) in the transitional zone between the furnace outlet and the top of the backpass can be particularly difficult to manage in a uniform manner. If a blower is out, or if flue gas lanes through paths that are narrowed, the following equation can translate into severe wastage. Increasing the velocity across the tube with steam blowing follows the empirical rule that states that to double velocity increase erosion by a factor of 10. Causes include: Excessive local velocity, non-uniform gas flows, tube alignment, poorly designed and/or maintained gas baffles or flow guides, operation above design rating with excess air/gas flow, loss of shields, excessive ash loading, changing to a poorly designed and/or installed gas baffles or flow guides, operation above design rating with excess air/gas flow (coal change), shields
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 that were not installed correctly. Inspection: Well installed shields and gas baffles are a part of the PM to address ash erosion, and the experimentation with the effectiveness of these shields can be critical. Make a return visit after a few months, inspecting deeper into a tube bank as required. Visual examination must address two ranges of wastage. Wastage can affect the face of the tube. Wastage can concentrate at 45 degrees off the face. Study regions of pluggage before cleaning out the gas lanes. Gouging Rubbing Damage - Tube to tube contact points and possibly gas baffle to tube points must be closely inspected to determine if the tubes have been severely cut. Steel wedges, amongst other tools are key to an effective inspection. Steam or water cooled spacers are prime candidates Centerwall to tube panel penetrations are possible rubbing locations. Backpass baffles that attach to the rear walls are often made from expanded metal with resulting diamond gouges. Causes include: Original shields and baffles, or experimental upgrades, may not be as effective as hoped. Installed baffle supports could shift in operation (sag). Inspection: Disassemble a portion of the protective layers to determine effectiveness. Visual examination of fluid cooled spacers often requires the use of steel wedges to separate spacer and panel. Long Retract Sootblower Erosion Sootblowers represent both benefit and detriment. The general philosophy is to use them as little as possible and set the system pressure as low as possible. Technologies in this area have advanced fully into the 21st century, but most boilers are using designs that were new a half-century ago. Getting the blowing medium to pass through the space between the tubes with the appropriate degree of rake is important, and addressing the removal of fouling material in the transitional zone between the furnace Figure 12: Long Retract Blower Alignment outlet and the top of the backpass. Causes include: Excessive blowing pressures should be avoided. Normal use may eventually lead to this failure. Improper placement of the lance Overheating - Long Term or Creep - Several sections of a can lead to more blowing of the tube lead edge rather than the boiler are constantly exposed to very high gas temperatures space between the tubes. Changes to a coal with more fouling that push the metallurgical tube choices nearly to the limits. ash can over burden long retract blowing systems. Operation Over long periods of time intergranular creeping can produce a at the highest possible firing rates for maximum load can shift small degree of swelling and fissures open. The outside of the more difficult to remove ash higher and further back into the tube will appear overheated, burned with axial grooves on the boiler. Inspection: Check for polishing at the point of scaly surface. Thick lipped longitudinal tube ruptures can open penetration and along that elevation. Check tubes that have not only leading to a rapid loss of steam, but adjacent damage bowed out of alignment. Tests can be done to determine if from condensate damage and erosion is probable. increasing excess air hour prior to a blowing cycle will Causes include: Initial material choice, build-up of internal improve the effective removal of ash. Check blower alignment scale, restricted steam flow, particularly outer assemblies near to confirm the space between the tube is being blown, rather outlet header, adjacent tube tie, blockage/laning of gas than at the tube face (Figure 12). passages, wall thinning to increased hoop stress, higher heat flux from increased firing rate, more night time operation with half load but full steam temperatures. Inspection: Check near
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ferritic-to-stainless material change, near wall thickness change, lowest tube in horizontal platen or leading tube (wrapper) in pendant, all locations with higher tube temperatures. Identify tubes that are misaligned from the other tubes in an assembly. Check the temperature profile history for the finishing superheater and reheater assemblies. Visual examinations may show gross creep as viewed from the base of a pendant assembly. Header nipples can confirm swelling with the use of go-nogo gauges. Initially focus on the outer 10% of the outlet headers. Overheating - Short Term, Superheater, Reheater - In steam touch tubing, a rapid loss of cooling can be caused by several things, often during start up. Pendant tube bends can suddenly fill with spray water carryover; a poor weld repair can reduce the flow to a single tube, poor firing rate and exit gas temperature control. In one example of a brand new boiler undergoing its first full fire, inlet header sabotage was to blame. Rapid repair is important, but gaining a clear picture of the root cause is even more important. Causes include: Partial or complete tube blockage, improper shutdown/start-up & overfiring, improper material (can be short or long term), poor temperature control during start-up. Recent SH/RH flush, improperly done, can result in deposits left behind in bends. improper repair, miscellaneous maintenance shortcomings: Excessive weld splatter, debris, tools & hardware accidentally left in inlet headers Inspection: Check outlet tube legs where the temperatures are higher, bottom bends of a pendant section, sections downstream of a recent repair. Visual examination may only benefit a post failure event. Where tube bends are involved, sample adjacent tubes to see if sprays or carryover are a building problem. Pitting in Steam Touch Tubes - When a boiler is allowed to cool for a few days, it is probable that condensate will gather in the bottom of tube bends. If vents are opened and air is allowed to be drawn in as the steam condenses the result can be a air-water interface where oxide pits can begin to form. Once the tubes inner layer has been broached, the pits that result can be steep and grow fairly quickly (1-2 years). Pinhole leaks here can be very difficult to locate. Techniques involving air pressure and sound detection may be effective. Causes include: Poor shutdown practice and the presence of stagnant, oxygen-saturated condensate, Na2SO4 carryover (reheater) & moisture. Improper chemical cleaning practices, procedures can also be a cause after an outage. Inspection: External visual examination may have to accompany a compressed air sound test (reheater). Internal views can be seen with an articulated laser Profilometry probe.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Stress Corrosion Cracking - This failure mechanism is manage the total dissolved solids in the boiler water. Using a something of an odd phenomenon where an electrochemical proven chemical cleaning supplier that will carefully follow solution (aqueous or molten) is required, working in league procedures (per boiler type) is critical. Stressed walltube environment and stresses that can be residual (dating from internal surfaces will initially give up more oxide and potentially fabrication or installation) or locally applied. Under analysis, it begin to dissolve the good steel if the cleaning process is doesnt play fair; grain boundary examination can reveal allowed to run too long. When flush-cleaning a pendant transgranular and/or intergranular. The chemical attack can superheater or reheater, certain minimum velocities must be source from the inside out, or the outside in. Placing blame is met to assure nothing is left behind. Causes include: Poor sometimes difficult, and correcting the span of the trouble may management of the cleaning process. Inspection: Check require extensive replacements. Causes include: If the source superheaters to prevent carryover. Ultrasonics may help to is fabrication and installation, the problem can be there from show the span of the attack. Sampling as a standard or routine day one. If the stress is induced, and/or if a carryover event practice may be the second line of defense. has taken place, the time to failure can be occur quickly. Embrittlement - Liquid Metal Prevention of this type of Inspection: The failures favor location that can have high failure is to acid clean the boiler to remove deposits that can stress: bends, tube attachments, welds, supports, spacers, build over a period of years. One source of contamination is however it can also show in straight sections of tube. The pre-boiler tube metals that have slowly dissolved from the complex nature of this failure mechanism will require tube internals of condensers or heaters. These metals can include sampling. Test for chlorides or hydroxides on inside surfaces. copper, zinc, etc. When these deposits are heated in an area Test for sulfates, nitrates or other acids on exterior. of applied or residual stress they can attack the grain Weld Failure - Dissimilar Metal, Superheater, Reheater boundaries making the normally ductile steel develop localized The coefficient of expansion for ferritic allow steel is not the brittle sections. Pad welding a blister that is hammered down same as it is for stainless steel. Stainless (Austenitic) grows is the classic brittle plug-like failure. 40% more. As they heat, they want to separate. That alone Causes include: Presence of low melting contaminants on the will not, however be enough to fail a weld joining the two tubes. tube ID in a zones prone to deposition. Along with this, the use High temperature boiler pendant assemblies are heavy. The of pad welding can draw the metal (copper) into the steel, downward pull of the mass, plus the stress of uneven altering its strength. Inspection: Samples taken routinely to expansion, plus the internal pressure stresses can be enough determine when the need for acid cleaning is a component. to shorten the life of a ferritic-austenitic weld. A poorly welded From maintenance logs, gauge the use of pad welding root pass, or slight misalignment in preparation can further walltubes. Sampling tubes adjacent to the failure will address shorten the dissimilar metal welds life. the possible loss of evidence. Causes include: Excessive system stresses, excessive local Flow Assisted Corrosion - During the final phase of acid tube metal temperatures, initial fabrication defects, various filler cleaning a boiler, caustic neutralization (2 hour warm soak in materials. The failures will occur sooner with changes to cyclic soda ash) helps a soft layer of iron oxide (magnetite) form in operation, weld configuration/geometry. temperature and the water touch tubes, from the economizer inlet through the stress. Inspection: Look where even the ferritic to austenitic walls, drums and headers. This oxide layer is stable in that it welds are located, cracks favoring the ferritic side. Cracks are will not form red iron oxide pits or scale (rust). The soft nature at the base of the weld on the side where a magnet can stick of the oxide layer makes it susceptible to strong flow currents (ferritic). Knowing the weld will fail requires planning and scrubbing it away. The physical geometry and turbulent flow inspection. Note that historically, DMWs done in the field are paths in Ts, bends, header nipples, and nozzles sets the more likely to fail. After the root pass, let the weld cool and stage for material losses, i.e., the black oxide is washed, have the root inspected. Visual examination augmented with reformed and washed away again and again. liquid penetrant will confirm the location and span of the Causes include: Boiler running a higher pH (near to 9.4) exterior cracking. Ultrasonic readings (special arrangement) appear to have a higher potential for loss. Turbulent zones will further show depth of cracking. under consistent flow are targets that may be a bit more Special Case Tube Problems (Alphabetical) predictable. Designs with a geometry that induces localized turbulence are more likely to have a failure. Certain Chemical Excursion Damage Acid Cleaning QC temperature regions for carbon steel have a less stable Fundamental to the chemical cleaning of the boiler is the magnetite layer. Inspection: Inspections need to anticipate the quality of the feedwater and the use of drum blowdown to
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problem and cover sufficient areas to head off a serious failure. The problem is more likely found in lower temperature sections of the pre-boiler systems, however, it is being identified in older boilers in tubes adjoining the economizer inlet header, Ts, nozzles, etc. Examine with Ultrasonics to spot localized thinning. Extend the search to non-traditional locations. Analyze any changes in water chemistry practices. Maintenance Cleaning Damage QC - Stress raisers, dents, chisel marks, in any form, can aggravate a weakened tube pushing another failure mechanism to accelerate to a rupture. Some on-line practices that remove slag or clinkers with force can also be the root cause of a failure. In the last decade, one fairly aggressive cleaning method shoots water from a cannon. Properly aimed, this approach can carve heavy wall ash accumulations away. When shot onto a clean tube, or a thin reheater tube, the result can be extreme thermal stress. Causes include: Again, high localized stress. Boilers that convert to high percentages of PRB coals may have found it necessary to invest in water cannons. If heat flux sensors are too few, or malfunctioning, an unprotected clean surface can be shot with a large stream of water. Inspection: Check areas that are impacted by: excessive use of shot, or the use of the wrong size shot can cause damage, excessive use of water cannons spray that can fracture the wall tube surfaces or bow tubes, incorrectly aimed cannons that can warp thinner reheater tubing. Visual examination is necessary. Check service history for details of who did what, and how. Material Defects Supply Selection QC - Managing a well stocked tubing warehouse where each sealed tube end is accurately marked is the goal of every boiler maintenance staff, but the reality may be something closer to a scramble to keep a reasonable selection of carbon steel, alloy steel and stainless steel that, in a pinch, can be supplemented with a rush delivery from a supplier. ALSTOM keeps a vast inventory in a Chattanooga shop to address the latter. In a typical boiler, there may be 21 different types of 2 boiler tubes. Always double-check the thicknesses and materials on an up-to-date unit material diagram (Figure 7). Causes include: The less obvious failure is installing tubes with the wrong wall thickness without correcting for the stress raiser. If a tubing substitute must be made during a brief emergency outage, plan to replace the rush repair at the next outage. Correct for a minor stress raiser where possible. Inspection: Check supply history along with samples to prove your case. Maintenance history should leave enough of a paper trail to identify the point where the error took place. Shockwave - This failure term is a variation on the maintenance cleaning failure, but relates more to the practices where dynamite or water lances are used to break down
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 bridged section of the furnace coutant bottom. This thick best prevention. This thick-lipped non-ductile failure may edged fracture may be a secondary crack somewhat removed require a broader review of the circuits to see if a second or from the zone of initial compression. third candidate is forming. Causes include: The cold/warm work hardening that induced the strain can originate from Causes include: Compressive forces that greatly exceed the fabrication. Bends, swages, welds where cold/warm work has toughness of the tube material Note that toughness relates to aggravated a defect in the grains of the steel Some materials the point where a brittle cleavage occurs where the plastic require special heat treatment, which, if not done well, can nature of steel in not sufficient to permit a ductile yield. This precipitate out at the grain boundary (TP-347H). Some normal lack of strength related to tube metal temperature at the time of degree of oxide accumulation on the exterior can aggravate impact. There may have been a significant operational change the strain. Recent repair where heat treatment (post) allowed that relates back to why the furnace bottom bridged to the point the material to reform with regions where precipitation where blasting was the best option. Coal ash volume and damages the grains. Strong cyclic stress is brought on by a composition are part of the problem. Average coal discharge change in operation. Inspection: Sampling may be needed to fineness can have impact. Lower furnace oxygen examine the grain structure. concentrations can also have impact. Inspection: Check for several factors that control pulverizer discharge fineness: Vibration Fatigue - Assemblies need to be fairly rigid to deal Classifier settings, grinding zone wear, springs settings. with the gas lane flow. Tube tie design, particularly in the classifier bypassing. A tube sample can examine the nature of vertical axis, need to keep the tube bundles in line. Normal the cracking. Visual examination may gauge the span. As stresses may not be sufficient to force a tube failure, but add in noted above with maintenance errors, check service history for the force of a vibration, and the tube life may be significantly details of who did what, and how. reduced. Causes include: High local stress due to poor design/manufacture (poor transition at weld toes) Excessive Steam or Condensate Erosion - When a failure is allowed to strains due to constraint of vibration (acoustic, direct flow or continue for several hours or days, the result is an increased vortex shedding). Poor lug location or weld geometry leading to amount of time and energy needed to make repairs. At one locations of stress concentration. Inspection: Flow modeling facility, a failure at a bend in a roof tube lead to subsequent can identify a problem where higher than designed flow is the failures in a screen tube, a header nipple, and a sidewall panel. root cause. Visual examination with liquid penetrant. Follow-up Each of the four failures required a different tube diameter, inspections with a hydro test. thickness and material, and different access and set-up procedures. The decision to shutdown is a function of holding Welding Defects - Skill or Procedure QC - Becoming a drum level and the economics of megawatt sell price versus Qualified Boiler Inspector may not require any testing, just added repair time. Causes include: If pressure is not taken off some confirmation that years of experience have been the boiler fairly quickly, collateral damage is likely. Many of the acknowledged. Becoming a Certified Boiler Welder is a far more damaging failures are in nests of header nipples. Boilers harder challenge. Knowledge is not enough. Skills must be that cannot easily accept cyclic operation, but have been routinely tested to see if welds on multiple pairings of materials driven to this mode, are candidates for nipple stress, sometimes at difficult angles must be proven. Even after the particularly near the finishing assembly header ends. weld is complete, x-ray examinations may be needed to gauge Inspection: Review operational logs to determine the time a percent of failure. Causes include: Beyond a failure to Xbetween the identification of the sound and when pressure was ray all welds, and the obvious lack of welder skill, the shear taken off the boiler. Visual examination must extend well number of field welds to be made was a factor. Designers beyond the original leak. Any adjoining tube or nipple is a have maximized shop welds and minimized field welds. Certain possible victim, but furnace tubes have the lowest likelihood. field welds were at a difficult angle Inspection: Check the Tight bundles in the backpass are probably the most entire process: qualification test, preheat, procedure, post heat, vulnerable. In extreme cases, the header pipe wall was inspection, testing, and documentation. Visual examination, damaged as well. Repair and post heat treatment was very wet fluorescent magnetic particle or ultrasonic shear wave may difficult. be a start, but X-ray examinations are the most common method of applying quality control to welds. Strain Inducted Precipitation Hardening - There are a number of places in a boiler where highly localized strain can form, either from the original design configuration bends or swages) or where strain can be induced (unannealed welds). Proper heat treatment processes and procedures may be the
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Figure 13: X-ray of Weld for Defects

Exfoliation Oxides form on both the insides and outsides of all boiler tubes. In water-touch tubes, this black iron oxide magnetite layer protects the steel. In high temperature steam tubing, and in some cases headers and links, an iron-steam reaction produces a moderately thicker layer of black oxide. This minor wastage has not directly lead to a tube failure, but when the exfoliated oxide layer detaches, it can travel to the turbine causing damage. Causes include: A concrete answer may not exit, at the present time. It has been noticed that units with a full steam bypass system, where steam is never bottled up in the high temperature superheater and reheater, do not have exfoliation. Boilers that are bottled up with superheaters and reheaters with ferritic tubes, which then see a sudden flow increase with a safety valve release may develop this scale. Inspection: Ultrasonic measurement can identify the scale layer thickness. If solid particle erosion is found in the turbine, testing is necessary. Coal Particle Erosion B&W has a burner design known as a Cyclone Burner. Particle erosion is a direct result of the fact that coal particle size is relatively large as it is devolatilized (gas driven off) and reduced in mass as more carbon is exposed and slowly burned away.

Figure 14: Cyclone Burner

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Tube samples are generally taken from the waterwalls at a Internal Scale Trends & Waterwall Tube Samples location approximately l0 above the uppermost elevation of The internal surfaces of tubes accumulate deposits in the form fuel nozzles (Figure 15). This has been found to be an area of of oxide scales as a function of operating time (as well as the potentially high deposition due to the high heat flux in this area. quality of feedwater and boiler water chemistry). Locally heavy Use care when removing a tube sample, dry cut the sample deposits can also occur as a result of poor feedwater from the wall panel and seal the ends as quickly as possible to treatment. If left unchecked, internal tube deposits can minimize further internal corrosion. Wrap the sample in contribute to tube failures. packing material to prevent damage. After a failure occurs, tube sampling and deposit analysis, serve only to confirm that a boiler is dirty and that deposits may have promoted the failure. Submittal of Tube Sample (Routine Sampling) When submitting a sample for analysis, state the specific information needed from the analysis. Refer to Figure 16. Also include information on the following: The boiler or unit number Location, on the unit, where the sample was taken Indicate side of tube exposed to flue gas and direction of gas and internal fluid flow, on the tube sample (mark the tube prior to removing) Marked up cross sectional drawing and state the elevation and tube count to/from an adjacent wall Tube Material type Original outside diameter Minimum wall thickness (MWT) Age (If the tube was original to the unit or part of a replacement section) Date the routine trending sample was removed Unit operating history: including, date of the last chemical cleaning and number of start-ups Boiler water chemistry log

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Figure 16: Example of Form for Submission of Tube Sample

Figure 15: Typical High Heat Flux Area

Forced outages caused by tube failures can be avoided by establishing a program for the planned sampling and analysis of waterwall tubes. The basic purpose of such a program is to monitor the cleanliness of the boiler internal surfaces. Periodically, all factors influencing boiler cleanliness are reviewed to determine the quantity of internal deposits and to predict when a chemical cleaning will be necessary.
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Guidelines for Removal of Tube Samples 4. After removing the damaged tube from the furnace, the ends may be cut off to final required length to reduce shipping The following guidelines should be observed when removing weight of the sample. See guideline 1 above for minimum tube samples for analysis. Of paramount importance is not lengths. Use a dry hack saw. Cutting oil will contaminate any disturbing or contaminating the internal and external tube deposits, making it impossible to perform a useful chemical surfaces during or after the process of removal. analysis. Under no circumstances should a tube sample be 1. A tube sample is generally removed for either of two split lengthways before shipping it for metallurgical or chemical reasons: a failure has occurred requiring root cause analysis, examination. Do not clean the sample before shipment. or an assessment of present tubing condition is required Leave all internal and external deposits as close as possible to (no failure has occurred). Select cut point locations as follows: the condition existing before the sample was removed. If the a. If a failure or defect has occurred in a straight section of boiler owner or the inspector insists on retaining part of the tubing, the cut points should be located at least 6-8 damaged tube, it can be dry cut in half through the center of from the failure. If the failure occurred in a bend, the the defect. It should be stressed that this could possibly complete bend and a few inches of straight tubing damage the sample. An alternative would be to have ALSTOM should be included in the sample. The sample may be return the tube after analysis. flame cut at points at least 6 away from the failure or 5. Be sure the sample is clearly marked to show which end defect. The defective portion of the tube should not be was up and which was the fireside. Enclose a sketch showing heated by flame cutting. the location of the sample in relation to the furnace wall, b. If the sample does not contain a failure or defect, the superheater or reheater. sample should be cut to an overall length of at least 18 Tube Leak Access and Inspection 2. In a furnace wall with bars or fins welded between Routine samples are relatively straightforward in terms of plans tubes, it is preferable to cut the bars or fins with a saber saw or and procedures. Repairing a tube leak is another matter. a grinder with a thin disc metal cutting wheel. If these tools are Before entering the boiler for a tube leak inspection and repair not available, the bars or fins must be flame cut approximately be sure to observe safe standard procedures for: 1/2" from the tube length required for the sample. As a general Boiler cooldown (Ex: rapid cooldown can cause further rule, the minimum fin width is 5/8". If the fin is flame cut 1/2" damage) from the tube being removed, some fin and weld bead will remain on the two adjacent tubes. When the replacement tube Clearances and Safety (ex: entering a penthouse with is installed and the welds are completed, the missing fin an ash can hold extreme heat levels for days) material must be replaced. It is preferable to build out from the Following the opening of the internal access door and removal fins remaining on the two adjacent tubes, rather than remove of the cement plugs, determine if there are any localized hot the fin stubs and weld replacement fins to the tubes. Fillers spots that need to be avoided and/or covered with planks. made of low carbon bar stock of the original fin thickness may In the upper furnace or backpass section, place planks on top be used. Fillers can also be made of low carbon steel rods with of the assemblies and wire them in place. Below the the diameter approximately equal to the original fin thickness. economizer, staging may be needed to safely reach the bottom 3. In a furnace with fillet welded tangent tubes, the fillet rear assemblies. welds must be cut with a saber saw or thin disc metal cutting If the tube is reached for inspection during the day shift, the wheel. Any attempt to flame cut the fillet weld may destroy the lead inspector (Ex: General Foreman), as well as the repair usefulness of the tube sample for metallurgical or chemical lead (Ex: Mechanical Maintenance Foreman), are normally examination. Note also, chipping out the fillet weld may remove responsible for inspecting the failure and making the decision internal deposits thus limiting the usefulness of the tube to close up the failure as quickly as possible, or to sample the sample for metallurgical or chemical examination. If a tube with a dry saw cut, one foot above and below the failure. metallurgical and chemical examination is considered essential These length guidelines are explained further on in this and no tools are available but an oxy-acetylene cutting torch, it section. If there are multiple repairs, treat and document will be necessary to make the flame cuts in adjacent tubes and individually. During this inspection, begin compiling insert new tube lengths in these also. information for the tube failure report form. In addition to assigning a failure number to each individual leak, your notes should cover:
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Location in the unit (identified by assembly, and tube count and/or elevation) Location of leak on the tube relative to tubing arrangement (sketch) Failed tube diameter, thickness, and material Photos and marked-up arrangement prints List of personnel who inspected the failure Type or appearance of failure (crack, pin hole, etc.) If a sample is taken for metallurgical analysis Observed appearance around the failure (surface texture, swelling, discoloration, etc.) General comments about the surrounding area which could either suggest causes or indicate the extent of distress of surrounding tubes Welders assigned to the repair For more on the documentation, refer to the sample data sheet, Figure 17. Pass this information on to the repair lead from shift to shift during the repair, as well as to the inspection lead.

Tube Sampling (Failed Tube)

During the above inspection, begin sketching the tube and its failure point for the sampling report. With the location information and sketch, along with the markings on the tube as to hot side, cold side, top, and bottom, it should be possible to replace the tube in the unit, in the same manner as it was removed. The sample data are being provided so that the Plant Engineer and Metallurgists have a good idea of what, and why they should analyze this particular failure. When addressing the sample to the one doing the chemical or metallurgical analysis, address following points: Suspected root cause Other conditions that could have contributed to the failure Any indications of corrosion Any deterioration of the metal's physical properties Material properties of the tube ASME code for the tube material Safe working life remaining in the tube Evaluation of internal deposits Evaluation of external deposits The need for additional samples from adjacent tubes which have not yet failed but are showing similar signs of wastage
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 When preparing the sample, seal it from further corrosion and biased to minimize the higher levels until they drop back to exercise care to leave the internal deposits undisturbed. Add normal. paint markings on the outside surface sparingly. After re-start, Operations need to compile data covering: Tube Repair Final Inspection Date and time that the failure was reported This section does not include cutting and grinding preparation Date and Time that the unit came off line or any weld procedures. Our assumption is that not only has Outage hours that were attributed to the tube failure the welders attended formal training courses on arc welding, Boiler's total operating hours but also has completed all certification requirements, possibly including Welders Performance Qualification Test Boiler's total number of pressure ramps [Ex: Test 6G]. The repair lead and/or inspection lead should List of any major operational digressions since the last inspect the welds and confirm that the following information is tube failure outage. gathered for the repairs report (Figure 18): Tube Failure Reporting and Analysis Date of repair Throughout the previous steps, it was primarily the repair lead Unit number that had to confirm that all of the documentation on the failure Boiler section was being prepared as fully as possible. This includes: Elevation and/or tube count from wall Tube Failure Inspection Forms If a drawing is attached, refer to it Tube Failure Repair Forms Repair method: Dutchman, pad weld (no leak), pad Tube Sample Data Forms weld (leak) Only at or near the end were others responsible for reporting Tube diameter, thickness, and material on chemical or operational aspects of the outage. Warehouse stores code The inspection lead needs to confirm the completeness of the repair lead reports. These reports plus the chemical and Welding rods operational reports should next go to the Plant Engineer for a Welder's name review. If the failure mechanism is known, the repair and Comments reporting process closes with a semi-formal discussion Inspection lead's signature at final inspection between Maintenance and Engineering to determine if more information is needed. Final inspection may or may not include a moderate (100 psi) hydro test. If it does, decide whether or not to remove the If, however, the failures appear to be new, or unusual, or if staging and other access material before the boiler is refilled. metallurgical analysis is to be performed on the Dutchman If it is not a major problem leaving the equipment in place (i.e., (spool section), extend the reporting and analysis process to load restrictions are not severe) take the time to conduct a include the Plant Engineer. hydro test to check new welds, and to expose any other thin or Compiling of Report Information cracked spots. First, the Plant Engineer or his delegate should prepare the Boiler Clearances and Re-Start of the Unit following background information: Prior to this point the Plant Chemist needs to have completed a Inspection lead's report needs to be prepared for report on (1) the last time the water and/or steam circuits were distribution chemically cleaned, and (2) the existence of any serious boiler Previous similar failures, by boiler section, need to be water chemistry upsets since the last chemical cleaning. double checked for repeat patterns Still more input may be needed as to the details of the water Previous similar metallurgical reports need to be double treatment procedures if the cause of the failure appears to be checked for repeat patterns chemical or internal corrosion. Boiler manufacturer input should be considered, When the boiler is refilled and warmed, the Plant Chemist particularly if failure records on similar units using the needs to closely monitor the boiler water quality for such things same fuel exist as dissolved oxygen and suspected iron levels (and others, phosphate, Silica, pH, etc.). Chemical treatments need to be
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Preliminary Analysis

Analysis should begin by looking at the larger picture of how the unit is operating in terms of availability losses from tube failures. If past practices of taking fewer samples are having a negative impact on identification of failure causes, then possibly a wider inspection scope and more metallurgical input are required. Secondly, focus on the completeness of the data collected. If insufficient data are an underlying problem, determine what data is missing. ALSTOM Services experience has shown that the exercise of root cause analysis can uncover a wide variety of ideas concerning what causes problems, and where solutions may be found. When discussions of design, or other boiler manufacturerrelated topics enter into the analysis process, a decision needs to be made on when bringing in that perspective will be of benefit. Availability Data Programs have been ongoing throughout the industry and have been successful in providing criteria for certain failure mechanisms.
Report Distribution

After feedback from either the O.E.M. or the independent Metallurgist is complete, a copy of the failure report's cover letter needs to be distributed via Plant Engineer. A full set of documents should be kept on file for the next several years. The inspection lead should retain the photos.
Final Analysis and Recommendations

Further action as a result of analysis process is not always recommended, but the cover letter should state if no action is recommended. The following are possible courses of action: Testing can be planned and initiated to confirm the root cause. The outcome of the confirmation would then determine the development of a solution. If the root causes were known, solutions could be recommended and a cost study prepared for each. A single solution could be selected and sent on to the Maintenance Planners for introduction into the schedule, or to Operations for an adjustment to performance standards. If multiple root causes were identified, and in some way quantified as to degree of significance, several solutions could be implemented simultaneously to control, rather than simply correct a perceived problem.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008
Boiler Tube Failure Inspection Reports

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The following series of letters are examples of the documentation that should be developed, distributes and saved with each failure. Well maintained, repeat failures can be prevented:

Figure 17: Tube Failure Inspection Form

Figure 18: Tube Failure Repair Sheet

Figure 19: Sample Letter to Metallurgist

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 9. BOILER TUBE FAILURE PHOTO GALLERY

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Figure 20: Acid Dew Point Corrosion

Figure 21: Acid Phosphate Corrosion

Figure 22: Caustic Gouging

Figure 23: Coal Ash Corrosion (Fireside)

Figure 24: Corrosion Enhanced Thermal Fatigue Figure 25: Corrosion Fatigue

Figure 26: Falling Slag Impact Damage

Figure 27: Fatigue in Water-Cooled Tubing

Figure 28: Hydrogen Damage

Figure 29: Low Temperature Creep and Crack Growth

Figure 30: Oxygen Pitting, Waterside

Figure 31: Short Term Overheating

Figure 32: Wallblower Erosion

Figure 33: Waterwall Corrosion (Fireside)

Figure 34: Fatigue in Steam Touch Tubes

Figure 35: Fireside Corrosion (Coal Fired)

Figure 36: Flyash Erosion

Figure 37: Gouging Rubbing Damage

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 38: Long Retract Sootblower Erosion

Figure 39: Overheating - Long Term or Creep

Figure 40: Overheating Short Term

Figure 41: Pitting in Steam Touch Tubes

Figure 42: Stress Corrosion Cracking

Figure 43: Weld Failure - Dissimilar Metal

Figure 44: Chemical Excursion Damage Acid Cleaning QC

Figure 45: Embrittlement Liquid Metal

Figure 46: Flow Assisted Corrosion

Figure 47: Maintenance Cleaning Damage QC

Figure 48: Material Defects Supply Selection QC

Figure 49: Shockwave

Figure 50: Steam or Condensate Erosion

Figure 51: Strain Inducted Precipitation Hardening

Figure 52: Vibration Fatigue

Figure 53: Welding Defects - Skill or Procedure QC

Figure 54: Exfoliation

Figure 55: Coal Particle Erosion

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 56: Ranges in Industrial Boiler Size, Pressure and Capacity

10. UTILITY VERSUS INDUSTRIAL BOILERS ALSTOM Power has offered a broad range of boiler designs in general, and industrial boilers, in particular. According to the US Department of Energy, large coal, oil or gas fired highpressure boilers, produce just over 70% of all electric power, at the present time. Coal is the energy source for almost 50% of all electric power. Coal-fired utility boilers are addressed in greater detail in Section 20. PULVERIZED COAL FIRED UTILITY BOILER of this booklet. That material will lay out the pressure part and major auxiliary systems for a typical large steam generator, regardless of fuel type. Industrial boilers, in the US, consume between 6-7% of the coal mined. More often, the industrial boilers function is to dispose of waste materials that are a byproduct of the primary processes at that facility. The thumbnail views above (Figure 56) show eight different types of industrial boilers, however, there are multiple variations in sizes and vintage arrangements that are not reflected. In fact, Alstom probably produces over one hundred variations. These steam generators can be both mobile (marine) and field erected with a variety of shop-assembled components. Industrial boilers for process-plant service are ordinarily designed to fire a wide variety of fuels, each of which influences sizing and configuration of the boiler and its auxiliaries. In addition, the primary fuel may vary over the life of the unit. Many process plants are sources of byproducts that
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are valuable as fuel. The need for industrial boilers to be fuelflexible, while meeting stringent federal, state, and local emissions standards, requires special design considerations and sophisticated ancillary equipment. Understandably, there is a preference to design industrial boilers for burning clean liquid and gaseous fuels when such are available at reasonable cost. The boilers and auxiliaries will be of minimum size and cost. Unfortunately, world demand for such prime fuels can be expected to outpace the long-term supply and will result in a decline in oil and gas burning steam generators. The eventual shift to solid fuels will require boilers that are not only initially more expensive, but also operationally more difficult. Thus, as more coal and other solid fuels are burned, there will be an increased need for pulverized-coal, stoker, and fluid-bed firing. Owners and operators of industrial boilers must consider such developments and adapt unit performance to such things as multi-fuel burning capabilities. During the 1970s, some industrial boiler owners had to convert boilers from firing coal to gas, to oil, and back to coal as the environmental requirements, fuel costs, and fuel availability changed. To protect an investment in the steam-generating facility, the owner may require multiple-fuel capability in new units. Because a wide variety of fuels must be considered, it is difficult to compare stack emissions between different industrial boiler designs. However, very low emission burners exist
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today that fire natural gas and/or refinery gasses in the range of 15 ppm NOx. Rather than employing selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technologies, flue gas recirculation (FGR) is required. For more on the subject of Power Plant Emissions, refer to page 42. The high cost to dispose of waste make refuse, biomass, waste acids, and sludge more attractive as fuels for steam generation since they provide a viable disposal alternative, accordingly, a growing number of new boiler designs will use waste fuels. Owners and operators of industrial boilers must consider low operating costs. The cost of fuel and auxiliary power can in a short time exceed the original cost of a steam generator. Therefore, new equipment must be efficient and have a low auxiliary-power consumption. They should also consider cogeneration potential. Simultaneous generation of electrical power and process steam is common as users strive to extract maximum heat from their fuel. Industrial firms will more frequently select the more efficient high-pressure and high-temperature steam cycles to optimize the amount of electrical power and steam produced. For additional information on Industrial Boilers and Process use and Power production see the Combustion Fossil Power text Fourth Edition [1991] Chapter 8.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 loading and handling. Both the A and VP designs have 11. VP AND A TYPE SHOP-ASSEMBLED BOILERS boiler banks with multiple simple tube circuits starting at the The growth of oil and gas suspension-fired shop-assembled lower drum(s) and terminating in the steam drum. Expanded boilers since their introduction in the early 1950s has tube joints have proven to be the most practical way to connect paralleled industrys demand for higher capacities, pressures these relatively close-spaced tubes into the drums. and temperatures. The evolution of these industrial boiler lines has been from 20,000 lb/hr before 1950 to approximately 600,000 lb/hr in the late 1970s. As an example, Figure 57 shows the 1970s vintage VP (D type) boiler. Steam pressures and temperatures have kept pace with this capacity growth, from the saturated-steam conditions of the 1950s to todays operating pressures of 1700 psig and superheated steam temperatures of 960F. As compared with a field-erected unit, the most significant advantage of the shop-assembled boiler is its lower cost. This cost advantage comes from the development of standard designs with maximum use of proven fabrication procedures and minimum field-installation costs; or where only small plot areas are available. Shop-assembled boilers can be furnished with integrated auxiliary equipment. The lower capacity units are shipped completely packaged with fuel-burning equipment, safety and combustion controls, and boiler trim. Because of shipping clearance limitations, it is not always possible or desirable to furnish the higher capacity Figure 57: Type VP Industrial Boiler boilers in a single package. With higher capacity units it may also be desirable to use heat-recovery equipment (economizer and/or air heater), which is shipped as a separate package. Most shop-assembled water-tube boilers use thermal circulation (natural circulation) and are designed for pressurized gas furnace firing. Shipping clearances determine the allowable height and width dimensions of an assembled unit. Usually, the allowable shipping length is greater than can be effectively used. One of the problems of the design, therefore, is to use the available height and width to best advantage. To burn the fuel completely within the furnace, burner/furnace configuration must be properly coordinated. The VP boiler has welded-wall construction, uses an un-heated downcomer, and a combination radiant/convection superheater, which produces a flat steam-temperature characteristic. Any VP boiler can be shop-assembled, however, shipping of a shop-assembled boiler has a few considerations. A VP boiler that is less than 200,000 lb/hr can be shipped in one unit, depending on rail clearances. VP boilers in capacities up to 240,000 lb/hr can be rail-shipped but in modular sections; and still larger VP units are shipped over waterways on large barges. Another shop-assembled boiler is the A type (Figure 58) which can generate as much as 300,000 pounds of steam per hour. The A type boiler is a three-drum design with one upper (steam) drum and two lower drums. Its symmetry makes the A type design ideal for rail Figure 58: Type A Industrial Boiler shipment because ballast is not needed. This simplifies offAlstom Power, Inc. COPYRIGHT 2008

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12. VU-40 BOILER The VU-40 boiler is a field-erected, top or bottom supported, single gas pass, thermal circulation, two-drum boiler with a baffle-less generating bank which also uses rolled tube construction (Figure 59). Its features make it particularly suitable for the range of steam and fuel conditions of both large industrial and small electric central-station installations. Boiler applications cover steam capacities 100,000 - 1,000,000 lb/hr with design pressures up to 1700 psig at 950 - 1000F utilizing pendant and spaced superheaters. A VU-40 boiler can be equipped with fuel burning systems for tangential, horizontal, or stoker firing of single and multiple fuels. Completely watercooled, the VU-40 furnace uses welded fin-tube panels or fusion-welded webs. Top-supported pendant superheater assemblies can be sized for a range in outlet temperatures. Diversity of fuels and fuel-firing systems typifies industrial steam generation. The list of waste fuels is ever growing with the decreasing availability and increasing cost of fossil fuels. The list also is affected by the increasing difficulty and expense in disposing of industrial and municipal waste materials in an ecologically acceptable manner. 13. VU-60 BOILER The VU-60 is a custom-designed two-drum, baffled generating bank boiler with rolled tube construction (Figure 60). VU-60s are built from pre-engineered modular components. It is used to fire clean liquid and gaseous fuels and many waste and byproduct fuels. This bottom-supported, natural-circulation steam generator ranges in capacities from 100,000 - 1,000,000 lb/hr, with design pressures up to 1700 psig. Multi-loop pendant and spaced superheaters achieve outlet steam temperatures of 950 - 1000F. The VU-60 boiler can be designed for front-wall round-burner firing or tangential firing. The waterwalls consist of tube panels with welded metallic fins, producing a completely tight furnace enclosure. Insulation and lagging are applied directly over the tube panels. This construction virtually eliminates refractory maintenance because the only refractory material is the floor tile and a small amount around the burner throat openings. For steam temperatures above 825F, the VU-60s superheater is arranged in two stages, with interstage desuperheating for control of steam outlet temperature. Multiloop pendant-type elements and a center connection in the large-diameter outlet header ensure even distribution of steam throughout the superheater surface. The construction requires a minimum number of header joints. Superheater elements are supported from headers located out of the gas stream above the furnace roof. VU-60 boilers have also been used to recover heat from gas turbines, coke ovens, blast furnaces and smelters.
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 59: VU-40 Industrial Boiler

Figure 60: VU-60 Industrial Boiler

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 destroyer-type vessels. The term bent-tube boiler covers a 14. MARINE BOILER wide range of boiler designs characterized by the ability to Early Marine Boiler Design raise steam pressure within a short period of time. This means With development and application of marine boilers, some of smaller tube diameters, fewer headers, increased furnace the basic requirements have always required special ratings and wider application of water-cooled furnaces. consideration: initially space and weight limitations may not Post-War Design Changes have been as important as other factors, but as power After World War II, ship operators and boiler designers became increases advanced, early designs had to be reshaped. By acutely aware that marine-boiler designs would have to be 1870, marine-boiler pressures had reached only 60 psig; by modified to avoid some of the difficulties that were being 1900 they had increased to about 300 psig. The earliest types encountered with the prewar designs. During the war, with the of marine boilers were relatively large pressure vessels, with emphasis upon standardization and rapid production, time was furnaces located underneath them. But it soon became not available for the development of improved designs. Fuel apparent that such exterior furnaces were far from satisfactory. type availability was another factor that needed to be To overcome the structural weaknesses and at the same time addressed. Lower grade corrosive, high ash residual oils reduce cost of fabrication, the boiler shell was made cylindrical (Bunker C and/or No. 6) would become the economical choice. replacing the earlier box construction. The design was called This would make maintenance and inspection requirements the Scotch marine fire-tube boiler. This boiler as finally that much more difficult. Additionally, higher steam pressures developed met with wide and enthusiastic approval by marine and temperatures, for propulsion plants of greater power, engineers. Even though the Scotch marine boiler proved to be would be critical as a means of achieving more profitable popular and well suited for shipboard installations, the fact that operation. A comprehensive analysis of these problems led to its pressure was limited to 300 psig retarded progress. the development of the Combustion Engineering Inc. V2M Water-Tube Boiler Advancements Vertical Superheater Boiler. Refer to Combustion Fossil There was a commercially driven realization that advanced Power Chapter 10 for additional details on current marine boiler designs with greater generating capacity, higher boiler design. pressure, and increased efficiency was needed. More modern water-tube boilers and turbine propulsion systems from shoreside applications needed to be modified to fit into the restrictive space within the ships. Early water-tube boilers evolved to become the basic arrangement known today as the cross-drum sectional-header boiler. Variations of Combustion Engineering Inc.s sectional header boilers were used during the World Wars on many classes of merchant ships. The design was ideally suited for mass production. The Type SM sectional header boiler was designed for capacities up to about 150,000 lb of steam per hour and pressures up to 850 psig. Superheated steam assemblies could be offered in two arrangements depending on temperature requirements. Bent-Tube Boilers Just as the need for increased steaming capacities within fixed space and weight limitations spurred the development of the earlier water-tube boilers, so did the same need precipitate the advance to boiler designs of the bent-tube type. The most compelling reasons for the development of higher capacity boilers came from the naval designers who, at about the end of the nineteenth century, were charged with developing the Figure 61: Marine Boiler torpedo boats which were the forerunners of modern

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Vertical Superheater Type Marine Boiler Figure 61 shows the V2M8 Vertical Superheater Boiler. The major design features are the single-cased welded-wall furnace and the vertical in-line inverted U-loop superheater, fully drainable. The boiler shown has six wall burners resulting in improved load control and good gas distribution over the entire superheater furnace. Both the main-bank tubes and superheater elements are in-line for improved tube cleaning. Normally, sootblowing equipment includes retractable blowers in the superheater and rotary blowers in the main bank and economizer. Typical heat-recovery equipment consists of a small economizer followed by a regenerative air preheater or, in some cases, a regenerative air preheater only. The weldedwall construction provides a furnace with gas-tight integrity without the need for double casing or heavy refractory bricks behind the tubes. All that is required for insulation behind the walls is blanket insulation. Some boilers of this type have been built with twin superheaters. These superheaters have elements that are more widely spaced so that cleanliness is easier to maintain. Later furnace changes and oil firing system designs incorporated a tangentially fired corner burners that improved particle residence time and combustion performance.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 The MU is designed to maintain steam temperature close to 15. MU BOILERS the design point even at relatively low rates of steam The Modular Unit [MU] boiler is a simple, compact customgeneration. Operating pressures can be as high as 1800 psig. designed boiler made from pre-engineered, modular The unit is bottom-supported by six concrete piers, eliminating components, which can be assembled in a variety of structural steel problems. combinations (Figure 62). Modular design permits a concept Supports, bearings, guides and stops permit predetermined that assures maximum application flexibility, minimum engineering and reduced installation expenses. expansion and contraction. Ductwork is also held to a minimum and comprises only small sections between the forced draft fan, air heater, steam generator and stack. The ground-level location of the fan and air preheater further adds to the economy of installation as well as convenience of operation and maintenance. Bulky or heavy non-working structural members are kept to a minimum. As a result, the weight per pound of steam capacity is reduced. 16. AU BOILERS The Australian Unit [AU] boiler design is a single drum, radiant, natural circulation, all welded, top or bottom supported, modular boiler available in twelve furnace sizes/combinations. It uses shop assembled, field erected water-cooled membrane furnace walls, horizontal multi-stage superheaters and an economizer (Figure 63). All tube surfaces are fully drainable. The walls form a box like structure with the lower section forming the furnace. Mineral fiber insulation attaches directly to the external surface of the waterwalls. Metal sheet cladding attached by tech-screws to the steel supports provide for full weather protection. A portion of the furnace rear walls tubes is bent forwards at 35 angle to the horizontal to form a nose extending approximately half way into the furnace. These tubes continue vertically upwards forming the division wall, which, at its upper end, becomes the screen wall. Figure 62: Modular Unit [MU] Boiler The AU boilers can operate up to 1000F at steam pressures These bottom-supported boilers have an output range of up to 1800 psig with steam temperature control down to 25% 130,000 - 800,000 lb/hr firing oil, natural gas or waste fuels. MCR. The boiler is gas tight permitting low excess air levels. The convective superheater can reach steam temperatures of Relatively flat superheater steam temperature control is 1000F. Standard incremental drum, tube, header, burner and achieved over a wide load range. Rapid start-up is possible. structural member sizes provide an extensive range of steam Base capacity can range from 130,000 - 1,000,000 lb/hr. generator proportions. MU units are designed to maintain low Tubular air heaters are usually adequate for smaller AU Boilers excess air and high efficiency over the complete load range with Rotary air preheaters being used for larger units. The with tangential firing of oil and/or gas nozzles and standard air furnace bottom design can be arranged for a variety of firing preheaters. MU Boilers have exceptionally good availability systems: Pulverized Coal fired with hopper bottom (AU-PC), and reliability by utilizing proven technology such as tangential Stoker Fired with stoker bottom (AU-S), Oil and/or Gas Fired firing, welded tube walls, and simple convection superheaters.

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with slightly sloping floor (AU-OG). Depending on furnace design, the fuels possible include: Oil, Natural Gas BFG, COG, CO Refinery Gas Coal, Bagasse, Wood, and Sludge. Firing Equipment can range from: Rotograte, Dump Grate, Vibragrate, Pinhole Grate, Hydrograte and Bubbling Fluid Bed, Front Wall Burner, and Tangential Burners.

Figure 63: Australian Unit [AU] Boiler

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Pinhole stoker grate Bottoms - These are the standard Industrial Furnace Bottom Designs offering for the AUERP boilers for bagasse fuel. This design is Fuels for industrial boilers can come in a wide variety of favored for the sugar industry where they fire low-ash fibrous composition and particle size. Suspending the fuel long residue left over from cane milling. This method of combustion enough to permit the combustible matter (predominantly also works well with low ash chipped wood. carbon) to fully convert to CO2 and for the undesirable components (ash, sulfur, etc.) to transfer into a disposal path that is effective, particularly from an environmentally perspective, requires a range in design options (Figure 65). Wet bottom - Fine coal particles can be fired tangentially or from a wall burner. Ash, which can be heavy with iron and sulfur, can be removed in a wet-bottom bottom ash system (Figure 26). Closed bottom - Oil or gas can be fired in a closed bottom furnace because there is little to no ash. Stoker bottoms - Traditionally, coal has been handled on a variety of fixed bed stokers. The earliest designs of screw driven retort stokers date back to the early 1800s. These furnace bottom fuel-handling systems can serve to process a variety of waste materials like wood, bagasse, garbage and sludge. The common designs used today range from continuous ash discharge traveling grates to water-cooled vibrating hydrogrates.
Figure 64: Modular CFB (FiCirc) Fluid Bed Furnace Bottom

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Fluid bed bottoms - Burning fuel is suspended above streams of hot air forced through distributors (Tuyeres). When the lifting velocity is in the range of 2-3 feet per second, the system is referred to as a bubbling bed. Still higher velocity fluid bed boilers function in a more turbulent range of 4-6 feet per second where air is forced through water-cooled distributors. This is the operating range for ALSTOMs Modular CFB (FiCirc) boiler (Figure 64). At the high end of velocity are the circulating bed boilers (15-30 feet per second). ALSTOMs FlexTech utility boilers (Figure 68) typically operate with lifting velocities of 20 feet per second. Bubbling bed furnaces, using over one thousand fluidizing nozzles, can be equipped to handle difficult waste coals, biomass, sludge, mine tailings, petroleum coke or even shredded tires. Circulating fluid bed boilers (CFB) are more often meant to handle lower grade coals in a blend with sulfur absorbing crushed limestone.

Figure 65: Furnace Bottom Variations

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 the furnace. Flexibility of fuel to be used and the capability for 17. MODULAR CFB INDUSTRIAL FLUIDIZED BED BOILER rapid load changes are beneficial features of this boilers The following Fluid Bed Boiler technology and arrangement technology. Combustion of the fuel in the fluid bed takes place summary provides fundamental design and layout information in a vertical chamber called the furnace. Fuel and sorbent are for the ALSTOM Power Modular CFB (FiCirc) design for a fed into the furnace, fluidized, and burned at temperatures of modern industrial Fluid Bed (FB) boiler burning high sulfur, approximately 1560F. The sorbent is fine grain limestone, high ash coal (Figure 66). This industrial Fluid Bed technology which reacts with the sulfur dioxide released from the burning is unique in its ability to efficiently use any waste, biomass fuel to form calcium sulfate (gypsum). The bed material in the fossil fuel or coal. This example boilers design steam flow rate furnace consists primarily of mineral matter from the fuel, is moderately greater than a half million lb/hr at a superheater gypsum, and excess calcined lime. The bed material is outlet pressure of 1520 psig and temperature of 955F. For fluidized with primary air introduced through air distributors, additional information on Fluidized Bed technology refer to the th called Tuyeres, at the bottom of the furnace, and also by the Combustion Fossil Power text 4 Edition [1991] Chapter 9. combustion gases generated. Source of Sulfur Capturing Sorbent Primary Air [Fluidizing Air] Limestone serves as the sulfur capturing sorbent. Limestone Air from the Forced Draft (FD) fan enters the tubular air heater is a plentiful mineral throughout the world. It is often most where it absorbs residual heat from the flue gas to warm the economical to use local limestone mines, even if the quality is primary and secondary air. The major portion of the not ideal, to keep transportation fees as low as possible. combustion air passes through the air heater where the air is Limestone, which consists primarily of calcium carbonate preheated before it is introduced to the furnace. Roughly 80% (CaCO3), allows sulfur emissions to be controlled within the of the combustion air is introduced as primary or fluidizing air fluidized bed during the combustion process. Pre-ground through the distributors at the bottom of the furnace, and 18% limestone must be supplied in sufficient volume since the FB is admitted as secondary air through multiple ports in the system does not have its own grinding or milling system for sidewalls. A small portion of the air is diverted to the fluid bed fuel or sorbent. See Figure 67 for a summary of the process ash cooler as well as the fuel and limestone feed systems. chemistry. Secondary Air [Combustion Air] Preparation of Coal and Limestone Secondary air, also referred to as combustion air, is added to As with the CFB noted above, particle size as fed into the the freeboard section of the furnace to achieve complete and boiler furnace is critical for effective carbon burnout relative to staged combustion. Combustion air is fed to the furnace at two the type of combustion process employed. The coal and levels. Combustion thus takes place in two zones: a primary limestone are crushed to sand and gravel size particles. oxidizing zone in the lower section of the furnace and an Particle size distribution of the materials that enter the bottom excess air-oxidizing zone in the upper section. This staged of the FB furnace dictates how material separate into layers of combustion, at controlled low temperatures, effectively controls gas and reactant in the combustion process. NOx formation and provides conditions to most efficiently FiCirc Fluid Bed Combustion capture SO2 at low calcium-to-sulfur molar ratios. In fluidized-bed combustion, fuel is burned in a bed of hot nonFluidization and Furnace Gas Flow combustible particles suspended by an upward flow of The fluidized solids form a concentration gradient throughout fluidizing gas. Prepared fuel and limestone are introduced into the furnace that decreases gradually toward the two outlets at the furnace that has been preheated to a minimum operating the top. The combustion gases entrain a considerable portion temperature with the start-up burner. For particle size of the solids inventory from the furnace. Because of the high management of the fluid bed, ash is periodically withdrawn slip velocity between the gases and solids, the solids continue from the furnace with a fluidized bed ash cooler and discharge through the furnace at a much lower velocity than the gases. screw. The ash is then transferred from the discharge screw to The longer residence and contact times, coupled with the small the ash removal system. particle sizes and high heat and mass transfer rates achieved, Operational Processes result in high combustion efficiency. These conditions also For steam load adjustment of the boiler, the bed material allow both the complete decomposition of the limestone and transfer system removes or adds bed material to the furnace. the subsequent capture of the SO2 at very low calcium-to-sulfur The steam rate is controlled through the immersion or molar ratios. exposure of the evaporative heating surfaces to the fluid bed in
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Recycle of Solids Solids are separated from the gases in eight recycle cyclones and are continuously returned to the bed via gravity flow seal legs. Heat Transfer Heat for steam generation is removed from the system in several areas. In the primary loop, where heat is removed from the solids circulating in the FB system, heat removal is by the heat-absorbing surface in the evaporators of the furnace. Exiting the recycle cyclones, heat removal is by the heat absorbing convective backpass surface in waterwalls and hanger tubes, and superheater and economizer assemblies. Flue Gas After the convective backpass, the gases are further cooled in a tubular air heater. From the air heater, the flue gases are cleaned in dust collection equipment and vented via an induced draft fan to the exhaust stack. Water and Steam Flow The process steam heat transfer systems for the circulating fluidized bed boiler consist of the following components and their connecting links: economizer, steam drum, boiler circulating pumps, furnace evaporators, convective backpass waterwalls and hangers, and superheater assemblies. From there the steam can be used to drive a turbine or heat other plant processes. Economizer Below the superheater is the economizer. The economizer recovers heat from the flue gas to preheat boiler feedwater before it is introduced into the steam drum. There is one economizer section composed of two banks of parallel bare tube assemblies arranged as in-line horizontal rows. Feedwater is supplied to the economizer inlet header through stop and check valves. The feedwater flow is upward through the economizer, in counter flow to the hot flue gases. The feedwater is collected in internal headers that feed the hanger tubes that support the superheater before it is routed to the steam drum.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 In-Bed Evaporators Steam Drum and Downcomers In-bed evaporators are located in the lower section of the The steam drum acts as a collector and separating device for the steam generated in the furnace evaporators, and the combustion chamber, above the air distributors in the fluid bed. convective backpass waterwalls and hangers. Water flows The evaporators extract heat from the dense fluid bed and are from the steam drum through two natural circulation of modular design, each having dual inlets and outlets, which downcomers to the convective backpass waterwalls that are piped into single connections. The 32 modules are enclose the superheater sections. Water flows upward through cantilevered from the furnace sidewalls. They consist of two the tubes and collects in headers at the furnace top before the 3.48, eight-layer staggered tube assemblies. The example steam-water mixture is routed back to the steam drum. A unit in-bed evaporators are forced circulation fed by the boiler parallel water flow path exists for the furnace evaporators. water circulating pumps (BWCP). Again, todays FiCirc design Two separate downcomers supply water to the in-bed and does not use BWCPs. freeboard evaporators. The water is distributed to the Superheater evaporator headers where the water absorbs heat released in The hot gases pass through a natural circulation, water-cooled the furnace. The steam-water mixture from these evaporators superheater enclosure at the top of the backpass. The is collected and routed back to the steam drum. This superheater is composed of two basic stages or sections: a evaporative loop is force-circulated by circulating pumps. finishing (secondary) section and a low temperature (primary) Boiler Circulating Pump section. The secondary superheater section is located in the The boiler utilizes natural circulation in the water-cooled upper area of the convective backpass and consists of two circuits of the convective backpass and forced circulation in the banks of horizontal tube assemblies. The primary superheater furnace evaporators. The example unit has two boiler section is located in the convective backpass below the circulating pumps (BWCP) to provide controlled circulation of secondary superheater. It consists of three banks of horizontal the boiler water through the evaporator system. The pumps tube assemblies. Saturated steam from the steam drum enters are suspended from a common suction manifold, from which the primary superheater inlet header below the superheater they take their suction, and discharge into a common section and flows upward through the tubes to the outlet discharge manifold that links to the evaporator. Each pump header, in counter flow to the flue gas path. The steam flows has one discharge line, equipped with a stop/check valve. The to the secondary inlet header and traverses upward through boiler circulating pumps, manufactured by Hayward Tyler, each the tubes to the outlet header and main steam line, also consists of a single-stage centrifugal pump and a submerged, counter flow to the flue gas path. Between the superheater or wet, stator induction motor mounted in a common pressure sections is a desuperheater. vessel. Note that ALSTOMs Modular CFB design employs Convective Section (Backpass) natural circulation and therefore does not use BWCPs. Flue gas enters the convective backpass after exiting from the Furnace Evaporators recycle cyclones that reduce the solids carryover to the The furnace evaporators consist of: freeboard evaporators and convective backpass. Heat is transferred from the flue gas to in-bed evaporators. the steam and water circuits that are made up of superheater, economizer, waterwall, and hanger surfaces. Freeboard Evaporators Freeboard evaporators are located in the upper section of the combustion chamber, above the fuel distributors and secondary air inlets. The evaporators extract heat released by the fuel burning in the freeboard, and are also of modular design, each having 3.48, four-layer in-line tube assemblies. The 16 modules span the combustion chamber width. The example unit freeboard evaporators are also part of the forced circulation evaporator loop fed by the boiler circulating pumps.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 66: Modular Industrial CFB Boiler

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Fuel and Sorbent Feed Furnace Injection 18. UTILITY CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED BED BOILER The solid fuel feed system delivers the sand and gravel size The following technology and arrangement summary provides coal particles that provide the main CFB heat source. This fundamental design and layout information for the present system consists of the following components: fuel silos, fuel ALSTOM Power offering of a modern FlexTech utility CFB silo outlet shutoff valves, fuel flow monitors, gravimetric boiler burning high sulfur, high ash coal (Figures 68 and 69). feeders, fuel feed isolation valves, fuel feed chutes, and fuel For additional information on Fluidized Bed technology refer to th feed nozzles. The limestone milling system consists of the Combustion Fossil Power text 4 Edition [1991] Chapter 9. following components: gravimetric feeders, Raymond rotary Source of Fossil Fuel mill (crusher) with a dynamic classifier, hot and cold primary air CFB technology is unique in its ability to efficiently use any supply ducts, transport and seal piping, isolation valves and a fossil fuel from refinery waste coke, coal, all the way down to parallel primary air purge supply. The limestone is given its very low quality waste fossil fuel. A typical design will handle a final processing only seconds before delivery into the furnace. fairly wide range of hard Eastern coal. A design target fuel For this reason, the system is referred to as a Just-In-Time, or flow might be in the range of one quarter of a million lb/hr with JIT, delivery system. 20% ash, and 4 to 5% sulfur with a heating value of around Crushed coal and sorbent (limestone) are introduced together 10,000 Btu/lb. A CFB this size will typically use eight into the furnace, which has been preheated to a minimum gravimetric coal feeders provided is capable of handling operating temperature with light oil for the start-up burners. It 40,000 lb/hr. can be calculated that approximately 2.2 x 109 Btu of heat must Source of Sulfur Capturing Sorbent [Limestone] be converted to steam to drive the 290 Mw (gross) turbineLimestone is a plentiful mineral throughout the world; a generator set. Assuming a maximum 40 Mw of auxiliary remnant of the first fossil records dating back 545 million years service power, the net output will be ~260 Mw. This CFB boiler ago to a period known as the Cambrian explosion. The Gilbert design is ~88% efficient. Therefore, assuming a steady state Project can utilize local limestone mines. This supply of of flow exists, 2.5 x 109 Btu of chemical energy must be limestone serves as the sulfur capturing sorbent. Limestone, delivered per hour to obtain this output. Assuming an average which consists primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), allows coal supply quality of 10,400 Btu/lb, coal must be fed at a rate 80% of the sulfur emissions to be captured within the fluidized of 250,000 lb/hr, which is ~120 tons per hour. In order for the bed during the combustion process. Additionally, flyash, heavy limestone to fully absorb the sulfur, approximately 2.0 to 2.2 with burnt lime (CaO), is captured and injected in an ALSTOM Ca/S ratio is needed. Viewed at a molecular level, and based Power designed environmental backend system Flash Dry on contract specifications, it is assumed that limestone is 94% Absorber (FDA) that will augment the CFB sulfur reduction calcium carbonate (CaCO3). For each input unit of limestone, capability. Gilbert utilizes two ALSTOM Power Raymond there is one atom of calcium, which constitutes 47% of the Limestone Rotary Mill Systems, each capable of 56,000 lb/hr. mass of the calcium carbonate molecule. The coal, as a worst One mill in service provides sufficient volume for even the case, could have 4 to 5% sulfur. Calculating backwards, this worst high sulfur coal. For more on the subject of Power Plant suggests that every hour, 11,000 pounds of sulfur needs Emissions, refer to page 42. approximately 26 tons of limestone sorbent. Note however, that the limestone injection has been oversized to handle Preparation of Coal and Limestone almost 40 tons per hour. Distribution of particle size is critical for effective carbon Start-up Burner burnout relative to the type of combustion process employed. While fossil fuel can be burned in small chunks on a stoker, No. 2 Oil burners mounted in four windboxes on the furnace most large coal-fired utility stations burn pulverized coal in sidewalls are used during startup and for partial load operation. suspension. For a standard pulverized coal-fired utility boiler, These auxiliary burners increase the temperature and pressure the coal is ground to a face-powder consistency and is of the CFB steam generator and bed ash before and during the pneumatically transported through piping from the pulverizer to introduction and ignition of the main fuel (coal). Combined, the the furnace. The powder consistency produces particle sizes four start-up burners are rated at ~800 million Btu/hr. The that are quickly heated, ignited and burned in the furnace. start-up burner oil guns use air to atomize No.2 distillate. Each burner has a retract mechanism, limit switches and a highCFB boilers do not require the same level of fineness. The energy electric igniter, scanner, seal air and oil purge system. coal and limestone are crushed to sand and gravel size The ignitor has its own retract mechanism and power pack. particles.
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Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction [SNCR] System To reduce the Nitrous Oxides formed by the combustion process, there is a selective non-catalytic reduction system. The SNCR has eighteen injection points associated with the three CFB Cyclones. A Typical SNCR system (Figure 68) consists of piping and valves that connect the following equipment: anhydrous ammonia storage supply, ammonia circulating pump module with electric heaters, ammonia distribution modules with dilution air fans, and ammonia injector nozzles. Safety interlocks prevent the anhydrous ammonia from approaching explosive concentrations (16%-25% by volume with air).

Figure 67: CFB Process Chemistry Summary

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 30% burnt lime (CaO) making it reactive to sulfur dioxide for Primary Air [PA] backend sulfur removal. The flyash, with its burnt lime, reThe PA fan supplies primary air at a relatively high pressure. A circulates in the Flash Dry Absorber (FDA) increasing the majority of the flow is through the primary side of the air heater overall sulfur removal to ~95%. where the air is preheated before entering the furnace plenum. Primary air is introduced into the furnace plenum, passes up Fluid Bed Heat Exchanger [FBHE] through the fuel and sorbent (limestone) bed fluidizing the In the FBHEs, the ash is cooled by transferring heat to two mixture and supporting combustion of the coal. The air finishing superheater tubing assemblies (front and rear) in a velocity through the bed is high enough that particles are single enclosure, and two finishing reheater assemblies also in suspended in the air stream. A small portion of cold primary a single enclosure. The fluidizing air blower and hundreds of air is diverted to the coal feeders for seal air. A moderate nozzles keeps the ash fluid in the FBHEs as it cools. The ash portion of warm primary air is directed to the Raymond JIT is subsequently returned to the combustion chamber. limestone preparation feed systems (JIT Mills). A small Fluid Bed Ash Cooler [FBAC] portion of warm primary air is admitted to the fuel feed chutes Ash is continuously withdrawn from the combustion chamber as a sweep when either JIT Mill is out of service. and cooled in two FBACs. A metered amount of ash passes Secondary Air [SA] through two 8 ash control valves (ACV), one per FBAC. In the The SA fan supplies combustion air to the furnace. All SA flow FBACs the hot ash is cooled by transferring heat first to a is through the secondary side of the air heater where it is bank of economizer assemblies (heat recovery) and second to preheated before entering the furnace and the oil start-up a bank of water-cooled assemblies (heat rejection) in each burners. Secondary air is introduced at a level above the FBAC. Again, fluidizing air blowers and hundreds of nozzles plenum grate so that the combustion process is essentially keep the ash flowing in the FBACs as it cools. The ash, completed as the suspended particles are carried up through known as either bottom ash or bed ash, properly cooled, is the furnace and into the recycle cyclones. The SA fan then transferred to the bed ash silo via a compressed air ash modulates flow to manage excess air volume. handling system. Fluidizing Air [FA] NOTE: CFBs with somewhat lower bed ash removal volume Three FA blowers keep the ash fluid in the siphon seals and requirements may instead use a series of fluid bed ash SH/RH finishing Fluidized Bed Heat Exchangers (FBHE). A coolers to extract ash from the furnace to manage the small portion of the FBHE blower supply is diverted to the JIT inventory of ash recycling through the furnace. Mills as shaft seal air. Three other fluidizing air blowers keep Convective Section [Backpass] the bed ash moving through the Fluid Bed Ash Coolers Flue gas, with a relatively light ash loading, enters the (FBAC). convective pass of the steam generator where it passes over Cyclones and Siphon Seals the horizontal superheater, horizontal reheater, and The recycle cyclones collect and return a major portion of the economizer elements. A hopper at the bottom of this section hot ash particles from the flue gas stream (approximately 99%) (economizer hopper) removes flyash. The economizer hopper sending the hot mass to the furnace to sustain the thermal downspouts feed four pressurized ash feeders. reaction process and slowly reduce the bonded carbon to CO2. Air Preheater This hot ash settles into the siphon seals. Fluidizing air Flue gas from the convective backpass enters the Ljungstrom blowers keep the ash fluid in the siphon seals and FBHEs rotary air preheater where it transfers the residual heat to the allowing the ash to be metered through 17 ash control valves primary and secondary air systems. Because the primary air (ACV) into the FBHEs or to be returned to the combustion fan discharges at a relatively high discharge pressure (over 75 chamber. Not all of the ash recycles back to the furnace. A w.g.), high performance seals are required in the air heater. small portion of the ash exits the top of the cyclone. This ash (flyash) is captured in the baghouse. This flyash can contain

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The seals are arranged in double rows with a bendable sector plate leakage control systems. Emissions and Backend Systems Flue gas continues to the backend gas cleaning equipment (Figure 69) which includes the major systems of the Flash Dry Absorbers (FDA) and Baghouse (for removal of SO2 and residual flyash particulates), Induced Draft (ID) Fan, and Stack. The FDA is an ash recirculation system that provides a path for moistened flyash, which contains a rich supply of burnt lime (CaO), to re-enter the flue gas stream. The forced contact of sulfur oxide gas with moist calcium oxide captures the sulfur forming inert gypsum, which can be disposed of in the flyash. Baghouses contain multiple banks of fabric filter columns, which greatly limit the flow of flyash with only minimal pressure drop to the flue gas flow. With these highly effective backend cleaning system working in tandem, the gases discharging from the CFB boiler meets or exceeds the projects emission requirements. These requirements focus on SO2, NOx, CO, and particulate removal. Continuous Emission Monitoring Sensors (CEMS) tap into ductwork between the ID fan and the stack to monitor environmental system performance. For more on the subject of Power Plant Emissions, refer to page 42 of this booklet. Ash Handling Systems The ash handling systems consists of three major subsystems: the bed ash system, the bed ash re-injection system and the flyash system. Each sub-system has a pressurized ash piping network that ties together the following components: positive displacement blowers, Nuva feeder assemblies (ash hoppers with automatically timed or gauged inlet and outlet pneumatic valves), Nuva screw feeder assemblies, gravel screws, ash silo isolation valves, ash silo filtered vent fans, a compressed air pre-heater, an ash silo mixer/unloader (wet), gate isolation valves, and telescopic dry ash unloaders. Proper operation of the three ash sub-systems addresses the following four requirements: maintaining a furnace bed ash mass that is adequate in volume and pressure resistance, removal and disposal of flyash from multiple locations, removal and disposal of bed ash, and re-injection of bed ash either during a start up or following an outage.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 68: FlexTech CFB Boiler and Auxiliary Systems

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 69: FlexTech CFB Boiler Backend Systems

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 steam drum and downcomers are hung from two large 19. CHEMICAL RECOVERY [CRU] BOILER diameter U-bolts that cradle the steam drum. The outer skin of Paper Mill Chemical Recovery the boiler consists of stainless steel casing covering insulation The following side sectional chemical recovery unit illustration and refractory. Pourable refractory is used in the lower furnace is based on Paper Mill CRU Boiler typical to the mid-1970s for explosion protection as well as behind buckstays and in (Figure 70). A CRU boiler of this design may operates at other difficult to access areas. pressures of 900-1000 psig producing a half million lb/hr steam Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Air Systems at 850 to 900F. What is unique about this boiler concept is Total airflow to the boiler during normal operation is the sum of that a unit this size can convert 5,000,000 pounds of toxic three individual airflows. The air supplied to the boiler reacts tar-like black liquor, a by-product of the paper production with the fuel (primarily carbon from the black liquor) in the process into 3,000,000 pounds of valuable pulp digester salt th combustion process to form gaseous byproducts and ash (from cake. In the early part of the 20 century this black liquor was impurities in the black liquor plus partially oxidized digester poured into the river. Trainloads of new salt cake had to be chemicals). The primary and secondary air levels are just purchased. Additionally, supplemental heating is supplied to above the bed. The tertiary air level is above the liquor guns. the paper production process. The load carrying oil firing The primary and secondary air systems basically have the equipment is capable of firing the unit to the full half-million function: to provide combustion air and distribute air flow for lb/hr output providing for full power even when the salt cake effective bed coverage. The tertiary air nozzles supply the production is halted. For additional information on the Pulp necessary air to complete the combustion process by burning and Paper industry and Chemical Recovery Boiler technology off such gases as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and refer to the Combustion Fossil Power text Fourth Edition hydrogen sulfide. Unlike the primary and secondary air, which [1991] Chapter 8, page 42. is preheated, tertiary air is ambient at a fan discharge Source of Fuel - Recovering Digester Chemicals temperature of approximately 100F. Note that some chemical Todays world is that of information and communication, of recovery boilers are even being retrofitted with a fourth level of which much of this information and communication takes place air for improved performance. using paper products. Paper mills produce the paper that Flue Gas System todays world demands. The recovery boiler is only one of the The boiler operates in the balanced-draft mode, which means major components within the Kraft paper mill process. Expensive and caustic chemicals are used to break down that under normal operation, there is a slight vacuum in the (digest) the wood pulp. Recovery of these chemicals is both furnace. The induced draft fans maintain this negative economically and environmentally advantageous. Organics in pressure or furnace draft. As more air and fuel are introduced the wood pulp contain carbon (black liquor), which has some to the combustion process more flue gas is created. The ID heating value. Through the use of a chemical recovery boiler, fan must increase in speed to accommodate the additional the carbon can be burned, releasing heat for process steam volume and maintain the draft in the furnace. production. The black liquor would otherwise become a waste Flue Gas Flow Path product that would be an environmental problem and difficult to Flue gas flow through the generating bank is in the downward dispose. Within the last two decades, a new generation of direction. At the bottom of the generating bank, the gas makes recovery boiler was being designed with multi-level air systems a 180 degree turn and is directed upward between two baffles. and other efficiency improvements. Many of the older recovery Some of the ash entrained in the flue gas drops out at this boilers that are still operating in the paper mills today are point and is collected in the generating bank ash hopper. At undergoing upgrading and design changes that will increase the economizer inlet the flue gas makes another 180 degree their capacity to handle dry solids, and allow the boiler to turn, flowing through the front economizer in the downward operate within todays environmental emission standards. For direction. At the bottom of the front economizer the gas more on the subject of Boiler Emissions, refer to page 42. makes another 180 turn and is directed upward between two Boiler General Arrangement baffles. Again, ash entrained in the flue gas drops out at this Like most of ALSTOMs steam generators, the boiler is top point and is collected in the economizer ash hopper. This supported from a structural steel grid above the unit, with change of direction and ash capture method is repeated in the provisions for lateral and downward expansion. The furnace rear economizer. The flue gas is split into two ducts and section comprising the front, rear and sidewalls, are continues to the precipitator. Ash from the various ash hoppers suspended from the structural steel grid by hanger rods. The is collected and directed to the salt cake mixing tank where the
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ash is mixed with the black liquor. This ash is used to thicken the black liquor in addition to reclaiming some of the salts in the ash. This ash or cake is also collected in the precipitator ash hoppers and added to the same hopper. Starting Burners Starting burners are positioned close to the chemical bed to start combustion, stabilize combustion or improve bed carbon burnout. The standard for starting burners is either a natural gas or an oil-pipe igniter with an ionic flame monitoring (IFM) system. The igniter control is designed to obtain a maximum safety margin by subjecting igniter operation to a flame proving IFM circuit. Some boiler use high energy ignitors (HEI) to directly light the oil. Most of these burners are retractable for improved long-term reliability. Load Carrying Burners There are four load carrying gas guns, one in each of the four tertiary air compartments. The load carrying burners are aimed tangent to an imaginary circle in the furnace. Each of the load carrying gas guns provides a heat input of approximately 30 million Btu/hr. The load carrying gas guns provide heat during initial startup and stabilization at low loads. Load carrying burners are used for steam production when black liquor is not available. The load carrying guns are also used to provide increased steam temperature and increased gas temperature for the purpose of increasing the black liquor concentration. Black Liquor System The black liquor system controls the firing temperature of the heavy black liquor supplied to the furnace. The black liquor system consists of a series of conditioning equipment components arranged to give flexibility to the system with parallel backup components. Major system components include: pumps, heaters, and associated valve trains. The heavy black liquor enters the system from the concentrator transfer pump to the black liquor storage tank. Both direct and indirect heaters are used in the system to control black liquor temperature. Chemical ash from the precipitator hoppers and the economizer hoppers is mixed with the heavy black liquor in the salt cake mix tank liquor temperature and flow are measured and metered to carefully manage quality.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Emergency Drain System Economizer The recovery boiler is equipped with a system that allows for The function of the extended economizer is to pre-heat the rapid draining of the boiler in the event of an emergency such feedwater entering the spray water condenser. The as a tube leaking water onto the smelt bed. This system economizer consists of two sections, the rear and front consists of a series of motor-operated valves installed on the sections, and is located in the rear gas pass just after the downcomers as well as the generating bank drain header. generating bank (Boiler bank). The economizer lowers the Emergency drains are also provided for the economizer and boiler exit gas temperatures by recovering heat in the exit gas are installed on the lower front junction header. thereby increasing boiler efficiency. Spray Water Condenser The function of the spray water condenser is to condense dry saturated steam from the steam drum for use in the desuperheater spray water system and to pre-heat the feedwater supplied to the drum. This helps to assure good feedwater quality versus using feedwater attemperating spray. Steam Drum There are two main functions of the steam drum and internals. The first is to separate the steam from the mixture of water and steam coming from the furnace walls. The second is to distribute the incoming feedwater towards the downcomers that send water to the lower headers and generating bank tubes. Furnace Tubes Fusion welded, water cooled tubes make up the floor, front wall, rear wall, side walls and roof of the furnace enclosure. After forming the arch, the rear wall tubes are offset to form the rear wall screen tubes. Furnace floor tubes serve as the bed surface on which the chemical recovery smelting process takes place. Spouts around the floor allow for the extraction of this digester smelt chemical. Generating Bank The generating bank produces saturated steam like the water walls and consists of finned tubes, spaced 6 on centers across the width of the unit. The generating bank assemblies are thirteen tubes deep. The generating bank outlet headers connect to the steam drum via risers. Superheater Steam from the drum is directed to the superheater through multiple connecting tubes. These multi-stage pendant superheaters are located in the gas path of the convection section, just ahead of the generating bank. An in-line, contact type desuperheater injects spray water (condensed steam) directly into the flow path of the steam between the first stage superheater assemblies and high temperature superheater. The desuperheater regulates the final superheat outlet temperature.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 70: Paper Mill Chemical Recovery [CRU] Boiler

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 of primary air and secondary air, and the Induced Draft (ID) NOTE: If your power plant is a large oil and/or gas fired fan. Operated properly, the furnace pressure is held at a slight boiler, please refer to the last ADDENDUM in this text. vacuum. The resistance to the induced draft varies based on pluggage 20. PULVERIZED COAL FIRED UTILITY BOILER in the assembly spacing in the furnace as well as in the air The example pulverized coal fired utility boiler is one of heater and precipitator. ALSTOMs most resilient coal-fired steam generator designs. Coal Combustion Emissions This unit was originally a C-E pressurized separated twin The combustion product from the furnace typically consists of furnace design [PFSW] boiler built in the late 1950s. This four gases (refer to page 42 for more on this). The boilers furnace, and hundreds like it, was converted to a balanced draft (slight furnace internal vacuum) configuration to overwhelming volume of gas is carbon dioxide (CO2) but trace create a cleaner operating environment. In the late 1990s, the amounts of emission contamination comes from the burning of coal firing system (burner-windbox) was upgraded to the low atmospheric and chemical nitrogen (NOx) and chemical sulfur NOx burner design TFS-2000R. As a result, combustion (SOx). Carbon dioxide is not considered a toxic gas in the quality was restored and an environmentally friendly emission classic sense, but any incomplete combustion can produce level was achieved producing approximately 1/6th as much carbon monoxide (CO), which is toxic. Accordingly, care is smog. For additional information on Steam Generator taken to provide uniform mixing of fuel and air at multiple levels technology refer to the Combustion Fossil Power text Fourth and even an excess of combustion air to reduce CO to an Edition [1991] Chapter 7. For more on the subject of Power absolute minimum. NOx is reduced below regulated levels by Plant Emissions, refer to page 42 of this booklet. the TFS-2000R burner design mentioned above. SOx emissions are similarly managed below regulated levels by Fuel Sources buying coals naturally low in sulfur. See the following section The original coal furnace was designed around the combustion for more on this topic. This is one of the primary reasons that characteristics of the local Illinois Bituminous, 10,000 Btu/lb Powder River Basin (PRB) coals are so widely used in the coal, with 5% sulfur and 15% ash. Today, Powder River Basin west and mid-western United States. Eastern states, which (PRB) coal is imported from over 1000 miles away from are further from the low sulfur coal fields of Wyoming and Montana and Wyoming. This highly reactive coal must be Montana, may need to install environmental control systems burned in greater quantities (~120% more per hour) to that react with the sulfur in the flue gas keeping it out of the generate the same amount of heat, but it works well with the atmosphere. The above steam generator reflects late 1950s low NOx burner design. Since re-commissioning of the new technology as well as several design retrofits. For additional burners, the eight 703 RPS coal pulverizers continue to information on the latest technology refer to the Combustion process sufficient coal to generate well over two million lb/hr Fossil Power text Fourth Edition [1991] Chapter 7, page 16 for main steam. This is sufficient to produce ~350 megawatts of Controlled Circulation and page 24 for Supercritical Steam energy. Generators. Air Supplies Low NOx Burners Total air supplied from the Forced Draft (FD) fan for the the new burners are the ALSTOM TFS-2000R Concentric pulverized coal fired boiler consists of two air streams. Primary Firing System, which is the most aggressive NOx reduction air (PA) transports coal dust from the pulverizers to the furnace design for existing tangential firing systems (Figure 71). This is via transport piping. Preheating the PA dries the coal dust so it a tangential coal-firing system that combines three techniques wont stick in the transport pipes. This primary air flow is to reduce NOx. The techniques include overfire air (CCOFA boosted by exhauster fans positioned just downstream of the and SOFA), horizontal concentric auxiliary air staging and coal pulverizers. Secondary air (SA) flows directly to the flame attachment coal nozzle tips. Overfire air and horizontal burner windbox to control combustion. Secondary air is also air staging diverts and retards air and fuel mixing to cool the preheated to stabilizes the combustion process. All of the flame and inhibits inherent nitrogen combustion. Flame secondary air and most of the primary air is warmed in the air attachment tips help to stabilize the cooler fires. The burner tilt heater. drive units at each burner corner of the furnace operate in Flue Gas Flow unison so that all nozzle tips are tilted equally. During operation, the nozzle tilt position normally "modulates" Air and flue gas are carefully controlled by a balancing act between the Forced Draft (FD) fan that produces the main flow
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between upward and downward positions based on outlet steam temperature control. If the furnace walls are slagged heavily with ash, tilts may angle down helping to sustain boiler steam drum pressure. When the boiler waterwalls are cleaned, the tilts may angle up to restore steam temperatures.

Figure 71: Low NOx Burners

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Careful manipulation of the multiple streams of coal, layered Coal Pulverization [Milling] System between the combustion air permits the boiler operator to not The original coal pulverizers (Figure 72) are the RPS 703 only manage furnace temperatures, but do so with lower boiler design. The RPS pulverizer represents the first generation of emissions. ALSTOM C-E pulverizers incorporating pressurized internals. Component design improvements and specialty material selection for the RPS pulverizer have been utilized to extend grinding element life, reduce replacement part cost, maintenance and equipment down time. The major zones and components of the RPS pulverizer include: Electric drive motors capable of 500 HP power the 703 RPS coal crushing machines (Pulverizers). Single stage speed reduction gearing system (Worm Gear) that drops the motor speed from 900 RPM to a central grinding zone vertical drive shaft at approximately 50 RPM. An air inlet plenum (Millside) that mixes incoming air from the primary air fan and the air heater, then distributes it to the grinding zone to dry the coal before it enters the furnace. This mill bottom section also permits rejection of any hard rock that may have been blended in the coal. Central grinding zone where coal is passed between an upper (Journals) and lower (Bowl) grinding surfaces. These surfaces are made of extremely hard cast materials. Air distribution vanes and rings (Vane Wheel Assemblies) located at the perimeter of the grinding zones bowl assembly. Three spring-loaded grinding roller assemblies (Journals) that uniformly crush the coal. Particle sizing system (Classifier) pneumatically sorts the very finest coal from the pulverizer letting only the smallest particles exit to the furnace, rejecting the larger particles for regrinding under the journals. Suction fan (Exhauster) draws the warm dust and primary air mixture from the pulverizer at a maximum rate of 32 tons of coal per hour and discharges it into piping. Coal piping flow splitters (Riffle Distributors) divide the single fan outlet into eight burner nozzles. Eight pulverizers and the riffle distribution system feed coal into sixty four openings (Coal Nozzles) arranged into several layers of coal and combustion air in the tangentially (corner fired) burners.
Figure 72: Coal Pulverizer

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Ash Systems A secondary byproduct of burner coal is non-combustible ash. Most of the ash turns to a fine dry dust (flyash) that is stripped from the tube surfaces by sootblowers. A somewhat smaller fraction of the ash is near to a molten state that must be sheered from the wall tubes (via wall blowers, deslaggers or water cannons) and removed by a bottom ash removal system. Flyash is gathered in an electrostatic precipitator (not shown) that is able to capture 99.99% of the fine dust before it enters the environment. See Figures 74 thru 76 for more on this subject.

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Figure 73: Pulverized Coal Utility Boiler

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Ash Density 21. COAL FIRED BOILER ASH HANDLING SYSTEMS Flyash density depends primarily on particle size, particle Coal Fired Boiler Ash System Design structure, and carbon content. Generally, the relatively large Ash quantities and properties, both physical and chemical, coarse particles containing a high percentage of carbon have a determine the type and size of an ash handling, storage, low density. The finer ash particles, which tend to be low in transport, and disposal system. Accordingly, many factors carbon content, may be 2 to 3 times denser. Hot ash, freshly determine the method of handling and storing coal-fired power collected is normally very fluid with a lower density. As the ash plant ash. They include: cools and settles it can compact to 2 to 3 times more dense. Coal rank To address these extremes, different system designs had to be Steam generator size developed. Three principle methods of collection and disposal Cost of auxiliary power are: Local market for ash Hydraulic uses water to send ash through a pipe system to a series of tanks. Cement character of the ash Pneumatic system transports the ash in a stream of Plant sight air (typically combining vacuum and pressurized Environmental regulations components) through its pipes to bunkers. Average ash production rate, which considers the projected Mechanical methods can be rudimentary from a plant capacity factor over the operating life of the plant, is used shovel to more complex scrapers and/or flight to size disposal sites. A major factor affecting the choice of the conveyors. ash-handling system is the type of fuel to be fired. For Bottom Ash Systems example, a boiler firing a 20% ash sub-bituminous coal with only 8000 Btu/lb. generates three times the total ash as the Small industrial boilers with stokers or a grate system can use same size unit burning a 10% ash bituminous coal with 12,000 a dry bottom ash hopper system (refer to Figure 65). In a large Btu/lb. For additional information on ash removal technology utility boiler system slag fall into a water bath and is either refer to the Combustion Fossil Power text Fourth Edition intermittently drained by discharging the water-ash mixture [1991] Chapter 16. through an outlet gate to clinker grinder that reduces chunk size to where a jet or centrifugal pump transfers the material to Zones of Ash Collection a tank, or a flight conveyor drags the ash up a de-watering After the combustion process in a suspension fired solid fuel slope to a transfer conveyor. Depending on system design the furnace, ash must be collected from several zones. water-ash mixture must pass through: Bottom ash hoppers or conveyors in troughs are used Settling tanks under the furnace bottom to collect the dense ash slag Surge tanks material falling from the furnace Dewatering systems Pyrite hoppers collect tramp iron and rock under the pulverizers. Ash from a conveying sluice line is deposited into dewatering bins. As the ash settles it displaces water, which overflows into Coarse ash hoppers under the rear convection pass a trough extending around the circumference of the bin top. (economizer) catch a variety of particles as they drop The overflow water drains by gravity to the recirculation basin from the gas stream. or waste drain. A series of baffle plates, concentric with the Flyash hoppers under precipitator or baghouses outer shell of the bin, prevent ash carryover and undesirable collect the finest particles. turbulence in the overflow trough. Submerged beneath the Depending on coal rank, anywhere from 20-30% of the water level, the inner baffle inhibits the finer material from bituminous coal ash will be pulled from the furnace bottom, reaching the overflow. The second baffle, extending above the where as, 30-50% may be pulled from the furnace bottom for overflow trough, creates a barrier to retain the floating material lignite coal. before it reaches the overflow trough. Eventually, floating material settles and is discharged through the sluice gate after the bin is dewatered.

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The discharge water from the dewatering device normally is routed into a settling basin or tank. To separate the ash fines, low velocities are maintained throughout the basin or tank, which are designed for maximum retention time. Any agitation is confined to a small area. Water and ash fines are deposited into the center of the settling tank after passing through a cyclone-type separator and baffles. As the ash fines settle into the tank, the displaced water overflows into a trough, which extends around the circumference of the top of the tank. The overflow water drains into the center of the ash-water storage tank. As in the case of the dewatering device, it is important to protect the settling tanks from freezing. In a recirculating system, an ash-water storage surge tank provides sufficient volume to absorb the volumetric fluctuations of the hydraulic ash removal system. In addition, this tank provides further separation of fines by maintaining a low velocity. Again, freeze protection must be provided. Centrifugal pumps recirculate the discharge water from the surge tank to supply the jet pumps and other requirements for water in the system. Final disposal from here is into an environmentally sound pond or landfill. ALSTOMs contribution to this process is continuous bottom ash removal using a Submerged Scraper Conveyor (SSC). For more on this design, refer to Figures 74, 75 and the information on the next page. Economizer Ash Removal The ash from this section of the boiler is particularly challenging to handle. It can be very hot and may have minerals that quickly form in to concrete when wetted. The best solution is to remove it continuously from the hoppers into dry collecting tanks located beneath the economizer, so as to prevent burning or sintering. The ash can be removed from these tanks in an alternating-intermittent basis from a branch of the precipitator or baghouse pneumatic removal system. Flyash Removal System Variations Flyash that collects in the hopper serving air heaters, precipitators and baghouses is removed intermittently by either vacuum (negative-pressure) or pressure (positive-pressure) pneumatic type systems, or combinations of the two. In addition, several types of continuous-removal systems such as flight conveyers or screw conveyors can be used. Vacuum Flyash Removal Systems A vacuum system typically uses a blower to create a vacuum that removes the flyash from the hoppers. A flyash-intake valve located at each hopper regulates the flow of the flyash. Each flyash intake is actuated automatically by the system logic that controls both the flow rate and quantity of flyash leaving the
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 hopper to avoid plugging the discharge line. Because the A final group of auxiliaries assist in the process of moving ash system operates on a vacuum, only one flyash intake and one from the silos to the landfill. Further, a flyash fluidizer, with a conveyor branch line operate at any given time. As each porous membrane must be pressurized to uniformly suspend hopper is emptied of flyash, the system will step to the next the material to promote gravity flow. The fly ash fluidizer must hopper in the same branch line. When all hoppers in a branch be supplied with dry air preheated above dew-point line have been emptied, the system will step to the next branch temperatures. If not, fluidizers will only aggravate evacuation line. The system logic insures the proper sequence of events by caking the ash, leading to bridging. and positioning of valves. Another component is the hopper vibrator. When their Dry ash is taken to a silo where a cyclone separator and bag operation is properly controlled, hopper vibrators can help filter, in series, separate the air-ash mixture. Ash is then prevent bridging and rat holing. In the automatic operation of emptied from the silos into enclosed trucks or railcars. High vacuum pneumatic systems, vibrators should be regulated by quality ash can be marketed to the cement industry. ash-evacuation controls to insure operation only when an empty hopper signal is generated and the evacuation cycle is Pressure Flyash Removal Systems completed. Routine use of the vibrators during evacuation of In a pressure system an air-lock feeder transfers flyash from a damp ash will further compact the ash and make evacuation hopper at a low pressure to a pipeline conveyor at a higher difficult. pressure. Compressors or blowers provide the airflow and When ash is to be transported moist for dust control, a pug mill pressure to convey the flyash. Volumetric ash feeders are can be used to blend in a fairly low percentage of water to designed with a storage capacity based on the desired make the ash moist before being truck delivered to a landfill. conveying rate, ash density and number of hoppers to be conveyed in a given unloading sequence. The feeders are Submerged Scraper Conveyor (SSC) controlled to empty each selected group of hoppers on a The submerged scraper conveyor (SSC), ash is evacuated staggered cycle, thus providing uniform loading into the mechanically on a continuous basis so there is no long-time conveyor system. Fluidizing air at the inlet and outlet of each storage in the water impoundment beneath the furnace. After feeder insures ash flow. For more on comparisons between discharge from the SSC in a dewatered condition, belt the Vacuum and Pressurized systems, see the Combustion conveyors transport ash. The major advantages of the SSC Fossil Power Chapter 16, pages 20 through 24. bottom ash system design are: Fluidizers, Vibrators and Pug Mills Reduced water usage (no transport water) To assure reliable ash flow from the hoppers, a few additional Reduced power consumption by eliminating the components require careful consideration of the ash sluicing water required by the jet pumps consistency and character. Pneumatic ash-removal systems Low boiler setting height are not designed to handle wet material. Thus, it is critical in The most widely accepted SSC configuration (Figures 74, 75) the design and operation of hopper systems to maintain has two separated compartments in which the flights and collected material sufficiently above the water or acid dew point chains move. The upper (wet) chamber, containing three to six to keep it absolutely dry, so that it will be free flowing. feet of water, receives the ash falling from the furnace and Dry dust in hoppers ordinarily will flow freely by gravity and be conveys it up the dewatering slope. At the top of the transported pneumatically without difficulty. But to do so, ash: dewatering slope, the flights reverse direction, dumping the Must be kept essentially at the temperature at which it conveyed ash. They then return through the dry chamber was collected below; this has open sides to facilitate inspection while the Must not be exposed to any moisture equipment is operating. The SSC chain is the double-stranded round link or ship-type chain made from alloy steel, annealed Must not compact from its own weight to cause and hardened. Specially designed chain couplings and a bridging above the outlet tensioning system maintain reliable operation. Generally Must have no clinkers formed as the result of speaking, continuous removal systems like the SSC are, less oxidation of any combustibles in the ash expensive, less complex and easier to operate. There is also a maintenance access advantage during outages.

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Figure 74: Submerged Scraper Conveyor (SSC)

BOILER THROAT

TRANSITION CHUTE

CONVEYING TROUGH & SSC

DRY SCC RETURN CHANNEL

Figure 75: SSC External View

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 76: Coal Fired Boiler Utility Boiler Ash Removal Systems
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 22. HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATOR [HRSG] Gas Side Flow Paths Refer to the example design shown in Figure 81. This bottom Gas Turbine exhaust gas enters the HRSG at approximately supported HRSG is a 1990s design which utilizes the hot 3,250,000 #/hr at 1150F. The exhaust gas passes through exhaust gas from the gas turbine to generate steam in three the following sections: cycles; high pressure, intermediate pressure, and low HP Superheater 1 pressure. Steam produced is directed to the steam turbine. Reheater 1 The HRSG is also equipped with a reheater section to reheat Duct Burner steam, which has passed through the HP turbine and direct it to the IP turbine. For more information on HRSG technology HP Superheater 2 and how it relates to Gas Turbines see the Combustion Fossil Reheater 2 and 3 Power Fourth Edition [1991] Chapter 8, page 30. HP Evaporator Performance CO Catalyst The sample HRSG was designed to addresses multiple SCR Ammonia Spray Nozzles and Catalyst operating conditions. Possible ambient conditions could range from just above freezing up to 110F. Maximum high-pressure IP Superheater steam flow of nearly 600,000 lb/hr occurs at over 1800 psia at HP Economizer 1050F. Maximum steam flow assumes full duct burner output. IP Evaporator Partial load operation without duct burners (only heat from the IP Economizer gas turbine outlet) produces lower pressures (~1000 psia) with steam flows that are closer to 300,000 lb/hr. LP Superheater LP Evaporator LP Economizer (FW Preheater) Stack Damper With this example HRSG at 100% load with the duct burner firing, the exhaust gas exits the HRSG at approximately 190F and is discharged to the stack. HRSG Low Pressure [LP] System The heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) consists of three boiler systems operating at different pressure levels, and a reheater. The first of the three is the LP system, fed by a preboiler feed pump, consists of an economizer (Feedwater Figure 77: HRSG Temperature Profile Preheater), a steam drum, an evaporator, and associated HRSG Arrangements valves and feedwater preheater recirculation pumps. Waste-heat boilers in gas turbine exhaust service can be Operationally, the LP system is similar to a natural circulation configured with gas flow in the horizontal or vertical direction. boiler. This HRSG is a horizontal gas-flow unit. The plant covers a LP Economizer [Feedwater Preheater] large area, but has excellent access for maintenance of boiler Deaerated condensate is supplied to the feedwater (FW) parts, duct burners, catalyst elements, and other equipment preheater counter-current to gas flow. The FW preheater is that may be associated with the HRSG. Boilers with horizontal arranged vertically in sections with all circuits, except one, gas flow use vertical tubes connected to headers at the top originating at the FW preheater inlet manifold and terminating and bottom, as shown in Figures 78 and 80. The tube and at the feedwater preheater outlet manifold. One small bypass header assemblies may be either top-supported or bottomline minimizes the chance of steaming in the economizer supported. Although the tubes are self-supporting in the section. The FW preheater supply line is equipped with a flow vertical direction, lateral restraints are required to control gas measuring orifice, a flow control valve, a check valve, and a flow induced vibrations. Natural circulation in the steamstop valve. Each section of the preheater is equipped with generating sections provides high circulation ratios without the vent and drain valves. From the feedwater economizer outlet use of pumps.
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manifold the feedwater flow is directed to the LP steam drum. A portion of the water from the FW preheater flows to the suction of the FW preheater recirculation pump. It is then recirculated and mixed with the feedwater entering the FW preheater inlet nozzle to increase the temperature of the incoming feedwater when necessary. LP Steam Drum In the steam drum, the incoming feedwater is distributed along the entire length of the drum by the feedwater distribution header. Nozzles in the distribution headers direct the incoming feedwater in the downward direction in order to minimize turbulence and aid in circulation. The feedwater mixes with the water in the drum and is directed to the LP downcomers. The LP downcomers originate at the LP steam drum and terminate at the evaporator inlet manifold, directing the boiler water to the evaporator. LP Evaporator The evaporator (LPEVAP) is arranged with all circuits originating at the LP evaporator inlet manifolds. Natural circulation is maintained in the LP evaporator by two downcomers, which supply the feedwater through distribution manifolds into the lower evaporator headers. Steam generated in the vertically arranged evaporator circuits flows upward to the evaporator outlet manifolds. The saturated water/steam mixture passes from the upper LP evaporator headers to the LP steam drum through riser tubes. The evaporator inlet manifolds are equipped with drain valves and intermittent blowoff valves. Note that unlike most natural circulation boilers, this circuit does not have a continuous blowdown line. It does have a large extraction line to provide fluid to the HP/IP feed pump. Under normal loads, this LP system is primarily a source of feed for the balance of the boiler. More than 90% of the flow from the LP drum is for HP/IP feed. Only 5% to10% is superheated and fed to the LP turbine. LP Steam Drum - Steam Side Saturated steam/water mixture from the evaporator enters the drum and is directed to the two rows of separators. Steam exits the top of the LP steam drum through saturated steam outlets, which join to form the LP steam outlet before entering the LP superheater section of the HRSG. The drum is equipped with safety valves, vent valves, a pressure transmitter, a pressure gauge, level gauges, and level indicators. At either end of the drum are gauge glasses. On one end there is an electric level transmitter system. On that same end are multiple drum level transmitters for DCS drum level control.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 the IP drum passes through the IP superheater. The drum is LP Superheater equipped with safety valves, vent valves, pressure From the LP steam drum steam is directed to the superheater transmitters, two drum level gauges, and three level (LPSH) through the superheater inlet manifold and then on to transmitters. the superheater circuits. From the superheater outlet manifold, the steam is directed to the LP steam line. The superheater IP Superheater outlet is equipped with the following: safety valve, ERV and From the steam drum steam is directed to the superheater start-up vent, drain valves, motor operated stop valve, and (IPSH) through the superheater inlet manifold and then on to pressure, flow, and temperature instrumentation. the superheater circuits. From the superheater outlet manifold, the steam goes to the cold reheat steam line. The superheater Intermediate Pressure [IP] System outlet is equipped with a safety valve, an ERV and a start-up The IP system consists of an economizer, a drum, an vent, drain valves, a motor operated stop valve, in addition to, evaporator, and superheater sections. Operationally, the IP pressure, flow, and temperature instrumentation. system is similar to a natural circulation boiler. High Pressure [HP] System IP Economizer The high-pressure system consists of an economizer, a drum, Water flows from the IP feedwater inlet line through a control an evaporator, and three superheater sections. Operationally, valve with a bypass control, a check valve and a motor the HP system is similar to a natural circulation boiler. operated stop valve to the IP economizer inlet collection manifold. The warmed IP feedwater then enters the IP steam HP Economizer drum through the feedwater inlet nozzle. There is an IP water Low-pressure feedwater is supplied to the HP/IP feed pump. extraction line to the LP drum to provide additional deaerated Feedwater at high pressure discharges the final stage of the steam to the LP system when the LP system temperature and HP/IP feed pump. The feedwater passes through an isolation pressure is low. valve, a flow element, a control valve with bypass control, a check valve and a motor operated valve before entering the IP Steam Drum economizer inlet manifold. From the economizer inlet manifold, In the steam drum the incoming feedwater is distributed along the feedwater is directed to the vertically arranged economizer the entire length of the drum by the feedwater distribution circuits, which terminate at the economizer outlet manifold. The header. Nozzles in the distribution headers direct the incoming flow is directed from the economizer to the HP steam drum feedwater in a downward direction to minimize turbulence and inlet nozzle. The economizer is equipped with vent and drain aid in circulation. The feedwater mixes with the water in the valves. drum and is directed to the three IP downcomers. Continuous blowdown maintains the silica and solids level. A chemical HP Steam Drum feed line provides phosphate and ammonia for pH control. In the steam drum the incoming feedwater enters through the feedwater inlet nozzle. Nozzles in the inlet header direct the IP Evaporator flow downward in order to minimize turbulence and aid in The evaporator is arranged with all circuits originating at the IP circulation. The feedwater mixes with the water in the drum evaporator inlet collection manifold. Natural circulation is and is directed to the HP downcomers. A chemical feed line, maintained in the IP evaporator by two downcomers, which installed in the drum, allows for injection of chemicals used to feed the water from the drum through distribution manifolds to maintain boiler water chemistry. Continuous blowdown the lower evaporator headers. Steam generated in the controls the silica and solids levels. vertically arranged evaporator circuits flows upward to the evaporator outlet manifolds and is then directed through riser HP Evaporator tubes to the IP steam drum. The IP evaporator inlet manifold is The HP evaporator is arranged vertically in sections with all equipped with intermittent blowdown valves, double drain lines circuits originating at the HP evaporator inlet manifolds. Steam and steam sparging. generated in the vertically arranged evaporator circuits flows upward to the evaporator outlet manifolds and is then directed IP Steam Drum Steam Side through riser tubes to the HP steam drum. The evaporator Saturated steam/water mixture from the evaporator enters the inlet manifold is equipped with double drain valves and motor drum and is directed to the two rows of separators. Steam operated stop and control valves for intermittent blowdown. leaves the drum 99.9% pure and exits through three saturated steam outlets located on the top of the drum. Steam leaving
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HP Steam Drum Steam Side Saturated steam/water mixture from the evaporator enters the drum and is directed to the two rows of separators. Steam leaves the top of the drum through three superheating connecting lines. The drum is equipped with safety valves, double vent valves, pressure transmitters, a level gauge, a pressure gauge and level transmitters. HP Superheater From the steam drum steam is directed to the superheater (HPSH) through the superheater inlet manifold to the desuperheater link, and finally, through the finishing superheater. Steam from the HP superheater goes to the main steam outlet. From the outlet, steam is directed to the HP turbine through the HP steam line. The superheater outlet is equipped with one safety valve, an ERV and a start-up vent valve, drain valves, a motor operated stop valve, in addition to pressure, flow, and temperature instrumentation HP Desuperheater The superheater desuperheater controls outlet steam temperatures in the HP system and the IP system. From the HP stage of the HP/IP feed pump, heated, chemically treated, condensate quality water is sprayed into the path of the steam, reducing the steam temperature. A desuperheater spray water control valve regulates the flow of spray water supplied to the desuperheater. Desuperheater spray water control shut-off valves are located upstream and downstream of the control valve to permit isolation, when required. A drain valve, located upstream of the control valve, is used to relieve system pressure and drain the control valve piping for maintenance. Reheater The high-pressure turbine exhaust (steam) feeds the cold reheat line. One safety valve in the cold reheat line prevents over-pressurization of the exhaust system. This exhaust steam is mixed with steam from the IP superheater outlet header. The combined steam flows into the vertically arranged reheater circuits. A three-stage reheater provides the additional IP turbine heat requirements. From reheaters 1 and 2 the steam is routed to the RH desuperheater for steam temperature control before entering reheater 3 for further warming. From the reheater outlet header, the steam is directed to the hot reheat steam line which is equipped with double drain valves, a safety valve and a start-up vent with various instrumentation.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 HRSG Design for the 21st Century HRSG Options Available [Present Day] TM HRSG design utilizes fatigue-tolerant OCC Pressure Part OCCTM Harp Bundles - This supply concept is Construction characterized by: intended for areas in which crane capacity is limited, field labor rates are minimal, or transportation access Single-row harps makes shipping large components difficult. Finned tubes with no bends OCCTM Modular (Drop-in Modules) - Pressure part Flexible connections between pressure part sections modules are shipped separate of casing and steel, Single-pass per header (no division walls) however ALSTOM has taken the care in keeping field code welds to a minimum. Steel structure and casing Small diameter headers to reduce thermal stresses would be built, and then modules with roof casing Enhanced drain arrangement prevents condensate attached would be lowered into place using a large flooding of SH and RH sections during GT purge or crane. Items such as stack, pipe, drums, inlet duct shutdown (etc.) and skid-mounted equipment are shipped Seamless tubes standard separately. It should be noted that some designs still utilizes such features OCCTM C-Frame Super-Slim (>70 or <200 MWe GT) as: multi-row harps, bent tubes entering header, serpentine Similar to the O-Frame option, these HRSGs will economizers and superheaters (return bends), division walls arrive at the site with casing attached. However, due creating multi-pass headers, nipple-type drains protruding from to the size of the gas turbine and shipping limitations, bottom jumper tubes. the HRSG pressure containing components will be shipped in double-width configuration without the main Steam Output steel attached. Items such as stack, pipe, drums, inlet ALSTOMs HRSGs can be designed to handle all sizes, duct (etc.) and skid-mounted equipment are shipped makes and models of gas turbines, using either exhaust gas separately. alone, or combinations with oil and gas supplemental firing. Operating pressure and temperature up to 2400 psig and 1050F.

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OCC C-Frame (>70 or <200 MWe GT) - This supply concept is similar to the C-Frame Super-Slim option mentioned above, however main steel is pre-attached to C-Frame HRSG boxes. Again, items such as stack, pipe, drums, inlet duct (etc.) and skid-mounted equipment are shipped separately. OCCTM O-Frame (<70 MWe GT) - Typically used for HRSG designed in conjunction with smaller gas turbines (<70 MW), this option includes casing and steel attached to a singlewide gas path, creating OSections around pressure containing components. Items such as stack, pipe, drums, inlet duct (etc.) and skid-mounted equipment are shipped separately. OCCTM Shop-Assembled - All main HRSG components are shipped as one large piece, rolled off of a barge and onto the Owners foundations. This supply concept represents the most shop prefabrication available to the industry, and is only limited by sea-access to Owners site. Items such as stack and skid mounted equipment are shipped separately.

TM

Figure 78: Horizontal Heat Recovery Steam Generator

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Figure 79: Vertical Heat Recovery Steam Generator

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Figure 80: Once Through Heat Recovery Steam Generator

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Figure 81: Bottom Supported HRSG (1990s Vintage)

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Large Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) boilers today 23. BOILER AND POWER PLANT EMISSIONS are using Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR, This next section will address a unique set of fossil fuel fired Figure 68) and SO2 Flash Dry Absorbers (FDA, Figure boiler auxiliaries and what these systems have done to the 69). They have the ability to produce NOx emission process of boiler inspection. Boiler furnace modifications and levels below 0.03 and with 95% sulfur reduction system controls have been applied to reduce other gaseous levels, which correlates to SOx emission that are emissions such as oxides of nitrogen. One possible side-effect 0.02 - 0.6 lb SOx/mmBtu. is greater corrosive and/or erosive stress on the tubing. Down stream of the boiler highly efficient precipitators (Figure 83), Smaller industrial Modular CFB boilers (Figure 66) baghouses (Figure 69), and flue-gas desulphurization systems burning biomass are capable of running very low CO [FGDS], Figure 84, have become increasingly necessary to and greater than 99% Sulfur removal achieving 10 meet tighter environmental requirements. 15 ppm SO2 and similar NOx emissions. This corresponds to less than 0.02 lb SOx/mmBtu when a Discounting inflation, the cost of installation of a major facility NOx control SNCR is employed. A Modular CFB has more than doubled and the time required to construct a design utilizing a baghouse, limestone injection and fossil plant has increased 2 to 3 years since the imposition of SCR being commissioned in 2005 burning coal will environmental laws. achieve less than 0.075 lb NOx/mmBtu and 0.12 lb Three classes of emissions are currently judged significant SOx/mmBtu. from an air-quality standpoint: particulate matter, sulfur oxides, Natural gas fired Gas Turbines (GT) feeding Heat and nitrogen oxides. Recovery Steam Generators [HRSG], Figures 78-81, Particulate matter has received the greatest attention have achieved extremely low emission levels. because it is easily seen and often labeled a public Utilizing both CO and NOx SCR catalysts, these nuisance. plants have virtually no CO or SOx emissions, and Concern about sulfur oxide comes from its possible have NOx emissions of 0.002 - 0.003 lb per mmBtu. health effects and from its potential to damage Compared on a megawatt basis, the GT-HRSG plants vegetation. have 1/150th the nitrogen oxide emissions of coal fired boilers of today. They produce 1/1000th the Oxides of nitrogen are also significant because they emission level of a coal-fired boiler of the early 1970s. participate in complex chemical reactions that lead to formation of photochemical smog in the atmosphere. Sulfur Oxide Emissions The following four examples demonstrate how well engineering As fuels burn, most of the sulfur content is converted to the companies like ALSTOM have been at reducing emissions: sulfur oxides SO2 and SO3. Sulfur varies widely for different coals and may range from less than 0.2% to over 5%. In Large tangentially fired pulverized-coal fired boilers general, 90% or more of the sulfur in the fuel will oxidize to (Figure 73) designed before the 1990s had nitrogen gaseous sulfur di-oxide (SO2). Further conversion of SO2 to oxide emissions of between 0.4 to 0.9 pounds of NOx SO3 takes place. The formation of SO3 in a boiler creates a for every 1,000,000 Btu of heat (lb NOx/mmBtu). corrosive atmosphere that damages the boiler and backend Note that one million Btu is approximately 100 pounds equipment, particularly when liquid sulfuric acid accumulates of coal. Today the modified coal firing systems are on plate surfaces or around tubing. down to 0.15 - 0.25 lb NOx/mmBtu. When a Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) system is added, the NOx Nitrogen Oxide Emissions can be as low as 0.05 lb NOx/mmBtu. That correlates During the combustion process in a conventional furnace, to NOx emissions that are 1/18th of what might have oxides of nitrogen (collectively referred to as NOx) form in the been common only three decades ago. Sulfur high-temperature region in and around the flame zone. The emission, in that same period, have been dropped oxidation of both atmospheric nitrogen and nitrogen contained from 0.3 - 1.2 lb SOx/mmBtu to as low as 0.06 lb in the fuel is the cause. Either the available nitrogen in the coal SOx/mmBtu. That can be seen as a twenty-fold or the flames peak temperature and the oxygen present improvement. Particulates from precipitators and influence the rate of formation. NOx output is lowered by fabric filter baghouses have improved as well with altering furnace combustion conditions. The plant can reduce present day emissions of 0.01 - 0.03 lb dust/mmBtu. NOx by what is termed in-furnace solutions or by employing post-furnace gas cleaning solutions. For ALSTOM, our
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primary family of in furnace solution is the Low NOx Concentric Firing (LNCFS) burner. The two most common post-furnace solutions are Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR, Figure 82) and Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR, Figure 68) systems. Both employ an ammonia reaction that results in the reduction of NOx to inert molecular nitrogen (N2) and water vapor (H2O). Particulate Emissions Emissions from coal-fired boilers vary considerably depending on the ash content of the coal and the type of firing. A pulverized-coal-fired unit can be expected to have 60 to 80 percent of the coal ash normally leaving the furnace with the flue gas. The balance of the ash leaves through the boiler bottom-ash removal system, and hoppers under economizers or air heaters. Flyash is the combination of inert or inorganic residue in pulverized-coal particles with varying amounts of carbon or coke particles resulting from incomplete combustion. In general, the inorganic ash particles consist primarily of silicates, oxides and sulfates together with small quantities of phosphates and other trace compounds. Particle size varies from below 0.01 micron diameter to over 100 microns. For additional information on particulate emissions and related technology refer to Combustion Fossil Power text Fourth Edition [1991] Chapter 15, page 4. Influence of Coal and Combustion Characteristics on Particulate Matter Emissions Changing coal characteristics has a major effect on the removal efficiency of flyash. The variation in ash content, ash composition, ash resistivity and particle size distribution requires an engineering evaluation of collection principles to reduce emissions to required levels. Influence of Volumetric Gas Flow on Particulate Matter Emissions No matter what type of flyash collector is to be installed on a boiler, it is essential that it be designed for the correct gas volume. Manufacturers design and size their equipment based upon their testing and field experience with that coal. Filter Particle Capture In a filter baghouse process forces are exerted directly on the particulates rather than the gas as is done in electrostatic dust capture. As the filter surfaces gather flyash, fan power consumption and draft losses increase until the particles can be shed. For an example of a baghouse, refer to Figure 69.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 A series of gas flow baffles between the ammonia injection grid Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and the turning vanes above the SCR reactor promote uniform The purpose of the SCR de-NOx Process is to remove NOx mixing of the ammonia vapor and the flue gas. A metallic (NO and NO2) from the flue gas stream by converting the NOx dummy layer honeycomb at the top of the reactor straightens to molecular nitrogen (N2) and water vapor (H2O) using flow into the catalytic SCR reactor honeycomb. ammonia (NH3) as the reactant. The primary reactions The SCR reactor contains the catalytic tungsten-titanium processes are: reaction sites that promote the ammonia-NOx reactions at a 4NO + 4NH3 + O2 4N2 + 6H2O carefully monitored temperature range. A typical installation and houses one SCR reactor employing two layers of a honeycomb 2NO2 + 4NH3 + O2 3N2 + 6H2O catalyst. Provision is made within the reactor to accommodate a third future layer catalyst. If the flue gasses and catalytic Although the reaction can potentially be 95% effective, the material are not contaminated, the third layer will not need to catalyst activity diminishes with time due to both physical and be installed for about five (5) years. Subsequent five year chemical factors. replacement plans are scheduled to keep the SCR reactor The NH3 diffuses into the catalyst pore structure and is performance above the 80% effectiveness level. adsorbed onto active catalyst sites. The NOx then combines Additionally, ash build up on the catalyst surface is removed by with the adsorbed NH3, and excess air completing the reaction. horn-shaped air-powered sootblowers, with multiple blowers The reaction depends primarily on available active sites, flue per catalyst level. gas temperature, and reagent concentration. A well-balanced process will maintain appropriate output levels of residual NOx Electrostatic Particle Capture and NH3. A typical SCR consists of the following systems: In electrostatic precipitation, suspended particles in the gas are Flue Gas Handling Duct and Damper System electrically charged, then driven to collecting electrodes by an electrical field. The dust covered electrodes are rapped to Ammonia Storage System cause the particles to drop into collecting hoppers. Compared Ammonia Vaporization and Injection System to a fabric filter process, effective separation of particles can be SCR Reactor and Catalysts achieved with lower power expenditure, with negligible draft loss, and with little or no effect on the composition of the gas. Flyash Sootblower and Removal System To meet a demand for ultra-high efficiency collectors of rugged Flue gas dampers are employed at the inlet and outlet of the construction and high reliability, manufacturers used the SCR reactor to bypass flue gas flow around the catalysts until patents held by Frederick Gardner Cottrell to develop the rigidflue gasses can be uniformly warmed well above 600F. frame precipitator. The early generation basic design Once the boiler is operating at higher load levels with hotter incorporated segmented collecting plates and rigid discharge flue gas temperatures, flow is directed through the SCR and electrodes, with rapping on the discharge frame. Later designs the ammonia injection begins. Because of the highly effective replaced the discharge plates with wire type discharge SCR catalytic reactions, NOx emissions from a coal fired boiler electrodes can typically be cut from 0.30 to 0.05 lb NOx/mmBtu. That Electrostatic Precipitator Design Factors corresponds to an 80-90% reduction in nitrogen oxide. The seven most significant precipitator designs points to Anhydrous ammonia is typically used in the SCR catalytic consider are: process as the reactant. The ammonia storage system is Specific collection area comprised of un-insulated tanks, unloading compressors, feed pumps, water spray system for leak mitigation, and associated Treatment time piping and controls for safe handling. The feed pumps at the Gas velocity tanks supply liquid anhydrous ammonia to the SCR de-NOx Electrode configuration and spacing process ammonia vaporizers. After the ammonia is expanded into a vapor, it is transported to the SCR reactor area in an Number of fields insulated, heat traced line. The ammonia is then metered and Automatic voltage control mixed with hot air before injection into the flue gas duct ahead Hopper size and slope of the SCR reactor.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 82: Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) System

Alstom Power, Inc.

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LEGEND
1. ROOF SECTION Transformer rectifier sets Support insulators 2. INLET PLENUMS 3. GAS DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 4. HOPPER - COAL BURNING SYSTEMS Hopper heaters Ash systems Hopper level detectors Access doors Discharge electrodes wires and frame Rapper drive insulators Rapper drives Bearings Hammers Collecting plate rapper drives Collecting plates Bearings Hammers Shock bars and Anvil

5. DISCHARGE ELECTRODE SYSTEM

6. COLLECTING SYSTEM

RECOVERY BOILER PRECIPITATOR SYSTEMS (NOT SHOWN) Drag conveyors Rotary air locks Disc-type Isolation dampers

Figure 83: Rigid Frame Precipitator

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 flue gas will be directed into an Absorber. The Flue Gas Wet Flue Gas Desulphurization Handling System consists of bypass ducts equipped with As noted on page 42, sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a gaseous double-louver dampers and guillotine isolation gates. The byproduct formed when coal is burned in a furnace. As Absorber outlet ducts have neither dampers nor isolation combustion occurs, the sulfur in the fuel reacts with oxygen, gates. The Absorber consists of two major sections: the resulting in the formation of various sulfur-containing Absorber tower and the Reaction Tank. The Absorber is the compounds, primarily SO2. The higher the concentration of area where the SO2 is removed from the flue gas. Each of the sulfur in the coal, the greater the concentration of SO2 in the boilers may need two Absorbers, each designed to handle flue gas exiting the boiler. Due to environmental restrictions 50% of the total flue gas. placed upon SO2 emissions, it is necessary to remove and dispose of most of this compound before it enters the Absorber atmosphere through the stack. The exact chemical reactions As the flue gas enters the Absorber, it is sprayed with a slurry that occur in a wet limestone (CaCO3) scrubbing system may solution. The recycle slurry system, which includes four or be characterized as a series of steps. Although these steps are more pumps per Absorber, draws slurry from the Reaction presented sequentially, they can occur simultaneously. The Tank and delivers it to four or more spray elevations (one principal steps are: absorption, neutralization, regeneration, pump dedicated to each level). Each spray header elevation is oxidation, and precipitation. The reactions involved in the equipped with spray nozzles that distribute the slurry across process produce calcium sulfite, calcium sulfate and carbon the spray tower. The slurry contacts the flue gas and absorbs dioxide. the sulfur dioxide. Contact between the gas and slurry begins CaCO3 + SO2 = CaSO3 + CO2 the reaction process, which continues as the mixture falls into the Reaction Tank. Followed by CaSO3 + Oxygen = CaSO4 (Gypsum) Before entering the stack, the cleaned flue gas travels upward The main piece of equipment in the Flue Gas Desulphurization to the Mist Eliminators (MEs), where both entrained moisture (FGD) System is the Spray Tower Absorber, where the and excess slurry are removed. When the droplets carried by absorption of SO2 occurs. The entire FGD System can be the gas impinge on the ME vanes, they combine with other broken down into the following systems: droplets and roll off. The MEs are equipped with a wash Flue Gas Handling system to prevent pluggage of the vanes. Both the runoff slurry Absorption and Oxidation and the wash water fall into the Reaction Tank. Mist Eliminators Reaction Tank Limestone Handling Slurry droplets fall from the Absorber tower to the Reaction Tank, where the SO2 is converted into both calcium sulfite and Reagent Preparation calcium sulfate. The Reaction Tank is equipped with four side Backup Reagent Preparation mounted agitators to keep the solids suspended and to Reagent Feed System distribute the oxidation air, which is injected into the tank just in front of each agitator. Primary Dewatering Oxidation Air System Secondary Dewatering The FGD System is designed to produce, as a byproduct, a Auxiliary Storage salable grade gypsum. The oxidation air converts 99% of the Filtrate Handling calcium sulfite to calcium sulfate, or gypsum. The oxidation air Raw Water and Equipment Cooling system consists of several Oxidation Air Blowers, each with an Instrument Air independent lubrication system. During normal operation, one blower per unit is operating, with one common standby blower. The following information covers a few of the major systems. The blowers compress air and deliver it to the Absorber air For additional information on sulfur emissions and related lances located in front of each Reaction Tank agitator. The technology refer to Combustion Fossil Power text Fourth agitators ensure good distribution of the air into the Reaction Edition [1991] Chapter 15, page 26. Tank slurry. Before entering the Reaction Tank, the air is Flue Gas Handling System cooled by saturation water to prevent system pluggage and to Induced draft fans route flue gas to the stack via ducts and protect the fiberglass piping from excessive temperatures. dampers, or into an Absorber inlet manifold, from which the
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Reagent Preparation System The supply of limestone slurry to the Reagent Feed System is controlled by the Primary or Backup Reagent Preparation Systems. Normally the Primary Reagent Preparation System will be in use. This system grinds limestone rock until the mesh size meets the design requirement. The grinding occurs in a singe ball mill where limestone rock and water are added on a continuous as needed basis. The outlet of the Limestone Ball Mill is fed to a Mill Product Tank where the slurry is pumped to a set of hydrocyclones for classification. The overflow product is routed to the Reagent Feed Tank(s) for use in the Reaction Tank, and the underflow is routed back to the ball mill for further grinding. Reagent Feed System The Reagent Feed System provides limestone slurry to the Absorbers to maintain proper pH levels in the Reaction Tanks. The feed system consists of two feed tanks, each with a topmounted agitators, and two feed pumps (one per tank). Limestone slurry is fed from either the Reagent Preparation System or the Backup Reagent Preparation System to the Reagent Feed Tanks. Each Reagent Feed Pump circulates slurry through a loop back to the Reagent Feed Tank. The common loop has a line to each Absorber, equipped with control valves that modulate to feed slurry to the Reaction Tanks. The feed valves modulate in response to slurry pH signals. Primary Dewatering System The function of the Primary Dewatering System is to reduce the solids concentration in the slurry that was removed from the Reaction Tank by the Classifier Feed Pumps. The reduceddensity slurry (i.e., Hydrocyclone Classifier overflow) is then returned to the Reaction Tank and the FGD Bleed Tank. The Classifier Feed Pumps continuously draw slurry from the Reaction Tank and either transfer it to the Hydrocyclone Classifiers, or recirculate it back to the Reaction Tank. Dilute slurry (overflow) produced by the hydrocyclones flows by gravity to either the Reaction Tanks or the FGD Bleed Tank. The thickened underflow flows by gravity to the Secondary Dewatering System. Secondary Dewatering System The Secondary Dewatering System consists of a Distribution Box, two horizontal belt filter systems, and auxiliary equipment. Normally, one belt filter system will be in operation while the other is in standby. Each belt filter system can accommodate the feed from both absorbers.

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Figure 84: Wet Flue Gas Desulphurization System

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Dissolved solids may be ionized, they will carry a current and ADDENDUM 1 FEEDWATER & BOILER WATER thus can be measured by conductivity. Dissolved solids CHEMISTRY cannot be filtered from the solution. Definitions A raw water supply may contain a number of impurities, which must be removed before this water is used for steam generation. The source of these impurities may be natural or man-made. In order to select a treatment process to remove these impurities, a sample must be analyzed. Typical Units of measurement terms used in expressing the results of a water analysis are: ppm = parts per million (measures of proportion by wt.) ppb = parts per billion (measures of proportion by wt.) mg/l = milligrams per liter (measure of weight to volume) NOTE: 1 ppm = 1000 ppb when the specific gravity of the liquid = 1.0, then: 1 ppm = 1 mg/l = 1000 ppb pH - A measure of the acid or alkaline nature of a solution. pH is the -log [H+] - negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration pH scale (Figure 85) Figure 85: pH Scale Conductivity is the measure of the ability of a solution to carry an electrical current (Figure 86). The current is carried only by ions. Both positively and negatively charged particles carry current, but to a different degree. Conductivity can be used to give an estimate of the dissolved solids concentration of the water sample. Dissolved Solids is the (0.55 to 0.9) x Specific Conductivity Un-ionized weak acid or bases and uncharged soluble organic matter will not carry a current and will not be measured by conductivity. Cation conductivity - The conductivity of a solution in which all cations have been replaced by H+ by passing through an ion exchange column. As the conductivity of H+ is 4 to 5 times the conductivity of cations such as sodium, potassium, calcium or magnesium, the cation conductivity will be greater than the specific conductivity for most raw water samples. Dissolved versus suspended solids - A solid particle may be Figure 86: Specific Conductivities dissolved in a water supply as an ionized or un-ionized particle, or it may simply be suspended as a particle in the water Organic versus inorganic - All organic compounds contain supply. carbon in combination with one or more other elements. Suspended particles are un-ionized, and thus, do not carry a Organic compounds may come from nature, such as animal current, and cannot be measured by conductivity; however, fats or cellulose, from synthesis in manufacturing plants, or by suspended particles may often be measured by turbidity or by fermentation - the action of micro-organisms. filtering a sample and weighing the dried filter.

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In general, organic compounds are: Usually combustible Low solubility in water Molecular reactions High molecular weights Lower melting and boiling points Examples of organic compounds: CH3CH2OH (Ethyl Alcohol), C6H6 (Benzene) In general, inorganic compounds Usually not combustible Higher solubility in water Ionic reactions Lower molecular weights Higher melting and boiling points Examples of inorganic compounds: NaCl, CaSO4 Hardness - Substances in water which make it difficult to form a lather with soap and which produce scale in heated pipes. Caused by divalent metallic cations: Ca++ Fe++ Mg++ Mn++ Sr++ Hardness is generally reported in terms of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, by the following formula: Hardness (in mg/l) as CaCO3 = M++ x 50/ eq. wt. of M++ Where M++ Equivalent Weight Ca++ 20 Mg++ 12.2 Sr++ 43.8 Fe++ 27.9 Mn++ 27.4

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Forms of Reporting Water Analysis In the water treatment field, analyses are often expressed in terms of equivalent calcium carbonate (as CaCO3) CaCO3 has a molecular weight of 100 which helps to make calculations easier Total Cation Weights = Total Anion wts. In "as CaCO3" form (ppm as substance) x 50 / eq. wt. sub. = ppm as CaCO3 Equivalent Weight is the molecular weight divided by the valence Analyses are also often expressed in terms of parts per million as the substance Milli Equivalents/liter or equivalents per million ppm as substance per equivalent wt. of substance = meg/1 Removal of Contaminants The purpose of removing contaminants from a raw water source is to provide high purity water for the boiler. Water of acceptable quality serves to minimize deposits and to maintain Figure 87: Comparative Sensitivity of Condenser Leakage Monitoring a layer of protective oxide on the tube surfaces. Any or all of Methods the following equipment may be used to purify water. The Feedwater Treatment selection of equipment depends on the actual water source to The purpose of feedwater treatment is to minimize corrosion of be used and the operating pressure of the unit. the materials of construction in the feedwater system. This Raw Water Treatment also prevents the generation of corrosion products and their Examples include: subsequent transport and formation of deposits on boiler heat Clarifier - Uses gravity settling to remove such impurities transfer surfaces. In high pressure fossil plant cycles, as course suspended solids, silt, turbidity, and color. deaerated, high purity water with an elevated pH is normally Flocculants may be added to aid this process. used. The pH is controlled with a volatile neutralizing amine such as Ammonia: NH4OH NH4+ + OH (note that the Filter - Used to remove residual suspended solids process can reverse). Volatile treatment chemicals are used to Softener - Used to remove hardness compounds such avoid adding solids since the feedwater is used to control as Ca, Mg, Mn superheater and reheater temperatures. The actual pH range Evaporator - Used to remove dissolved solids such as depends on the feed train metallurgy. In drum type boilers the soluble salts, and suspended solids such as silica feed train materials could be a mix of ferritic and copper bearing alloys whereas in supercritical once-through units, the Makeup Demineralizer - Performs same functions as feed train materials are copper free. Deaeration is achieved by evaporator a deaerator with the addition of an oxygen scavenger. Pre-Boiler Water Treatment Typically, chemistry guidelines are listed in Figure 88. Examples include: Supercritical once-through cycles are all equipped with Deaerator - Used to remove non-condensable gases condensate polishers to help control dissolved solids since such as oxygen and carbon dioxide these cycles don't have the benefit of a steam drum. The ALSTOM once-through cycles also incorporate a recycle line in Polishing Demineralizer - Used to assure ultimate the feed train that allows a clean-up of the cycle prior to startfeedwater quality by removing residual dissolved and or up (Figure 89). The feedwater and condensate can be suspended solids recycled through the condensate polisher to remove oxides, Chemical Feed and Analysis Equipment - Used to silica, etc. which could otherwise be transported to the boiler monitor and control water quality on start-up and deposit on heat transfer surfaces.
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The feedwater in a once-through unit can generally be maintained at a higher degree of purity than in a drum type unit due to the use of condensate polishing. Also, the feed train does not contain any copper alloys.

Figure 88: Feedwater Quality Limits for Drum Type Units

Figure 89: Feedwater Quality Limits for Combined Circulation Units

These features allow the use of Oxygenated Treatment (OT). This treatment was introduced in Germany in the seventies with good results. It is now practiced in many plants throughout the world including the United States. Oxygen is added to the feedwater (cation conductivity less than 0.2mS/cm) to achieve a concentration of 30-150 ppb. This oxidizing treatment has a better capability to passivate and form a stable oxide film on the relatively low temperature surfaces of the feed train heaters and piping. This results in even lower oxide dissolution than with deaerated, high pH feedwater (Figures 90-93) . The impact on heat transfer surfaces in terms of deposit accumulation is also further minimized. With this treatment, there is obviously no need for an oxygen scavenger during operational periods. EPRI has been sponsoring the application of OT in once-through units in this country. Typical guidelines are listed in Figure 93. Current work involves the demonstration of OT in drum type boilers that meet the metallurgy and water purity requirements.
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 93: Economizer Inlet Chemistry Guidelines Values for OT Chemistry

Figure 90: Feedwater and Steam Generator Systems Cleanup Flow Path

Figure 91: Typical Iron Concentration Around the Cycle

Figure 92: Corrosion and Oxygen Concentration at Different Salt Contents (NaCl)
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Boiler Water Chemistry The purpose of boiler water chemistry is to protect against corrosion, deposit forming contaminants, and to control steam purity. The most common Boiler Water treatments for drum boilers are: (1) Phosphate Treatment (PT) and (2) All Volatile Treatment (AVT). Recently, EPRI has published guidelines, which include variations on the PT treatment such as Equilibrium Phosphate Treatment (EPT). Also, since utilities in several other countries still use a low level caustic treatment, EPRI has included this treatment in the "arsenal" of Boiler Water treatments available to the operators. Figure 94 is an EPRI-published chart, which depicts these various treatments. During the past 20 years, the most prevalent treatment has been the coordinated (or congruent) phosphate treatment (CPT). This treatment uses a combination of monosodium, disodium, and trisodium phosphate or sodium hydroxide. Coordinated phosphate treatment maintains pH in the proper alkaline range and reacts with salt contaminants to prevent the formation of free caustic or acidic compounds. Coordinated phosphate treatment is suitable for high pressure boilers, has good buffering capability, and will increase solids concentration in the boiler water. Coordinated phosphate treatment requires that the operator maintain pH and residual phosphate in range based on drum pressure. Reduce phosphate and TDS by blowdown. Increase phosphate and pH by adding trisodium phosphate. Increase pH alone by adding sodium hydroxide. Increase phosphate without increasing pH by adding disodium phosphate, however, if you already have free caustic in the water, pH will be reduced. Increase phosphate and decrease pH with monosodium phosphate. Volatile-based treatment uses a neutralizing amine, such as ammonia, to maintain the pH in the proper operating range. Although ammonia is the primary chemical used, other chemicals such as cyclohexylamine and morpholine, can also be used.
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Figure 94: Schematic of Operating Ranges of Boiler Water on Equilibrium Phosphate Treatment (EPT) Congruent Phosphate Treatment (CPT) and Phosphate Treatment (PT)

This chemical is injected into the feedwater to control both the feedwater and Boiler Water pH. No other chemicals are used in the Boiler Water. Volatile treatment maintains the pH, is suitable for high pressure boilers, does not contribute to the solids concentration, but has few buffering capabilities. Example of Criteria for Water Treatment The following four tables of water treatment use drum pressure ranges as the primary criteria: 1001-1800 PSI (Table C) 1801-2350 PSI (Table D) 2351-2600 PSI (Table E) 2601-2900 PSI (Table F)

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Table C: Operation of Drum Type Boilers (1001-1800 PSIG)

Table E: Operation of Drum Type Boilers (2351-2600 PSIG)

Table D: Operation of Drum Type Boilers (1801-2350 PSIG)

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Table F: Operation of Drum Type Boilers (2601-2900 PSIG)

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Outage Chemistry Dissolved Solids as a Criteria for Boiler Water Treatment The purpose of water chemistry control during shutdown is to Feedwater with Less than 0.05 ppm dissolved solids minimize corrosion of all metal surfaces during the outage. Feedwater with less than 0.05 ppm dissolved solids is Outage corrosion can cause three types of failures: (1). The the recommended quality. Coordinated and volatile corrosion can progress to the point where a component will fail. treatments are suitable. Figure 95 shows an example of an oxygen corrosion pit, which Feedwater with Less than 0.10 ppm dissolved solids completely penetrated a reheater tube wall. (2) Corrosion Feedwater with less than 0.10 ppm dissolved solids will products generated during outages in the preboiler system can not require any special precautions other than the boiler be dislodged from these surfaces during start-up and be water must be on coordinated phosphate treatment. carried into the boiler with the feedwater. These oxides will deposit on the boiler heat transfer surfaces, causing depositFeedwater with between 0.1 and 1.0 ppm dissolved solids related failures. (3) The outage preboiler corrosion products Feedwater with total solids between 0.1 and 1.0 ppm may enter the superheater or reheater with the spray water indicates abnormal contamination and steps must be during start-up. taken to counterattack their effect. Outage chemistry focuses on excluding oxygen from the If the units is on coordinated phosphate treatment, limit the system by nitrogen blanketing and addition of oxygen load to a level where you can balance the introduction of scavengers. Outage chemistry also focuses on maintaining phosphate and blowdown. Maintain less than 50 ppm total alkaline pH. solids. Maintain pH between 9.1 and 10.1. Maintain PO4 Chemicals used for outage chemistry control must be volatile if between 5-20 ppm. used in SH/RH circuits. Excellent results have been obtained If the unit is on volatile treatment, immediately change over to using ammonia and hydrazine. Freeze protection must be coordinated phosphate/pH system. Shut down if pH drops provided if wet lay-up is used in colder areas. Dry lay-up with below 8.0. Shut down if total boiler solids exceed 50 ppm. nitrogen capping is feasible, but requires frequent checking Increase blowdown to maintain dissolved solids level. Avoid and reliable nitrogen supply. The following section covers this use of desuperheating spray. Allow RH temperatures to fall. topic in greater detail. Reduce load. Feedwater with Greater Than 1.0 ppm dissolved solids This is considered an excessive contamination level of the feedwater. If it cannot be quickly brought under control, an immediate shutdown should be planned. During shutdown, maintain less than 50 ppm total solids, pH between 9.1-10.1, and PO4 between 5-20 ppm. Coordinated or congruent phosphate treatment has been used successfully for many years. However, a number of boilers have experienced phosphate hide-out where the phosphate and pH limits could not be maintained. Several of these boilers have experienced corrosion damage by an acid phosphate mechanism (most likely due to excessive use of mono-sodium phosphate). In those situations where the boiler is prone to severe hide-out when on coordinated phosphate, the use of EPT has proven successful in maintaining chemistry control without phosphate hide-out. It should be noted that EPT has less buffering capacity than a typical phosphate treatment so that it should not be used during periods of contamination ingress.
Figure 95: Corrosion Pitting Type Failure

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Lay-Up Procedures
Pre-Operational Period

When the boiler is ready for the hydrostatic test, proceed as follows: 1. Fill the boiler through the normal filling connections with hydrazine treated water. Close boiler drains and open boiler vents as during normal filling procedures. 2. Fill the superheater with condensate or demineralized water containing 10 ppm of ammonia and 200 ppm of hydrazine. The pH value of the solution should be approximately 10.0. The condensate is added at the primary superheater inlet to overflow from the steam line and boiler drum vents. 3. When the condensate overflows from the superheater steam line vent, close the vents. The addition of condensate at the superheater can be stopped when the boiler drum vents overflow. Close all vents. 4. At the conclusion of the hydrostatic test, with the boiler and superheater filled to overflowing, pressurize the unit to 3-5 psi gauge with nitrogen. a. If freezing is a problem, the water in the drainable circuits can be displaced with nitrogen and the unit is layedup under nitrogen pressure. Auxiliary heat may be applied to keep the non-drainable sections from freezing. b. With drainable superheaters, all surfaces can be laid up under nitrogen pressure. 5. Boilers without stop valves in the main steam line should have the outlet isolated by means of a blank flange, or equivalent, so that a small positive pressure can be applied.
Post Boil-Out Period

If the operation of the boiler is delayed after boiling out or acid cleaning it should be filled as follows: Introduce condensate containing about 10 ppm of ammonia and 200 ppm of hydrazine to the boiler and superheater, and pressurize the unit with nitrogen.
Short Outage Period

Not draining the system. If the boiler is shut down for a period of three to four days, and the boiler pressure will drop to atmospheric pressure: Introduce nitrogen through the boiler drum vent and the superheater outlet header drain/vent, as the unit is cooled, when the steam pressure drops below 5 psi. Maintain a total pressure of 5 psi with nitrogen. Admission of air through atmospheric vents should be avoided.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Long Outage Mechanical carryover can be classified in four areas: Boiler not opened for repair work. Where the boiler is removed Priming - the spouting or surging of boiler water into the from service for a prolonged shutdown, as a seasonal outage steam outlet. of a month or longer: Spray - the atomization of the boiler water. 1. Fill the boiler with a condensate 10 ppm of ammonia Leakage - usually localized; due to improper installation and 200 ppm of hydrazine. Then proceed with filling the or design of drum internals. superheater, adding the treated condensate to the inlet of the Foaming - when boiler water contaminants produce non-drainable sections. bubbles, resulting in an accumulated layer of foam in The treated condensate can be displaced with nitrogen or the the drum. entire unit can be laid up wet under nitrogen pressure Drum internals have a major effect on steam purity (Figure 96). depending upon the temperature of the surrounding area. Maintain a nitrogen pressure of 3-5 psi gauge on the undrained sections of the unit, where possible. If the main steam line is not equipped with a stop valve, steps should be taken to blank off the line so that the boiler can be pressurized. 2. If freezing weather conditions arise during the outage, means must be provided to keep the elements above freezing temperature. NOTE: The use of hydrazine (N2H4) has been found acceptable as a reducing agent. Nitrogen purging is important in the complete elimination of oxygen. NOTE: When the unit is to be put in service, it will be necessary to bring the water level to normal and open the drum and superheater vents before lighting off. To conserve nitrogen supply used in pressurizing the unit, shut off the supply before opening the vents. Steam Purity Control Steam leaving the drum must be "pure" to prevent damage to the superheater, reheater, and turbine. Deposits Corrosion Steam purity is controlled by: Carryover from the drum Spraywater quality Carryover of boiler water in the steam leaving the drum provides a means for introducing contaminants into the superheater, reheater, and turbine. Carryover is caused by two mechanisms: Mechanical - solid contaminants carried by moisture in the steam Vaporous - solids dissolved directly in the steam

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Figure 97: Density vs. Pressure at Saturation (Vapor & Liquid)

Mechanical carryover increases with increased steam flow (Figure 98).

Figure 98: Carryover vs. Load

Figure 96: Controlled Circulation Unit Steam Drum Internals

They separate water from the steam due to their density difference (Figure 97). Some internals apply centrifugal force, while others depend on abrupt changes of direction to effect separation. Drum internals have no effect on silica removal or vaporous carryover. Drum internals influence mechanical carryover and separate water from steam.

Vaporous carryover also increases with increased pressure. Silica vaporizes quite readily in steam, even at low pressures. Silica in steam is controlled by limiting silica in the boiler water (Figure 99). Vaporous carryover of other chemicals can become significant at pressures over 2600 psi (Figure 100). The ABMA limits for total dissolved solids in steam represent general requirement for steam purity (Figure 101). Turbine manufacturers limits, where available, are more strict and may therefore impact cycle chemistry requirements.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 100: Solids in Steam vs. Solids in Boiler Water Figure 102: Distribution Ratio of Silica

Figure 99: Silica in the Boiler Water vs. Drum Pressure

Table G: Vaporous Carryover of Chemicals

Figure 101: Vaporous Carryover vs. Press and Concentration ppm Na+

Figure 103: Distribution of Ammonia Between Steam and Water

Table H: Recommended Boiler Water Limits

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 ADDENDUM 2 BOILER MATERIAL SELECTION Selection of the appropriate material of construction in engineered structures involves a consideration of the following: Ease of fabrication and welding of the material. The mechanical properties of the material over the temperature range of usage. Compatibility of the material with the service environment. Effect of fabrication practices on the mechanical and corrosion-resistant properties of the material. Possible degradation of material properties after long time service. Cost of the material. Steel For most engineering structures, including boilers, steel is the material of choice. In large part, because steel is an extremely versatile material. Through the combination of compositional additions and heat treatment, properties of importance to the designer can be realized. Figure 104: Face-Centered Cubic Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, with or without other alloying elements. The two forms of iron are similar in many respects. In the absence of carbon, both are relatively weak, soft, and ductile. Carbon and its carbides can exist in iron in many different Ferrite is magnetic, but austenite is not. forms and these differences have a marked effect on the properties of steel. The fact that we can control the many The major difference, which makes steel of importance to us, is different interactions of carbon in iron gives steel a versatility the very limited solubility of carbon in the ferrite phase and the not shown by any other metal. fact that carbon is quite soluble in the austenitic phase. Austenite can take 40 times more carbon into solid solution Austenite and Ferrite than ferrite. Important to the versatility of steel is the fact that iron has two The spacing between iron atoms in the face-centered cubic crystallographic forms. One is body-centered cubic in which allows the interstitial acceptance of carbon atoms.. When iron atoms are positioned at the corners and center of the carbon steel with less than 0.8% carbon is heated above the cube. The other is face-centered cubic in which iron atoms are lower critical temperature (1333F), the carbide phase is not positioned at the corners of the cube and in the center of each stable because carbon is readily soluble in austenite. face (Figure 104). On cooldown from above the lower critical temperature, the The body-centered cubic form of iron is called ferrite or alpha carbide phase reappears because only small amounts of iron. The face-centered cubic form of iron is called austenite or carbon are soluble in ferrite [0.02% C at 1333F and 0.005% C gamma iron. at room temperature]. Properties of Metal - Phase Transformation - Iron Carbon Cooling Rate - Effect on Microstructure and Properties Phase Diagram Solubility of Carbon The properties of ferritic steels are related to the manner and Most steels that are ferritic at room temperature (ferritic steels) rate of cooling from above the austenitizing temperature. For can be transformed to austenite upon heating. Figure 105 example, if a steel with 0.8% carbon is cooled slowly from showing a portion of the iron-carbon equilibrium phase diagram 1400F, the steel will be relatively soft. But if cooled rapidly by indicates the temperatures at which a steel with a given carbon quenching in water, a sizable increase in hardness and tensile content will begin to transform to austenite (lower critical properties will result (Figure 106). temperature) and will completely transform (upper critical temperature).
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It is the microstructure of the steel that establishes its properties; therefore, commercial heat treating practices are designed to achieve the microstructures required to develop the appropriate strength/ductility requirements.

Figure 105: Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

Figure 106: Effect of Cooling Rate on Microstructure and Properties of 0.8%Carbon Steel. (Values in Parenthesis are for 0.2% Carbon Steel)

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 spheroidal form. The degree of spheroidization can vary from Microstructure slight (predominantly pearlite) to severe, depending on the Martensite level of temperature and time at temperature. A hard steel with high tensile strength, but low ductility On accelerated cooling, such as a water quench from above the lower critical temperature, the carbon dissolved in the austenite has no time to diffuse and the formation of the bodycentered cubic structure traps the carbon atoms within the lattice. But since the carbon atoms don't fit in the now closer atomic spacing, the body-centered structure can't retain its cubic structure and a slightly deformed body-centered tetragon results. These deformed crystals of martensite are under great strain, which is reflected in the properties of the steel. A martensitic steel is hard with a high tensile strength, but low ductility. The ductility of the martensite can be improved with a reduction in tensile strength by tempering (heating at a temperature below Figure 107: Quenched Overheated Microstructure the lower critical temperature). This heating allows the carbon to diffuse and removes the deformation strain in the crystals. None of the materials in boilers are heat-treated, so martensite will not form; but when welding, the heat affected zones that have exceeded the critical temperature can possess a high hardness as a result of rapid cooling. Because of this, utilize preheat and other controls of cooling rate and post weld tempering heat treatments to minimize the hardness of weldheat-affected zones. If a ferritic boiler tube suffers a severe overheating so that the lower critical temperature is exceeded, it will, on rupture, rapidly cool due to the escaping steam or water, and a structure similar to martensite, called bainite, will form. The presence of this quenched structure (Figure 107) in a tube rupture will be a positive indicator that the lower critical temperature for carbon steel (1333F) and/or for T-22 (1430F) Figure 108: Pearlite Structure has been exceeded. Conversely, an overheating failure with no quenched microstructure will indicate that the lower critical temperature has not been reached.
Pearlite

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As carbon steels in the boiler are intended to operate at temperatures below those required to spheroidize, spheroidization in carbon steels can be an indicator of excessive temperature (overheating). However, as spheroidization can exist in as-installed carbon steel as a result of mill or fabrication heat treatments, it is not necessarily a measure of excessive temperatures in service. Most other ferritic tubes in the boiler operate at temperatures high enough that the carbide phase will transform, so it is often difficult to use microstructure to identify superheater or reheater tube overheating. Fortunately, there are other physical indicators of overheating
Graphitization

Carbon and carbon-moly steels may graphitize when exposed to temperatures above 800F and 875F, respectively, for long periods of time. The carbide phase converts to carbon (graphite). Normally, the carbide phase is so well dispersed that there is insufficient concentration of carbon atoms to nucleate and form graphite. In addition to time at temperature, strain and aluminum (used to deoxide steel) act to promote the formation of graphite. Small amounts of chromium (<0.5%Cr) inhibit the formation of graphite.
Decarburization

When steel is hot worked or heat treated at high temperatures in air, the carbon on the surface of the steel can oxidize. As carbon can diffuse to the surface, a thin zone at the surface can be free of carbide. Positive identification of tube mill fabrication defects can be made if the surfaces were exposed to air during heating operations: these surfaces will be decarburized. Tubes suffering hydrogen damage are decarburized, because the hydrogen atom diffuses into the steel and combines with the carbon in the carbide to form methane.
Carburization

Alternate plates for carbide (Fe3C) phase and ferrite phase in ferrite matrix Most ferritic steels used as pressure parts in the boiler are received with a coarse pearlitic microstructure. In this state, the steel is relatively soft and is best suited for fabrication, welding, and service.
Spheroidite

Sometimes the dense black oxide that forms on tubes exposed to elevated temperature gives rise to the explanation "the material has carburized." This blackened surface is iron oxide and is not carbon. Boiler tubes don't carburize, i.e., pick up carbon from the service environment.
Crystallization

Spheroids of carbide (Fe3C) phase in a ferrite phase Prolonged heating just below the lower critical temperature will cause the plate-like carbides in pearlite to change to a
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Sometimes the appearance of a rupture suggests to some "that the steel has crystallized." In so saying, they believe they have stated a failure cause. Because steel is made up of atoms in a crystallographic form, it always is "crystallized." Boiler tubes don't fail as a result of crystallization.
Figure 109: Partially Spheroidized
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Fortunately, the boiler environment is such that IGA is not a Austenitic Stainless Steels problem and there is no need for concern that sensitization will When nickel is added to steel, it "opens up the gamma loop." occur in service. Sensitization has no noticeable effect on the That is, it changes the temperature range at which austenite strength properties of the steel. exists. The addition of 8% nickel to an iron-carbon steel with When austenitic stainless steels are used in environments 18% chromium expands the temperature range so that where IGA is possible (a scrubber for example), the amount of austenite exists at all temperatures below 2000F. chromium carbide can be restricted by controlling the amount Because there is no transformation to ferrite when the alloy is of carbon available. This can be done in two ways. cooled, the alloy cannot be hardened by heat treatment. In fact, the alloy is usually rapidly cooled for corrosion resistance. One is to limit the carbon to 0.03% or less (type 304L for example). When a stainless steel tube fails as a result of severe overheating, it will not exhibit the quenched microstructure of The other is to use grades containing titanium (321) or martensite. columbium (347) which are strong carbide formers (stabilizers) tying up much of the carbon, thus avoiding The microstructure of austenitic stainless steels differs chromium carbide formation. markedly from the ferritic steels discussed earlier. There is no iron-carbide phase, and pearlite and spheroidite do not exist. The strengthening heat treatments given to type 321H and Because of this, estimates as to time at temperature based on 347H are too high to achieve the stabilizing benefit of the microstructure are impossible. titanium and columbium. So these materials do sensitize in service. Grains When service temperatures are below 900F, the sensitization As the metal cools from the liquid state, solidification starts at can occur during welding or hot fabrication. random spots. Although the crystals form and grow in an orderly cubic orientation of iron atoms, these nucleating spots differ from each other. As these individual volumes of metal solidify and grow into the neighboring solids, the atoms of each cannot readily align itself with its neighbors, so distinct grains ACROSS form. The surfaces of each grain are referred to as grain boundaries (Figure 110). Transgranular and Intergranular Failures in Boiler Steels Fatigue, corrosion fatigue, thermal fatigue, short-time overheating, and simple tensile overload failures are called transgranular failures. Intermediate and long term overheating failures and hydrogen damage follow the grain boundaries and are called intergranular. ALONG Some stress corrosion cracking can result in either mode of failure, and both may be present. Sensitization The austenitic stainless steels used in the superheater and reheater undergo a phenomena known as sensitization. When exposed to temperatures in the range of 900F to 1400F for specific periods of time, carbides of chromium form at the grain boundaries. These carbides are rich in chromium and deplete the remainder of the grain boundary of chromium. As chromium is necessary to provide corrosion resistance in certain environments, many acidic solutions, for example, can Figure 110: Intergranular and Transgranular Cracking cause localized depletion of chromium making the material susceptible to intergranular attack (IGA).
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Mechanical Properties of Steel NOTE: Certain mechanical properties of steel affect its fabrication and performance in service. Among these are tensile properties, hardness, toughness, fatigue strength, and high temperature characteristics.
Tensile Properties

The standard tension test provides data on yield strength, tensile strength, and ductility. When metals are pulled (stressed) with a uniaxial increasing load, the material stretches (strains). Diagrams such as Figure 111 show the relationship between stress and strain for specific materials. With increasing load, the material strains elastically until it reaches the yield point. During this period of elastic behavior, there is no permanent deformation; strain is directly proportional to the stress.

Figure 111: Stress-Strain Curve for Two Steel with Different Strength and Ductility

Continuing to increase the loading beyond the yield point results in plastic strains and eventually breakage of the test specimen. Ductility is a measure of the amount of plastic deformation the steel will sustain before breaking. It is usually expressed as a percentage elongation or reduction in the cross sectional area of the specimen. How much plastic strain a steel will exhibit is quite variable and is generally inversely related to the tensile strength of the material.
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 The effect of carbon (carbides) in tensile properties can be seen in Table I. Note that with increasing carbon content, tensile and yield strength increase in the carbon steels. NOTE: Elongation values (ductility) decrease with increasing carbon. Although steels with higher carbon would achieve greater strength, ,ductility and weldability would suffer. Pressure part steels have a specification requirement of 0.35% carbon or less.
Hardness

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The introduction of periods of hold time at temperature, while under maximum strain, causes the slope of fatigue curves to change considerably. There are not specification requirements for assessing any of these properties important to high temperature properties. Room temperature tensile properties do not provide a basis for determining behavior at elevated temperature, i.e., behavior in the creep range. Strength Basis of Material Selection The ASME Boiler Code assigns allowable stresses for each grade of steel at temperature intervals of 100F or 50F. Further, the code provides a basis for determining the thickness of pressure part components based on the design temperature using these assigned allowable stresses.
Time Independent vs. Time Dependent

The hardness of a material is a measure of resistance to plastic deformation and is related to the tensile strength of the steel. It is also used as an indicator of the machinability and abrasion resistance of a steel. Some specifications have a maximum hardness, which must be met.
Fatigue

The stress a material can withstand under repeated application and removal of load is less than that it can withstand under static conditions. Dynamic, cyclic loading causes slip and coldworking in minute areas localized at grain boundaries and at stress concentrating notches of various types. Fatigue strength is the degree of stress a material can resist for a specified number of cycles before failure. The endurance limit is the stress level at which a material can tolerate an almost infinite number of cycles. There are not specification requirements for measuring fatigue strength or endurance limit. Fatigue failures in boilers are the result of excessive or unexpected cycling strains not in any deficiency of the steel.
Toughness

Under most circumstances, ductile steel can tolerate localized stresses above the yield point by plastically absorbing and redistributing these stresses. But under certain circumstances of geometry or impact, when this redistribution is not possible, steels with considerable ductility are subject to a brittle cleavage mode of failure. Toughness is determined by the ability to resist this type of failure. Impact tests are the means of assessing toughness, but such tests are not required for boiler steels. Temperature is important when determining if cleavage type failure can occur, and is of greater concern as temperatures decrease below 70F. As such, the only concern for this type of failure in boilers is during hydrostatic test.

Table I: Materials Used in Boiler Construction

High Temperature Properties

Creep - At elevated temperatures, steels will continue to elongate under constant load below the yield strength of the material. Creep rate is used to measure this property. Stress rupture - At elevated temperatures, steel will fail under constant load below the yield strength of the material. Stress rupture strength is used to measure this property. Creep-fatigue interaction - When metals are exposed to cyclic loadings while operating at temperatures within their creep range, creep effects can reduce fatigue life.
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At temperatures exceeding approximately 650F, most steels suffer a gradual decrease in tensile and yield strength. At still higher temperatures, the strain in a material is a function not only of the applied stress but also of the time under stress at temperature. In this high temperature range, the metal will deform (creep) continuously even at stresses much lower than the short time yield strength. If held for sufficient time under these conditions, the material will rupture. The behavior in the creep range is called the time dependent temperature regime (time at temperature and stress is important to the rate of deformation and rupture life). The behavior at temperatures below the creep range is called the time-independent temperature regime (time has no effect on deformation or rupture at a constant stress). In determining these allowable stresses, the code reviews tensile and stress rupture property data obtained over the temperature range of usage and applies the following criteria listed in paragraph A-150 of section 1 (POWER BOILERS) of the code. Note that the code assesses in a conservative manner the rupture (tensile strength) and deformation (yield strength) behavior in the time independent regime (1-4). Further, the rupture (stress rupture strength) and deformation (creep strength) behavior in the time dependent regime (5 and 6) is also assessed. The lowest strength value after application of these criteria to the material test data is the allowable stress assigned for each temperature increment evaluated.

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Allowable Stresses this "expected" life is not predictable, the code has no specific life in mind when setting allowable stresses. A long useful life 1/4 of the specified minimum tensile strength at room is the intent. temperature Figure 113 shows how the Figure 112 data are applied to 1/4 of the tensile strength at elevated temperatures establish allowable stresses for T-22 tubing [the criteria of 1/4 2/3 of the specified minimum yield strength at room of specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature temperature controls for this material up to 800F. At 950Fand above, the 2/3 of the yield strength at elevated temperatures creep and rupture strength criteria require a rather sharp decrease in the allowable stress. 100% of the stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01 percent in 1,000 hr The relative influence of the different criteria varies with materials as well as with temperature (Figure 114). The 67% of the average stress to produce rupture at the end carbon steels begin to lose strength above 700F and by 850F of 100,000 hours or 80% of the minimum stress for are down to about one-half their room-temperature values. rupture at the end of 100,000 hours as determined from The low-chromium ferritic alloys start to lose strength above the extrapolated data, whichever is lower. 800F and are down to half strength at about 1000F because Figure 113 illustrates how creep and rupture strengths for a of reduction in yield strength; above 1000F, creep and rupture 2-1/4 Cr-1 Mo steel are established from test data. Creep-rate strength cause a rapid decrease to half strength, or less by data for 1000F, 1100F and 1200F are plotted versus stress. 1200F. The intersection of these data lines with that for 0.01% in 1,000 hours set the respective creep strengths of 7,800 psi, 5,000 psi, and 2,400 psi. The other curves show rupture life versus stress for the same three temperatures. Lines through these data are extrapolated to 100,000 hours to establish rupture strengths of 13,000 psi, 7,000 psi, and 3,300 psi, respectively. Note that because of the percentage factors applied to the 100,000 hour intercept of minimum and maximum rupture strength, there is considerable life expected for materials operating at the code allowable stresses. However, as

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Figure 114: Effect of Temperature on ASME Boiler Code Allowable Stress for Grades of Steel

Other Considerations in Material Selection

Graphitization

The carbon normally present in the steel in the form of carbides may transform over a long period of time to graphite. This transformation may take place preferentially along heat affected zones of welds, or along stress lines, to form chaintype graphitization. Carbon steel pipe and carbon molybdenum pipe in long-time service, particularly when operated at temperatures well above 800F and 875F, respectively, have experienced numerous instances of chain-type graphitization resulting in failure or requiring repair or replacement. Because of these problems, ALSTOM has for many years avoided the use of carbon molybdenum for piping components and has limited the use of carbon steel pipe to 800F.
Figure 112: Creep Rate (Upper) & Rupture Strength (Lower) for a 2-1/4 Cr-1 Mo Steel

Figure 113: Use of ASME Boiler Code Criteria to Establish Allowable Stress for a 2 1/4 Cr-1Mo Steel

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 For higher temperature service, the use of steels containing For these reasons, there is widespread use of the family of one-half percent or more chromium eliminates the danger of low-chromium alloys, up to 2-1/4% Cr, for intermediate graphitization. Carbon steel and carbon molybdenum tubing temperature range applications, where carbon steel and have not shown a similar tendency to graphitize as has piping. carbon molybdenum are not used because of their low highThe graphitization occasionally found in tubing is usually in the temperature strength and their tendency to graphitize. form of well-dispersed nodules, which do not weaken the steel. The temperatures at which these low-chromium alloy grades Carbon steel and carbon molybdenum tubing may, therefore, are used involve considerations of high-temperature strength be used in applications when the temperatures reach 850F and corrosion/oxidation resistance. and 900F, respectively. For superheater and reheater tubes in the gas pass, alloy Oxidation and Corrosion Resistance grades SA-213 T-11 (1-1/4% Cr) and T-22 (2-1/4% Cr) are limited by ALSTOM to gas-side surface temperatures of Chromium is the most useful alloying element for imparting 1025F and 1075F, respectively. oxidation and corrosion resistance to steel. Figure 115 shows the degree of oxidation sealing versus temperature for a These temperatures, well below the point at which oxidation number of steel with a range of chromium from 0 to 18%. Note scaling is significant, were established based on review of that silicon and aluminum also improve resistance to oxidation external-wastage-rate data from units in service experiencing scaling. coal-ash corrosion. With these limits, excessive external corrosion metal loss is not expected even when coals with a Similarly, chromium additions improve resistance of steel to corrosive tendency are burned. molten-ash corrosion. Generally the 2-1/4 Cr-1 Mo steel is the highest alloy used for Low levels of chromium, in the range of 1/2 to 2-1/4%, provide pressure-part components outside of the gas pass because the a useful improvement in high temperature corrosion resistance. metal has reliable strength and oxidation resistance at outlet Within this chromium range, high-temperature strength steam temperatures between 1005F and 1055F. But accompanies the trend of somewhat improved corrosion because some gas-touched portions of the superheater and resistance. reheater are exposed to skin metal temperatures in excess of 1075F, alloys with high-temperature strength and oxidation/corrosion resistance are needed. There has been some past use of tubing with 5% chromium, but these alloys did not provide a significant improvement in corrosion resistance and have a lower high-temperature strength than the T-22 grade. SA-213 T-9 (9 Cr-1 Mo) has been, and continues to be, used in some reheaters. The material has good oxidation/corrosion resistance and may be used to outside surface temperatures as high as 1175F, but at these temperatures the hightemperature strength (ASME allowable mid-wall stresses) is quite low, less than that for the T-22 (2-1/4 Cr-1 Mo) grade. Austenitic stainless steels (grades TP 304H and TP 347H) are used for most of the tubing operating at surface metal temperatures above 1075F. Not only do these materials have excellent high-strength properties, which are characteristic of austenite, but they also have excellent oxidation resistance because of their 18% (nominal composition) chromium content. But it is important to recognize that no tube alloy operating Figure 115: Amount of Oxidation (Scaling) of Carbon, Low Alloy, and above 1000F is immune to oil or coal ash corrosion. By virtue Stainless Steels in 1000 Hours in air at Temperatures from 1100F to 1700F of its higher operating temperatures, austenitic stainless steel will experience metal loss if there are molten ash deposits.
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Chromium is also important to the selection of non-pressure part materials such as shields, baffles, and spacer attachments which will operate at elevated temperatures approaching gas temperature. In a coal-fired environment where corrosive ash cannot exist above 1350F, the flue gas oxidation rate is similar to that in air, so air oxidation data is useful for selecting these components. Figure 116 shows the air scaling behavior of some higher chromium stainless alloys. Type 309 is commonly used for these components.

Figure 116: Maximum Temperature without Excessive Scaling

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 ADDENDUM 3 OIL & GAS FIRED BOILER ARRANGEMENTS Considering the power capacity of the GT-HRSGs of today, two units would be needed where only one large gas fired Critiques from the 2006 edition of the boiler inspection seminar boiler would be required. commented that more material on the oil and gas fired boiler A multi-elevation burner (Figure 117) of oil nozzles and/or gas arrangements would be appreciated. spuds form the tangential fireball. A pair of Ljungstrom air heaters preheats combustion air from two FD fans. A Oil & Gas Fired Boilers crossover duct permits half load operation regardless of which When natural gas is both plentiful and inexpensive, very large circuit is available. Ignitor air fans boost off the FD fan natural gas (CH4, 95%, C2H6, 5%) fired boilers are a good discharge duct providing the light-off capability for either oil or investment. System arrangements are simple and the time gas. Tips can tilt up or down 15 to provide a simple, low-cost from ground breaking to commercial operation is significantly means of controlling steam temperatures. less than any other type of large power plant. This addendum offers four views chosen for both arrangement and topical variation: Early 1960s Natural Gas Fired 410 Mw Boiler w/ Gas Recirculation (Oil as a back up fuel) Early 1970s Natural Gas Fired 750 Mw Boiler (Oil as an Emergency fuel) Early 1970s Oil Fired 600 Mw Boiler w/ Gas Recirculation (Future Gas Firing) Color Coded Unit Material Diagram (Oil Fired Boiler)

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Gas Recirculation

Steam temperature control and firing rate can be further managed by a gas recirculation. Flue gas from below the economizer is redirected to the base of the furnace. The net effect is that the convective surface is increased. This is particularly beneficial to reheat temperature control. Cycle efficiency and gross megawatts increase, as less heat needs to be extracted from the turbine. For many plants, this was found to be a reasonable operating mode for gas firing, but was problematic for oil firing. Oil fires contain both more unburned carbon and corrosive sulfur. The gas recirculation circuits maintenance costs increase. Several other steam temperature precautions must be monitored. Gas recirculation should not be used to achieve full reheat temperature when the boiler is below control load (~ 55% of MCR steaming rate). Failure to follow the predicted steam temperature curves could result in overheating of the elements, particularly in the outer 10% of the elements entering the final outlet headers. Steam flow to the center of an inlet header is not as restricted as to the outer ends.

Circuit Detail and Tube Material Selection

The color-coded Unit Material Diagram (Figure 124) is provided to show detail as to material selection and circuit layout for a 600 Mw oil fired boiler (Figure 123). Fuel oil supplies (No. 6) not only run fairly high in sulfur, but also corrosive vanadium. Tubing needed to be corrosion resistant (external corrosion). This boiler has horizontal drainable assemblies. When the boiler is shutdown during periods of low demand, drainable assemblies can be protected from internal oxidizing attack of the martensitic (black oxide) layer inside the tubes (internal corrosion). Lay-up is easier and more effective than with pendant assemblies.
Oil or Gas Firing

Figure 118: Precautionary Steam Temperature Curves

Cyclic Operation

The first example gas fired boiler shown (Figure 120) is an early 1960s design. Because of the large volume of oil and natural gas being found along the gulf coast, this design was cost effective. Todays choice would be a gas turbine with an HRSG. Gas fires produce emissions that are more environmentally acceptable. The installed cost for the GTHRSG would be higher, but the improved cycle heat rate would quickly demonstrate the benefit of the modern choice.
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Many of the oil and gas fired boilers of the 60s and 70s have been in a standby mode, or cycled to meet peak load demand. By not base loading the boiler, the pressure part steel has been aged at a far greater rate. The net effect is that both thick-wall and thin-wall pressure parts, and their welds will show more signs of fatigue.

Figure 117: Oil-Gas Burner

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Natural Gas Fired 410 Mw Boiler w/ Gas Recirculation (Early 1960s)

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REHEATER

REAR SH FRONT SH

ECONOMIZER

Figure 119: Natural Gas Fired 410 Mw Boiler Upper Press. Parts Boiler Designation Furnace Superheater Economizer Natural Gas Burner MCR Lb/Hr Boiler Efficiency CCRRP 172,000 Cu.Ft. Two Stage w/Platens Spiral Finned Tilting Tangential SH 2,800,000 84.5% SHO Pressure V-Bottom Reheater Airheater 2650 Psig 48 x 38 One Stage Ljungstrom 28-VIX-48

CH4, 94%, C2H6, 4%, C4H10, 1%, Misc. 1% RH 2,490,000 Megawatts 1005/100 F 410 Gross

Table J: Gas Fired Boiler Design Data (410 Mw)

NOTE: Oil is an optional fuel.

Figure 120: Natural Gas Fired 410 Mw Boiler w/ Gas Recirculation

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Natural Gas Fired 750 Mw Boiler (Early 1970s) The second oil and gas fired boiler is one of the largest ever constructed in terms of steam capacity. It differs from the first example in that burner gas spuds are not only in the oil gun elevations, but in the auxiliary air elevations as well. Natural gas is the primary fuel. NOTE: Oil is considered to be the emergency fuel.
Boiler Designation Furnace Superheater Economizer Natural Gas Burner MCR Lb/Hr Boiler Efficiency SCRRP 236,000 Cu.Ft. Two Section Convective Spiral Finned Fixed Tangential SH 5,400,000 85.7% SHO Pressure V-Bottom Reheater Airheater CH4, 95%, C2H6, 5% RH 4,740,000 Megawatts 3850 Psig 54 x 44 One Section Convective Ljungstrom 31-Hx-54 1063 Btu/Cu.Ft. 1010/1005 F 750 Gross

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2 8

10

11

13

7 6 12

Table K: Gas Fired Boiler Design Data (750 Mw)

This large gas fired boiler is still commercially viable if gas prices are competitive, and in regions where emissions are a concern. This unit emits very little NOx or SOx. The visible stack emission is water vapor. Additionally, the very high-pressure supercritical boiler is capable of high cycle efficiency (low heat rate). Which lowers the relative CO2 emission The following list the major circuits (listed in flow sequence) for the supercritical boiler at the right:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Economizer Boiler Mixing Chamber Boiler Circulating Pumps Lower Rear Sphere Furnace Wall Tubes Extended Sidewall Tubes Backpass Wall Tubes Mixing Header at Roof Start-up Separator Front Superheater Rear Superheater (Final) Horizontal Reheater

5 1

13. Platen Reheater (Final)

Figure 121: Natural Gas Fired 750 Mw Boiler

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008 Oil Fired 600 Mw Boiler w/ Gas Recirculation (Early 1970s)

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FRONT RH

UPPER SH

REAR RH

LOWER SH

ECONOMIZER

Figure 122: Oil Fired 600 Mw Boiler Upper Pressure Parts

Boiler Designation Furnace Superheater Economizer Oil Burner MCR Lb/Hr Boiler Efficiency

CCRR 278,000 Cu.Ft. Multistage Horizontal Spiral Finned Tilting Tangential SH 4,200,000 89.2%

SHO Pressure Basket Bottom Reheater Airheater Heavy Oil (No. 6) RH 3,881,000 Megawatts

2600 Psig 57 x 44 Multistage Horizontal Ljungstrom 28-VI-39 18,200 Btu/Lb 1005/1005 F 600 Gross

Table L: Oil Fired Boiler Design Data (600 Mw)

NOTE: In the mid-1990s a natural gas main was installed to provide both another fuel option as well as an option for lowered emissions.
Figure 123: Oil Fired 600 Mw Boiler

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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Figure 124: Oil Fired Boiler Color Coded Unit Material Diagram
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Book 101 - Common Points for All Boiler Inspections Revision 2008

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Table M: Oil Fired Boiler Color Coded Unit Material Diagram Data

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