LOCOMOTION IN AN ANIMAL WITH AND ENDOSKELETON FISH 1.An example of an animal with an endoskeleton is a fish. 2.

A fish has little problem overcoming gravity as most of its body weight is supported by water. 3.However, it faces the problem of water resistance, as water is denser and more viscous than air. 4.To reduce water resistance while swimming, fish have a) sleek and streamlined body shapes b) overlapping scales on their bodies which face backwards c) slimy coatings on their bodies to minimise frictional drag (water resistance caused by friction between moving water and the body of the fish) and maintain a smooth flow of water over the body 5.The streamlined shape of a fish: a) is a long ellipse tapering to a point (shaped like a torpedo) in the direction of the flow of water. b)reduces the frictional drag 6.The general adaptive features in a fish for locomotion in water: a) the anterior or a fish is smooth and rounded b) there is no neck and the head merges with the body c) its body is broad at the interior and tapers to the tail d) the body is covered with scales and a slimy coating to reduce friction e) the presence of fins to stabilise the fish and help it move efficiently through water 7.A fish has different types of fins with different functions for locomotion Dorsal fin: increases the vertical surface of the fish and keeps it upright by preventing it from rolling sideways Caudal fin: generates the forward force (thrust) which propels the fish forward and aids in steering the fish Anal fin: provides the same function as the dorsal fin Pelvic fin: a pair of pelvic fins which is used to provide stability and steering while swimming Pectoral fin: a pair of fins located on each side of the fish that allows the fish to swim backwards, stay in one spot and move up and down or from side to side

1.A fish swims by wavelike movements, moving from head to tail. These movements: a) push the water backwards and the fish forwards b) cause the fish to become unstable, if not for the presence of its fins 2.Propulsion is generated by myotomes the antagonistic muscles: a) the wavelike movements are generated by antagonistic muscle blocks called myotomes on both

sides of its vertebral column b) dorsally, each myotome has a zig-zag shape

3.When myotomes on either side contract, the backbone curves towards it. 4.Starting from the anterior towards the tail, myotomes on both sides contract and relax alternately producing a series of waves which propel the fish through the water. 5.Many bony fish have swim bladders to help them maintain buoyancy in water. 6.A swim bladder is an air sac inside the abdomen that contains air.

BIRD 1.Birds are vertebrates and they have internal skeletons made of bone. 2.The skeleton of a bird is specialised to fly: a) the skeleton is strong, light and forms a rigid framework for the attachment of flight muscles. b) a deep keel provides a large surface for the attachment of powerful flight muscles.

c) the limb bones are strong but hollow (honey-combed) and light, making it easier for birds to fly. 3.The bird has a streamlined body which helps it to fly better: a) the streamlined body reduces drag or air resistance b) with a reduced drag, the bird expends less effort and energy to fly 4.The wings of a bird: a) are large to push down on the air to give its body a lift b) have strong but light flight feathers which give wings a large surface area without adding too much weight c) have powerful flight muscles to move the wings up and down d) are shaped like an aerofoil which help to produce a powerful lift in flight

5.The physiological adaptations: 6.Birds fly by flapping or gliding: a) flapping needs a lot of energy and most birds with small wings such as sparrows flap their wings faster. b) larger birds, such as eagles, have large wings that let then soar and glide for long periods with minimal flapping 7.By flapping their wings, birds generate: a) propulsion (forward thrust) b) lift 8.Wing flapping consists of the downstroke and the upstroke, and the pair of antagonistic muscles involved is the pectoralis major and the pectoralis minor. 9.In the downstroke: a) the pectoralis major contracts while the pectoralis minor relaxes and pulls the wings down b) as both wings go down, air resistance closes the flight feathers, pushing the full wing areas on the air and lifting the bird up c) forward thrust is generated by turning its wristo to push the flight feathers back against the air 10.In the upstroke: a) the pectoralis minor contracts and the pectoralis major relaxes and pulls the upper side of the humerus over the coracoid bone to raise the wing b) the flight feathers twist open and air flows through the gaps between them c) there is minimum air movement and minimum air resistance.