DR.

BS STYLE GUIDE FOR WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS

FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS IN COURSES TAUGHT BY PROFESSOR KAREN A. BEAROR

Guidelines based on the current (April 2010) Guidelines & Requirements for Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations, prepared by FSUs Office of Graduate Studies, and the Chicago Manual of Style, 16th edition, the default style manual for the Department of Art History

Revised August 2012 Copyright Karen A. Bearor

FOREWORD
In recent discussions of what they might expect of graduate students by the end of their first semester in our program, the art history faculty considered what research and writing skills students should have. Students cannot satisfactorily advance to the second semester in the program without some command of basic skills in producing a successful research paper. Students should be able to do the following by the end of their first semester: *Assemble a research bibliography *Evaluate sources through an annotated bibliography *Assess the state of the literature [see your professors prospectus guidelines, appended, for explanation] *Work with primary materials (original artwork, archival documents, period texts, facsimiles) *Write footnotes *Formulate sharp questions that will stimulate interesting research *Produce an outline, a thesis statement, and a focused title for a research project *Construct an argument and support it with evidence *Work with larger theoretical or intellectual questions *Deliver an oral presentation using appropriate technology This style guide does not address each of these skills, as class assignments and faculty feedback help students develop them. However, this guidebook, if used properly, can help students with issues of formatting and style, including footnotes and bibliography. Equally important, it also suggests tips to improve the clarity and economy of student writing. Because the guide is based upon the Chicago Manual of Style, the default style manual for the department, in combination with university guidelines for theses and dissertations, it is appropriate for students and seminars at any level. While art history is about art and history, its means of communication is through the published word. Writing skills are the means to survival in the profession.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Overview 2. Your research paper assignment 2.1 Required parts of the research paper 2.2 Format details for the research paper manuscript 3. Style guidelines 3.1. General principles for effective writing Grammar Spelling and word usage Clarity and precision (including power positions in sentences) Wordy sentences Verbs Weasel words Empty phrases Adjectives and adverbs Denotations and connotations Misused words and idioms Top-heavy sentences Names Non-discriminatory language 3.2. Setting up your paper 3.3. Writing a thesis statement 3.4. General typographic conventions Spacing Titles Emphasis Personal titles Ampersands 3.5. Capitalization 3.6. Abbreviations and acronyms 3.7. Punctuation: Commas and semicolons 3.8. Punctuation: Colons 3.9. Punctuation: Hyphens and dashes 3.10. Punctuation: Apostrophes 3.11. Punctuation: Parentheses and brackets 3.12. Ellipses 1 2 2 2 4 4 4 5 5 6 7 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 13 14 15 18 18 18 19 19 20 20 22 23 26 26 27 30 31

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3.13. Numbers 3.14. Dates 3.15. Foreign words and phrases 3.16. Quotations 3.17. Footnotes, endnotes, and bibliographies 4. Word List

32 33 34 35 39 51

Appendices: following 55 Grammar Sheet Common Redundancies (i.e., word pairings to avoid) How to Write Gooda humorous look at grammar Professor Bearors prospectus guidelines for theses and dissertations S. I. Hayakawas ladder of abstraction Assignment details: Research Paper Paper Proposal Annotated Bibliography Sample CMS bibliography (not annotated) Abstract Sample abstract Book review example Workshop instructions PowerPoint presentation instructions

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DR. BS STYLE GUIDE FOR WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS

1. Overview
What is a style sheet or style guide? A style sheet summarizes the rules of mechanical editing in preparing a text for submission to a publisher, a university (theses and dissertations), a department, or your professor. Style sheets help these entities preserve consistency. For example, publishers present style sheets to authors, who revise their manuscripts to conform to the house style. A copy editor may prepare another style sheet unique to a particular manuscript. Such a supplement is essential for multiauthored works, as individual contributors might otherwise handle common words differently. FSUs Guidelines & Requirements for Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations is a style sheet. A style sheet imposes uniformity on the mechanics of writing, not on content. Authors, including graduate students, may also create personal style sheets to maintain consistency while writing anything from research papers to dissertations or book-length manuscripts. Such personal style sheets might cover foreign words or terms used repeatedly, accepted spellings of words from ancient texts, or capitalization, when such capitalization is inconsistent in source materials. (Personal style sheets are also particularly useful in another way: to prevent habitual errors in punctuation or grammar. Kept continuously updated as reminders of what teachers have marked as incorrect in assigned papers, such personal style sheets help students learn to self-edit and keep from repeating mistakes.) Mechanical editing, or copyediting, checks correctness and consistency in capitalization, spelling, hyphenation, abbreviations, punctuation, citations, handling of numbers, table and illustration formatting, and other matters of a publishers style. Mechanical editing also includes attention to the basics of grammar, syntax, and word usage, although editors may return or even reject manuscripts in need of substantive corrections in any of these areas. Mechanical editing is distinct from developmental editing, which addresses the content of the manuscript and the way the author organizes and presents that content. This is what outside reader-reviewers hired by publishers address. Your professors or thesis committee members also perform this function. A style sheet does not cover developmental editing. All authors, including graduate students, are responsible for making their manuscripts conform to accepted rules of grammar, punctuation, and style.

This style guide should help students avoid the most common problems found in assigned research papers. The ability to form a meaningful, coherent argument and to write persuasively, with good style and grammar, are the key factors separating arts professionals from arts enthusiasts. Those students wanting to advance their careers in the field should be highly motivated to write well, since writing is the primary means by which they will communicate their findings to other art historians and engage in the disciplines discourses. This style guide is based on the current Guidelines & Requirements for Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations (August 2010), published by FSUs Graduate School, and the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS), 16th edition, the house style for FSUs Department of Art History. While this style guide is longer than most publishers style sheets, it is not comprehensive. Its contents target graduate students in our graduate program and their needs. Users should consult the CMS for style questions not covered here.

2. Your research paper assignment

2.1 Parts of the research paper: Instructions regarding the length and content of your research paper appear in the supplemental details in the appendix to this style guide. The guidelines in this section apply generally to all research papers in Dr. Bearors graduate seminars. The research paper consists of the following six required parts: cover sheet (include author information, date, body text word count, and title) abstract (revised following any feedback on the original assignment) body of the paper endnotes (preferred over footnotes, as publishers no longer use footnotes) bibliography (not annotated) figures Staple together the various parts of the manuscript in the order listed. Do not use binders or folders. 2.2 Format details for the research paper manuscript: Use 12 pt. New Times Roman or Times font throughout, except where otherwise indicated. Type the manuscript on standard letter-size white paper, with one inch (1) margins all around and one-half inch (1/2) margins for page numbers (this requires the use of headers and footers in most standard word processing software). For the cover sheet, type your name, course number, semester, date, and word count (body only) in a single-spaced (12 pt. normal or bold) left-justified list in the upper left-hand corner of the page. Type your papers title (14 or 16 pt. bold type, centered) in all caps on line 12. The cover sheet should not have a page number.

For the abstract, type the word ABSTRACT in all caps (14 or 16 pt. bold font), centered, on line 6. This is your title for this page, not the title of your paper. Skip three single lines and type an abstract of 500 words, 1.5-spaced and left-justified. Do not right-justify your text. Use a tab indent for the first line of each paragraph. For your professor, this page should not have a page number, although it would have a number in a thesis or dissertation submitted to the university. [See the separate instructions for the content of the abstract in the appendix.] For the body of the paper, type the title (14 or 16 pt. bold type, centered, matching font of the abstracts title) on line 6 of your first page. Skip three single lines to begin your text, which should be 1.5-spaced throughout. [Note: This spacing is consistent with the universitys ETD requirements, but publishersand other faculty memberswill likely want double-spaced text.] Do not use epigraphs on the first page. This is a professor preference. (If you do not know what an epigraph is, please google the word.) Left-justify all paragraphs. Use a tab indent for the first line of each paragraph. The first page of the body of your paper should be page 1. The page number should be centered at the bottom of the page, consistent with the universitys thesis requirements. All successive pages (i.e., page two through the end, inclusive of backmatter) should be numbered sequentially in the upper right hand corner of each page. [This may take some fighting with your word processor. An easy fix if your word processor refuses to cooperate even if you are following instructions (yes, this means you, MS Word) is to type the cover sheet and abstract in a separate document, and then begin your text in a new document, use the softwares numbering. You can always integrate all parts together later in a single pdf file, if you have Adobe Acrobat or one of the many free pdf-making programs available online.] Quotations of eight lines or more, or quotations of more than one paragraph, should be set off as block quotations. Continue using 1.5-spaced text, but use the paragraph indent feature of your word processing software so the entire quotation is indented. For shorter quotations, run them in the normal course of your text. A summary of guidelines for in-text quotations appears below in section 3.14. Do not use headings and subheadings in your seminar paper. (This is your professors preference, and other professors may have different instructions.) However, for theses and dissertations, you may use headings and subheadings, although the university guidelines differ from and supersede those in the CMS. This is, of course, confusing. In this style guide, your professor follows the universitys guidelines, rather than those of the CMS. Titles should be centered, 14 or 16 pt. bold font, all caps. Main headings should be centered, 14 or 16 pt. bold font, with first letters of major words capitalized (consistent with CMS guidelines for capitalization in titles). Each of the main sections of your paper should have a main heading: the abstract, body, and bibliography. Second-level headings should be left-aligned, 12 pt. bold font, with the first letters of major words capitalized, as in main headings. Third-level headings, or paragraph headings, are typed in 12 pt. bold font and indented. Only the first word is

capitalized. A period follows the heading, and the regular text follows on the same line. Two 1.5spaced returns (three single-spaced lines) precede and follow main headings. One return precedes and follows subheadings. Heading level Title (centered) Main heading (centered) Subheading (left-aligned) Paragraph heading (indented) Example

MY TITLE Introduction
Subsection Titles Heading. Text follows . . .

For endnotes, begin your list on a separate page following the body of the paper. Follow the CMS format for endnotes. No title is necessary for this page. Use arabic numerals. [Note: The CMS uses lowercase first letters for arabic and roman when referring to numbers.] You may use superscript numerals for endnotes, corresponding to the superscript numerals within the body of the paper, rather than the in-line numerals the CMS recommends. For the bibliography, type BIBLIOGRAPHY in 14 or 16 pt. bold font (consistent with other titles in your manuscript), all-caps, centered, on line 6 of the page. Skip three single-spaced lines to begin your entries, which should be single-spaced, in flush-left hanging-indent format. An extra line should follow each entry. Otherwise, follow the CMS format for bibliographic entries. Do not number bibliographic entries. [Unlike the annotated bibliography assignment, your papers bibliography should not be annotated.] For figures, arrange images neatly on subsequent pages. Each figure should be numbered sequentially with arabic numerals and provided with a caption. For works of art, identify each by artists name, title of the work (in italics), date, medium, dimensions (height before width, in inches), and location (collection), where known. In captions, render dimensions in numerals (e.g., 18 x 48 inches).

3. Style Guidelines
3.1 General principles for effective writing: Grammar: Good grammar is essential for all writers. Most students come to graduate school with basic skills in grammar and expression. All must ratchet their skills up a few notches, though, to compete on the graduate and professional levels. Students with weaker skills will have to spend more time refining their talents than others, but the goal of writing exercises in graduate school is to help all students become effective writers so each may find employment afterwards. Many professors believe in the assumption voiced by the 17th-century French mathematicianphilosopher Blaise Pascal: To know how to write well is to know how to think well. Whether or not this correlation is true, the ability to write well does free time to focus on intellectual pursuits.

Many good sources on grammar exist online and in print form. Keep one at your desk or open on your computer when writing. A short grammar guide appears in the appendix of this style manual. Spelling and word usage: Use standard American English spelling, such as judgment, analyze, defense, canceling, or traveling (not judgement, analyse, defence, cancelling, or travelling). Until recently, publishers usual reference for spelling and hyphenization was Websters New Third International Dictionary of the English Language. A copy of this is in Stroziers reference section, at PE1625.W36 2002. Because the Third International has not been updated in decades, most presses now prefer the latest edition of Merriam-Websters Collegiate Dictionary. For student work, any good dictionary of American English is acceptable. The CMS includes useful sections on word usage, including a glossary of troublesome expressions and a list of often-misused words and prepositions. Online, find a long list of such words at http://grammar.about.com/od/words/a/correctword.htm. The best of the concise and inexpensive usage dictionaries is The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style. Clarity and precision: Your job is to make yourself clear to your reader, as Rutgers University professor Jack Lynch writes. Let nothing get in the way. He considers clarity, with grace, as chief among writers virtues. Clarity comes from precision in writing. Precision, in turn, stems from choosing words that have exactly the right meaning, using no more words than necessary, and putting words in just the right order to make the point. Power in writing: Word order is important for sentence power. Lynch argues, under emphasis, that the strongest position in a sentence is the end. The next strongest position is the beginning. Do not waste these two power positions with vague or less important words. In writing paragraphs, the power positions for sentences are analogous to those in word order. That is, the strongest position is the last sentence in a paragraph. The second strongest position is the opening sentence, which is usually the topic sentence for the paragraph. One may also carry this concept forward in thinking about the position of paragraphs within the body of the paper. The strongest positions in a paper or chapter are the beginning page or two and the end. Anything your reader needs to know to understand the problem you are going to grapple with in your paperyour thesis statement, for instanceneeds to be right up top. Never bury your thesis statement or any of its integral parts in mid-paragraph in the middle of your paper! Tying together all the threads in your paperto demonstrate you have proven what your thesis statement said you planned to doconcludes your paper. Always read your writing as closely as possible, paying attention to every word, and ask yourself whether every word says exactly what you mean. Use this quotation as your mantra when revising your text. (Jack Lynch, Guide to Grammar and Style, http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/index.html, last accessed 28 August 2011. See his entries on clarity, economy, emphasis, grace, and wasted words.)

Key impediments to clarity and precision in writing are wordy sentences, passive voice, weasel words, vague, confused, or misused words, be verbs, and hidden verbs. The following sections explain these concepts. Wordy sentences: Improve wordy sentences by eliminating empty phrases, filler words, redundancies, clichs, and unnecessary clauses and phrases, and by replacing be verbs with active verbs. [For other tips on cutting the clutter, see http://grammar.about.com/od/words/tp/clutter_tips.htm. For common redundancies, see the list in the appendix. For a longer list, see http://grammar.about.com/od/words/a/redundancies.htm.] (wordy) It is my opinion that the U.S. should sign the treaty. (empty phrase; be verb) (revised) The U.S. should sign the treaty. (wordy) I am going to the market in order to buy groceries. (empty phrase) (revised) I am going to the market to buy groceries. (wordy) I am actually very busy proofreading my essay. (filler word) (revised) I am very busy proofreading my essay. (wordy) My goal, first and foremost, is to finish the paper without distraction. (revised) My goal is to finish the paper without distraction. (empty phrase; clich) (wordy) She was in deep thought and contemplation about what happened. (redundancy; be verb; hidden verb) (revised) She contemplated what happened. (wordy) Rebecca is a smart and intelligent woman. (redundancy) (revised) Rebecca is a smart woman. (wordy) We visited Washington, D.C., which is the capital of the United States. (unnecessary clause; be verb) (revised) We visited Washington, D.C., the U.S. capital. (wordy) Johns stylish boots, made of crocodile skin, cost him an arm and a leg. (unnecessary phrase; clich) (revised) Johns stylish crocodile-skin boots were expensive. (wordy) Howard Singer addressed faculty concerns in his assessment of the role of the university in the matter. (revised) Howard Singer addressed faculty concerns in assessing the universitys role in the matter. (unnecessary prepositional phrase) (wordy) The boy who was in the park was riding a bicycle. (unnecessary clause) (revised) The boy in the park was riding a bicycle.

Verbs: Verbs are the fuel of writingthey give your sentences power and direction. They liven up your writing and make it more interesting. Thus says Nick Wright, author of the section on Hidden Verbs on Plain Language, a website maintained by a group of federal employees who have promoted the use of plain language in government communications since the 1990s. To strengthen your writing and propel the reader through your text, you must use verbs that communicate action. Avoid passive voice and weak verbs, like all forms of to be, and be wary of hidden verbs. Passive voice: What is passive voice? English verbs have two voices: active and passive. Voice describes the relationship between the action the verb expresses and the agent causing the action to take place. In active voice, the subject (agent) of the sentence does the acting. In using passive voice, the subject is the recipient of the action. (active) The boy kicked the ball. (the subject, boy, is the agent of action) (passive) The ball was kicked by the boy. (the subject, ball, is the recipient of the action) (passive) The ball was kicked. (the subject, ball is the recipient of the action, but the agent of the action is undetermined, although the sentence is complete) The examples above show that passive verbs tend to be wordy, because such verbs always have two parts: a form of the verb to be (is, are, am, was, were, has been, have been, had been, will be, will have been, being) and a past participle. More significant is the fact that the agent of action does not always appear in passive voice. Thus, passive voice sacrifices precision and clarity of thought. The King was lynched. (By whom?) (revised in active voice) The Parisian mob lynched the King. The climbers were rescued last week. (By whom?) (revised in active voice) Oregon Mountain Rescue Association volunteers rescued the climbers last week. Some teachers counsel students to follow a ninety-percent rule: ninety percent of verbs in papers must be in active voice. This percentage is about right. Yet, passive voice is not grammatically incorrect. When is it appropriate to use passive voice? The decision most often depends upon agency. Use passive voice: (a) if you need to emphasize the action rather than the actor (agent). After long debate, the proposal was endorsed by the faculty.

Despite the controversy, House Bill 1194 was passed before the session adjourned. (b) if you need to emphasize the recipient of the action rather than the actor. I was hit by a speeding car. The diamonds were stolen, but not the cash. (c) to describe a condition in which the actor is unknown, unimportant, or so well known that naming the actor would be unnecessarily redundant. The medieval altarpiece was created in Sienna. The Philadelphia Mint was created to help establish a national identity and to meet the needs of commerce in the United States. Every year, thousands of people are diagnosed as having cancer. George Washington was elected in 1789. (d) to set up anticipation or mystery about the agent. The Earth found by the crew of the Galactica was scorched and irradiated beyond reclamation. (e) to create an authoritative tone. Visitors are not allowed after 9:00 p.m. (f) to be tactful or (often) evasive in identifying the actor. The doctors prescription was somehow misread. Mistakes were made was President Reagans response to questions about the Iran-Contra affair. (g) to facilitate sentence structure The magic ring had been stolen four times: once by trolls, twice by elves, and once by the fairy princess. Be verbs: Forms of the verb to be weaken sentences. To be is the main copular verb (linking verb) in English; its sole purpose is to connect the subject with a predicate noun or predicate adjective (these may also be called subject complements), or an adverbial. Replace be verbs with more vivid active verbs. Avoid beginning sentences with it is, it was, there is, or there was, which increase wordiness and contribute little to the sentences meaning. Such empty openings, called expletive constructions, waste a power position in the sentence by placing the subject in a subordinate position. (original) Toms facial expression was an indication that he was wrong. (revised) Toms face convinced us he was wrong.

(original) It was Smiths exaggeration that led to the office turmoil. (revised) Smiths exaggeration led to office turmoil. Hidden verbs (nominalizations): Related to the problem of be verbs are hidden verbs. As Nick Wright of http://www.plainlanguage.gov says, Too often, we hide verbs by turning them into nouns, making them less effective and using more words than we need. . . . Hidden verbs often go hand in hand with passive verbs and combine to give an officious and longwinded style. The stronger, more active verb in such sentences is hidden by nominalization, being embedded in a noun that usually ends in tion, -ment, -sion, and -ance. One finds such nouns in sentences with forms of to be or to have, or such verbs as achieve, effect, give, make, reach, and take. (You have likely seen the use of such words in government documents.) By changing these nouns back to verbs, sentences become more vigorous and less abstract or vague. (hidden) Please take these guidelines into consideration in writing your papers. (uncovered) Please consider these guidelines in writing your papers. (hidden) The professor made the determination that the dissertation was unsatisfactory. (uncovered) The professor determined that the dissertation was unsatisfactory. (hidden) Faculty will provide information to the students. (uncovered) Faculty will inform the students. Former columnist and humorist Russell Baker took aim at academic and bureaucratic writers and their wordy sentences and nominalizations in his famous rewriting of the folktale of Little Red Riding Hood, titled Little Red Riding Hood Revisited, originally published in the New York Times Magazine, 13 January 1980. A passage from his sesquipedalian version of the story makes his point: Once upon a point in time, a small person named Little Red Riding Hood initiated plans for the preparation, delivery and transportation of foodstuffs to her grandmother, a senior citizen residing at a place of residence in a wooded area of indeterminate dimension. In the process of implementing this program, her incursion into the area was in midtransportation process when it attained interface with an alleged perpetrator. This individual, a wolf, made inquiry as to the whereabouts of Little Red Riding Hoods goal, as well as inferring that he was desirous of ascertaining the contents of Little Red Riding Hoods foodstuffs basket, and all that. It would be inappropriate to lie to me, the wolf said, displaying his huge jaw capability. Sensing that he was a mass of repressed hostility intertwined with acute alienation, she indicated.

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Verb tense: Refer to actions people did in the past in the past tense. Writers may use present tense for continuing actions, including what a historical person says in printed matter (which continues to reflect that persons thought). However, what that person says about past occurrences remains in past tense. The easiest solution is to use past tense throughout. Roland Barthes wrote Rhetoric of the Image in 1964. (action completed in the past) In Rhetoric of the Image, Roland Barthes argues that connotation can be distinguished from denotation in the analysis of photographs or advertisements. (his argument is ongoing in the book, so present tense is acceptable) OR In Rhetoric of the Image, Roland Barthes argued that connotation can be distinguished from denotation in the analysis of photographs or advertisements. (he made his argument in the past, so it is equally appropriate to use past tense) In her unpublished autobiography, Eastward Journey, Irene Rice Pereira described her intellectual and artistic maturation. (action completed in the past) Weasel words: Avoid weasel words, words or phrases suggesting the force of authority in a statement without letting the reader decide if the source is reliable. For example, Tallahassee is the best city in Florida is clearly a biased statement unsupported by facts. Added weasel words give the illusion of objectivity: Some people say Tallahassee is the best city in Florida. The statement remains unenlightening. Who says that? How many? How and when were opinions collected? What biases were inherent in the questionnaire? Why is the statement significant? Politicians, bureaucrats, and advertisers are skilled in using weasel words to give personal opinion the veil of authority, while effectively avoiding accountability. Such tactics undermine scholarly writing. Historians agree that Jackson Pollock was fully appreciated by an adoring public. (Which historians? What data supports this contention? Why does the writer care about Pollocks popularity? Is it plausible to believe that the public appreciated his drip paintings?) Studies have shown that Crest toothpaste prevents cavities better than other toothpastes. (What studies? How were they conducted? How large was the sampling? Are their conclusions reliable?) Empty phrases: Cut the following empty phrases: all things being equal, all things considered, as a matter of fact, as far as I am concerned, at the end of the day, at the present time, due to the fact that, for all intents and purposes, for the most part, for the purpose of, in a manner of speaking, in the event of, in the final analysis, it seems that, the point that I am trying to make, type of, what I am trying to say, what I want to make clear. Also cut phrases like I believe, I feel, or in my opinion. Your feelings are irrelevant in scholarly writing; your analysis is the point. Since you are writing the manuscript, the reader assumes that the text reflects your beliefs or opinions. Saying I believe is thus redundant.

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Adjectives and adverbs: Cut most adjectives, especially those that are hyperbolic or matters of taste (beautiful, gorgeous, lovely, ugly, nice, interesting, great, incredible, unbelievable, awesome), and adverbs, especially those that suggest vagueness or indecisiveness (really, perhaps, very, some, somewhat, possibly, quite, rather, a lot, a bit, a few, partly, actually, generally, basically, virtually). Stephen King emphasizes in On Writing: A Memoir of the Craft (2000), The adverb is not your friend. Why would he, like many other writers, counsel against using adverbs? Adverbs modify verbsusually weak verbs. Where possible, use stronger, more specific verbs to communicate action. For example: The man ran quickly from the room. (wordy, imprecise) (better) The man sprinted from the room. (better) The man bolted from the room. (better) The man fled the room. (better) The man scampered from the room. (better, if more colloquial and idiomatic) The man hightailed it from the room. Note these more nuanced meanings. Adverbs are unnecessary. Avoid other vague words, like the nouns thing, idea, situation, impact, aspect, area, consideration, degree, case, concept, factor, manner, type, way, and issue. Substitute more specific or concrete words where possible. Denotations and connotations: Writers choose words both for their denotations (their dictionary meanings) and their connotations (their emotional or imaginative associations). For example, child, minor, and brat all denote a young person, but they carry very different connotations. Choose words carefully to elicit the appropriate affective response. Beware selecting a synonym from a thesaurus without fully understanding its connotative associations, for you may end up saying something you did not intend. Misused words and idioms: Most grammar guides have lists of common misused words. Sadly, the people who misuse the words seldom take the time to learn the difference. The following are the words your professor finds commonly misused in graduate papers: accept/except affect/effect allusion/illusion among/between amount/number disinterested/uninterested elicit/illicit emigrate/immigrate explicit/implicit farther/further fewer/less its/its

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imply/infer lie/lay quote/quotation tenet/tenant there/theyre/their which/that Learn the proper use of these words! Ziva, a character in the television series NCIS, adds humor to the show by constantly misusing idiomatic expressions, as in driving me up the hall for driving me up the wall. Unfortunately, many graduate students add unintentional humor to their papers by misusing idioms. Idioms are phrases that have fixed meanings independent of the words individual definitions. While graduate students likely would not make Zivas errors, they often confuse idiomatic uses of verbs that govern prepositions. Note the idiomatic differences in the following uses of the verb agree: Betty does not agree with John. Betty and John do not agree on a restaurant. John cannot agree to this proposal. Strozier library has dictionaries of idioms and phrasal verbs, and a number of websites for foreign students learning English list some of these. An example is http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/phrasal-verbs-list.htm. Top-heavy sentences: Top-heavy sentences are those with long orienting phrases before they get to their subject. Alternately, the subject and verb are separated by numerous clauses, with the verb becoming lost in the verbiage. If you are enamored of your long sentence and cannot consider cutting it into smaller, more manageable pieces, at least make certain you get quickly to your subject, and your verb is somewhere in its vicinity. (example) On April 30, 2006, during the final meeting of university deans for the 20052006 school year, our deans proposal to divide the existing college into smaller schools, the departments within which having chairs who answer directly to a new associate dean on issues of governance, garnered the approval of the university administration. (revised) At the April 30, 2006, meeting of university deans, our deans college reorganization proposal garnered the approval of the university administration. As approved, the existing college will be divided into smaller schools. Chairs of departments within each school will answer to a new associate dean on governance issues. Names: Identify people by their first and last names when they first appear in your text. Subsequently, use surnames. Exceptions to this rule are the names of widely known historical individuals, like Leonardo, Michelangelo, Shakespeare, Kant, Hegel, Freud, and the like. Names of authors mentioned in the text should correspond exactly to their names as given in endnotes.

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Add a brief phrase identifying someone when first mentioning his or her name, as well, unless that person is well known. For example, Rosalind Krauss is a famous art criticknown by most arts professionals, not merely those who work on modern art. Erwin Panofskys name is equally recognizable to art historians. Beyond such luminaries in the field, or for people working in other areas or disciplines, provide some identifier. Oxford scholar Martin Kemp, a leading Renaissance expert who wrote a recently reissued biography of Leonardo, . . . Phyllis Pray Bober, a scholar of Renaissance art and its relationship to classical antiquity, and a pioneering scholar in culinary history, . . . Renowned feminist art historian Carol Duncan . . . Pioneering librarian and museum director John Cotton Dana . . . Psychologist Jean Piaget, who profoundly affected our understanding of childrens intellectual development, . . . Nondiscriminatory language: Use unbiased and respectful language. Humankind or humanity, for instance, is preferable to mankind. Use synthetic materials rather than man-made materials. One artist show or one person show supplants one man show. Similarly, art historians seldom use masterpiece anymore. Use plurals to avoid some of the problems with gendered pronouns. (A useful source for nondiscriminatory language is Rosalie Maggios The Bias-Free Word Finder: A Dictionary of Nondiscriminatory Language.) Some students introduce grammatical errors in trying to avoid sexist language by using plurals. Do not make a pronoun plural when its antecedent is singular. Make both plural. (incorrect) By the time a person gets their drivers license, they should know traffic laws. (pronouns their and they disagree with their antecedent, person) (correct) By the time people get their drivers licenses, they should know traffic laws. (incorrect) When a customer enters the shop, employees should talk to them immediately. (pronoun them disagrees with its antecedent customer) (correct) When customers enter the shop, employees should talk to them immediately. As a coda to this whole section, George Orwells often-quoted rules to improve writing, from his Politics and the English Language (1946), deserve repetition: 1. Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print. 2. Never use a long word where a short one will do. 3. If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out. 4. Never use the passive where you can use the active. 5. Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday

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English equivalent. 6. Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous. [Notice that English writers, like Orwell, reverse the use of which and that when compared to American usage, so his which in the first line is correct in England, but incorrect in the U.S., where it should be that.] 3.2 Setting up your paper: Q: Where Do Graduate Student Papers Most Often Go Wrong? A: In the introduction. The first two or three paragraphs of graduate student papers are often the most problematic. Sadly, poor opening paragraphs invariably lead to disastrous papers, reader frustration, or both. Since we are talking about graduate students here, the assumption is that they do not lack intelligence. An individual may lack experience in writing, which is often the case, but he or she may also suffer from muddled thinking. Muddled thinking is not the same as lack of intelligence! Paper organization is the key to clarity not only in writing but also in thinking through a problem. As the introduction sets up the paper and its organization, these first paragraphs, if well conceived, result in better overall argumentation and problem resolution. The opening of a research paper must tell the reader four things: The topic The problem The thesis (argument) The steps necessary to resolve the problem The first item orients the reader and belongs in the first sentence. The second must appear in the first paragraph. Unless the author must provide extra introductory material to set up the argument, the thesis statement goes at the end of the first paragraph or at the head of the second. The fourth most often resides in the second. The reader should know what the paper is about and where the author is going before reaching the end of the first page of the manuscript. That said, graduate students sometimes lack a clear understanding of these parts and their differentiation. The topic is just that. If you are writing about Manets Olympia, that is your topic. Your argument is not the topic, although, when asked, you will likely launch into some version of your argument in response to your questioner. The problem. This is the art historical problem that justifies your writing the paper in the first place. Even if you are taking an interdisciplinary approach to your problem, your problem in art

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history must be art historical. It must depend upon art objects (or their conception, as in conceptual art), their production, their display or performance, their material essences, their technical essences, their artists, their patronage, their reception, their relation to socio-historical processes, their interpretation, what they represent (i.e., their subject), what they represent in society (i.e., their exchange value), how they communicate, and the like. Nonetheless, at base, the art historical problem always resembles those in other scholarly disciplines, and it is essentially: What is the issue or conflict? What tension in our scholarship needs resolution? A gap? A goal? Something unknown, underdeveloped, unresolved, misunderstood, or confused? What is preventing the conflict from being resolved? To be a problem, there must be some changeable or remediable condition preventing the issue from being resolved. What is the cost or consequence of not resolving the conflict? What undesirable results follow from the failure to resolve the conflict? Perhaps the following sentences borrowed from some long-forgotten source targeting undergraduates may help you think about the statement of the problem, although knowledge of the literature on your topic will allow you to come up with much better ones: 1. Most scholars believe that ___________, but a closer look will show that __________. 2. What we know about _________ is that __________; what we don't know is _________. 3. If we (do not) understand __________, we will (not) understand __________. 4. I am analyzing/comparing ___________ so that I can explain/understand __________. The problem in your paper is always related in some way to existing scholarship, because the community of scholars is your target audience, and no scholar writes in a vacuum. We are always building upon, critiquing, or revising the work that came before us in our field and related ones. This is why engaging with existing scholarly literaturecreating a dialogue with it is so critically important in your papers. You are not merely going through your outside sources to cull information from them. You are connecting with them, allowing them to speak to you, to provoke thought. To change metaphors, you walk for a moment in their footsteps to see where they lead, before you elect to follow a different path. At the very least, our arguments are more convincing if we can demonstrate to our readers that we have considered alternate viewpoints before demonstrating that our own, based upon different experiences or more recent knowledge, have greater validity. 3.3 Writing a thesis statement: A thesis statement is the main argument of an academic research paper or essay question on an exam. A thesis statement has three characteristics: (a) It must be specific and focused, with one major point to make; (b) it must be debatablethat is, it must be something for which there are alternative viewpoints; and (c) it must be defensiblean author must be able to arrange evidence to support his or her case. A thesis statement is not a statement of opinion. In order to prove a thesis, an author may also need to prove a series of smaller arguments. These

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are called subarguments or subtheses. A thesis statement limits the scope, purpose, and direction of the paper. In most academic papers, it is located near the end of the introduction. For most class papers, this means it comes at the end of the first paragraph, or very close to this. The argument it sets up must be specific enough to be proven within the allotted length of the paper, and, as supported by subarguments and the evidence necessary to prove each of these, it provides a framework for the paper. The thesis statement in the final paper may actually come about as the student author writes a preliminary draft of the paper. This is entirely normal, as ones thought processes crystallize while writing. Nevertheless, the student must have some working thesis as he or she is finalizing research and planning the paper. The working thesis helps the author plan the paper and determine the papers focus. Most important, it becomes a reference point for all the topic sentences in all the paragraphs in the paper. If the topic sentences do not relate to the thesis or its development, then the writer may be straying off point and not proving his or her argument. (If the students paragraphs have no topic sentences, to which all the information within the paragraph refers, then there is an even bigger problem in organization.) A thesis statement is essential for the reader, as well. It provides the map for the journey the reader is about to make. (You do not want the reader to make the wrong turn, do you?) The thesis statement is a reference point to keep the reader focused on the argument, and it allows the reader to engage with the argument. (Remember, the thesis sentence must be debatable. You want your reader to see your point and be persuaded to your point of view, when he or she might have had a different position at the outset.) In order for the reader to engage with the argument, there must be enough detail in the thesis statement so the argument is clear, rather than muddled or vague. So much of the success of the paper hinges on having a strong, clear thesis statement. But how does somebody write one? Here are five useful steps: 1. Picking your topic. Say you have selected an artist whose work you like, maybe Georgia OKeeffe. Obviously, to try to cover all of Georgia OKeeffes life and work would be impossible in a class paper. So you narrow the topic to a series of paintings that interest you or, better still, to a single painting. What about her Radiator Building? You do your library and internet research on this painting, and now you need to come up with something to say about it. 2. Make a statement about your topic. Write a sentence about your topic that takes a stand. For example: Georgia OKeeffe chose to reflect the changing skyline of New York City by painting one of its

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new skyscrapers in her Radiator Building. This sentence helps to situate your topic within a social context and limits those aspects of her biography that will be relevant to your paper. Nevertheless, the sentence remains a little broad, as is nearly always the case when one initially tries to write a thesis statement. 3. Make the subject of your sentence more precise. Turn: Georgia OKeeffe chose to reflect the changing skyline of New York City by painting one of its new skyscrapers in her Radiator Building. into: Like some of the male artists associated with the Alfred Stieglitz circle, Georgia OKeeffe chose to reflect the changing skyline of New York City by painting one of its new skyscrapers in her Radiator Building. Here you have placed other artists within the same social context as you have placed OKeeffe. You have also done two more things. You have opened up the possibility of doing one of the things art historians always do, to compare and contrast works of art. By virtue of the fact that OKeeffe became the principal woman artist in Alfred Stieglitz circle in its last years (and you will have learned this in your research), you have also introduced a potential point of tension between her work and that of the male members of the circle. 4. Make the predicate in your sentence more precise. Like some of the male artists associated with the Alfred Stieglitz circle, Georgia OKeeffe chose to reflect the changing skyline of New York City by painting one of its new skyscrapers in her Radiator Building. into: Like some of the male artists associated with the Alfred Stieglitz circle, Georgia OKeeffe chose to reflect the changing skyline of New York City by painting one of its new skyscrapers in her Radiator Building to compete with her colleagues. 5. Make sure your thesis answers a why question. While the issue of competition is certainly a valid one, and it does answer a why question, it does not answer a particularly insightful why question. All artists compete with one another. What makes her competition with her male colleagues more meaningful than ordinary? What is the bigger why? From your research, you know that Alfred Stieglitz had promoted OKeeffe as a kind of sensual

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earth mother in her earlier abstractions and small flower paintings. While this benefitted OKeeffe to some extent, she remembered years later having felt pigeon-holed and tied to a kind of painting that could readily be dismissed as womens work. Although she did not abandon flower paintings, she undoubtedly wanted to show her versatility as a painter. What better way to do this than by creating an image of something accepted by critics as a male subject? So, you might now refine your thesis statement and argue: To distance herself from subjects associated with women, Georgia OKeeffe chose to compete with the male artists in the Alfred Stieglitz circle by painting one of their subjects, one of New Yorks newest and most celebrated skyscrapers, in her Radiator Building. Viol! Now that you have a thesis, you must defend that thesis in your paper. The stronger and more specific your thesis is, the easier it is to organize your paper and to persuade your reader to your point of view. What's Wrong With These Thesis Statements? 1. Lewis Hine did a series of photographs for the National Child Labor Committee in which he detailed the working conditions of children in factories. This sentence is a statement of fact. Nothing is argued here. 2. Of all his body of work, Lewis Hines photographs of children working in factories are the most effective. This sentence offers only the writers opinion. The writer does not offer arguable criteria for why these photographs are effective. 3. Lewis Hines photographs of children played a significant role in changing the mindset of Americans during the early twentieth century regarding child labor. This thesis makes a claim that the writer likely could not adequately substantiate with available sources within the allotted time and word count for a class paper assignment. 4. Throughout the twentieth century, documentary photographers have focused on societys ills with the goal of seeking socio-political reform. This subject is much too broad. A more effective thesis would narrow this topic to work by a single photographer. 3.4 General typographic conventions: Spacing: Use only one space, not two, following any mark of punctuation that ends a sentence. Likewise, use only one space following a colon. (CMS 2.9) Titles: Italicize titles of books, journals, plays, artwork (including photographs), operas, films, videos, comic strips, blogs, podcasts, and television and radio programs. Set the names of works

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of antiquity in roman, along with the names of broadcast networks and websites. Titles of articles, chapters, poems, individual television episodes, songs, sections within a website, and other shorter works are set in roman and enclosed in quotations marks. Titles of unpublished works, like theses, dissertations, manuscripts, speeches, and so forth, are also set in roman type and enclosed in quotation marks. Titles of worlds fairs and other large-scale exhibitions are not italicized, but museum shows and the titles of their catalogues are italicized. Nouns and adjectives designating cultural styles, movements, and schools are capitalized if they are derived from proper nouns (but school remains lowercased). All others are in lowercase, unless its use creates confusion with generic words used in everyday speech, as in New Criticism. Capitalize names of religious movements and their adherents. His masters thesis, Picassos Paintings Explained, was excellent. Mieke Bals latest book, The Artemisia Files, is an anthology. MoMAs exhibition Weimar Cinema, 19191933: Daydreams and Nightmares John Keats poem Ode on a Grecian Urn Doonesburya far cry from Peanuts Manets Bar at the Folies-Bergre American Gothic, the iconic Depression-era painting by Grant Wood the science-fiction film Serenity The Body, an episode from Joss Whedons television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer the Venus de Milo the Euphronios krater Alfred Stieglitzs The Steerage Voice of America MSNBC Facebook Project Gutenberg Worlds Columbian Exposition Emphasis: Italics may be used for emphasis. Use emphasized words sparingly, though, as overuse dilutes their force and tends to annoy readers. John could not believe that he had been singled out for criticism. Personal titles and names: For names, omit common personal titles like Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., and Rev., but civil and military titles preceding names are acceptable. Each initial in a name should be followed by a period and a single space. An exception is made for those people whose initials alone identify them; no periods or spaces separate the letters. E. M. Forster Senator Bill Nelson Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates JFK FDR

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Ampersands: For company names and titles in which ampersands appear, replace the ampersand with and. The exception to this rule is the use of an ampersand with initialisms. Lord and Taylor (not Lord & Taylor) Benson and Hedges (not Benson & Hedges) but Florida A&M R&D 3.5 Capitalization: The general trend today is toward a down style, or the use of fewer capitals. Civil, military, religious, and professional titles are capitalized when they precede the persons name, but they are not when they follow a name or substitute for a name. President Truman the president of the United States Senator Kennedy Teddy Kennedy, former senator from Massachusetts Professor Thomas Brown Thomas Brown, professor of art history Samantha Peterson, chair of the Department of Anthropology Maria Morales has been promoted to associate professor. The new governor, Charles Smith, took the oath of office. Proper names of specific institutions or departments require capitalization. Words for types of institutions or unofficial references in running text do not. Do not use capitals when the institution or department serves as an adjective rather than a noun. Carolingian school of manuscript illumination the Reims workshop style the British Museum Salon des Refuss Florida State University the College of Visual Arts, Theatre and Dance the Department of Art History Tallahassee Memorial Hospital geography, anthropology, and ethnic studies departments The college offers degrees in art history, studio art, and design. The chair of the anthropology department submitted her budget. For capitalization of historical periods or events, see the CMS 8.7784. Some useful examples appear in the word list at the end of this document.

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Regional terms accepted as proper names are capitalized; adjectives and nouns derived from such terms are not. Northwest Midwest the North North America the West Coast the Middle East Central America the Florida Panhandle but northwestern midwestern northern (but Northern in a Civil War context) northern Europe southeast Asia central Italy panhandle area of Florida westerner Capitalize the abbreviations of academic degrees but not the spelled-out versions, nor their generic usages. Michael Knight received a doctor of law degree from FSU. Nguyen family members hold a total of five doctors, three masters, and ten bachelors degrees. Julie Smith, Ph.D., earned her bachelor of science degree from Northwestern University. Capitalize the proper names of deities. Pronouns for a deity are not capitalized. According to the Bible, God commanded the people to follow him. The Greek pantheon includes the god Zeus, ruler of Olympus, and his daughter Athena, goddess of war and wisdom. In titles, capitalize the first word, the last word, the first word after a colon, all nouns and verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions (if, because, as, that, while, whenever). Do not capitalize articles (a, an, the), coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor), or prepositions. On Narrative The Politics of Interpretation Catch Me If You Can Late Modernism: Politics, Fiction, and the Arts between the World Wars No Angel in the Classroom: Teaching through Feminist Discourse

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The Women Who Knew Too Much: Hitchcock and Feminist Theory All That Heaven Allows Gertrude Stein: The American Connection The Work of Art in the Age of Photomechanical Reproduction For surnames beginning with particles, i.e., prepositions and articles like d, da, de, della, den, du, ten, van, or von, capitalize according to general usage or that persons personal preference, where ascertainable. Consult a biographical dictionary or other authoritative source for help. Alphabetize according to the first part of the surname capitalized. Le, La, and L are always capitalized, except when preceded by de. Generally, for European names, the particles are not capitalized when they appear with the first name, and the CMS recommends that the particles appear as in the full name when the surname is used alone, except when used at the beginning of a sentence. Often, Dutch names in English usage capitalize particles when only the surname is used. In anglicized names, the particles are generally capitalized, except by preference of the individual. The following are some examples of accepted capitalization, whether following the rules or not. Walter De Maria; De Maria Vincent van Gogh; Van Gogh Jos Ortega y Gasset; Ortega y Gasset Gerard ter Borch; Ter Borch Bartolom de Las Casas; Las Casas Alexander von Humboldt; Humboldt Ludwig van Beethoven; Beethoven Luca della Robbia; della Robbia Samuel F. du Pont (his usage) Martin Van Buren; Van Buren Alexis de Tocqueville; Tocqueville Charles de Gaulle; de Gaulle Leonardo da Vinci; Leonardo (not da Vinci) Luca Dell'Anna; DellAnna Johann Wolfgang von Goethe; Goethe Sir Anthony van Dyck; Van Dyck Rembrandt van Rijn; Rembrandt Jan de Bray; De Bray Several writers and artists have chosen to present their names in all lowercase letters. Their names in formal writing, however, should follow conventional rules of capitalization. E. E. Cummings, not e. e. cummings Bell Hooks, not bell hooks K. D. Lang, not k.d. lang 3.6 Abbreviations and acronyms: Abbreviations appear most often in tabular matter, notes, bibliographies, and the like. In running

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text, use abbreviations and acronyms sparingly. Limit their usage to situations where, through frequency of use, the spelled-out versions would be cumbersome. Spell out the abbreviation or acronym on the first use and follow this with the abbreviation in parentheses to prepare readers for subsequent uses of the abbreviation. Our general style reference is the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). New Deal artists received relief on the Works Progress Administrations Federal Art Project (WPA/FAP). Some acronyms, like GPA, SAT, JPG, URL, PDF, BCE, CE, AD, BC, AIDS are not spelled out. Do not use the ampersand (&) as a replacement for and. Use this symbol only when it is part of an official name of a company, product, or other proper noun. Do not use etc. in formal writing. The trend is toward the elimination of periods in acronyms, although there are cases where tradition still reigns. For academic degrees: BA, BS, MA, MBA, but Ph.D. For references to our country: United States (always spelled out when used as a noun) U.S. (with periods; used as an adjective) USA (with no periods) Use periods with abbreviations that appear in lowercase letters: a.m., p.m., e.g., i.e., etc. For states, spell out the name in running text, rather than abbreviating them: Texas, Florida, Illinois 3.7 Punctuation: Commas and semicolons: In series of three or more terms, a serial comma is entered before and. When the elements in the series involve internal punctuation, or when they are long and complex, they should be separated by semicolons. The still life contained apples, pears, and grapes. The meeting was attended by Dr. Green, a professor of biology; Dr. Smith, a professor of chemistry; and Dr. Wong, the dean of arts and sciences. Do not use a comma to separate the subject and verb of a sentence when they are next to one another.

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incorrect: The art historian, lectures to her class. correct: The art historian lectures to her class. incorrect: The dog wagging his tail, is mine. correct: The dog wagging his tail is mine. incorrect: The relative after whom I was named, is my aunt. correct: The relative after whom I was named is my aunt. Short introductory phrases can frequently do without commas following them, unless there is a chance of confusion. In the case of introductory phrases involving a date using the month-dayyear format, the year continues to be set off in commas. For the year alone, or for dates expressed in the month-year format, no comma is necessary (although many publishers still prefer commas for the month-year format, in particular). During his lifetime he accomplished many feats. In spring, time slows down. In March 1950 the museum opened to an appreciative audience. On March 1, 1950, the museum opened. Short compound sentences joined by the coordinating conjunctions and, or, but can do without the comma following the first independent clause. The child whimpered but nobody heard. Semicolons may link two independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction. Dr. Jolles will be teaching in France next semester; his schedule, however, is still tentative. Two independent clauses may be joined with a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon, which takes the place of the conjunction. When two independent clauses are joined together, and the second clause is introduced by a conjunctive adverb (however, thus, hence, indeed, besides, therefore, nevertheless, nonetheless, consequently, accordingly, likewise, moreover, similarly, still) or by transitional expressions such as that is, the two clauses are joined by a semicolon, and a comma follows the adverb or transitional expression. (Even though conjunctive adverbs help link two independent clauses by functioning as a transition from one clause to the other, they are not true conjunctions. A semicolon is still necessary to replace the missing coordinating conjunction.) The exceptions to this rule are the conjunctive adverbs so* and otherwise, which do not require commas. The curator removed pieces from the exhibition; however, the catalogue remained unchanged. The sun did not appear during the morning; indeed, it was hidden by clouds all day. Students need to establish priorities; that is, they need to learn to manage their time. but The job candidate missed her flight; so her presentation must be rescheduled. Eliminate extraneous sounds when reading; otherwise you may be distracted.

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*Confusingly, so can also be a subordinating conjunction, with the meaning in order that or with the purpose that, as well as a coordinating conjunction, with the meaning during the time that. As a conjunctive adverb, so has the meaning therefore. Note that if the words listed above merely interrupt a sentence, they are no longer conjunctive adverbs. They are set off by commas. Do not be confused. Either film, however, is worthy of an award. One could argue, therefore, that the most momentous year in Hollywood history is 1939. Commas set off nonrestrictive relative clauses, which one might omit without essential loss of meaning in the sentence. A restrictive relative clause, on the other hand, is essential to the meaning of the sentence, so no commas set it off from the rest of the sentence. Relative pronouns (who, whom, whoever, whomever, which, that) introduce relative clauses. Which most often introduces nonrestrictive clauses, while that introduces restrictive clauses. One may omit that in contexts that are clear without it. Who, whom, whoever, and whomever refer to individuals; which and that refer to places, things, or ideas. The paper that the student submitted was well documented. (restrictive) The library book [that] I borrowed is due tomorrow. (restrictive) The paper, which the student submitted on time, was well documented. (nonrestrictive) The library book, which I finished yesterday, is due tomorrow. (nonrestrictive) The student who left the umbrella came back to retrieve it. (restrictive) Jennifer, who left class in a rush, returned later to retrieve her purse. (nonrestrictive) Note that one may use restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses to emphasize different ideas within a sentence. Because restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses are subordinate to the independent clause, the more important idea belongs in the independent clause. They signed the treaty, which banned nuclear war. (stresses the signing) The treaty [that] they signed banned nuclear war. (stresses the banning) A word, abbreviation, phrase, or clause in apposition to a noun is set off by commas if it is nonrestrictive, supplemental information inessential to the sentence. No commas appear if the appositive is restrictive. The dissertation director, Jack Freiberg, scheduled the students defense. (nonrestrictive) The departmental chair, Rick Emmerson, convened the meeting. (nonrestrictive) My younger sister, Sarah, lives in Canada. (nonrestrictive; I have only one sister) but My younger sister Sarah lives in Canada. (restrictive; I have three younger sisters)

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Henry Girouxs book The Mouse that Roared was published in 1999. (restrictive; Giroux has published several books) Professor Smiths sole book, The Only Child, was published in 1999. (nonrestrictive) Girouxs 1999 book, The Mouse that Roared, concerns the Disney empire. (nonrestrictive) Cynthia Hahn, Ph.D., was the keynote speaker at the medievalists conference. (nonrestrictive) 3.8 Punctuation: Colons: A colon introduces a series that illustrates or expands on what preceded the colon. Use the colon after as follows, the following, and similar phrases. Colons may replace a period to introduce a series of short, related sentences, and they also show up in URLs. No colon appears in sentences where a verb or preposition introduces a series, nor does a colon appear after namely, for example, and similar phrases. The USDA pyramid includes the following food groups: grains, proteins, fats, fruits and vegetables, and dairy products. The whistleblower was faced with a difficult choice: Should he report the workplace abuses to authorities? Or should he remain silent to protect his job? The universitys home page on the Internet is located at http://www.fsu.edu. but The dissertation dealt with three related mediums, namely, cubist collage, filmic montage, and Dada ready-mades. The completed application includes a cover letter, a writing sample, and three letters of recommendation. 3.9 Punctuation: Hyphens and dashes: Do not use a hyphen for adverb-participle constructions: ideally situated building Do not use a hyphen for simple verb phrases: She is good at decision making. Use a hyphen when the phrase modifies a noun: decision-making process The following prefixes do not need a hyphen, unless the lack of a hyphen creates confusion in deciphering the word or its meaning:

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ante, anti, bi, bio, co, counter, extra, infra, inter, intra, macro, meta, micro, mid, mini, multi, neo, non, over, post, pre, pro, proto, pseudo, semi, socio, sub, super, supra, trans, ultra, un, under However, if the prefixes above precede capitalized nouns, use a hyphen: anti-American pre-Columbian post-Stalin era Use en dashes instead of hyphens to separate the terms in inclusive dates and numbers (see 3.13 3.14 below) and to replace the word to in sports scores, directions, and the like. En dashes sometimes occur in the names of universities to replace the at distinguishing one campus from another. [To create an en dash in Microsoft Word, type Ctrl + Num- (the minus key on the number keypad).] She took the BostonNew York train. Take the eastwest route. Read chapters 1215. FSU beat UF, 136. University of TennesseeChattanooga The exhibition is on view December 15, 2009March 15, 2010. Em dashes are the most common dashes. In academic prose, they most often set off an amplifying or explanatory element. To avoid confusion, no sentence should contain more than two em dashes. [To create an em dash in Microsoft Word, type Ctrl + Alt + Num- (the minus key on the number keypad). Alternatively, most word processors will make an em dash from two hyphens typed together.] The three Regionalist paintersBenton, Wood, and Currycelebrated the Midwest. The country mourned the death of Gerald Fordthe only president not to be elected by the American people. The Democrats, after celebrating their election victories, had to devise a new military strategyone that might secure relative stability in the Middle East. 3.10 Punctuation: Apostrophes: Form possessives of most singular nouns by adding an apostrophe and an s. Create possessives of plural nouns, except for irregular plurals that do not end in s, by adding an apostrophe only. For irregular plurals not ending in s, form possessives by adding an apostrophe and an s. These general rules include names ending in s, x, or z, in their singular and plural forms, as well as letter and numbers. The rule also applies to company names ending with a punctuation mark. the horses mouth a basss stripes

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puppies paws childrens literature Texass legislature Marxs writings Berliozs works Williamss reputation the Williamses new home JFKs assassination 2004s tsunami Yahoo!s CEO Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning form the possessive by adding an apostrophe only. the United States role in international affairs Highland Hills mayor Maclay Gardens pagoda An apostrophe without an s may be used for possessives of singular nouns ending in an unpronounced s. Descartes statement Albert Camus novels but Raoul Camuss anthology (the s is pronounced) For joint possession of the same thing, only the second noun takes the possessive form; for individual possession of separate things, each noun has its own possessive form. my aunt and uncles house Laura and Robs twin beds Jerry and Millies neighbors but Lauras and Millies back yards my aunts and uncles occupations For compound nouns and noun phrases, the final element usually takes the possessive form. If plural compounds pose problems, use of. a workbooks page student assistants time cards my son-in-laws baseball team but the children of both my daughters-in-law The genitive case survives in expressions of time, distance, or measure. The genitive is formed the same way as the possessive case.

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an hours delay three days time six months leave of absence (or a six-month leave of absence) a dollars worth five miles distance For most nouns and pronouns preceding a gerund (a verbal noun), use the possessive case, unless doing so sounds particularly awkward, as when modifiers intervene. Bobs quitting shock everyone. Britneys admitting to an affair caused her divorce. The mother worried about her daughters going to night classes alone. His retiring left a vacancy in the administration. We resented his leaving. The residents were opposed to the taverns staying open all night. but The residents were opposed to the tavern in their neighborhood staying open all night. No apostrophe is added to personal pronouns (his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs) or relative pronouns (whose) in the possessive case. The dog lost its collar. The restaurants lost their liquor licenses His time is his own. Reciprocal pronouns (each other, one another) form possessives by adding an apostrophe and an s. Indefinite pronouns (anybody, another, sombody, something, and the like) form possessives by adding an apostrophe and an s, or by adding an apostrophe and an s to the adverb else. each others one anothers anothers somebodys no ones no one elses somebody elses Make the plurals of lowercase letters, symbols, and abbreviations with interior periods with an apostrophe and an s. No apostrophe appears in plurals of numerals, initials or abbreviations without interior periods, or words referred to as words. xs and ys Ph.D.s (but MAs) +s and s

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but 20s hitting in the .300s the ifs, ands, or buts YWCAs Do not add an apostrophe to ordinary plural nouns or to verbs ending in s. The Browns went to the stores. That is not what this passage means. What she says is what she means. Apostrophes show contractions and other omissions of letters or numerals. its (it is or it has) whats (what is) whos (who is) were (we are) fishin (fishing) class of 06 (class of 2006)

3.11 Punctuation: Parentheses and brackets: Parentheses and brackets are always used in pairs. Do not overuse either. Parentheses set off incidental information, enclose letters or numerals in enumeration, set off references and directions, and provide information or symbols indicating uncertainty. Senator Nelson (D., Florida) introduced the bill. The painting (donated to the museum in 1995) was the gift of Robert Brown. Students must submit the following parts of the paper: (1) cover sheet, (2) text, (3) bibliography, and (4) appendices. Michelangelos sculpture (see figure 3) made him famous in his day. She was born in Georgia in 1890(?) and died in Tennessee in 1950. Where required by the sentence, commas, semicolons, and periods follow the closing parenthesis in a sentence. Her longest novel (667 pages), Julia Sings, was also her last. Maria speaks Spanish (her familys tongue); her husband speaks Russian. Read the information on Leonardo (turn to the index for help). Question marks or exclamation points go inside the parentheses if they belong to the parenthetical content; otherwise, they belong outside the closing parenthesis.

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The book mentions John Robertson (born 1890?). Did the book mention John Roberson (born 1890)? Debbie asked me to lend her money (what nerve!). Use square brackets for a parenthetical comment within parentheses or to complete missing information. Mabel Johnson (18891924[?]) lived in New York during her childhood. Vasari suggests that in Leonardos portion of the painting [Baptism of Christ], the figures were more finely executed than in Verocchios. Square brackets are used by the writer or editor to enclose material that does not belong to the surrounding text. In quoted matter, square brackets enclose editorial interpolations, explanations, translations of foreign terms, or corrections. Sometimes the bracketed material replaces or alters the original word in a quoted passage. They [the free-silver Democrats] asserted that the ration could be maintained. Many CF [cystic fibrosis] patients have been helped by the new therapy. Henry Giroux [looks] at the worlds most influential corporation in The Mouse that Roared. Freiberg analyses the differences between society [Gesellschaft] and community [Gemeinde]. The papers title is The Civile [sic] War. [This was written before the discovery of the Gnostic Gospels in 1945.Ed.] 3. 12 Ellipses: An ellipsis, the omission of a word, phrase, or more from a quoted passage, is indicated by ellipsis points. Ellipsis points are three spaced periods ( . . . ), sometimes preceded or followed by other punctuation. These points must always appear on the same line. Henry Girouxs critique of Disney . . . shows the manipulative side of Disney just as it understands why Disney attracts us so much. When an ellipsis follows the end of a sentence, a period is placed immediately after the last word of the sentence (no space), and this period is followed by a space and then by the ellipsis. This creates four points, but the first point is a period and not a part of the ellipsis. The spirit of our American radicalism is destructive and aimless. . . . On the other side, the conservative party . . . is timid, and merely defensive of property. Other punctuationcommas, semicolons, question marks, or exclamation pointsmay precede an ellipsis.

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It does not build, . . . nor cherish the arts, nor foster religion. No ellipsis is necessary at the beginning or conclusion of a quotation run into a sentence, or at the beginning or conclusion of a block quotation. The press release noted that the exhibition will focus on the spirit of inquiry that challenged hierarchies of the fine and applied arts. (run-in quotation) not The press release noted that the exhibition will . . . focus on the spirit of inquiry . . . that challenged . . . hierarchies of the fine and applied arts . . . The omission of a paragraph from a multiparagraph block quotation is indicated by an ellipsis following the terminal punctuation of the last quoted sentence. If the first part of a paragraph within a block quotation is omitted, a paragraph indentation followed by an ellipsis precedes the quoted passage. See CMS 13.54 for an example. 3.13 Numbers: Write out whole numbers from one to one hundred, round numbers, and any numbers beginning a sentence. Common sense and convention dictate some exceptions, however. The temperature dropped fifteen degrees within twenty minutes. The population is more than two hundred thousand. Use three-by-five-inch index cards for notes. He is five feet ten inches in height. but She wore a size 6 dress. Use a 40-watt bulb in that fixture. Hyphenate twenty-one through twenty-nine, thirty-one through thirty-nine, and so forth. The painting is thirty-five by forty-eight inches in size. Write out whole numbers through ninety-nine followed by hundred, thousand, million, and so forth. Common sense and convention dictate some exceptions, however. twenty-nine hundred soldiers but a combined GRE score of 1300 Ordinals should be treated the same way as cardinal numbers. the eighth inning the forty-fifth floor the three hundred millionth baby born in the U.S.

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but the 125th day of the year Write out simple fractions. four-fifths two-thirds but 0.669 Use en dashes to separate terms in inclusive numbers, such as chapter or page ranges, football scores, voting results, and so forth. The Seminoles beat the Gators 2114. Students are responsible for reading pages 145152. Legislators voted 10236 to adopt the resolution. Consult CMS sections 15.4546 for abbreviations and symbols used in scholarship. 3.14 Dates: A comma follows the year when a date appears within a sentence: She was born on November 4, 1960, in Dallas, Texas. There is no punctuation separating the month and year when no specific day appears: The painter completed the first piece in August 1970 in New York. For inclusive dates, type only the last two years in the second date. If the inclusive dates include a change in century, or when the date is BCE, type the entire year for each date. Use an en dash to separate the terms. If from or between precedes the first of the pair of numbers, no dash is used. Instead, from should be followed by to or through, and between by and. 180324 196064 16851701 19982006 327321 BCE (a six-year span) 32721 (a 306-year span) from 1998 through 2006 between 1950 and 1976 For ancient dates in the West, use the secularized BCE (before the common era) and CE (common era), rather than BC and AD. Remember that ranges of inclusive dates before the

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common era should begin with the larger number, as in 800600 BCE. Both BCE and CE follow the date or the date range. Spell out particular centuries in lower case. Spell out decades, if the century is clear, or express them in numerals. No apostrophe appears between the year and the s. Adding a prefix to a century necessitates the use of a hyphen. Hyphens come between the ordinal number and the word century in adjectival usage. the twentieth century the twenty-first century the eighth and ninth centuries the eighteen hundreds the late nineteenth century the mid-nineteenth century the mid- to late nineteenth century early twentieth-century art mid-nineteenth-century debates mid- to late-nineteenth-century fashions the nineties the 1950s mid-decade but mid-century or midcentury Dates as descriptive adjectives are more common these days, when the construction does not obstruct the flow of the sentence. No hyphen or comma is necessary when using a month-andyear or month-and-day form as an adjective. Use commas before and after the year for the month-day-year form. Avoid this awkward construction, however. the December 25 holiday the April 2005 tax statement but the October 8, 2004, birthday party 3.15 Foreign words and phrases: Italicize foreign words and phrases if they are likely to be unfamiliar to readers; romanize those that are familiar. Foreign proper nouns are not italicized. annus mirabillis bte noire cri de coeur repoussoir mise en abyme ukiyo-e

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but samurai Latino ex officio cum laude in vitro oeuvre hor doeuvres trompe loeil Foreign words with accented letters and other alphabetical forms not occurring in English should be spelled with the appropriate diacritical marks, unless the word has been transliterated (romanized) and absorbed into English. Accented letters used in European languages, such as the acute accent (), grave accent (), circumflex (), cedilla (), dieresis or umlaut (), tilde (), macron (), or breve (), are included in common word-processing software. bte noire cause clbre doppelgnger agap (in Greek) ers (in Greek) but agape (in English) eros (in English) 3.16 Quotations and quotation marks: Brief quotations are preceded by a comma, unless they are introduced by that, whether, or a similar conjunction, in which case no comma is required. Longer quotations are preceded by a colon. Emerson wrote, "Blessed are those who have no talent." Phoebe asked, What are you going to wear to the party? Was it Stevenson who said that "the cruelest lies are often told in silence"? W. J. T. Mitchell wrote: The Romantic conception of art as the activity of selfdirected men, free from institutions and social restraints, is a powerful fiction that has served as the prevailing ideology in Western capitalist democracies for the last 200 years. Syntax is important in incorporating quotation fragments into a text. Phrase the surrounding sentence in such a way that quoted words fit into it logically and grammatically. Quote only as much of the original text as is necessary. Integrate tenses and pronouns into the new context. Place necessary adjustments in brackets. For run-in quotations, where the quotation is syntactically part of the sentence, the quoted portion begins with a lowercase letter. If the quoted passage in the original begins with a capital letter, the writer may signal the change in capitalization with brackets, should there be some question about misleading the reader. (This most often applies to legal documents.) The reverse is also true; one may capitalize a passage

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excerpted from the original, where it began with a lowercase letter, if context demands. Otherwise, all quotations should agree exactly with the originals in wording, spelling, interior capitalization, and interior punctuation. For more information, see CMS 13:13, Changing capitalization to suit syntax, and 13:14, Initial capital or lowercaserun-in quotations. [Original] The Romantic conception of art as the activity of self-directed men, free from institutions and social restraints, is a powerful fiction that has served as the prevailing ideology in Western capitalist democracies for the last 200 years. It has never passed unchallenged in the actual production and consumption of art, either in the West or elsewhere. [As quoted] According to W. J. T Mitchell, the Romantic conception of art as the activity of self-directed men, is a powerful fiction that has persisted in the West for two centuries. [As quoted] W. J. T. Mitchell has indicated that the powerful fiction of the independent artist, free from social or institutional restraints, persists despite the fact that it has never passed unchallenged in the actual production and consumption of art in the West. or [As quoted] W. J. T. Mitchell has indicated that the powerful fiction of the independent artist, free from social or institutional restraints, persists despite the fact that [i]t has never passed unchallenged in the actual production and consumption of art in the West. [As quoted] Never pass[ing] unchallenged in the actual production and consumption of art, the fiction of the independent artist, unrestrained by social convention, has persisted for 200 years, according to W. J. T. Mitchell. or [As quoted] [N]ever pass[ing] unchallenged in the actual production and consumption of art, the fiction of the independent artist, unrestrained by social convention, has persisted for 200 years, according to W. J. T. Mitchell. Use the block style for prose quotations of eight lines or more, or for quotations of more than one paragraph. In the case of poetry, see the CMS. Format block quotations by indenting the entire quotation five spaces from the left margin using the paragraph indent feature of your word processing software. Paragraphs should reflect the source. However, if the first paragraph quoted includes the beginning of a paragraph, it need not begin with a paragraph indentation; align it flush left. Indent subsequent paragraphs in the quotation as in the original. A blank line should precede and follow the quoted passage. If the text following the block quotation is a continuation of the paragraph that introduced the quotation, align the text flush left. If the resuming text begins a new paragraph, use a normal tab indent. Do not set off block quotations with quotation marks. The following example shows a block quotation inserted just after the introductory sentence of a

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paragraph (thus the sentence is indented). The paragraph continues after the quotation. In his 1999 book on Disney and the end of innocence, Henry A. Giroux wrote: Education is never innocent, because it always presupposes a particular view of citizenship, culture, and society. And yet it is this very appeal to innocence, bleached of any semblance of politics, that has become a defining feature of Disney culture and pedagogy. The Walt Disney Companys attachment to the appeal of innocence provides a rationale for Disney both to reaffirm its commitment to childrens pleasure and to downplay any critical assessments of the role Disney plays as a benevolent corporate power in sentimentalizing childhood innocence as it simultaneously commodifies it. Giroux continues that Disney strips the concept of innocence of its historical and social constructions to create an ideal, ahistorical space, an ideal it markets to parents. See 3.12 in this guidebook for how to handle omitted text in a block quotation. Use double quotation marks to set off quoted words, phrases, or sentences run into the text. Single quotation marks enclose quotations within quotations, and double quotation marks enclose quotations within these. [In British English, this pattern is reversed.] Kathy said, Read the Graduate Handbook for further information. In closing punctuation, periods and commas precede closing quotation marks, whether single or double. On the other hand, colons, semicolons, question marks, and exclamation points follow closing quotation marks, unless a question mark or exclamation point is part of the quoted passage. Take, for example, the first line of To a Skylark: Hail to thee, blithe spirit! Which of Shakespeares characters said, All the worlds a stage? Where do you live? Watch your step! Words enclosed in so-called scare quotes indicate to the reader that the writer is using the word in a nonstandard, ironic, or other special sense. The quotation marks imply the authors distance from the scary term. If used too frequently, scare quotes lose their impact and irritate readers. Generally, if the author repeats the scary term, quotation marks are not necessary, as the reader should understand the authors intent after the first usage. (See CMS 7.58) Picasso embraced primitivism in African sculpture in developing his cubist style. (the word primitivism as applied to African sculpture is now considered inappropriate, although the word was accepted for such usage in Picassos timeso scare quotes signals the authors understanding of that distinction) Feminists in the 1970s challenged the use of master-pieces in art history because of its sexist implications.

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When using a word as a wordthat is, when the word is not used functionally but as the word itselfuse italics or quotations marks. Italics are preferred, but there are situations where quotation marks make the meaning more clear. (See CMS 7.62) When using a letter as a letter, use italics. The word abstract should be centered and capitalized as the title of your abstract. We no longer use the word Orient to refer to Asia, but we still use the word Orientalism to refer to the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by nineteenth-century writers, designers and artists. We form the plural of nouns in English by adding s or es.

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3.17 Footnotes, Endnotes, and Bibliography The Chicago Manual of Style presents two basic documentation systems, the humanities style (notes and bibliography) and the author-date system. The humanities style is preferred by many in literature, history, and the arts, and this is true for FSUs Department of Art History. The following formats for notes (N) and bibliographies (B) are taken from the CMS online Citation Quick Guide, at http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html. Included are short forms of the titles for repeat notes. Appended to these examples are guidelines for handling repeated citations. The numbers in the examples below are examples of footnote numbers. In your own footnotes, these numbers should reflect the placement in your own document. NOTE: For website URLs, you should include no underlining, because the link does not remain active in print. Have your computer remove the hyperlink underlining, if it automatically makes the link active, before printing your bibliography or footnotes. BookOne Author N: 1. Wendy Doniger, Splitting the Difference (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 65. 3. Doniger, Splitting, 66. B: Doniger, Wendy. Splitting the Difference. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. BookTwo Authors N: 6. Guy Cowlishaw and Robin Dunbar, Primate Conservation Biology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 1047. 9. Cowlishaw and Dunbar, Primate, 110. B: Cowlishaw, Guy, and Robin Dunbar. Primate Conservation Biology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. BookThree Authors N: 5. Richard Tansey, Fred S. Kleiner, and Horst De La Croix, Gardner's Art Through the Ages, 10th Reiss ed. (Ft. Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1995), 43. 8. Tansey, Kleiner, and De La Croix, Gardners, 45.

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B: Tansey, Richard, Fred S. Kleiner, and Horst De La Croix. Gardners Art Through the Ages. 10th Reiss ed. Ft. Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1995. BookFour or More Authors N: 13. Edward O. Laumann et al., The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 262. 18. Laumann et al., Social Organization, 262. B: Laumann, Edward O., John H. Gagnon, Robert T. Michael, and Stuart Michaels. The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. BookEditor, Translator, or Compiler Instead of Author N: 4. Richmond Lattimore, trans., The Iliad of Homer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), 9192. 9. Lattimore, Iliad, 96. B: Lattimore, Richmond, trans. The Iliad of Homer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. BookEditor, Translator, or Compiler in Addition to Author N: 16. Yves Bonnefoy, New and Selected Poems, ed. John Naughton and Anthony Rudolf (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 22. B: Bonnefoy, Yves. New and Selected Poems. Edited by John Naughton and Anthony Rudolf. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. BookGroup or Corporate Author N: 5. International Monetary Fund, Surveys of African Economies, vol. 7, Algeria, Mali, Morocco, Tunisia (Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 1977), 98. 9. International Monetary Fund, Surveys, 102.

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B: International Monetary Fund. Surveys of African Economies. vol. 7, Algeria, Mali, Morocco, Tunisia. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 1977. N: 3. Lowe Art Museum, Coral Gables, FL, Lowe Art Museum Selected Works: Handbook of the Permanent Collection (Coral Gables, FL: Lowe Art Museum, 1996), 41. 6. Lowe Art Museum, Selected Works, 43. Lowe Art Museum, Coral Gables, FL. Lowe Art Museum Selected Works: Handbook of the Permanent Collection. Coral Gables, FL: Lowe Art Museum, 1996. BookReprint, Facsimile, or Modern Editions Some books are reissued in paperback by the original publisher or in paperback or hardcover by another company. If the original publication detailsparticularly the dateare relevant, include them. (In most cases in art history, the original publication date is important.) If page numbers are mentioned, give the date of the edition cited unless pagination is the same. The availability of an alternate version, including an electronic version, the addition of new material, or other such matters may be added as needed. N: 22. Ernest Gowers, The Complete Plain Words, 3rd ed. (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1986; Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books, 1987), 26. Citations refer to the Penguin edition. 25. Gowers, Complete, 29. B: Gowers, Ernest. The Complete Plain Words. 3rd ed. London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1986; Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books, 1987. Page numbers refer to the Penguin edition. N: 15. Gunnar Myrdal, Population: A Problem for Democracy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1940; reprint, Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1956), 9. 20. Myrdal, Population, 22. B: Myrdal, Gunnar. Population: A Problem for Democracy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1940. Reprint, Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1956. N: 5. Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nature, 1836. Facsimile of the first edition, with an introduction by Jaroslav Pelikan (Boston: Beacon, 1985), 36.

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9. Emerson, Nature, 37. B: Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Nature. 1836. Facsimile of the first edition, with an introduction by Jaroslav Pelikan. Boston: Beacon, 1985. N: 1. F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby (New York: Scribner, 1925). Reprinted with preface and notes by Matthew J. Bruccoli (New York: Collier Books, 1992), 44. Citations refer to the 1992 edition. 5. Fitzgerald, Great Gatsby, 45. B: Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. New York: Scribner, 1925. Reprinted with preface and notes by Matthew J. Bruccoli. New York: Collier Books, 1992. Page references are to the 1992 edition. N: 3. National Reconnaissance Office, The KH-4B Camera System (Washington, DC: National Photographic Interpretation Center, 1967), 14. Now declassified and also available online, http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/docs/kh-4_camera_system.htm. 6. National Reconnaissance Office, KH-4B, 16. B: National Reconnaissance Office. The KH-4B Camera System. Washington, DC: National Photographic Interpretation Center, 1967. Now declassified and also available online, http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/docs/kh-4_camera_system.htm. Chapter or Essay in Book (e.g., an Anthology) or Exhibition Catalogue N: 5. Andrew Wiese, The House I Live In: Race, Class, and African American Suburban Dreams in the Postwar United States, in The New Suburban History, ed. Kevin M. Kruse and Thomas J. Sugrue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 1012. B: Wiese, Andrew. The House I Live In: Race, Class, and African American Suburban Dreams in the Postwar United States. In The New Suburban History, edited by Kevin M. Kruse and Thomas J. Sugrue, 99119. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.

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Chapter of an Edited Volume Originally Published Elsewhere N: 8. Quintus Tullius Cicero. Handbook on Canvassing for the Consulship, in Rome: Late Republic and Principate, ed. Walter Emil Kaegi Jr. and Peter White, vol. 2 of University of Chicago Readings in Western Civilization, ed. John Boyer and Julius Kirshner (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 35. B: Cicero, Quintus Tullius. Handbook on Canvassing for the Consulship. In Rome: Late Republic and Principate, edited by Walter Emil Kaegi Jr. and Peter White. Vol. 2 of University of Chicago Readings in Western Civilization, edited by John Boyer and Julius Kirshner, 3346. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. Originally published in Evelyn S. Shuckburgh, trans., The Letters of Cicero, vol. 1 (London: George Bell & Sons, 1908). Preface, Foreword, Introduction, or Similar Part of a Book N: 17. James Rieger, introduction to Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), xxxxi. B: Rieger, James. Introduction to Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, xixxxvii. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. Book Published Electronically If a book is available in more than one format, cite the version you consulted. You may also list the other formats, as in the first bibliographic example below. Include an access date parenthetically at the end of the citation. If no fixed page numbers are available, you can include a section title or a chapter or other number. N: 2. Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner, eds., The Founders Constitution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/ (accessed June 27, 2006). B: Kurland, Philip B., and Ralph Lerner, eds. The Founders Constitution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/ (accessed June 27, 2006). Also available in print form and as a CD-ROM. N: 1. Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), Kindle edition. B: Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007. Kindle edition.

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Bible Do not list the Bible the bibliography. N: 4. 2 Kings 11:8 (King James version) Article in a Print Journal In a note, list the specific page numbers consulted. In the bibliography, list the page range for the whole article. For journals with pages numbered consecutively throughout a volume or year: N: 8. John Maynard Smith, The Origin of Altruism, Nature 393 (1998): 639. 10. Smith, Altruism, 637. B: Smith, John Maynard. The Origin of Altruism. Nature 393 (1998): 63940. For journals with pagination beginning with each issue: N: 14. Stephen Kerber, Florida and the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893, Florida Historical Quarterly, 66, no. 1 (July 1987): 2526. 16. Kerber, Florida, 28. B: Kerber, Stephen. Florida and the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893. Florida Historical Quarterly 66, no. 1 (July 1987): 2549. For journals issued as numbers, not volumes: N: 6. Rosalind Krauss, Sculpture in the Expanded Field, October 8 (Spring 1979): 30. 8. Krauss, Sculpture, 35. B: Krauss, Rosalind. Sculpture in the Expanded Field. October 8 (Spring 1979): 3044

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Article in an Online Journal Include an access date parenthetically at the end of the citation. If an online service (like JSTOR) scans the original printed source, such that the pagination remains intact, treat the source as a print source. No URL or date of access is required in this circumstance. N: 33. Mark A. Hlatky et al., "Quality-of-Life and Depressive Symptoms in Postmenopausal Women after Receiving Hormone Therapy: Results from the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Trial," Journal of the American Medical Association 287, no. 5 (2002), http://jama.ama-assn.org/issues/v287n5/rfull/joc10108.html#aainfo (accessed January 7, 2004). 36. Hlatky, Quality-of-Life. B: Hlatky, Mark A., Derek Boothroyd, Eric Vittinghoff, Penny Sharp, and Mary A. Whooley. "Quality-of-Life and Depressive Symptoms in Postmenopausal Women after Receiving Hormone Therapy: Results from the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Trial." Journal of the American Medical Association 287, no. 5 (February 6, 2002), http://jama.ama-assn.org/issues/v287n5/rfull/joc10108.html#aainfo (accessed January 7, 2004). Popular Magazine Article A popular magazine is a magazine targeting a mass audience, as opposed to professionals or scholars. Articles in popular magazines are often written by staff writers or journalists, while in scholarly journals, the authors are usually specialists in their respective fields, with their credentials specified. Examples of popular magazines would be Time, Newsweek, National Geographic, People, TV Guide, New Yorker, Popular Mechanics, Vanity Fair, and the like. N: 29. Steve Martin, Sports-Interview Shocker, New Yorker, May 6, 2002, 84. B: Martin, Steve. Sports-Interview Shocker. New Yorker, May 6, 2002. Newspaper Article Newspaper articles may be cited in running text (As William Niederkorn noted in a New York Times article on June 20, 2002 , . .) instead of in a note, and they are commonly omitted from a bibliography or reference list as well. The following examples show the more formal versions of the citations.

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N: 10. William S. Niederkorn, A Scholar Recants on His Shakespeare Discovery, New York Times, June 20, 2002, Arts section, Midwest edition. 12. Niederkorn, Scholar Recants. B: Niederkorn, William S. A Scholar Recants on His Shakespeare Discovery. New York Times, June 20, 2002, Arts section, Midwest edition. Book Review N: 1. James Gorman, Endangered Species, review of The Last American Man, by Elizabeth Gilbert, New York Times Book Review, June 2, 2002, 16. 5. Gorman, Endangered Species, 16. B: Gorman, James. Endangered Species. Review of The Last American Man, by Elizabeth Gilbert. New York Times Book Review, June 2, 2002. Thesis or Dissertation N: 22. M. Amundin, Click Repetition Rate Patterns in Communicative Sounds from the Harbour Porpoise, Phocoena phocoena (PhD diss., Stockholm University, 1991), 2229, 35. B: Amundin, M. Click Repetition Rate Patterns in Communicative Sounds from the Harbour Porpoise, Phocoena phocoena. PhD diss., Stockholm University, 1991. Paper Presented at a Meeting or Conference N: 13. Brian Doyle, Howling Like Dogs: Metaphorical Language in Psalm 59 (paper presented at the annual international meeting for the Society of Biblical Literature, Berlin, Germany, June 1922, 2002). 16. Doyle, Howling Like Dogs. B: Doyle, Brian. Howling Like Dogs: Metaphorical Language in Psalm 59. Paper presented at the annual international meeting for the Society of Biblical Literature, Berlin, Germany, June 1922, 2002.

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Website Because website content is subject to change, include an access date and, if available, a date that the site was last modified. N: 11. Evanston Public Library Strategic Plan, 20002010: A Decade of Outreach, Evanston Public Library Board of Trustees, http://www.epl.org/library/strategic-plan-00.html (accessed June 1, 2005). 13. Evanston Public Library Strategic Plan, 20002010. B: Evanston Public Library Board of Trustees. Evanston Public Library Strategic Plan, 2000 2010: A Decade of Outreach. Evanston Public Library. http://www.epl.org/library/strategicplan-00.html (accessed June 1, 2005). N: 1. Google Privacy Policy, last modified March 11, 2009, http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html (accessed August 2, 2010) 3. Google Privacy Policy. B: Google. Google Privacy Policy. Last modified March 11, 2009. http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html (accessed August 2, 2010). Weblog Entry or Comment N: 1. Jack, February 25, 2010 (7:03 p.m.), comment on Richard Posner, Double Exports in Five Years?, The Becker-Posner Blog, February 21, 2010, http://uchicagolaw.typepad.com/beckerposner/2010/02/double-exports-in-five-yearsposner.html. 2. Jack, comment on Posner, Double Exports. B: Becker-Posner Blog, The. http://uchicagolaw.typepad.com/beckerposner/. Email Message Email messages should not be listed in the bibliography.

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N: 2. John Doe, e-mail message to author, October 31, 2005. Item in Online Database For items retrieved from a commercial database, add the name of the database and an accession number following the facts of publication. N: 7. Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, ed. John Bostock and H. T. Riley, in the Perseus Digital Library, http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+1.dedication (accessed November 17, 2005). B: Perseus Digital Library. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ (accessed November 17, 2005). N: 1. Mihwa Choi, Contesting Imaginaires in Death Rituals during the Northern Song Dynasty (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2008), 56, ProQuest (ATT 3300426) 5. Choi, Contesting Imaginaires, 32. B: Choi, Mihwa. Contesting Imaginaires in Death Rituals during the Northern Song Dynasty. PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2008. ProQuest (AAT 3300426). Online Multimedia Citations of online multimedia must thoroughly identify the material cited; citation of an electronic file name or URL alone is insufficient, although this information is necessary, as well.. If no date can be determined from the source, include the access date. For a recording of a speech or other performance, or for a digital version of a published source, include information about the original performance or source. Indicate the source medium (e.g., video) and length. N: 119. Darcey Steinke, interview by Sam Tanenhaus and Dwight Garner, New York Times Book Review, podcast audio, April 22, 2007, http://podcasts.nytimes.com/podcasts/2007/04/20/21bookupdate.mp3 (accessed January 20, 2010). 135. Darcey Steinke interview. B: Steinke, Darcey. Interview by Sam Tanenhaus and Dwight Garner. New York Times Book Review, podcast audio, April 22, 2007, http://podcasts.nytimes.com/podcasts/2007/04/20/21bookupdate.mp3 (accessed January 20, 2010).

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N: 1. A. E. Weed, At the Foot of the Flatiron (American Mutoscope and Biograph Co., 1903), 35 mm film, from Library of Congress, The Life of a City: Early Films of New York, 18981906, MPEG video, 2:19, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/papr/nychome.html (accessed February 2, 2009). 4. Weed, Flatiron. B: Weed, A.E. At the Food of the Flatiron. American Mutoscope and Biograph Co., 1903. 35 mm film. Library of Congress, The Life of a City: Early Films of New York, 18981906. MPEG video, 2:19, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/papr/nychome.html (accessed February 2, 2009). N: 2. Horowitz at Carnegie Hall 2-Chopin Nocturne in Fm Op.55, YouTube video, 5:53, from a performance televised by CBS on September 22, 1968, posted by hubanj, January 9, 2009, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cDVBtuWkMS8 (accessed March 3, 2008). 5. Horowitz at Carnegie Hall. B: Horowitz at Carnegie Hall 2-Chopin Nocturne in Fm Op.55. YouTube video, 5:53. From a performance televised by CBS on September 22, 1968. Posted by hubanj, January 9, 2009, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cDVBtuWkMS8 (accessed March 3, 2008).
Multiple references Within a Single Note For multiple citations within a single note, supply each citation in the appropriate form as identified above, with each citation separated by a semicolon. Additional textual information should follow the citations. In the case where the added information requires a note of its own, the citation should immediately follow the information needing a note. A note may have a see also reference, for which a full citation is required. Each source within the footnote should have a separate bibliographic entry. N:

Barbara Niles, Pure Abstract Design, Design 38 (March 1937): 38; Unusual Movie Built from Variations of Parabola, Science News (19 March 1938) https://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/9497; Douglas Dreishpoon, Excerpt from Science into Art: The Abstract Sculpture and Drawing of Rutherford Boye (18821951), in Unseen Cinema: Early American Avant-Garde Film 18931941, ed. Bruce Posner (New York: Anthology Film Archives, 2001), 134; Joseph Schillinger, Excerpts from a Theory of Synchronization, Experimental Cinema 5 (1934): 30. Bute consistently dated this film as 1937, although the date appears as 1938 in some published sources. See Michael Betancourt, Mary Hallock-Greenewalts Abstract Films, Millennium Film Journal 45/45, (2006): 5260 for discussion of Hallock-Greenewalts claim to have created the first abstract film in the U.S.

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Citations or Quotations Taken from Secondary Sources Citations from secondary sources should be avoided, as researchers are expected to examine the works they cite. If the original is not available, both the original and the secondary source must be cited. N: 22. Theodore Sedgwick, Thoughts on the Proposed Annexation of Texas to the United States (New York: D. Fanshaw, 1844), 31, quoted in Lyon Rathbun, The Debate over Annexing Texas and the Emergence of Manifest Destiny, Rhetoric and Public Affairs 4, no. 3 (Fall 2001): 479. B: Rathbun, Lyon. The Debate over Annexing Texas and the Emergence of Manifest Destiny. Rhetoric and Public Affairs 4, no. 3 (Fall 2001): 466482. Repeat Citations
For repeat citations in footnotes or endnotes in the notes and bibliography style, do the following: Use ibid. (from the Latin ibidem, meaning in the same place) when referring to the same page in a source cited in the previous note. Add the page numbers if you are referring to the same source but different pages. Ibid. is not italicized but is followed by a period. Never use ibid. if the previous note refers to more than one work. Caution: your paper should not have several of these footnotes in a series. This suggests too much dependence upon one source. When referring to a source already cited in full, but not in the preceding footnote or endnote, use the basic short form, as indicated in the citation examples above, consisting of the last name of the author, a shortened form of the title, and the page number. With book chapters and journal articles, use a shortened form of the title of the chapter or article, not a shortened form of the book or journal title. Sample footnotes: 1. E. H. Gombrich, Norm and Form: Studies in the Art of the Renaissance (London: Phaidon Press, 1966), 65. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid., 67 4. Larry Silver, "The State of Research in Northern European Art of the Renaissance Era," Art Bulletin 68 (December 1986): 518. 5. Gombrich, Norm and Form, 69. 6. E. H. Gombrich, The Social History of Art, in Meditations on a Hobby Horse and Other Essays on the Theory of Art (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 87. 7. Anna C. Chave, Minimalism and Biography, in Reclaiming Female Agency: Feminist Art History After Postmodernism, eds. Norma Broude and Mary D. Garrard (Berkeley: University of California Press,

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2005), 386. 8. Gombrich, Social History, 88. 9. Chave, Minimalism, 388. 10. Silver, State of Research, 520. For successive entries by the same author or editor in a bibliography, use a 3-em dash, followed by a period or comma, depending upon the persons role. (In Microsoft Word, create an em dash by typing ctrl + alt + on the numerals keypad.) Gombrich, E. H. Meditations on a Hobby Horse and Other Essays on the Theory of Art. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963. . Norm and Form: Studies in the Art of the Renaissance. London: Phaidon Press, 1966. , ed. Symbolic Images: Studies in the Art of the Renaissance. London: Phaidon Press, 1972.

4. Word List:
a lot a priori (rom) abstract expressionism, abstract expressionist Acadmie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, or Acadmie Royale, but the academy acknowledgements affirmative action (no hyphen) African American (no hyphen) American studies analytic cubism ancient rgime (rom) ancient Greece the antebellum period antiquity Arab American (no hyphen) Aristotelian Ars gratia artis art deco art making art nouveau art historical (adj) art historically (adv) artwork audiovisual back up (v) backup (n)

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backward (not backwards) baroque Beaux-Arts (derived from cole des Beaux-Arts) Bible (but biblical) blacks (lc, even when referring to African Americans) black arts movement black power body art (lc) bourgeois (adj) bourgeoisie (n) Bronze Age Cartesian Chicago school (of architecture, of economics, of literary criticism) civil rights movement Civil War Classical (for specific period) classical (for general references) classicism cold war the colonial period Communist (party member) communist (as in communist ideology) conceptualism cubism crucifixion, the Dada, Dadaism deconstruction Doric Drer e-book email e-resource the Enlightenment Epicurean (when used as a school of thought; epicurean otherwise) European American (n, adj) the Evangelists existentialism fall (season) fauvism foreword (part of a book) formalism forward (direction)

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Gay Nineties a Gibbs surround Gilded Age the Golden Age (but a golden age) the golden section (or golden ratio) Gothic (but gothic fiction) Great Depression/ the Depression the Great Fire of London/ the Great Fire Gregorian chant a Guggenheim Fellowship (but a Guggenheim grant) happening (n, lc) Hellenism High Renaissance homosocial Hudson River school humanism humankind (not mankind) idealism imagism imperial Rome impressionism Internet Iron Age Japonisme (but Japonism) Jazz Age (n, adj) judgment lart pour lart listserv Machine Age (n); machine age (adj) mannerism Marxist maulstick medieval period Middle Ages modernism Native American (no hyphen) neoclassicism, neoclassical Neoplatonism New Criticism

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New Deal the nineteen hundreds nonetheless nuclear age oeuvre (rom) op art online Orientalism (but orientalist, orientalizing, unless referring to a title or style name) palate (the roof of the mouth) palette (an artists tool) pallet (a skid, a flat transport structure to hold goods; for use with forklifts) Platonism pop art postimpressionism postmodern, postmodernism post-structuralism postcolonialism Pre-Raphaelite Progressive Era Prohibition Puritanism; Puritan (lowercased when used in a nonsectarian context) quattrocento realism red-figure style the Reformation the Renaissance Roman Romanesque Roaring Twenties romanticism, romantic self-portrait spring (season) structuralism summer surrealism symbolism synthetic cubism theater (but theatre in names of specific organizations) Theosophy, Theosophical Society, Theosophist toward (not towards)

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twenty-first century two-dimensional (adj) transcendentalism trompe loeil (rom) ukiyo-e United States (n) U.S. (adj) Victorian era watercolor web page weblog webmaster website Western (cap, culture) winter woodblock print workplace worksheet workshop x-ray (n, v, adj)

Professor Karen A. Bearor Revised December 2008

GRAMMAR REVIEW
Most experts agree that writers should spend approximately fifty percent of their time in rewriting, editing, and proofreading their manuscripts. In contrast, most students seem to believe that the first draft is an acceptable version to submit for a grade. As a result, most students never learn to write with clarity, and their grades suffer as a result. This is particularly critical for those students who want to advance to graduate school. The following tips, adapted from Debra Hart Mays Proofreading: Plain & Simple (1997), may benefit such students in improving their writing skills. FOUR BASIC STEPS TO WRITING: Debra Hart May identifies four basic steps to writing, followed by the percentage of time she devotes to each: 1. Prewriting (30%), in which she identifies and refines the document's purpose and her understanding of the reader's needs, and then organizes her initial ideas into a general plan or outline. 2. Drafting (15%), which is the actual writing of the document. The draft is written quickly, loosely, with the writer following the general plan and seldom stopping to make changes. 3. Editing (50%), which clarifies, strengthens, and condenses the writing. [Stephen King wrote, in On Writing: A Memoir of the Craft (2000), Only God gets it right the first time and only a slob says, Oh well, let it go, that's what copyeditors are for.(p. 212)] 4. Proofreading (5%), the polishing of the final draft, such that no errors in communication, however small or seemingly insignificant, remain in the document. GOALS IN EDITING: May also identifies specific goals in editing: clarifying the message, strengthening the message, and condensing the message. What she says under clarifying the message is of particular importance to students. She advises the writer to ask: Is the purpose of my communication immediately apparent to my reader? Have I made my message relevant to my reader? Does each new thought make sense? Do my thoughts flow smoothly and logically throughout my document? and Are my thoughts clearly expressed? Answers to the first three questions will vary with the document, and no specific remedy is offered in this overview. However, for smooth flow and logical transitions between thoughts, the following list of expressions might prove useful: therefore furthermore for example however in fact also first, second . . . finally consequently in addition for instance on the other hand above all as well as next in conclusion as a result in the same way in other sords in constrast most important what's more further to summarize

FIVE COMMON PROBLEMS PREVENTING CLARITY IN WRITING: May argues that most people have a fairly clear understanding of grammar, but they get tripped up with the following: sentence structure subject-verb agreement active voice clear use of pronouns clear use of modifiers

Professor Karen A. Bearor Revised December 2008 1. Under sentence structure, she walks the reader through the construction of compound and complex sentences. A compound sentence has two independent clauses (each clause has a subject and a verb and could stand alone as a sentence). Writers connect the two independent clauses with a comma and a coordinate conjunction [for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so]. The sample sentence she provides is: Proofreading is important to catching embarrassing errors, but editing should always happen first. Writers may also join Independent clauses with a semicolon. The sample May provides is: Proofreading is important to catching embarrassing errors; editing should always happen first. To add a transitional element to clauses joined by a semicolon, one might add a conjunctive adverb [consequently, however, therefore, furthermore, then, thus, nevertheless, moreover, indeed, in fact, of course, in addition, in brief]. The example May provides is: Proofreading is important to catching embarrassing errors; however, editing should always happen first. Many students incorrectly use however as a coordinate conjunction. Note that the following example is incorrect: Proofreading is important to catching embarrassing errors, however editing should always happen first. A complex sentence joins a dependent clause (cannot stand alone as a sentence) with an independent clause by using a subordinating conjunction [although, after, because, before, as, if, since, until, when, whereas, while, who, which, that]. If the sentence begins with the dependent clause, it might read: Because I always edit first, my documents are easier to proofread. As May points out, if the dependent clause follows the independent clause, there is no comma: My documents are easier to proofread because I always edit first. 2. Reminders appearing under subject-verb agreement include the rule that singular subjects joined by and become plural, while singular subjects joined by or stay singular. The verb accompanying combinations of singular and plural subjects joined by or depends upon which subject is closer to the verb, while the verb associated with singular collective nouns (like group) is singular. The pronouns everyone, everybody, and each are singular. Do not be fooled when a prepositional phrase falls between the subject and its verb. Note the following examples: Each of the research papers concerns some aspect of Latin American art. None of the students has a textbook. 3. With respect to "active voice," May argues that active voice sentences are clearer, shorter, and easier to remember. Note the difference between the two sample sentences she provides. My manager complimented Jim for his innovative plan. (active) Jim was complimented for his innovative plan by my manager. (passive) Note how the following is even less clear: Jim was complimented for his innovative plan. (passive) This last example is perfectly correct, grammatically speaking, but the reader has no way of knowing who complimented Jim. That is, the agent of the action is missing. [See the next page for situations for the appropriate use of passive voice.] 4. Pronouns are a particular problem for many students. A pronoun must refer back to a noun (antecedent) already mentioned. In some student sentences, there is no noun to which the pronoun refers. In other instances, there are too many potential nouns to which the pronoun might refer. In each case, the pronoun (and, hence, the meaning of the sentence) is ambiguous. For pronouns to function with clarity, they must agree in number (singular or plural) with their antecedents. May illustrates a common pronoun-antecedent error in student papers with the following example: Everyone [singular antecedent] should meet their [plural pronoun] project deadlines. 5. Modifiers are also a problem for some students, whether they are single-word modifiers or phrases. When used incorrectly, modifiers generally result in meanings that students did not intend, some of them quite hilarious. Always make certain that modifiers remain close to the words they modify. Again, May provides examples to illustrate typical problems. To complete the report, you only need to total these figures. (incorrect placement of only) Correct: To complete the report, you need to total only these figures. As a valued customer, your call is important to us. (incorrect; as a valued customer modifies the subject call but is the call really a valued customer?) Corrected: As a valued customer, you are important to us. Source: Debra Hart May, Proofreading: Plain & Simple (1997), pp. 4661

Professor Karen A. Bearor Revised December 2008 ACTIVE VS. PASSIVE VOICE Verbs in English have five major characteristics: person (first, second, and third person), number (singular or plural), tense (present, past, and future tenses and all their permutations), voice (active or passive), and mood (indicative, imperative, and subjunctive). Verbs have three classifications: transitive, intransitive, and linking. The transitive verb concerns us here, as voice is a characteristic of transitive verbs only. A transitive verb requires a direct object (DO), a word or group of words that names a receiver of the action. Example: S V DO The students study art history. This sentence shows the use of active voice, where the subject of the sentence does the action. The subject and the agent of action are the same word: students. S V P OP Art history is studied by students. This passive version of the sample sentence shows that what was originally the direct object is now the subject of the sentence. The verb must now have both an auxiliary be verb plus the past participle form of the main verb. The subject of the sample sentence is now the object of the preposition by. In the passive voice, the subject and object of the action are the same word or word group: art history. In passive voice, the agent of the action is not even necessary to the sentence: Art history is studied. Any clues as to the agent of the action must be inferred from context or from other parts of a sentence. Example: Art history is studied at the university. A reader might infer agency on the part of students, since students are those who generally study at universities, but the agent of action is still ambiguous in the sentence. Perhaps the writer does not know who studies art history? Thus, passive voice lacks clarity, creates wordier sentences, and introduces doubts about the writers grasp of the facts. Passive voice remains useful under certain circumstances, however. The most common are when the agent of the action is unimportant, the agent is unknown, or the agent is common knowledge, so the reader would consider naming it to be superfluous. Passive constructions allow the writer to avoid blaming someone or to avoid responsibility for some action. For example, defense lawyers might want to leave the identity of an action unstated, to create doubt in the minds of jurors. The victim was stabbed five times. Anybody could have done it, right? The vase was broken. A child might say this to avoid admitting that she broke the vase herself. An adult would see through this ruse. A careless use of passive voice might seem the same as the childs evasion, however, as readers might assume that the writer is dodging responsibility, even when this was not the intention. Use caution. Passive voice communicates an impression of objectivity. A scientist working in a laboratory might prefer to write After the chemistry experiment was completed, the data was analyzed rather than After I completed the chemistry experiment, I analyzed the data. Indeed, the textual conventions governing lab reports frown on the use of the first person I or we or the use of researchers names. One particularly important use of passive constructions is the ability of writers to change the emphasis of a sentence. For example, if the topic of a paragraph is a bridge rather than the engineers who built it, the bridge may be made the subject of the sentence by intentionally using a passive construction: The Brooklyn Bridge was designed to combine form and function to dramatic effect. Similarly, if the use of active voice diminishes the point of the sentence, a writer might use passive voice. The legislature should not crucify the poor on the cross of a balanced budget. This sentence places greater emphasis on the legislature than the poor. Clearly, though, the writer is trying to support the poor. He achieves this emphasis in the following: The poor should not be crucified on the cross of a balanced budget. Isolated use of passive voice is fine, but repeated use results in ponderous prose and a general lack of clarityhallmarks of poor writing. Good writers avoid passive voice unless there is a strong justification for its use.

Common Redundancies
absolutely essential absolutely necessary ACT test academic scholar actual facts added bonus advance forward advance warning affluent rich aid and abet all inclusive all-time record alternative choice always and forever A.M. in the morning and etc. anonymous stranger armed gunman ask a question associate together at this point in time attach together autobiography of my life baby calf bad trouble bald-headed bare naked basic fundamentals boat marina boiling hot bouquet of flowers brief moment bunny rabbit burning embers cash money cease and desist chile pepper circle around circulated around classic tradition climb up close scrutiny close proximity closed fist cold frost collaborate together combine together compete with each other complete monopoly complete stop completely destroyed completely filled component parts connect together consensus of opinion continuing on convicted felon crimson red crystal clear current trend dark night delete out depreciate in value descend down disappear from sight drop down down under duplicate copy each and every one elevate up emergency situation empty hole empty space end result enter into equal to one another evil villain evolve over time exact replica exactly the same falling down false illusion famous celebrities favorable approval fellow colleagues female daughter final conclusion first and foremost first of all first priority foreign imports free gift freezing cold full satisfaction future plans gather together grand total greetings and salutations growing greater hanging down HIV virus honest truth hopes and aspirations hot water heater hygienic cleaning I thought to myself ice cold immortalized forever individual person inner core jet plane join together KFC chicken killed dead kitty cat kneel down knowledgeable experts lag behind latex rubber LCD display little baby live audience live witness male son merge together more easier my personal opinion nape of the neck new discovery new innovations new recruit newborn baby null and void off of oral conversation original founder other alternatives outside of over and above pair of twins passing fad past experience past history past tradition personal friend plan ahead postponed until later present time previous history previously recorded prior history proposed plan protective armor protective helmet puppy dog raise up refer back repeat again revert back rising above return back round circle round in shape safe haven sharp point

sink down small child small speck solitary hermit specific example spinning around square box still remains sudden impulse sufficient enough sum total surrounded on all sides swampy marsh tear apart temper tantrum temporary reprieve terrible tragedy three triplets time period tiny bit true fact tuna fish turning around two twins under cover unique individual undergraduate student unexpected surprise unmarried bachelor unmarried old maid unsolved mysteries usual custom wall murals written down Xerox copy young child

For a little humor, see the following guide for writing good. This appears in dozens of forms on the Internet, and lines continue to be added or changed by anonymous contributors. Your professor has assembled this version from several different online copies. HOWTOWRITEGOOD by Frank L. Visco and many anonymous others My several years in the word game have learnt me several rules. 1. Avoid Alliteration. Always. 2. Prepositions are not words to end sentences with. 3. Avoid cliches like the plague. (They're old hat.) 4. Employ the vernacular. 5. Eschew ampersands & and abbreviations, etc. 6. Parenthetical remarks (however relevant) are unnecessary. 7. Parenthetical words however must be enclosed in commas. 8. It is wrong to ever split an infinitive. 9. Contractions aren't necessary and shouldnt be used.. 10. Foreign words and phrases are not apropos. 11. One should never generalize. 12. Eliminate quotations. As Ralph Waldo Emerson said: "I hate quotations. Tell me what you know." 13. Comparisons are as bad as clichs. 14. Don't be redundant; don't use more words than necessary; it's highly superfluous. 15. Profanity sucks. 16. It behooves you to avoid archaic expressions. 17. Avoid archaeic spellings too. 18. Be more or less specific. 19. Understatement is always best. 20. Exaggeration is a billion times worse than understatement. 21. One word- sentences? Eliminate. Always! 22. Analogies in writing are like feathers on a snake. 23. The passive voice should not be used. 24. Go around the barn at high noon to avoid colloquialisms. 25. Take the bull by the hand and avoid mixed metaphors; even if a mixed metaphor sings, it should be derailed. 26. Who needs rhetorical questions? 27. Don't use commas, that, are not, necessary. 28. Do not use hyperbole; not one in a million can do it effectively. 29. Never use a big word where a diminutive alternative would suffice. 30. Subject and verb always has to agree. 31. Placing a comma between subject and predicate, is not correct. 32. Use youre spell chekker to avoid mispelling and to catch typograhpical errers. 33. Don't repeat yourself, or say again what you have said before.

34. Don't be redundant. 35. Use the apostrophe in it's proper place and omit it when its not needed. 36. Don't use no double negatives. 37. Poofread carefully to see if you any words out. 38. Hopefully, you will use words correctly, irregardless of how others use them. 39. Eschew obfuscation. 40. No sentence fragments. 41. Don't indulge in sesquipedalian lexicological constructions. 42. A writer must not shift your point of view. 43. Don't overuse exclamation marks!!! 44. Place pronouns as close as possible, especially in long sentences, as of 10 or more words, to their antecedents. 45. Writing carefully, dangling participles must be avoided. 46. If any word is improper at the end of a sentence, a linking verb is. 47. Avoid trendy locutions that sound flaky. 48. Everyone should be careful to use a singular pronoun with singular nouns in their writing. 49. Always pick on the correct idiom. 50. The adverb always follows the verb. 51. If you reread your work, you can find on rereading a great deal of repetition can be avoided by rereading and editing. 52. capitalize every sentence and remember always end it with point 53. And don't start a sentence with a conjunction. 54. Puns are for children, not groan readers. 55. Always be sure to finish what

PROSPECTUS GUIDELINES for students working with Dr. Bearor* revised July 2010

Your prospectus is a proposal, not a research paper. As a proposal, it must be clear, concise, and persuasive to specialists and non-specialists in your field. Your purpose is to sell your topic to your faculty committee, to convince each member that what you propose to do makes a significant contribution to your field. To put it even more bluntly, and bring it closer to home, you must convince your committee that your topic is time- and degree-worthy. The text of your prospectus (exclusive of the bibliography) should be about nine or ten pages, doublespaced. All aspects of the style of the prospectus (headings, bibliography, and so forth) should follow the Chicago Manual of Style, the default style manual for the department, unless you are otherwise instructed by members of your faculty committee.

Parts of the Prospectus: 1. Introduction 2. Statement of the Problem 3. State of the Literature 4. State of the Question 5. Prcis of Chapters 6. Program of research (doctoral level) 7. Bibliography

1. Introduction This section introduces the topic (a) by providing a brief overview of the issues leading up to the problem under investigation, and (b) by defining the scope and limitations of your project, including the identification of the major figures involved (whether artists, patrons, institutions), date range, and works under consideration. The writing here should excite the interest of the reader, particularly at the beginning, so avoid boring, formulaic sentences or those weakened by dependence upon be verbs. Avoid, too, trying to inflate the importance of your topic by hyperbole. In other words, refrain from opening your introduction with sentences like the following: This thesis will examine blah, blah, blah. [boring, formulaic] There are three paintings by Picasso that are blah, blah, blah. [be verb opening] There is nothing more significant in the study of modernism than blah, blah, blah. [be verb opening, hyperbolic] Finally, your introduction should be concise and to the point, and it should avoid digression or unnecessary details. You should not include any epigraphs; any other quotations should be short and meaningful. Seldom are quotations necessary in any section of the prospectus. 2. Statement of the Problem (and its Significance) What is the area of uncertainty, oversight, or dissatisfaction with present knowledge you intend to address? In what significant way will your thesis provide remedy? What are the questions and hypotheses guiding your research to date? Your statements concerning these questions should clearly and precisely identify the purpose of your proposed manuscript and demonstrate how your work will contribute to advancing knowledge in your field. The identification of your problem establishes the basis for only the first half of your argument,

thoughand every thesis must have an argument. Critical to conducting your research, and for evaluating the appropriateness of the hypotheses you pose, is your methodology. Thus, in this section you should also indicate your approach, whether iconographic, psychoanalytic, social history, feminist, semiotic, or some combination of these or other methodologies. Keep in mind that there is no single approach labeled as feminist, semiotic, iconographic, and so forth. For example, Griselda Pollock, Linda Nochlin, and Amelia Jones all write feminist scholarship, but each authors methodology is fundamentally different. Thus, you might need to cite an author or two whose work provides a model for you, to help clarify your intentions. Identify the advantages your approach offers over other methodologies already applied to the problem at hand. (Be certain that you have weighed the cons as well as the pros in your approach before committing yourself.) In sum, your research methods and your methodology should be appropriate for analyzing the topic and the issues you have chosen to address. Your identification of the precepts guiding your research and analysis forms the basis for the second half of your argument. At the end of this section, then, you should be able to write a clear and concise statement of the argument that will govern the structure of your thesis manuscript and indicate the originality of your work. 3. (Current) State of the Literature Critical to your thesis project is your situating your work with respect to the larger body of existing scholarship, both published and unpublished (dissertations, conference papers). What is the most recent and otherwise most important scholarship on your topic? That is, if you are proposing to write on a specific artist, what is the most recent and significant writing on the artist? Keep in mind that you are presenting to your committee your knowledge of the current state of the scholarly literature. Sometimes the latest research has failed to dislodge the importance of a classic text, which may periodically inspire revived interest. Alternatively, contemporary scholars may still be grappling with issues raised by older texts. So, while the point of this section is to demonstrate your knowledge of what has most recently shaped the discourse on your topic, a few older texts might still figure in the most upto-date assessments. You should mention these, despite their relative age. Do not merely list books and articles, though. Provide some justification for why you are citing these sources above all others. You are presenting a critical overview of the literature. 4. (Current) State of the Question Perhaps the most difficult section of the prospectus is this one, partly because it tends to overlap with the previous section, but also because students often have very fuzzy notions about what question(s) their project will address. This section addresses the problem you are solving, not the nominal topic of your thesis. Thus, if you plan to focus on Charles Demuths object portraits, and you are arguing that his object portraits parallel Gertrude Steins literary word portraits in their metonymic references to the sitter of the portrait, then you should cite here the latest literature on object portraits and on Steins word portraitsnot the latest work on Demuth. The Demuth literature might not say anything significant about the object portraits (the lacunae your work will fill, of course). This is not merely secondary literature, as it might seem at first, but scholarship critical to both your topic and your approach. This literature may not specifically address Charles Demuth, the nominal topic of your thesis, but it addresses the problem you have identified as essential to your overall argument. It might also provide a model for how to structure your own analysis. Again, you are presenting a critical survey. 5. Prcis of Chapters Provide here short summaries of what you will cover in each chapter. Of course, this is preliminary; your plan may change radically with more research. However, your committee must evaluate your skills of organization in carrying out your argument, to determine whether this project promises to be a success. That is, while each chapter may have its own topic and thesis, each must relate to and develop the overall argument stated in section two of the prospectus. These chapter summaries also allow your readers to assess how your work accords with similar works in your area.

You should plan on an introduction, a conclusion, and three or four body chapters (for an MA thesis, two body chapters are adequate). You should have no more than six chapters in all in a dissertation. MA theses should be thirty to fifty pages long, using the universitys required 1.5 line spacing. Dissertations should be about one hundred fifty pages long, with the same spacing. [Ask your thesis/dissertation adviser for examples of manuscripts by former students to read to get some sense of what s/he expects of you.] 6. Program of Research This section is of more importance at the doctoral level than the MA level, as doctoral students must conduct extensive archival research, whereas MA students do not have the same burden. Here you identify the institutions with the most significant archival materials and the extent of those holdings. Most libraries have online listings of their archival collections, including the nature of those collections (correspondence, unpublished manuscripts, and so forth), so this should be easy to quantify. Ideally, you should rank the institutions in order of importance and accessibility. Archival holdings abroad are clearly less accessible than domestic ones, but they might be more important to your research. Archives in countries off limits to U.S. scholars, whether deemed so by government or university decree (a list of these countries should be available online or through the Office of Graduate Studies), may not be accessible at all. This section will help committee members determine whether the topic is truly feasible and what kind of grant money you will require to complete the project. Both MA and doctoral students should provide here a schedule of what you expect to accomplish, including self-imposed and university deadlines. 7. Bibliography Generally speaking, no footnotes or endnotes appear in a prospectus, because you are merely proposing your topic, not arguing it. However, a bibliography is necessary so that your committee can evaluate your research. Have you used the most relevant sources? Have you missed any critical ones? Is your research thorough enough? Clearly, the length of the bibliography will be determined by the project and its scope. Doctoral theses require more research in advance of the prospectus than MA theses, and the attached bibliography should reflect this. All published and unpublished texts cited here should be relevant to your topic and representative of the quality of work to which you want your own compared. Follow the Chicago Manual of Style for format. General Tips Some of these sections may overlapparticularly those devoted to the state of the literature and to the state of the question. However, avoid unnecessary repetition. Your prospectus is a short document. Repetition is both obvious to the reader and annoying. What is extremely usefulboth to help you organize your thoughts and to help your reader locate materialis the use of headings for each section after the introduction (i.e., there should be no heading for the introduction). Err on the side of clarity. Edit yourself. Check for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, typos, poor word usage, missing diacritical marks, and so forth. Within sections, do your paragraphs follow logically? Do you need more transitions to make your points clear? Is your writing persuasive without being overbearing? Write with conviction. Do not be hesitant. Do not say what you hope to accomplish; indicate what you will accomplish. Do not mistake opinions, theories, or interpretations for facts. While you will undoubtedly engage with other scholars opinions in your work, neither substitute their conclusions for your own nor cite their interpretations as proof for your own. You may indicate your agreement with their assessments (and how you came to agree), but make certain that you otherwise argue your own case. Do your own thinking.

You are the authority here. Avoid statements throughout that readers might construe as vague, hyperbolic, sentimental, simplistic, sophomoric, stereotypic, or romantic, as well as sweeping generalizations of any sort.

*The guidelines and advice presented here reflect Dr. Bearors views, which may not be shared by all faculty within the department. Please consult your thesis/dissertation director prior to writing your prospectus.

Criteria for Evaluating the Prospectus * Does the introduction immediately catch the interest of the reader by indicating a topic that is timely and intellectually stimulating? * Does the introduction provide necessary background information to orient the reader? * Is the topic under investigation clearly stated in the introduction, along with any limitations of scope? * Is the problem clearly defined within the statement of the problem? * Is there sufficient rationale for this proposed topic? * Are important or unfamiliar terms defined? * Are authors and dates provided for any books or articles cited in the body of the prospectus? * Are assumptions clearly stated as such? * Is there a viable argument presented, and is it clearly stated? * Is the approach, or any combination of approaches, fully explicated? * Is the approach appropriate for the problem stated and for the planned program of research? * Does the prospectus demonstrate sufficient command of the topic and its contingent issues for there to be promise of successful completion of the project? * Does the prospectus demonstrate sufficient command of the literature pertaining to the topic? * Is the proposed topic grounded in a larger body of research? * Is related scholarship examined critically and gaps identified? * Does a consistent conceptual framework unite the argument, the research questions proposed, the methodology, and the chapter summaries? * Are the proposed chapters logically sequenced? * Is the number of proposed chapters appropriate for the topic and for an MA or doctoral thesis in general? * Does it appear from the chapter summaries that the writer plans an economic execution of the project? That is, is the sequence of chapters focused on the argument and its development without the burden of tangential excursions? * Does the bibliography indicate sufficient breadth and depth of research for a prospectus? * Does the prospectus reflect correct and consistent use of the Chicago Manual of Style for issues of style and formatting? * Did the student proofread the copy for mistakes of grammar, spelling, word usage, and punctuation? * Does the prospectus demonstrate adequate advance communication with the director of the thesis and the committee members? * Is the proposed topic feasible in terms of access to archival materials? * Is it likely that the student will complete the research and writing of this project by the university-imposed deadline?

S. I. Hayakawas Ladder of Abstraction

S. I. Hayakawa was a linguist/semanticist who also served as a college president at San Francisco State University and later a U.S. Senator from California. He popularized his concept of the Ladder of Abstraction in Language in Thought and Action (1949), an expansion of his earlier Language in Action, a Book-of-the-Month Club selection in 1941. In the preface to his Cold War era Language in Thought and Action, he wrote about the inspiration for his earlier book, published just before the U.S. entry into World War II: The original version of this book, Language in Action, published in 1941, was in many respects a response to the dangers of propaganda, especially as exemplified in Adolf Hitlers success in persuading millions to share his maniacal and destructive views. It was the writers conviction then, as it remains now, that everyone needs to have a habitually critical attitude towards language his own as well as that of others both for the sake of his personal well-being and for his adequate functioning as a citizen. The Ladder of Abstraction uses a figurative ladder to indicate levels of concreteness or specificity in language. At the low rungs, one finds nouns with specific, detailed information. Up the ladder, nouns become increasingly abstract. Most arguments require movement up and down the ladder. The author needs to explain some abstract ideas and then provide specific evidentiary support. Readers get lost if the author spends too much time at either extreme. For example, a low-level writer provides substantial information, but he or she provides no directions to tell you how to interpret or apply it. On the other hand, a high-level writer speaks in vague abstractions and never gets specific. Political rhetorictraditional values, death panels, corporate welfareis a perfect example of the use of abstractions to arouse emotions and mask details, and it typifies the dangers of propaganda that inspired Hayakawas ladder in the first place. Good writers use the appropriate rungs of the ladder to say what they want to say. The higher they climb, the more universal their claims; the lower they descend, the more particular their claims. Most good writing mixes the high and low, with a bias toward the concrete information of the lower rungs.

Level Four: Abstractions Examples: life, beauty, love, time, success, power, happiness, faith, hope, charity, evil, good Level Three: Noun classes: broad group names with little specification. Examples: people, men, women, everybody, nobody, industry, we, goals, things, television Level Two: Noun categories: more definite groups. Examples: teenagers, middle-class, clothing industry, parents, college campus, newborn child, sitcoms, house plants

Level One: Specific, identifiable nouns Examples: my apartment, Citizen Kane, Janes husband, John F. Kennedy, Independence Hall, African violets

Page from S. I. Hayakawas Language in Thought and Action (1949) illustrating the ladder of abstraction.

ARH 5625 Fall 2012 Bearor

Research Paper Assignment

Students must write a research paper of approximately 4000 words.
Topics should concern documentary photography or film created in the U.S. since 1880. The example chosen as your focus should have at its essence the desire to persuade an audience to some point of view and be amenable to a rhetorical analysis. Ideally, students should have available supporting materials such as information about a commission, contemporary critical responses, artists or directors statements about the work, a book in which the work originally appeared, or similar evidence to ground their interpretations in factual data and get as close as possible to the works material context. Materials students might consider include propaganda, films promoting social agendas (health, sanitation, transportation, improved living conditions), films promoting presidential candidates, governmentsponsored art intended to persuade citizens to some point of view (FSA photography, photo-murals, prewar propaganda), Civil Rights-era documentaries, or Vietnam-era documentaries.

MA students and non-majors must write about a single photographic work or brief photo series or a single film, while doctoral students have a little more latitude on topic, so long as it is narrow enough for in-depth coverage within the assigned paper length. Your professor must approve topics in advance. Students must meet with the professor at some point during the first three weeks of the semester to discuss the paper topic. While it is unlikely that students have written an earlier paper on a topic suitable for this class, it should be said that students may not work on a topic they have used for any other course, even if they are taking a different slant on relevant issues. Students may not work on topics related to their MA or doctoral theses.
IMPORTANT: Details regarding the format of the paper appear in the course style guide, on pages 24. As stated there, your paper must include the following six elements:

cover sheet (include author information, date, body text word count, and title) abstract body of the paper endnotes (preferred over footnotes, as publishers no longer use footnotes) bibliography (not annotated) figures
The due date for the paper appears in the course syllabus. Pre-writing assignments, including the submission of an annotated bibliography, a preliminary abstract and introductory paragraphs, as well as feedback on a PowerPoint presentation will help students prepare for writing the final paper. Your paper must represent original research. It should not be a report, summary, or mere synthesis of what one finds in existing literature. Your paper should have an argument and a point of view

representing a sophisticated, critical assessment of some art historical problem, beyond the obvious or superficial. While demonstration of substantive research is one of the goals of the assignment, this alone is insufficient to merit an A on your paper. Strive for publishable quality in your paper. The submitted manuscript should NOT be a first draft written a day or two before the due date. [As Stephen King has written in his book On Writing: A Memoir of the Craft (2000), Only God gets it right the first time and only a slob says, Oh well, let it go, thats what copyeditors are for. (p. 212)] Students should have already proofread their papers, attending to spelling, typographic, and grammatical errors in addition to any logical inconsistencies and organizational problems, like page-long unruly paragraphs. Avoid sloppy and dishonest scholarship. Make certain that direct quotations are, in fact, direct. Do not change the wording to suit your argument. If discovered, it will be your responsibility to prove that any wording changes are the result of accident and not dishonesty. Similarly, if you paraphrase someone elses comments, make certain that you are not manipulating what they have said for your own purposes. If you are taking fragments of thought out of context, make certain that what you reassemble in your paper remains faithful to what your source was saying. Falsifying evidence to support your argument is akin to plagiarism in its dishonesty and merits the same penalties. Politicians may falsify or ignore evidence in making their claims, but scholars must maintain a higher level of integrity in their work. Plagiarism: Plagiarism is not tolerated by your professor. Any ideas or comments borrowed from outside sources, whether quoted verbatim or paraphrased, should be footnoted. If they are not, you have committed plagiarism. In addition to the theft of ideas and phrasing, plagiarism is the theft of structure, supporting evidence and lines of reasoning. [James Cox, A Plague of Plagiarism, USA Today 25 July 1991, p. 2B] To re-state: You must footnote ALL direct quotations AND any ideas, supporting evidence, or arguments that you borrow or paraphrase from any source. If you are unclear about what plagiarism is, please talk with your professor. I have zero tolerance for plagiarism. Dishonesty is dishonesty. Period. Any paper with even ONE passage taken from an undocumented source will receive an F. Any paper with even ONE unfootnoted direct quote will receive an F. Any paper determined to have been partially or fully written by someone else, even if the student has made minor changes to disguise the fact, will receive a 0. This penalty also applies to a paper with multiple passages taken from undocumented sources. The student will receive an F for the course, and your professor will consider formal charges of plagiarism. DO NOT TAKE THE CHANCE. ITS NOT WORTH IT. Recommendations: Use formal English. Do not use contractions and slang. Use complete sentences. Do not place me in the awkward position of trying to decide whether an incomplete sentence is an error or a stylistic flourish.

ARH 5625 Fall 2012 Bearor

Use a dictionary or computer spell-checker. Consult a usage dictionary to assist you in correct word usage. Do not assume that synonyms found in a thesaurus have the same usage. Consult a grammar guide for correct sentence structure. There are now a number of good online grammar guides and related resources, such as online writing labs. I also recommend Bruce Ross-Larson's Edit Yourself: A Manual for Everyone Who Works with Words for tips in making your writing more clear, less cumbersome, and less turgid. Theodore Cheneys Getting the Words Right: How to Rewrite, Edit & Revise is useful, as well. In writing, try not to pack everything into a single sentence, what James J. Kilpatrick calls portmanteau sentences. [James J. Kilpatrick, The Writers Art (1984), p. 87] Kilpatrick, whose book is a marvelous guide to writing, offers the following recommendation for good writing: The best writingthe writing that is quotable, that zings and stings and packs a wallopdepends on many elements. It depends on having something to say and on saying it clearly; it depends upon fresh metaphors and lively similes, and of course the grammar and syntax and spelling have to be right. But when all those elements have been raked and weeded and watered, our prose gardens demand something more: cadence. (p. 106) Check his book for more about the cadence or rhythm of writing the polish one puts on the final product. Quotations should be used sparingly to support an argument or contention, not replace one. Remember: Your argument should be the armature of your paper; your data should be the attached clay. Clay will not stand by itself. Further, do not quote something obvious (Mary Cassatt was associated with the Impressionists) or merely descriptive (painting X depicts a blue house perched upon a grassy hill). Grading: Your paper will be judged on its content (how well you have handled the topic; how well you have argued and discussed your points; the logic of your argument; and so forth) and your writing skills (word usage, grammar, punctuation, organization, spelling, neatness, etc.). Assuming that the paper is the required length and is submitted on or before the due date, the following general criteria for grading apply (more specific deductions will be tallied on the grading rubric attached to your course syllabus): An A paper: strives for publishable quality; demonstrates thorough research and understanding of the topic and relevant issues; takes an original stance with respect to the material (i.e., is not a mere survey of existing literature or a report on someone else's point of view); argues persuasively; demonstrates logical organization of material; is to the point, avoiding vague word usage and generalities; and is factually and grammatically correct. A B paper: demonstrates thorough research and understanding of the question and relevant issues; takes a stance with respect to the material; may lack the persuasiveness of an A paper, but should not fail totally to persuade; may exhibit minor organizational problems and/or a few grammatical errors.

A C paper: meets minimum requirements of the assignment (length, etc.) but does not otherwise meet minimum standards expected of graduate students in this discipline; may demonstrate superficial research and/or analysis of the topic; may fail to persuade; may demonstrate significant problems in organization and/or grammar. A D or F paper: does not come up to C paper standards. Regarding the length of the paper: The assigned length is 4000 words. I allow some flexibility, depending upon the difficulty of the topic, but do not count on too much generosity in this regard. Unless there is some compelling reason to rule otherwise, a paper will be judged short below 3750 words and will be graded accordingly. The maximum grade for a short paper is C (i.e., a 20-point deduction) assuming it is otherwise an excellent paper. Late work: Unless the student has a reason that accords with the universitys policy on excused absences, or unless the professor has agreed to grant an extension in consultation with the student, all assignments are by 5 p.m. on the deadline date. Late papers will be penalized 5 points per day.

Grading Rubric
Thesis (20 points):
The first paragraph sets up the topic and identifies the problem, its significance, and why it remains unresolved. The thesis statement is sound, clear, and identifiable and appears in or near the first paragraph. The writer fixes a viewpoint and provides a course of action, or sequence of steps, to resolve the problem (methodology). The thesis connects well with the paper title.

Structure/Organization/Clarity (15 points):

The paper structure is appropriate for the thesis. The writer provides cues or road signs for readers, so they can readily pinpoint their location in the resolution of the problem. Transitions lead readers from point to point. Paragraphs have topic sentences, and all paragraph content connects to those topic sentences.

Use of evidence (15 points):

The paper engages with and builds on accepted scholarship in the field; it does not merely cite sources. Evidence (visual, factual, deductions by recognized scholars) supports the argument and subarguments. Quotations are integrated within paragraphs; they do not stand alone without substantive comment and justification. Quotations are limited in length. The paper displays thorough understanding of source materials and faithfulness to their authors positions. The paper is factually correct. Endnotes adequately and honestly represent the writers use of outside sources.

Analysis (15 points):

The paper displays critical thinking and avoids mere synthesis and summary of information (reportage). The paper proposes new ways to think about the material or problem or fills gaps in the scholarship.

Logic and Argumentation (15 points):

All ideas in the paper flow logically. The argument is identifiable, coherent, reasonable, and sound. Subarguments clearly relate to the main thesis. The writer anticipates and successfully defuses counterarguments. The writer makes interesting connections to comparanda or other materials to illuminate the thesis.

Mechanics (20 points):

The paper displays sound sentence structure, grammar, and diction (choice and use of words). The writer uses correct punctuation and citation style (Chicago Manual of Style). The writer proofread the paper to correct spelling errors, typos, run-on sentences, or comma splices. The writer follows conventions on use of italics for titles and capitalization. The paper conforms to all format instructions and includes all requires parts.

Total Points: Deductions:

Late (10 points/day) Length (20 points for body text of 3750 words or fewer) Other:

Final Grade: Comments:

ARH 5625 Fall 2012 Bearor

Your Paper Proposal (Prospectus)

A prospectus is a proposal for a research project submitted before actually writing the paper or completing the research. Generally, what are the parts of the prospectus? 1. A prospectus contains a clear, concise introduction to the topic of the research. 2. A prospectus states the main research question(s) that the researcher wishes to address. 3. A prospectus summarizes the basic arguments that surround the research topic. 4. A prospectus lists the basic research materials already consulted and those remaining to be consulted.

For YOUR prospectus:

Write a minimum of two paragraphs. The first paragraph introduces your subject. Identify the work of art you have selected (artist, title, date, size, location). No location is needed for a photograph, copies of which may exist in a number of collections. You should also provide a brief description of the work. Your second paragraph indicates those questions about the work you plan to pursue. Based upon your research so far, identify which authors have already addressed your work in connection with the questions you have chosen, even if this is minimal. Finally, specify what research you have already done: What major books and/or scholarly articles have you found? What library database searches have you done? What documentary videos might you have found online? What research areas remain to be investigated? I do not expect that you have fully digested all the materials you have found, but you should know what is available and appears to be useful. Your proposal should be single spaced, 12 pt font. While the length of the proposal may vary from one topic to another, I will consider anything shorter than one-half page of text to be insubstantial and unworthy of a passing grade. Your prospectus should not be more than one full page of text. You will be graded on the appropriateness of your topic, the substance of your prospectus, and the thoroughness of your preliminary research. Please append an illustration of your work of art. The due date appears in your syllabus.

ARH 5625 Fall 2012 Bearor

Annotated Bibliography Assignment

The due date for this assignment appears on your course syllabus. 1. Cover sheet: After providing your own name and date, please type the artists name, the title, and location of the work(s) on which you are focusing, where relevant. (If you are writing about a photograph or film, its location is ordinarily not useful.) 2. On a second sheet, begin your annotated bibliography. No title is necessary for this assignment. Your bibliography should have a minimum of five (5) scholarly sourcesthat is, sources written by academics, although they do not have to be art historians. In cases where it is clear that a museum curator or catalogue contributor has based his or her essay on independent scholarship, and the essay is well developed (not a one-page introduction or summary information about a work of art derivative of other scholars research), such an essay is also acceptable. Do not mix annotated and unannotated sources. If you want to do so, you may append a list of sources you have not annotated to indicate to me what you have located but have not yet fully digested. You will not get extra credit for this appended material, but your professor may be able to give feedback on this material, to assist you. Your annotated sources should represent the most important resources to date. Do NOT list textbooks (Pohl, Janson, Stokstad, and so forth), general survey texts (like a survey of twentieth-century art movements, even those put out by Grove, Pelican, or Oxford), encyclopedias, dictionaries, blogs, wikipedias, or websites. Website exceptions would be those with scholarly essays signed and maintained by scholars, not enthusiasts, and with text that is footnoted. (Check with your professor ahead of time if you have a question regarding a website.) You may list articles found through online databases, such as JSTOR, Project Muse, and so forth. Cite the original journal and page numbers, if indicated, and cite the URL and access date. Your sources must be books, signed essays in exhibition catalogues, scholarly articles, or primary sources. (Primary sources generally are materials written by your artist, including published texts, transcripts of speeches and lectures, diaries, interviews you have conducted, correspondence, and the like. Primary sources may also include writings by contemporary critics, for instance, where the opinion of that critic is important to your point.) List your sources alphabetically. Use the Chicago Manual of Style/Turabian form for bibliographic citation (the form used in your style guide). Treat a catalogue essay as a chapter in a book. Your annotation for each source should immediately follow the citation. For each source, provide a three-paragraph annotation. Use complete sentences. Your paragraph lengths should be approximately five to ten lines. Do not exceed twelve lines per paragraph. Your first paragraph should state the type of information located in this source, whether any of the information relates directly to your chosen artwork, or whether the information relates to

ARH 5625 Fall 2012 Bearor

your chosen artwork in an indirect way (for example, your object is a portrait, and the source discusses other portraits by your artist). Your second paragraph should indicate the authors point of view regarding the material relevant to your topic, as well as the general strengths and weaknesses of the source. Your third paragraph should say whether this source promises to be useful to your paper and how. Format: Use 12 pt. New Times Roman font. Your citations and annotations should be single-spaced. In accordance with CMS, the citation should be typed in hanging indent form. Please add a return between the citation and your annotation, and between your annotation and the next citation. Otherwise, follow the paragraph formatting of one of the examples below. Do not mix formatting styles. Example one: OHare, Mary Kate, Constructive Spirit: Abstract Art in South and North America, 1920s50s. In Constructive Spirit: Abstract Art in South and North America, 1920s50s, edited by Mary Kate OHare, 1645. San Francisco: Pomegranate, 2010. This paragraph identifies the type of information found in the source and indicates how that information relates to your work of art. Blah, blah, blah. This paragraph indicates the authors point of view, such as whether the author applies a critical analysis or provocative interpretation of your subject, or whether he or she is largely writing a hagiographic biography. Ideally, the paragraph identifies whether the author is an academic or museum professional, although his or her institution is not important here. Do other scholars consider this source a definitive one? Perhaps the frequency of its citation in the literature is indicative of this. What lends further credibility to the source is whether the author is an established scholar or critic, although a younger academic or someone from a different discipline may offer a unique perspective worthy of pursuing. Do your best to determine this information. This paragraph also includes a critical assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the source. Blah, blah, blah. This paragraph tells the reader how this source is useful to your research paper. Blah, blah, blah. Example two: OHare, Mary Kate, Constructive Spirit: Abstract Art in South and North America, 1920s50s. In Constructive Spirit: Abstract Art in South and North America, 1920s50s, edited by Mary Kate OHare, 1645. San Francisco: Pomegranate, 2010. This paragraph identifies the type of information found in the source and indicates how that information relates to your work of art. Blah, blah, blah. This paragraph indicates the authors point of view, such as whether the author applies a critical analysis or provocative interpretation of your subject, or whether he or she is

ARH 5625 Fall 2012 Bearor

largely writing a hagiographic biography. Ideally, the paragraph identifies whether the author is an academic or museum professional, although his or her institution is not important here. Do other scholars consider this source a definitive one? Perhaps the frequency of its citation in the literature is indicative of this. What lends further credibility to the source is whether the author is an established scholar or critic, although a younger academic or someone from a different discipline may offer a unique perspective worthy of pursuing. Do your best to determine this information. This paragraph also includes a critical assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the source. Blah, blah, blah. This paragraph tells the reader how this source is useful to your research paper. Blah, blah, blah.

ChicagoManualofStyleSampleBibliography

Bibliography Adler,RichardandJerryRoss."WhateverLolaWants(LolaGets)."InDamnYankees.Miami,FL:CCP Belwin,1983:7681.

AnAmericanBallroomCompanion:DanceInstructionManualsca.14901920.TheLibraryof CongressAmericanMemory. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/dihtml/dihome.html(accessed

August16,2006). Bell,DavidA."NapoleonintheFlesh." MLN120,no.4(September2005):71115.
th Benedict,Barbara."TheAdventuresofCountBoruwlaski,an18 CenturyPolishDwarf."Lecture,Trinity College,Hartford,CT,March16,2006.

Fordham,Finn."SpookyJoyce."ReviewofJamesJoycesUlysses:aCasebook,ed.DerekAttridge,and Ulysses:ContemporaryCriticalEssays,ed.RainerEmig.TheJournalofAmericanCulture13,no.2 (April2006):36773. KimJongilReleasesaSummerBlockbuster.MorningEdition.WNPRConnecticutPublicRadio.Meriden, CT:WPKT,August14,2006. Lipka,Sara.ABlogGivesProfessorsSpacetoVentAboutTheirStudents."TheChronicleofHigher Education52,no.21(Jan.27,2005):37. http://find.galegroup.com/itx/infomark(accessedAugust 10,2006). Lysistrata.ByAristophanes.DirectedbyBarbaraKargerandMichaelPreston.GoodwinTheater,AustinArts Center,Hartford,CT,April20,2006. Mauritius.Washington,D.C.:CentralIntelligenceAgency,1988. Rosenblum,Robert.ReviewofSalvadorDal.PhiladelphiaMuseumofArt.Artforum 48,no.10(Summer 2005):319320. Seaward,BrianLuke.ManagingStress:PrinciplesandStrategiesforHealthandWellbeing.Boston:Jones &Bartlett,1999.http://www.netlibrary.com/Reader/(accessedAugust10,2006). Sono,Ayako.NoReasonforMurder.TranslatedbyEdwardPutzer.NewYork:ICGMuse,2003. U.S.DepartmentofEducation.NationalCenterforEducationStatistics.TheRoadLessTraveled?Students WhoEnrollinMultipleInstitutions.ByKatharinPeterandEmilyForrestCataldi.NCES2005157. Washington,D.C.:U.S.UnitedStatesGovernmentPrintingOffice,2005. Warner,CharlesDudley.MySummerinaGarden.Boston:JamesR.Osgood,1871.

Formoreinformationabouteachpartofthecitationandforexamplesofpageformattingofreferencessee: http://citesource.trincoll.edu/chicago/index.html
TRINITY COLLEGELIBRARYHartford,Connecticut

ARH 5625 Fall 2012 Bearor

Abstract Assignment
This assignment is an exercise in writing a prcis of your planned paper. Technically, authors write abstracts after completing a paper, not before, so this assignment should properly be a prospectus assignment. However, abstract tends to be the word many people use for both, and, within the department, it prevents confusion with the prospectus written for a thesis or dissertation. We will leave it at that. This assignment has two purposes. First, it forces you to condense your thoughts to their most essential elements while still being persuasive, to see for yourself if there are logical inconsistencies or glaring problems in your thinking. Second, it provides your professor with something in writing she can evaluate for the same purpose, while you still have time to make course corrections for the research paper. You will revise your abstract for the final paper to reflect changes or corrections. Your abstract should be 500 words long. The due date appears in your course syllabus. For format, follow the instructions in your style guide on page 3. Content: Your abstract should provide the rationale for your paper topic and your argument, as you are planning to execute it in your paper. Your abstract, like your paper, should open with a sentence that makes your topic sound interesting and worth the readers time. Your thesis should be clearly stated somewhere in your abstract, preferably in the first or second paragraph. You should address what you hope to prove and how you plan to prove it. Your point of view should be evident, and your abstract should make clear your contribution to the scholarship. You should analyze rather than synthesize information or lionize an artist through his or her work. If you are working with a theorists ideas, that should be clear in your abstract. If your paper argues against the ideas of an established scholar, that should also be evident. Aside from attending to grammar and punctuation, you should make certain you are consistent. Step back and think about how all the parts of your abstract and your planned paper hold together. That is, if your introductory paragraph(s) and your thesis statement suggest you are going to focus on interpretation, but a later paragraph suggests your focus is biography, stylistic analysis, or social context, your reader is likely to be confused as to your true purpose. [See the attached book review to see other types of inconsistencies to avoid here and in your paper.] If you have ideas that are not holding together, you may need to go one conceptual step above your planned analysis to find an argument that unites everything. [See S. I. Hayakawas ladder of abstraction in the style guide.] Just do not go up so far that all your points are general or superficial. Attached is a copy of a proposal for a conference paper, as it has the general features of an abstract. Other examples of abstracts are on Blackboard, as possible models for your writing.

Karen A. Bearor Florida State University

ILLUSTRATORS BURYING THE TRUTH AT WOUNDED KNEE

Lurid accounts of the millennialist Messiah Craze and the religious frenzy of the Sioux appeared in newspapers and weeklies from the last months of 1890 through early 1891, leading up to and then offering a postmortem on the massacre at Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota. Even popular book-length accounts of the Ghost Dance phenomenon, rushed to presses within weeks of Wounded Knee to capitalize on public interest, condemned journalists for their excesses. Nevertheless, these books publishers lured consumers with such sensationalistic titles as Indian Horrors, Or Massacres By the Red Men and reproductions of the same scaremongering images that had complemented the earlier journalists accounts in newspapers and illustrated weeklies. Many have written about the circumstances leading up to the Wounded Knee massacre, but few have said anything about the imagery. For the most part, authors of scholarly and popular texts mention illustrations only in passing, without reproducing them, and dismiss them as merely stereotypical. Exploiting the horrors of the massacre itself, with the often-seen photographs of Big Foots frozen body or the mass burial of the Sioux dead, seems more important than any deliberations about the imagery contributing to the hysteria in the first place. When an illustration is included, it is often Frederic Remingtons rendering of the Ghost Dance from Harpers Weekly. While the most accurate, Remingtons representation of the ceremony is also the least sensationalistic. Thus, not only is the general character of this imagery inaccessible to modern readers, who should understand better how public opinion was manipulated in 1890, but how the illustrations functioned within the pages of their respective publications is lost. This paper looks at selected representations of the Ghost Dance to demonstrate how and why they were used. I will argue that, apart from their utility in selling papers, certain features of these images were intended to convey the pro-military sympathies of papers at the peak of the bitter feud over whether military or civilian control of Indian affairs was most efficacious. Liberated from their placement within the newspapers and illustrated weeklies, however, the illustrations quickly became fodder for those who sought only to dehumanize the Sioux, and mere stereotypes to be dismissed by modern historians.

Sample Book Review: Identifying Inconsistencies

The following is an online customer review by D. N. Roth of Susan Sessions Rughs Are We There Yet?: The Golden Age of American Family Vacations (2008), at Amazon.com, dated 14 August 2008 http://www.amazon.com/Are-There-Yet-VacationsCultureamerica/dp/0700615881/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1280317073&sr=1 -6 [accessed 17 July 2010] NOTE: Your professor does not endorse this reviewers substitution of cites for citations. Cites is a verb, not a noun. Further, the reviewer incorrectly hyphenates well-edited in the second paragraph, among a handful of other punctuation errors. Otherwise, this review, while not balanced, is indicative of the types of scathing reviews one sees of published work written by careless authors who are inconsistent and who neglect to define their terms adequately. As the author also supplies insufficient or inappropriate evidence to support her claims, according to this reviewer, she weakens her argument and fails to persuade. The only thing worse the reviewer could write would be that the author plagiarized or falsified data, signally dishonesty. Pay attention to these criticisms to avoid making similar mistakes in your own work. You never want to have someone write such reviews of your work. -----------------------------------------Although I found Rugh's summaries of complaint letters received by the NAACP and National Park Service to be captivating, her book is riddled with minor errors, inconsistencies in argument, claims beyond the scope of her compiled evidence (mostly secondary sources), and outright incorrect citing of sources. These errors overshadow the amount of decent research performed. The book is not well-edited. Rugh confuses the plural with the singular as "camping materials" becomes "it" (p. 144) or "park operators" becomes "he" (p. 148). She becomes lost in her summaries as sources seem to overlap and stories and pronouns become confused (see pp. 157-158 in her discussion of the Gilmans' resort and mixing it up with Ryan's narrative). She states that Sinking Spring Farm is in Rockport, Indiana, when it is actually located near Hodgenville, Kentucky (p. 54). The New England Thruway becomes "The New England thruway" (p. 75). She refers to "The phenomenon of 30,000 motels" (p. 36) when just mentioning that the number of motels peaked at 51,000 (p. 35). These types of errors pepper her book. Her arguments are not consistent through the book. At the beginning, she is careful to state that the family ideal in the 1950s did not really exist according to historians (p. 6), but then says she focused on families that fit the ideal (p. 11) and then makes assumptions about postwar reality based upon advertising, and other popular culture (see pp. 125-126 for an example regarding camping). She draws all sorts of generalizations about reality from advertising and popular culture when such research should have been

presented as how businesses viewed the needs of the public (i.e. not a portrayal of what exactly was occurring in families). At one point, she refers to how the United States became a multicultural mosaic in the 1970s, rather than a country defined by cartographers as a collection of regions (p. 54). However, later in the book, Rugh relies on defining various regions of the United States, sometimes poorly (see pp. 156-157 for an example: "Visitors were usually from the Midwest, but less than a third came from Minnesota, with 20 percent from Illinois, 18 percent from Iowa and about 5 percent each from Indiana, Missouri and Nebraska." Compare p. 74 where Indiana is in the Midwest. How does she define these regions?). The layers of inconsistency are confusing to the reader. Her terms are ill-defined, such as "class" and even "vacation." Her "middle class" (the class she decided to focus on) included herself, the daughter of a Harvard-educated father, a Radcliffe alum, and a woman whose family could afford a two-week excursion including airfare and rented car. At different times in the book she both accepts and dismisses weekend trips as part of her focus (i.e. writes of people traveling from New York City to the Catskills by expressway, but then laments how weekend trips are supposedly becoming more common nowadays). This lack of definition hampers her discussion, especially when she's trying to answer questions as broad as: "How did this madness get started?" (p. 2). Throughout the book, her claims are inadequately supported by the cites provided. She makes the claim that more middle-class Americans could afford to go to Europe at some point after her "Golden Age" (whenever that was--the exact end of the study period is unclear) and cites a 1954 Gallup poll, a 1962 outdoor recreation survey, and the entire book, "The Conquest of Cool" by Thomas Frank (p. 6). The statement that "...as a result of intense competition from the Arab oil embargo, by 1980 gas stations found they no longer needed maps to attract motorists" is "supported" by a book on road map art and a publication by Rand McNally on free road maps dated "ca. 1972-1973" (p. 45). She uses a single, three-page article from the Ladies' Home Journal to argue that vacations came to be viewed as a threat to the family (pp. 178-179). Even the number of interviews and other transcripts used to characterize the postwar road trip was woefully small for her subsequent conclusions (especially when considering that millions of surviving baby boomers provide an accessible pool of valuable memories). The list of broad claims being flimsily supported by their associated cites is quite long. And then there are cites that are completely wrong altogether. In another mention of the Arab oil embargo's negative effect, she uses a 1946 Gallup Poll (p. 12, Note 25). The claim that "The rapid resumption of pleasure travel surprised everyone in its scale" is supported by President Truman's travel logs (p. 3, Note 5). "A postwar map and guide" was actually published during the war circa 1942 (p. 59, Note 39). Perhaps the most frustrating is a cite that refers to pages of the 1962 outdoor recreation survey that cover sporting events, rather than a host of statistics regarding national park visitation and camper registration (p. 120, Note 6).

Basing her claims in more primary sources would have helped this book tremendously. This is why her research of the letters sent to the NAACP and NPS were the best parts of the book (her review of oral histories regarding Minnesota resorts a close second). She ignored data that would have helped strengthen or amend her claims regarding this era of travel (most notably U.S. Department of Transportation's Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey) and instead opted for easier, weaker ways out (newspaper articles, advertising, popular culture, etc.). In short, the book was very disappointing due to all of the errors and concerns I have mentioned here.

ARH 5625 Fall 2012 Bearor

Peer Workshop Guidelines and Procedures

The goal of a peer workshop is to help each writer see what aspects of the writing assignment still need work and to suggest possible revisions. The writer is able to get feedback from readers to help make the final paper as effective as possible. This process helps the student writer learn how to edit his/her work. It also helps the student writer learn appropriate responses to peer reviews and editor comments in the publication process. Ahead of time: (1) According to the assigned deadline, submit your abstract, your introductory paragraphs, and an outline of the paper for posting and sharing on Blackboard. Papers need no further explanation or excuses; the text should stand on its own. (2) Print out and write comments directly on the abstract and introductory paragraphs for each of your fellow students. You will give these comments directly to the writer at the end of the workshop discussion. (3) In assessing the work of your peers, consider the following: (a) Is the topic clear? The argument? If one or the other is not clear, how might the writer improve the clarity? (b) Has the writer proposed an interesting intellectual problem or question? That is, does the proposed problem or question promise a complex, thoughtful response or execution? If not, how might the writer push his/her ideas further? (c) As far as can be determined, has the writer considered his/her argument with respect to lacunae or errors in existing scholarship? That is, does the writer locate the question within the larger, ongoing scholarly discussion about the topic? (d) Has the writer indicated a logical sequence of steps to solve the problem argued? That is, does the proposed method of solving the problem appear to be an economical and promising one? Is the organization clear? (e) Does the introductory paragraph define all terms critical to understanding the argument? Does this paragraph provide enough context to understand the significance of the argument? Too much? (f) Is the language of the thesis statement (argument) vivid and clear? In short, is the sentence the very best possible sentence in terms of structure? (g) Does the introduction engage you as the reader? Does it make you want to read further? (h) Is all the information presented in the abstract and introductory paragraphs relevant to the proposed argument? If not, where does the author lose you? Should something be deleted? Expanded? Clarified? (i) Does the writer include any broad generalizations or vague comments? How might s/he improve these statements? (j) Is the writers tone appropriate or effective? About your dual roles in the workshop, as both readers and as writers:

ARH 5625 Fall 2012 Bearor

Readers: You are the audience of the texts, and your task is to help the writer achieve his/her desired reaction. The workshop is not a time for you to read your responses to the writer; s/he can read your written comments later. The workshop is a time to talk with the writer about your reactions and to indicate areas you think need more development, structure, or clarity. Your comments are neither right nor wrong; they are your opinion. Your opinion helps the writer know how readers are reacting. S/he can decide whether to revise the text later to address your concerns. Focus on the argument and main ideas as presented. While it may be helpful to address the clarity of the prose in a particular area, keep in mind that the whole may be rewritten, so specific comments regarding grammar or diction may not be particularly useful. Ask yourself what two or three things you might say that would help the text the most. Writers: Keep in mind that most of us have trouble responding well to criticism of our own writing. Writing can be personal, and sometimes it is difficult to separate criticism of the writing from criticism of our ideas or even criticism of ourselves. Approach the workshop with a positive attitude. Remember that the session is for your benefit and will help you improve your writing before it is graded. If you seek out constructive advice, you will usually elicit it. Try to avoid becoming overly defensive. If you argue with your readers reactions and suggestions, you defeat the purpose of the workshop. If you feel you are getting defensive, ask questions to elicit responses on those areas you wanted most feedback. This will help create a situation in which you are working with the readers and not against them. Remember, you do not have to accept every reader suggestion unquestionably. In some cases, two or more readers may disagree about some point, or their comments may be contradictory. Ask them to explain or elaborate for clarity. Your goal is to get the help necessary to improve your writing. If your readers did not seem to understand what you are planning to do in the paper, explain yourself in the workshop to find out where you (or they) might have gone astray.

ARH 5625 Fall 2012 Bearor

PowerPoint Presentation
You are to make a PowerPoint presentation to the class that serves two purposes: (1) to get additional feedback on your paper topic before you commit to the final writing process; and (2) to get practice in making formal presentations of your own research, as you will in future conferences, symposia, and job interviews. The amount of time you have to speak will depend upon the number of students in the class and how many class sessions will be needed to allow all students to present. This decision will be made in class. Generally, students are allowed 15 to 20 minutes apiece, with an additional allowance of 5 minutes for questions and comments. You are to use PowerPoint. This is the default program for presentations at conferences. Your slides should be neat, your images as clear and high in resolution as possible. All images should have captions to identify what viewers are seeing. Roughly speaking, you should have half the number of slides as you have minutes. So, for a 20minute talk, you should have about 10 slides. Ideally, you should not leave a single image on the screen for more than 2 minutes nor less than 30 seconds. Work from a script, not from notes. This is not the time for extemporaneous speaking. Your content may be a summary of your entire paper, with your argument and its general support made clear, or you may take one portion of your paper and handle it with more detail, while including a brief statement of how this portion relates to the paper as a whole. Practice and time your presentation. As a rule of thumb, for a conversational speed of presentation, rather than a rushed one, you should plan on approximately 2.5 3 minutes per page of double-spaced text. Thus, for a 20-minute presentation, your script should be about 7 pages long.