NETWORKS network - interconnection of 2 or more computers or network devices to share resources like data, devices in network, etc.

networking - concept of laying a network 7 LAYERS OF OSI - OSI - open system interconnection - layers by which data is packed before its sent over a network - an abstract description for layered communications and computer network protocol design developed by ISO (international organization for standardization) upper level (involves software): 1. application - Services facilitate communication between software and lower-layer network services Helps software applications negotiate formatting, procedural, security, synchronization, and other requirements with network - Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): formats and sends requests from clients browser to server Also formats and sends Web servers response back to clients browser - Application program interface (API): set of routines that make up part of a software application

Decides which node will communicate first Decides how long a node can communicate - Monitors identification of session participants Ensures that only authorized nodes have access 4. transport - layer where you define what type of network protocol to use (TCP, UDP, ) - error correcting layer - Protocols accept data from Session layer and manage end-to-end delivery of data Ensure data transferred reliably, in correct sequence, and without errors - Protocols also handle flow control Gauging appropriate rate of transmission based on how fast recipient can accept data - Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Takes care of reliably transmitting HTTP requests from client to server and vice versa - Connection-oriented protocols: ensure that data arrives exactly as it was sent Establish connection before transmitting data TCP is connection-oriented - Clients TCP protocol first sends synchronization (SYN) packet request to server - Server responds with synchronizationacknowledgment (SYN-ACK) packet - Client responds with own acknowledgment (ACK) - Acknowledgments also used to ensure that data was properly delivered For every data unit sent, connection-oriented protocol expects acknowledgment from recipient - If no acknowledgment, data retransmitted - Connection-oriented protocols use a checksum Unique character string allowing receiving node to determine if arriving data unit exactly matches data unit sent by source - Connectionless protocols do not establish connection before transmitting No effort to ensure data delivered error-free - Transport layer protocols break large data units received from Session layer into smaller segments (segmentation) - Maximum transmission unit (MTU): largest data unit a given network will carry - Reassembly: process of reconstructing segmented data units - Sequencing: method of identifying segments that belong to same group of subdivided data Indicates where unit of data begins Indicates order in which groups of data were issued Transport layer protocols of two nodes must 53

synchronize timing and agree on starting point for the transmission lower level (involves hardware): 5. network - source and destination IP address - Primary functions of protocols: Translate network addresses into physical counterparts Decide how to route data from sender to receiver - Each node has two types of addresses: Network address - follows hierarchical addressing scheme - Can be assigned through OS software - Network layer addresses, logical addresses, or virtual addresses Physical address - Network layer protocols accept Transport layer segments and add logical addressing information in network header - Network layer handles routing Determining best network path - IP: Network layer protocol that underlies most Internet traffic - Fragmentation: Network layer protocol subdivides segments it receives from Transport layer into smaller packets

- Data Link layer divided into two sub-layers: Logical Link Control Media Access Control - Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer: Provides interface to Network layer protocols Manages flow control Issues requests for transmission for data that has suffered errors - Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer: Manages access to physical layer - Appends destination computers physical address onto data frame (MAC address, Data Link layer address, or hardware address) - MAC addresses contain two parts: Block ID: six-character sequence unique to vendor Device ID: six-character sequence based on NICs model and manufacture date 7. physical - what type of standard/medium to use - Protocols accept frames from Data Link layer and generate voltage to transmit signals - When receiving data, protocols detect voltage and accept signals - Protocols also set data transmission rate and monitor data error rates - NICs operate at both Physical layer and Data Link layer - devices that operate at the physical layer: hub, repeater, transceiver, cables, connectors

6. data link - source and destination mac address - error checking layer - Protocols divide received data into distinct frames Can then be transmitted by Physical layer - Frame: structured package for moving data Raw data - payload : material transmitted over a network ( either computer or telecommunications network) includes both data and information that identifies the source and destination of the material. the payload is the actual data carried by the headers) Senders and receivers network addresses Error checking and control information - Error checking accomplished by 4-byte Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field Ensures data at destination exactly matches data issued from source When source node transmits data, performs Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) to get FCS Destination nodes Data Link layer services unscramble FCS via same CRC algorithm

2. presentation - layer that determines what format data is presented - Protocols accept Application layer data and format it so that one type of application and host can understand data from another type of application and host (e.g., translation and conversion between graphics file types) - Manages data encryption and decryption 3. session - Protocols coordinate and maintain communications between two network nodes Establish and maintain communications link for duration of session Keep communication secure Synchronize dialogue between two nodes Determine if communications have been cut off Determine where to restart transmission Terminate communications - Sets terms of communication

*** data is unpacked (read) in reverse order 54

- RG58 2. thicknet - 10 base 5 - can travel up to 500 m - RG11 BNC connectors: 1. T connector 2. barrel connector packet = source id + destination id + segment frame = source mac + destinatination mac + packet terminators - resistor circuit attached on each end of the segment to stop the signals from bouncing back and forth Advantages of the Bus: based on topology (physical layout/structure of network): 1. bus 2. star 3. ring 4. mesh 5. hybrid BUS - a network architecture in which a set of clients are connected via a shared communications line, called a bus - often used when a network installation is small, simple, or temporary - when one computer sends a signal up (and down) the wire, all the computers on the network receive the information, but only one (the one with the address that matches the one encoded in the message) accepts the information, the rest disregard the message - only one computer at a time can send a message; therefore, the number of computers attached to a bus network can significantly affect the speed of the network. a computer must wait until the bus is free before it can transmit - uses coaxial cable and BNC connector 1. The bus is simple, reliable in very small networks, easy to use, and easy to understand. 2. The bus requires the least amount of cable to connect the computers together and is therefore less expensive than other cabling arrangements. 3. It is easy to extend a bus. Two cables can be joined into one longer cable with a BNC barrel connector, making a longer cable and allowing more computers to join the network. 4. A repeater can also be used to extend a bus; a repeater boosts the signal and allows it to travel a longer distance. Disadvantages of the Bus: 1. Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably. Because any computer can transmit at any time, and computers on most bus networks do not coordinate with each other to reserve times to transmit, a bus network with a lot of computers can spend a lot of its bandwidth (capacity for transmitting information) with the computers interrupting each other instead of communicating. The problem only gets worse as more computers are added to the network. 2. Each barrel connector weakens the electrical signal, and too many may prevent the signal from being correctly received all along the bus. 3. It is difficult to troubleshoot a bus. A cable break or malfunctioning computer anywhere between two computers can cause them not to be able to communicate with each other. A cable break or loose connector will also cause reflections and bring down the whole network, causing all network activity to stop. 55

4. possibility of collision STAR - clients are connected to a central device (hub, switch, or router) - uses twisted pair cable (UTP or STP) and RJ45 connector

3. It costs more to cable a star network because all network cables must be pulled to one central point, requiring more cable than other networking topologies. RING - each computer is connected to the next computer, with the last one connected to the first - uses token passing (once network is enabled, a token is generated by the first nic that gets powered on. a token is a bit of information that goes around the ring until a computer wishes to send information to another computer. That computer modifies the token, adds an electronic address and data, and sends it around the ring. Each computer in sequence receives the token and the information and passes them to the next computer until either the electronic address matches the address of a computer or the token returns to its origin. The receiving computer returns a message to the originator indicating that the message has been received. The sending computer then creates another token and places it on the network, allowing another station to capture the token and begin transmitting. The token circulates until a station is ready to send and captures the token) - used by PSTNs - uses optical fiber cable and subscriber connector (or twisted pair cable and RJ45 connector)

CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORKS Advantages of the Star: 1. It is easy to modify and add new computers to a star network without disturbing the rest of the network. You simply run a new line from the computer to the central location and plug it into the hub. When the capacity of the central hub is exceeded, you can replace it with one that has a larger number of ports to plug lines into. 2. The center of a star network is a good place to diagnose network faults. Intelligent hubs (hubs with microprocessors that implement features in addition to repeating network signals) also provide for centralized monitoring and management of the network. 3. Single computer failures do not necessarily bring down the whole star network. The hub can detect a network fault and isolate the offending computer or network cable and allow the rest of the network to continue operating. 4. You can use several cable types in the same network with a hub that can accommodate multiple cable types. 5. Of the four network types, the star is the most flexible and the easiest to diagnose when there is a network fault. 6. time taken by device to send data to another device is always equal Disadvantages of the Star: 1. If the central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate. 2. Many star networks require a device at the central point to rebroadcast or switch network traffic.

Advantages of the Ring: 1. Because every computer is given equal access to the token, no one computer can monopolize the network. 2. The fair sharing of the network allows the network to degrade gracefully (continue to function in a useful, if slower, manner rather than fail once capacity is exceeded) as more users are added. Disadvantages of the Ring: 1. Failure of one computer on the ring can affect the whole network. 56

coaxial cables: 1. thinnet - 10 base 2 - can travel up to 185 m

2. It is difficult to troubleshoot a ring network. 3. Adding or removing computers disrupts the network. FDDI - fiber distributed data interface 4. mesh - nodes are all connected to each other

telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. Such a PAN may include wired and wireless connections between devices. The reach of a PAN is typically at least about 20-30 feet (approximately 6-9 meters), but this is expected to increase with technology improvements WAN - wide area network - uses modems, dsl, isdn (integrated services digital network) , wireless, t1 (us link) lines - a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e. any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries) based on relationship: 1. client-server 2. peer to peer crimping - joining 2 pieces of metal or other malleable material by deforming one or both of them straight through cable - used to connect a computer to a hub, switch, or router crossover cable - used to connect a computer to another computer or a network device to another network device (ex: router to router) ADS - active directory service - where all users are added domain controller - server that controls all the users in the domain - configured by ADS to manage all users in the domain - a server that responds to security authentication requests (logging in, checking permissions, etc.) within the Windows Server domain *** a dektop can be enhanced as a server by installing a server OS *** for a server to be able to assign IP addresses, you need to (1) install a server OS, (2) install DHCP NLP - network load balancing - a clustering technology included in the Microsoft Windows 2000 Advanced Server and Datacenter Server operating systems, enhances the scalability and availability of mission-critical, TCP/IP-based services, such as Web, Terminal Services, virtual private networking, and streaming media servers PEER TO PEER - each one act as a client and a server - composed of participants that make a portion of their resources (such as processing power, disk storage or network bandwidth) directly available to other network participants, without the need for central coordination instances (such as servers or stable hosts). Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional clientserver model where only servers supply, and clients consume - workgroup 57 protocol - rule for communicating NETWORK PROTOCOLS TCP/IP - transmission control protocol/internet protocol - used by multiple OSs AppleTalk - protocol used by mac systems NetBEUI - network BIOS extended user interface - used by windows networks

IPX/SPX - internetwork packet exchange/ sequenced packet exchange - used by novell networks COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS TCP - transmission control protocol - responsible for providing connectionoriented communication and ensuring delivery of the data - requires that the recipient acknowledge the successful receipt of data UDP - user datagram protocol - offers a connectionless datagram service that is an unreliable best-effort delivery - does not guarantee the arrival of datagrams nor does it promise that the delivered packets are in the correct sequence IP - internet protocol - provides packet delivey for protocols higher in the model - a connectionless delivery system that makes a best-effort attempt to deliver the packets to the correct destination - does not guarantee delivery of the packets-that is the responsibility of transport protocols, ip simply sends the data - responsible for the logical addressing and routing of TCP/IP ICMP - internet control message protocol - used by ping command HTTP - hypertext transfer protocol - used to transfer information between webpages - uses port 80 SSL - secure socket layer - port 443 - protocol used by https NTP - network time protocol - used to synchronize the clocks of PCs on a network or the internet - port 123 NNTP - network news transfer protocol - used by news clients to send and retrieve news articles to a newsgroup - port 119 SMTP - simple mail transfer protocol - used for outgoing mail - uses port 25 58

Advantages of the Mesh: 1. fault tolerant 2. guaranteed communication channel capacity 3. relatively easy to troubleshoot Disadvantages of the Mesh: 1. difficulty of installation and reconfiguration 2. high cost of maintaining redundant links HYBRID- combination of different types of topology based on geography (distance): 1. LAN 2. MAN 3. PAN 4. WAN LAN - local area network - intranet - operates within a limited geographic area - allows many users to access hi-bandwidth media - provides full-time connectivity to local services - connects physically adjacent devices MAN - metropolitan area network - a network that spans a metropolitan area such as a city or suburban area. - usually consists of two or more LANs in a common geographic area. PAN - personal area network - uses infrared, bluetooth, - a computer network used for communication among computer devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines,

CLIENT-SERVER - a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or work loads between service providers, called servers, and service requesters, called clients. Often clients and servers operate over a computer network on separate hardware. A server machine is a high-performance host that is running one or more server programs which share its resources with clients. A client does not share any of its resources, but requests a server's content or service function. Clients therefore initiate communication sessions with servers which await (listen to) incoming requests - either workgroup or domain

POP3 - post office protocol 3 - used for incoming mail - has limited capabilities as far as folder support is concerned. it only supports an inbox, outbox, sent items, and deleted items - port 110 IMAP4 - internet message access protocol 4 - used for incoming mail - similar to pop3 but allows additional folders other than the 4 basic ones in pop3 - port 143 SNMP - simple network management protocol - provides a simple method for remotely managing virtually any network device that supports snmp - manages the central device and the devices connected to the central device FTP - file transfer protocol - used to upload and download files between ftp servers and clients - port 21 - uses TCP TFTP - trivial file transfer protocol - simple protocol compared to ftp that supports only reading and writing to files and does not support features such as listing directory contents and authentication - port 69 - uses UDP SFTP - simple file transfer protocol - an interactive file transfer protocol similar to ftp but it encrypts all traffic between the client and server telnet - terminal emulation protocol that allows a client to run or emulate the program running on the server - used to create a terminal session - uses port 23 SSH - secure shell - a program used to create a shell or session with a remote system - uses port 22 SCP - secure copy protocol - responsible for copying files from a remote server to the local system over a secure connection ensuring that data in transit is kept confidential LDAP - lightweight directory access protocol - allows ldap clients to connect to the network

database or directory and query the database for information about its objects such as user accounts and printers *** we use TCP/IP as a common protocol because of its interoperable nature *** TCP is used to identify a host while IP is used to identify the system in the network to communicate with (with t he help of the IP address) *** UDP is used for faster communication while TCP is used if you need a reliable connection (because when it sends data, it seeks for acknowledgment) MAC ADDRESS - media access control address - burned in physical address - 48 bits / 12 digit hexadecimal address - unique identifier assigned to network devices - to see mac address: 1. run > cmd > getmac 2. run > cmd > ipconfig /all

*** class D is reserved for multicasting *** class E is reserved for experimental/research purposes *** an IP address cant start with 0 components of an IP address: 1. network ID - identifies which network 2. host ID - identifies which system in the network A 1rst last 3 B 1rst 2 last2 C 1rst 3 last

class B class C types of IP address:

214 221

216 - 2 28 - 2

1. private IP - used inside a corporate network 2. public IP - used to connect to the internet private IP addresses: class A: 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 class B: 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 class C: 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 *** only the range of IP addresses between the network ID and broadcast ID can be assigned *** a mac address is used to communicate within the same network while an ip address is used to communicate with other networks CONVERTING FROM BINARY TO DECIMAL

NID HID

*** replacing the HID with 255s will give you the broadcast ID example: ip address: 192.168.1.1 class: C network ID: 192.168.1.0 host ID: 0.0.0.1 broadcast ID: 192.168.1.255 (NID/HID) 172.16./2.1 192.169.168./1 0.0.1.1 - host id for a class B 192.170.0./1 5./0.1.2 10.0.0.255 - invalid 168.259.254.255 - invalid 180.160.1.255 - broadcast id for a subnetted class B 127.168.1.0 - invalid 127.168.3.1 - invalid 127.0.0.1 - invalid class A IP addresses have the ff format in binary: 0xxxxxxx.yyyyyyyy.yyyyyyyy.yyyyyyyy where x - network and y - host *** 0xxxxxxx has 27 possible combinations, but for the IP address to be valid, this value cannot be equal to 00000000 (=0) or 011111111 (=127). so there are 27 - 2 possible values for the network ID. similarly, class B: 10xxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.yyyyyyyy.yyyyyyyy class C: 110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.yyyyyyyy possible number of networks 27 - 2 possible number of hosts 224 - 2

IP ADDRESSING IP (internet protocol) address - a numerical label that is assigned to devices participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes IPv4 - 32 bit IP address - uses dotted decimal with 4 octets (8 bits each) IPv6 - 128 bit IP address classes of IP address: 1. class A - ranges from 1 - 126 2. class B - ranges from 128 - 191 3. class C - ranges from 192 - 223 4. class D - ranges from 224 - 239 5. class E - ranges from 240 - 254 *** Ranges 127.x.x.x are reserved for loopback tests, for example, 127.0.0.1 *** Ranges 255.255.255.255 are used to broadcast to all hosts on the local network 59

128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 255 example: 11010110 = 128 + 64 + 16 + 4 + 2 = 214 10111111 = 255 - 64 = 191 10101010 = 170 00110011 = 51 01010001 = 81 10111101 = 189 01111111 = 255 - 128 = 127 CONVERTING FROM HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY

class A

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SUBNET MASK - masks host bits to get the network ID default subnet mask class A: 255.0.0.0 class B: 255.255.0.0 class C: 255.255.255.0 ex: requirements: 1. internet connection 2. part of the user group 3. VPN client configured

VPN - virtual private network - a private network that is constructed within a public network infrastructure such as the global Internet - uses tunneling protocols: 1. PPTP - point to point tunneling protocol 2. L2TP - layer 2 tunneling protocol 3. SSTP - secure socket tunneling protocol

- also gives the lease time and DNS server address ways to assign IP addresses: 1. static - manually assigned permanent IP address - XP: network connections > rt click LAN > properties > TCP/IP > properties > use the ff IP address - vista : network & sharing ctr > manage network connections > rt click LAN > properties > TCP/IPv4 > properties > use the ff IP address 2. dynamic - ip address obtained from dhcp server

to release and renew IP address: rt click on LAN > repair to display dns cache: run > cmd > ipconfig /displaydns to flash dns cache in the system: run > cmd > ipconfig /flashdns to see list of port numbers, network connections (both incoming and outgoing), routing tables, and a other network interface statistics: run > cmd >netstat to show/hide network icon in system tray:

DNS ping - packet internet groper - used to check connectivity - a computer network tool used to test whether a particular host is reachable across an IP network; it is also used to self test the network interface card of the computer, or as a latency test. It works by sending ICMP echo request packets to the target host and listening for ICMP echo response replies. The "echo response" is sometimes called a pong. Ping measures the round-trip time and records any packet loss, and prints when finished a statistical summary of the echo response packets received, the minimum, mean, max and in some versions the standard deviation of the round trip time ping error messages: 1. destination host unreachable - destination doesnt exist in the network 2. request timed out - was able to find destination but is not responding in stipulated time 3. reply from a particular IP / destination host unreachable ping 127.0.0.1 - ping loopback - checks nic connectivity and tcp/ip configuration tracert - trace route - gives the list of hops it takes before it reaches the destination IOS - internetwork operating system - the software used on the vast majority of Cisco Systems routers and current Cisco network switches. IOS is a package of routing, switching, internetworking and telecommunications functions tightly integrated with a multitasking operating system - domain name system - converts/resolves fully qualified domain names into IP addresses (vice versa) - hierarchical naming system for computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participants. Most importantly, it translates domain names meaningful to humans into the numerical (binary) identifiers associated with networking equipment for the purpose of locating and addressing these devices worldwide prerequisites: 1. DNS server 2. DNS client 3. server OS fully qualified domain name - sometimes referred to as an absolute domain name, is a domain name that specifies its exact location in the tree hierarchy of the Domain Name System. It specifies all domain levels, including the top-level domain, relative to the root domain. A fully qualified domain name is distinguished by its unambiguity; it can only be interpreted one way hosts file - a text file used to map hostnames to IP addresses - c:\windows\system32\drivers\etc DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - server configured to assign ip addresses dynamically DHCP client - requests for an IP address DHCP server - serves the request of the client 61

APIPA - automatic private internet protocol addressing - given by OS if computer is configured to obtain ip address automatically and theres no dhcp server in the network - 169.254.0.0 DHCP LEASE PROCESS DORA - discover, offer, request, acknowledgment - client broadcasts messages on the physical subnet to discover available servers - dhcp server offers a range of ip addresses for the client to choose from - client requests server for a particular ip address - dhcp server acknowledges and client can now use the ip address scope - the range of ip addresses the server can give to the client exclusion - ip addresses within the range that you dont want to assign (if youre reserving it for something else) reservation - IP addresses that are reserved as static IPs lease - duration of the IP address *** before the IP address expires, DORA process is initialized again and if the same IP address is still available, the server will assign the same IP address, otherwise, it will assign a new one to see the lease expiration date: run > cmd > ipconfig /all to release IP address: run > cmd > ipconfig /release to renew IP address: run > cmd > ipconfig /renew

XP: network connections > rt click LAN > properties > general tab > check/uncheck show icon in notification area when connected vista: rt click taskbar > properties > notification area tab > check/uncheck network *** to go to network connections: run > ncpa.cpl to install tcp/ip: network connections > rt click LAN > properties > install > protocol > add > have disk > c:\windows\inf > ok > ok if youre not seeing tcp/ip (no option to install): go to c:\windows\inf and install nettcpip.inf DOMAIN SUFFIXES ARPA - reverse lookup domain COM - commercial EDU - educational GOV - government ORG - non government organizations BIZ - business NET - network MIL - military INFO - informational WINSOCK - interface that talks to the tcp/ip stack - location: HKLM > system > current control set > services > winsock

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REPEATER REPAIR/RESET WINSOCK SETTINGS Most of the Internet connectivity problems arise out of corrupt Winsock settings. Windows sockets settings may get corrupted due to the installation of a networking software, or perhaps due to Malware infestation. You will be able connect to the Internet, but the packets won't transfer back and forth. And errors such as Page cannot be displayed may occur when using Internet Explorer. Resetting/repairing the Winsock configuration to default or clean state will help if you are having any of the following problems: - Internet or network problem after removing adware, spyware, virus, worm, trojan horse, etc. - Loss network connection after installing/uninstalling adware, spyware, antispam, vpn, firewall or other networking programs. - Unable to access any webpage or can only access some webpages. - Pop-up error window with network related problem description. - No network connectivity due to registry errors. - DNS lookup problem. - Fail to renew the network adapter's IP address or other DHCP errors. - Network connectivity issue with limited or no connections message. - Other networking problems. *** To repair Winsock if you have Windows XP Service Pack 2 installed, type netsh winsock reset at the command prompt, and then press ENTER *** To repair Winsock if you do not have Windows XP SP2 installed, delete the corrupted registry keys, and then reinstall the TCP/IP protocol (see kb 811259) - transistor that increases signal strength and ignores/filters noise Network repeaters regenerate incoming electrical, wireless or optical signals. With physical media like Ethernet or Wi-Fi(wireless media), data transmissions can only span a limited distance before the quality of the signal degrades. Repeaters attempt to preserve signal integrity and extend the distance over which data can safely travel. Repeaters operate in the Physical layer of the OSI Model and, therefore, have no means to interpret the data they retransmit. For example, they cannot improve or correct a bad or erroneous signal; they merely repeat it. In this sense, they are not intelligent devices. Since they cannot read higherlayer information in the data packets, repeaters cannot direct data to their destination. Instead, repeaters simply regenerate a signal over an entire segment. It is up to the receiver to recognize and accept its data. A repeater is limited not only in function, but also in scope. A repeater contains one input port and one output port, so it is capable of receiving and repeating only the data stream. Furthermore, repeaters are suited only to bus topology networks. The advantage to using a repeater is that it allows you to extend a network inexpensively. oscillator - transistor that is given a positive feedback amplifier - transistor that is given a negative feedback - it amplifies signal with interference HUB At its most primitive, a hub is a multiport repeater. A simple hub MAY contain multiple ports that can connect a group of computers in a peer to peer fashion, accepting and repeating signals for each node. A slightly more sophisticated hub may contain multiple ports for devices and one port that connects to a network's backbone. On ethernet networks, hubs typically serve as the contral connection point for branches of a star or star-based hybrid topology. Many hubs, known as passive hubs, do nothing but repeat signals. Like network adapters, however, some hubs possess internal processing capabilities. These are known as intelligent hubs. Hubs work in the physical layer. 63

BRIDGE - Bridges convert network data formats and perform basic data transmission management - Bridges provide connections between LANs - Bridges also check data to determine if it should cross the bridge SWITCH - multiport bridge - Switches add more intelligence to data transfer management - They can determine if data should remain on a LAN and transfer data only to the connection that needs it - Another difference between a bridge and switch is that a switch does not convert data transmission formats - cannot do routing so they have to be connected to a router - work in the data link layer unmanageable switch - can just capture mac tables and send data manageable switch - can be configured as a vlan *** a hub does a broadcast (sends data to everyone) while a switch does a unicast (sends it directly to the computer that needs it) *** when a switch is turned on, it initially does a broadcast so it can build a mac table (list of port numbers and mac addresses). the next time it needs to send information, it already knows the mac address so it just does a unicast *** every 3/5 seconds, the switch sends a carrier signal (through csma/cd) to each device to check if the port numbers and mac addresses still match and if they dont, it updates the mac table CSMA/CD - carrier sense multiple access with collision detection ROUTER - Routers have all the capabilities listed above - Routers can regenerate signals, concentrate multiple connections, convert data transmission formats, and manage data transfers - They can also connect to a WAN, which allows them to connect LANs that are separated by great distances - None of the other devices can provide this type of connection - is an intelligent device (it knows the shortest path

to take and which protocol to use) - works in the network layer default gateway - IP address of the router - default entry and exit point FIRMWARE UPDATES FOR WIRELESS ROUTERS Wireless routers contain built-in programmable logic called firmware. The firmware is embedded software that implements network and security protocols for that specific model of hardware device. Every wireless router ships with a tested version of firmware provided by the manufacturer. However, most routers are also designed to support a firmware upgrade process. This allows the manufacturer to provide enhancements to routers already sold. Manufacturers generally provide firmware upgrades as free downloads from their Web site. Additionally, a few manufacturers (like Linksys) provide their firmware as open source code on the Internet. Programmers worldwide are free to modify and extend the code with new features for their routers. Several versions of this hacked firmware can be found on the Web, but the average homeowner should avoid these types of firmware. The Firmware Update Process: You begin a firmware upgrade by downloading a binary file package from the manufacturer's Web site. After the package is set up properly on a PC, an administrator can launch the actual upgrade from the wireless router's administrative console. The router will stop functioning if the upgrade fails to complete. For this reason, manufacturers generally recommend an Ethernet cable be run from the router to the PC to ensure maximum stability during the update. Consult the router's product documentation for details. Immediately after purchasing a router, check the firmware version to ensure it is the latest version. Firmware can be installed on a router at the factory several months before the router is sold. Then, check the manufacturer's Web site occasionally over time for any new firmware upgrade postings. Each time a firmware upgrade is posted, the manufacturer will provide notes detailing the enhancements it provides. Feel free to skip an upgrade if the new version does not offer any interesting features. However, if a router 64

NETWORKING DEVICES - equipments that connect directly to a network segment. These devices are broken up into two classifications: 1. end user devices - include computers, printers, scanners and other devices that provide services directly to the user 2. network devices - include all devices that connect the end user devices to allow them to communicate. end user devices that provide users with a connection to the network are also called hosts.

is performing sluggishly, freezing unexpectedly or experiencing dropped connections, firmware upgrade often supplies a quick fix. NIC - network interface card - can be wired, wireless, token ring, FDDI - called an Ethernet card if it connects 2 systems with a physical cable ARP (address resolution protocol) broadcast - sent by source computer to all computers connected to the switch to know the mac address of the destination computer mac filtering - allowing/disallowing mac addresses to access the network port forwarding - forwarding a network port from one network node to another. This technique can allow an external user to reach a port on a private IP address (inside a LAN) from the outside via a NATenabled router NAT - network address translation - translate private to public ip address IIS - Internet Information Services - web server of windows where you can host websites HTML - hypertext markup language socket - the combination of ip address and port number - identifies a single network process in terms of the entire internet or other end-to-end ip based internetwork URL - uniform resource location talkswitch voip - uses the industry standard session initiation protocol (SIP) to make and manage voip calls

802.1 1a Frequency 5 GHz

802.1 1b 2.4 GHz ~5 Mbps 11 Mbps

802.1 1g 2.4 GHz ~22 Mbps 54 Mbps 128 Mbps ~150 ft/ 45 m ~300 ft/ 90 m

Throughput (typ.) Net Bit Rate (max.) Gross Bit Rate (max.) Max Indoor Range Max Outdoor Range

27 Mbps 54 Mbps 72 Mbps ~50 ft/ 15 m ~100 ft/ 30 m

802.1 1n 5 GHz and/ or 2.4 GHz 50144 Mbps 600 Mbps

~150 ft/ 45 m ~300 ft/ 90 m

300 ft/ 91 m 600 ft/ 182 m

types of wireless networks: 1. ad hoc - peer to peer 2. infrastructure - client server antenna - transmitter/receiver (transceiver) types: 1. omni - point to multiple point wireless communication (multidirectional) 2. yagi - point to point wireless communication SSID - service set identifier - unique identifier (name) to secure your network causes of signal degradation: 1. disturbance 2. distance/walls 3. protocols used 4. interference

WIRELESS - 802.11 A, B, G, N - protocols: WEP, WPA - wave medium: radio waves WEP - Wired Equivalent Privacy WPA - Wi-Fi Protected Access 65 66