Organizational Change Theory Literature Review EDET 780 Sparks, Spring 2008 Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) Reasons

ns for resistance to change Parochial self-interest how change will effect their own interests rather than seeing the effects on the business and its success Misunderstanding communication problems leading to inadequate information Low tolerance of change employees who believe stability is security Different assessments of the situation not everyone will be on board about needing to change and if problems exist Six approaches to deal with resistance to change Education and communication informing is perhaps the best and easiest way to get buy-in to the change effort Participation and involvement when others have stake in the change, they need to be part of the dialogue Facilitation and support fear and anxiety may exist and need to be addressed during the transition period Negotiation and agreement change may mean less for some and this can be overcome by offering incentives Manipulation and co-option co-op with those resistant to change. Bring them into the setting but not with any real power Explicit and implicit coercion force can be used when the timing of the situation is critical. Those resisting may be transferred, lose jobs, be dismissed or passed over for promotion Icek Ajzen (1988, 1991) Theory of Panned Behavior how to change the behavior of people Three considerations of the theory of planned behavior Behavioral beliefs there are beliefs about the likely consequences of the behavior Normative beliefs beliefs about the normative expectations of others Control beliefs believing in the persistence of factors that may facilitate or impede the performance of others *The three considerations (circumstance, projects, programs) are crucial whn the behavior of people needs to be changed *The resistance can be overcome when intentions are strong and well formed, expectations are realistic and specific plans for intervention implementation have been

developed. Therefore, focusing on the attitudes can effect change. Andrew Pettigrew and Richard Whipp (1991) Managing Change for Competitive Success What are the three dimensions of strategic change? Content (objective, purpose and goals) WHAT Process (implementation) HOW Context (the internal and external environment) WHERE *The emphasis is on the continuous interplay between these change dimensions. They describe change as an, iterative, cumulative and reformulation-in-use process. The successful change is a result of the interplay of what, how and where. Five Change Factors Environmental assessment open learning systems looking at the internal and external environments Human resources as assets and liabilities seeing employees as valuable and trustworthy and letting them know this Linking strategic and operational change Time scale is important and combining activities may lead to new strategic changes Leading the change Leadership must move the organization ahead and creat the right climate for change Overall coherence change strategy must be consistent with clear goals, consonant with its environment and provide a competive edge and be feasible Star Model by Gailbraith Five Points of the Star Strategy determines direction Structure determines the location of decision-making power People selection and development of the right people Process determines the flow of information Rewards provide motivation and incentives for desired behavior Richard Beckhard and Reuben Harris (1987) The Change Model (change formula or change equation) Dissatisfaction x Vision x First Steps > Resistance to Change Dissatisfaction with the present situation Vision of what is possible in the future Achievable first steps towards reaching this vision

Wilfried Kruger The Change Management Iceberg *Essence of change in organizations is dealing with barriers At the top of the iceberg is cost, quality and time focus of management Below the surface is the heart of the issues and barriers Management of perception and beliefs Power and political management

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Prosci (1998) The ADKAR Model Awareness of the need to change Desire to participate and support change Knowledge of how to change and what the change looks like Ability to implement the change on a day-to-day basis

Reinforcement to keep the change in place

John Kotter (1990) A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management Eight reasons why many change processes dont succeed Allowing too much complexity Failing to build a sustainable coalition Not understanding the need for a clear vision Failing to clearly communicate the vision Permitting roadblocks against the vision Not planning for short term results and not realize them Declaring victory too soon Fail to anchor changes in corporate culture The change phase model Establish a sense of urgency Create a solution Develop a clear vision Share the vision Empower people to clear obstacles Secure short-term wins Consolidate and keep moving Anchor the change *according to Kotter, it is crucial to follow the eight phases of change in the exact sequence The Cultures of Work Organizations Harrison Trice and Janice Beyer (1993) Eight considerations to keep in mind when changing organization cultures Capitalize on propitious moments make sure people perceive the need for change Combine caution with optimism both at the individual and organizational level Change many elements but maintain some continuity identify the principles that will remain constent Recognize the importance of implementation o Adoption o Implementation o Institutionalization Select, modify, and create appropriate cultural forums employ symbols, rituals, languages, stories, myths, metaphors, rites and ceremonies Modify socialization tactics people learn the corporate culture through

socialization at the outset of their employment Find and cultivate innovative leadership leader must have loads of selfconfidence, strong convictions, dominant personality and verbal skills

Entrepreneurial Government. Explanation of Principles of Reinvention Osborne and Gaebler (1992) Ten Principles of Reinvention Catalytic steering rather than rowing Community-owned empowering rather than serving Competitive inject competition into service delivery Mission-driven transforming rule-driven organizations Results-oriented Funding outcomes, not inputs Customer-driven Meeting the needs of the customer not the bureaucracy Enterprising Earning rather than spending Anticipatory Prevention rather than cure Decentralized From hierarchy towards participation and teamwork Market-oriented Leveraging change through the market