Music, History of have been restored to the heart of social science investigations, the position they occupied in social

theoretical work from Plato through Adorno. See also: Censorship and Transgressive Art; Cultural Expression and Action; Cultural Policy: Outsider Art; Expressive Forms as Generators, Transmitters, and Transformers of Social Power; Music: Anthropological Aspects; Music Perception; Popular Culture
Weber W 1992 The Rise of Musical Classics in Eighteenth Century England: A Study In Ritual, Canon, And Ideology. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK Willis P 1978 Profane Culture. Routledge, London

T. DeNora

Music, History of
History of music signies the sum of all musical or music-related events in as much as they have been documented or handed down through time. In particular, it refers to the historiography of music (music history) and is a synonym for the discipline of musicology. In recent decades it has come to designate that part of musicology referred to as historical musicology.

Bibliography
Adorno T W 1976 Introduction to the Sociology of Music (trans. Blomster W). Seabury, New York Becker H S 1989 Ethnomusicology and sociology: A letter to Charles Seeger. Ethnomusicology 33: 27599 Cerulo K A 1984 Social disruption and its eects on musican empirical analysis. Social Forces 62 DeNora T 1995 Beetho en and the Construction of Genius. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA DeNora T 2000 Music in E eryday Life. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Deutsch D 1982 The Psychology of Music. Academic Press, New York DiMaggio P 1982 Cultural entrepreneurship in nineteenthcentury Boston: The creation of an organizational base for high culture in America. Media, Culture and Society 4: 3550, 30322 Frith S 1981 Sound Eects: Youth, Leisure, and the Politics of Rock n Roll. Pantheon, New York Gomart E, Hennion A 1999 A sociology of attachment: Music amateurs, drug users. In: Law J, Hazzart J (eds.) Actor Network Theory and After. Blackwell, Oxford, UK Hennion A 1993 La Passion Musicale. Metaille, Paris Martin P J 1995 Sounds & Society: Themes in the Sociology of Music. Manchester University Press, Manchester, UK Merriam A 1964 The Anthropology of Music. Northwestern University Press, Chicago North A, Hargreaves D 1997 Music and consumer behavior. In: Hargreaves D, North A (eds.) The Social Psychology of Music. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK Peterson R 1997 Creating Country Music: Fabricating Authenticity. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Peterson R, Berger D 1990 Cycles in symbol production: The case of popular music. In: Frith S, Goodwin A (eds.) On Record: Rock, Pop and the Written Word. Routledge, London Peterson R, Simkus A 1992 How musical tastes mark occupational status groups. In: Lamont M, Fournier M (eds.) Culti ating Dierences: Symbolic Boundaries and the Making of Inequality. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Schutz A 1964 Making Music Together. Collected Papers, Vol 2. Martinus Nijho, The Hague Slobada J 1985 The Musical Mind: The Cogniti e Psychology of Music. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK Sloboda J 2000 Everyday uses of music listening. In: Yi S W (ed.) Music, Mind and Science. Seoul National University Press, Seoul, South Korea

1. History and Representation

The panorama of cultures, with their divergent concepts of music and history, are too multitudinous to be adequately and equitably considered here. A review of the worlds oral and written musical traditions, whether they be Indian, American-Indian, Chinese, Australian-Aboriginal, Japanese, Ewe, Near-Eastern, or Central European, would only culminate in the emptiest of generalizations to compare their individual courses. For reasons of expediency, therefore, the following remarks refer to the history of music as perceived from the perspective of Western culture and are restricted to its tradition. Three characteristics of music determine and modify questions concerning historical data, documents, and sources, modulating thereby the various approaches to the history of music. (a) By necessity, the transitory nature of music as a performed art form does not engender an immutable artifact for permanent view, and, in contrast to the visual arts, is dependent on reproduction and representation. This contributes to the tendency to perform and listen to music as though it would be permanently present. In fact, performing or listening to music from an earlier period decomposes the historical distance between the period in question and the present time. This impulse to dispossess music of its history may in some instances lead to the radical inclination to regard music as a natural phenomenon rather than as a historical one. (b) Musical notation was an early invention. Two dierent kinds were already established in Greek antiquity, most likely for educational purposes and not for the preservation of music for future generations or for performances. This also holds true for the earliest stages of polyphony in the Middle Ages, which went hand in hand with the beginning of notational practice 10259

Music, History of and ultimately led to the types of scores now familiar to us. Before printing was invented, it can scarcely be claimed that musical notation produced works as texts comparable to written texts, such as the The Odyssey or The Iliad. And while illiteracy and education are by nature contradictory, musical illiteracy has remained a socially tolerated phenomenon; someone who is unable to read music, will not be ostracized from an elitist social group. In popular music circles musicians have never been required to possess the ability to decipher musical notation. (c) With Edisons invention of the phonograph, voices and sounds could be acoustically documented for the rst time. Due to the omnipresence of music in todays popular culture and the recording industry, one can easily forget that this kopernikanische Wendung in music history took place just one century ago. In 1886 Friedrich Nietzsche asserted that music is the latecomer of every culture (Menschliches, Allzumenschliches II, Sect. 171). Although this corresponds to the romantic conviction that music is the youngest of the ne arts it seems to contradict the Western tradition that ranked music theory among the earliest individual academic disciplines, together with arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. This was the case in the Greek enkyklios paideia and later in the quadri ium of the medieval septem artes liberales. To the degree that music is more often associated with emotional and spiritual qualities than with intellectual or physical ones, the reconstruction of the history of sound is no less precarious than the history of the emotions themselves. Both elds are predominantly dependent on a systematic or experimental approach rather than on a historical one. And in contrast to archeological sites or the visual arts, the historical foundations of music are ultimately of less interest within the context of the essentially personal need for music. music, whether beyond written traditions or in paleontological respects. One may ask whether modern speculations as to musics prehistoric inception are more reliable than Ovids report of Pans invention of the syrinx (Metamorphoses I, 689 ss.) that signaled the beginning of another ars no a, or more insightful than the lemma handed down since late antiquity that states Pythagoras as the in entor musicae, claiming that he was to have found an explanation for the phenomenon of consonances and therefore to have invented music theory. By 1700, book titles espousing the history of music appeared throughout Europe (e.g., W. C. Printz, Historische Beschreibung der Edelen Sing- und KlingKunst, Dresden, 1690; G. A. Bontempi, Historia musica, Perugia, 1695; P. Bourdelot and J. Bonnet, Histoire de la musique, Paris, 1715). In all cases, the point at which the history of music is seen to begin is dependent upon the historiographical premise that has been taken. Some scholars proceed from early organized polyphony around AD 900; others go back to monophony (Gregorian chant). The belief that ancient Greek music need not necessarily belong to music historys canon is in large part due to the decrease in the knowledge of the Greek language in the twentieth century, with the result that it is subsequently relegated to the elds of ethnomusicology or anthropology (cf. West 1992, p. 3). Thus, what was still regarded to be the foundation of European culture and humanistic tradition in the nineteenth century has been cut o from the history of Europe.

3. The Discipline and its Methods

The rise of historicism in the nineteenth century brought music history (together with art history) as an academic eld into the university, a development that began primarily in German-speaking countries. The history of music quickly became an essential component of both the theoretical and practical study of music. Together with specialized research institutes, the academic discipline increased in German universities after World War I, while the wave of emigration following 1933 played an exceptional role in its advancement in the USA. Since World War II the discipline has grown inside and outside Europe, and today is established in universities worldwide. Aside from biographical studies and philological eorts (such as editing scores and theoretical texts on sources), music historys chief methodological approach has been to examine the history of style, or more recently, genre. This is narrowed down further to the history of composition or individual works. Special attention has been given to the history of reception throughout the last decades. Even with respect to essentially synesthetic productions, such as opera or stagings within the multimedia landscape, the score

2. Considering Music History and the Beginning of Music

History has always played a certain role in speculations about the theoretical basis of music. The historical account of music in (pseudo-)Plutarchuss De musica from ca. AD 100 weaves together mythological and historical names (that cannot be claried in each instance) before turning to the matter of old music, regarded as holy and good, and its succession by new music, seen as degenerate and decadent. Aristophanes and other contemporaries maintained that this transition took place in the late fth century BC. Twentieth-century historians still adhered to this model. Greek myths and medieval legends based on biblical narrative that once explained and interpreted the origins of music have today been replaced by scientic theories that biologically and genetically construe the earliest stages of the development of 10260

Music, History of remained the music historians most important source at hand. Up to the present time, the predominant individuals of interest for historians have been composers, regardless of how prominent a performer, whether singer, conductor, or instrumentalist, may be. This is also the case within the history of performance practice (impulses coming from the UK), which attempts to reconstruct performance style within any given age independently of the work of individual interpreters. Compared to music historys concentration on composers and compositions, adjacent elds such as the history of music theory and of music aesthetics, and the archeology and iconography of music have assumed less prominent positions. This holds true for the relationship between the history of music and history as well. For example, while writings on the history of sacred Christian music are often aligned with related areas such as the history of liturgy, churches, and religion, contextualizations within social and political history remain rare. Supported by the romantic notion of Kunstreligion (the substitution of religion by the arts), the ideology that positions music in an apolitical, internalized, subjective domain strictly separated from social and political conditions has not yet been fully overcome. 3.1 Boundaries The history of music has pertained and, in large part, still pertains to Western music, if not exclusively. The periodization of earlier epochs (the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and Baroque) has remained comparatively stable; thereafter, less so. The history of music is patterned after conceptualizations similar to those used in general historiography (whether in the framework of Geistesgeschichte, social, or cultural history); the philosophy of history; and the fundamental concept of permanent progress (innovation and its aesthetic equivalent, originality) and cyclic forms (such as ascent, climax, and decline). In spite of how commonplace the expression occidental music (abendla W ndische Musik) is, a history of European music in which local, regional, and national traditions are treated as a unity within diversityin accordance with the standards of the modern European Unionhas yet to be written. Historians who specialize in the musical culture of their own regions often lay claim to the concept of occidental music, and yet upon closer scrutiny, the traditions of other countries are comfortably overlooked. In the subtext one can ascertain that the inclusion of music from the Byzantine empire (with consequences for Eastern European music) and from the Americas within the occidental circle is questioned. The post-Wagnerian composer Hans Ptzner (1926, p. 193) compared musics historical course to the upbringing of a boy whose rst nurse was Dutch, who then lived for a season in Italy before making his home in Germany around 1750. Music historiography, dominated by the ascendance of nationalism in the nineteenth century, has been inuenced by national historiography. Some music historians nationalistic stance relies on a conception of music history in which consecutive composers are threaded onto a string of pearls, neither allowing for diversity or pluralistic considerations. 3.2 Relati e Autonomy Music historians who view the history of music within the scope of art history tend to view favorably the idea of a relative autonomy of music history (cf. Dahlhaus 1983, Chap. 8). This concept focuses on questions of style, genre, and composition without giving credence to their contextual arenaan idealistic interpretation of art music that boasts of a pragmatic concentration on musical components at the cost of musics isolation from society, economy, and politics. The idea of autonomy maintains that (a) art is independent of life and (b) music history is made up of a sequence of masterpieces written by heroic composers of genius, whose musical innovations and originality are synonymous with progress. This progress is often associated with decline in diering degrees up to the present time: while contemplating the grand summits of art music, no thought should be squandered on the valleys. As can be expected, Marxist writers have explicitly opposed this view (cf. Knepler 1977, p. 462 ss.). Art and social histories were often strictly and programmatically opposed to each other; particularly in the tradition of Hegel, dominant in German musicology, this led to a disengagement between music history and history in general. The historiography of Western music has remained the historiography of an elitist art form. In spite of its universal popularity, Beethovens music has never belonged to the realm of popular culture (one notable exception being the Ode to Joy, used as the anthem for the European Union). Popular musicwritten for the day, not for eternityhas socially, politically, and historically been the most eective type of music throughout the ages. Music historians seldom participate in the methodological discourses of historians. Likewise, the historians rare stand on musical matters, owing to a lack of technical skills or detailed knowledge, is similar to the philosopher who eschews discussions on music in their aesthetic writings. None of the famous historians, therefore, focused on music or, particularly, music history as a methodological paradigm, and in spite of the general increase of interdisciplinary research, historical musicology and history rarely cooperate. 3.3 Recent De elopments Music history, perceived either as the history of Western music in general or its various national entities, came to be questioned in the second half of the 10261

Music, History of twentieth century. In the USA a discussion about whether its music history should solely be dened from the European perspective has emerged. A front-page article of the New York Times entitled Ibn Batuta and sitar challenging Columbus and piano in schools on April 12, 1989 asked whether university professorships for piano should be replaced by those for sitar. Jazz and other forms of popular culture excluded from traditional historiography have been seen by some to pose a threat to the canon of classical music heard in Carnegie Hall and at the Metropolitan Opera. Eurocentrism in music has come under critical scrutiny in recent years. Ethnomusicologists increasingly bemoan the dominance, even hegemony, of Western music as it spreads globally through radio and recordings. This new wave of cultural colonialism is seen as a potential annihilator of the last traces of original music cultures. In extreme cases, ethnomusicologists deny history in music altogether if the related culture in question does not reect the concept of history, or where a lack of observable change has led to an almost absolute stability of the musical cultures of non-Western societies, a view modied by major scholars (Nettl 1983, p. 172). Although world music is the slogan of the day, the idea of a universal history of music is seen to be obsolete or, due to the plethora of materials, unmanageable. The relevant UNESCO project begun in 1979, Music in the Life of Man, retitled in 1989 The Uni erse of Music. A History, has produced programmatic statements rather than results. Conversely, the controversial search for universals in music is generally conducted in a nonhistorical fashion. New musicology, which began in the USA in the early 1980s, directs its attention to gender issues and the music of minority groups, and emphasizes a contemporary approach to criticism in which the role of history has yet to be fully dened. The phrase new historicism has entered into the discussion of late (cf. Stanley 2001). emphasize their own musical identity as being distinctly dierent in substance from a German one. This recent dichotomy is all the more curious since Austrians have frequently been eager to discern the German identity in their Austrian composers. Now Beethoven regains the status of an alien immigrant at best (cf. Flotzinger 1997, col. 1201). Hitlers former Reichs Music Chamber President, Richard Strauss, revealed yet another astonishing conviction shortly after World War II. On May 20, 1946 he admitted to his devoted friend and historiographer, Willi Schuh, that in all likelihood cultural historians, German patriots, and the Jewish press would be less than pleased with his tenet that political Germany had to be destroyed after it had fullled its world mission: the creation and perfection of German music (Strauss 1969, p. 89). Of course, the composer regarded his own music as this ultimate fulllment, as the end of music history. Uniting the idea of the end of art and the end of politics, his vision placed all future music in a state of a post histoire. Nowadays, music composed just a few years after Strauss remarkable statement, whether serial, electronic, or chance, is considered classic. The histories of all musics have been subject to various readings throughout the course of time, often stemming from a national, ethnic, or otherwise political intention. The genesis of one of the most signicant twentieth-century forms, jazz, has been alternately depicted as originating in Africa, Europe, and America. And it is in the New World that the search for a national musical identity during the rst half of the twentieth century failed to produce a national school of composition. Each composer found his own way, and perhaps this is the way it should be in America (Hamm 1983, p. 459). Perhaps this maxim could on occasion be applied to the realm of music history as well. See also: Art: Anthropological Aspects; Dance, Anthropology of; Music: Anthropological Aspects; Music as Expressive Form; Music Perception; System: Social

4. Identity Exchanges and Modern Mythology

The current global fashion and passionate search for cultural and national identities presents some dubious consequences for music history. If one attempts to decipher what is specically Italian or American in a piece of music, the answer will remain arbitrary by denition, since sounds cannot signify unequivocal and indubitable meanings. An example of one such identity crisis can be found in Austria. Viennese classical music, denoting the music of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, has long been considered to be a paradigm of, if not synonymous with, German music. In 1947 Albert Einstein stated that the concept of German music itself has come to rest on the works of these three masters (cf. Einstein 1992, p. 261). Austrian historiographers of music have now come to 10262

Bibliography
Allen W D 1962 Philosophies of Music History. A Study of General Histories of Music 16001960. Dover Publications, New York Dahlhaus C 1983 Foundations of Music History. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Eggebrecht H H 1980 Historiography. In: Sadie S (ed.) The New Gro e Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Macmillan, London, Vol. 8, pp. 592600 Eggebrecht H H 1991 Musik im Abendland. Piper, Munich, Germany Einstein A 1947 Music in the Romantic Era. Norton, New York [original reprinted in 1992 as Die Romantik in der Musik, Metzler, Stuttgart, Germany]

Music Perception
= sterreich. In: Blume F (ed.) Die Musik in Flotzinger R 1997 O Geschichte und Gegenwart. 2nd edn. Metzler, Stuttgart, Germany, Vol. 7, Col. 1176223 Hamm C 1983 Music in the New World. Norton, New York Knepler G 1977 Geschichte als Weg zum Musik ersta W ndnis. Verlag Philipp Reclam, Leipzig, Germany Nietzsche F 18781879 Menschliches, Allzumenschliches. Chemnitz (2nd edn. 1886) Vol. 11, pp. 54661 Nettl B 1983 The Study of Ethnomusicology. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL Ptzner H 1926 Gesammelte Schriften. Benno Filser-Verlag Augsburg, Germany, vol. 1 Stanley G 2001 Historiography. In: Sadie S (ed.) The New Gro e Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edn. Macmillan, London Strauss R 1969 Briefwechsel Mit Willi Schuh. Atlantis, Zurich Treitler L 1989 Music and the Historical Imagination. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA West M L 1992 Ancient Greek Music. Clarendon Press, Oxford

A. Riethmu $ ller Copyright # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Music Perception
Music consists of sound organized in time, in terms of the auditory dimensions of pitch, loudness, timbre, and location. That organization is usually intended to be, and many claim must be, perceived to constitute music. Music is organized within a cultural context of shared patterns that lead the listener to develop perceptual frameworks that reect them. Those frameworks develop throughout a lifetime of musical experience, both listening and playing, and serve to guide expectancies and facilitate the perceptual processing of expected events when they occur. From this perspective there should be individual dierences in the way music is heard, depending on cultural and personal background. All listeners share the human auditory system, but that basic endowment is overlaid by perceptual learning. Music is constrained by what can be perceived by the human ear, and also by the wide range of patterns accessible to human cognition.

1. Historical Context
The modern history of the study of music perception starts with Helmholtz ([1877] 1954). Helmholtz was concerned chiey with the organization of the pitch material in music, and much of his pioneering work was devoted to the sensory encoding of pitch. Pitches can be organized in temporal succession, called melody, and in simultaneous groups of dierent pitches, called chords and harmony. Among the many problems addressed by Helmholtz was that of harmony; namely, how the properties of chords emerge from those of their component tones.

Among the many ways in which chords can dier in sound is along the dimension of consonance vs. dissonance. Consonant combinations of pitches are stable and strike the ear as relatively simple (e.g., a major chord such as C-E-G). Dissonant combinations sound relatively unstable, restless, and complex (e.g., a diminished-seventh chord such as B-D-F-Ab. It is useful to distinguish between two types of consonance: tonal, and musical or esthetic (Dowling and Harwood 1986). Tonal consonance arises from the structure of the human auditory system and refers to a quality of an isolated chord, often described in terms such as smooth vs. rough, pleasing vs. unpleasant, etc. Esthetic consonance refers to the relative stability of a chord in musical context, and depends upon culturally conditioned perceptual learning. Esthetically consonant sounds occur at points of rest and stability in the musical structure; esthetically dissonant sounds are unstable and require resolution. The distinction between tonal and esthetic consonance is illustrated by the judgment of a single tone. A single tone represents the maximum of tonal consonance, but single pitches can dier in esthetic consonance. If you sing Twinkle, Twinkle and stop on the penultimate note, you can observe the instability of that note and its requirement for resolution to the nal note. It is as if it were being pulled down to the nal note. That is esthetic dissonance. The nal note will be no more tonally consonant, but will be esthetically consonant. In European music the dimensions of tonal and esthetic consonance are closely correlated. Tonal dissonance is used to emphasize the instability of esthetically dissonant chords, and vice versa. Helmholtz was thus led to approach the problem of harmony in terms of tonal consonance, with little consideration of esthetic consonance. He had observed that as two pure tones are gradually separated in frequency a beating sensation occurs. The frequency of the beats is equal to the dierence in frequency between the two tones. Helmholtz thought that the roughness of sensation arising from the beats between adjacent tones was the source of dissonance. However, Helmholtz realized that that was not the whole story. If beats of 3035 per second were the only source of dissonance, then a constant frequency dierence between tones should result in the same degree of dissonance across the auditory spectrum, from the bottom of the piano keyboard to the top. Helmholtzs observations contradicted this, showing that at least in the range of 2501000 Hz (from middle C up two octaves) a constant ratio between frequencies (and hence a constant musical interval) results in the same dissonance. Helmholtz ([1877] 1954, Chap. 8) thought that distance along the basilar membrane in the inner ear between the excitations produced by the two tones was involved, but could not specify how. This problem was solved nearly a century later (Plomp and Levelt 1965). 10263

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