The Kuki-Chin Communities of Bangladesh PDF

DigitalResources
Electronic Survey Report 2011-025
The Kuki-Chin Communities of

Bangladesh:
A sociolinguistic survey
Amy Kim
Palash Roy
Mridul Sangma
The Kuki-Chin Communities of

Bangladesh:
A sociolinguistic survey
Researched by:
Amy Kim
Palash Roy
Mridul Sangma
SIL International
2011
SIL Electronic Survey Report 2011-025, March 2011

Copyright 2011 Amy Kim, Palash Roy, Mridul Sangma, and SIL International
All rights reserved
Abstract
There are five people groups in Bangladesh whose languages are classified as Kuki-Chin
languages: the Bawm, the Khumi, the Khyang, the Lushai, and the Pangkhua. This paper
reports on sociolinguistic research that took place among speakers of each of these language
varieties. The goals of the research included better understanding the linguistic relationship
among these languages, investigating regional differences within each of these languages, and
examining speakers attitudes towards and bilingual abilities in other languages. Fieldwork for
this research took place from October 2007 through January 2008. The appendices are available
in the Bangla version only.
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Contents
Abstract
Table of Figures
Preface
1. Introduction
1.1. Purposes and goals
1.1.1. Study of the language varieties
1.1.2. Language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism study
1.2. Language
1.3. Geographical location
2. Summary of Findings
2.1. Study of the language varieties
2.2. Language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism study
3. Study of the Language Varieties
3.1. Procedures
3.2. Discussion of sample
3.3. Results
3.3.1. Pangkhua
3.3.2. Bawm
3.3.3. Lushai
3.3.4. Khyang
3.3.5. Khumi
4. Language Attitudes, Vitality, and Bilingualism Study
4.1. Procedures
4.3. Results
4.3.1. Language use
4.3.2. Language attitudes
4.3.3. Language vitality
4.3.4. Bilingualism
5. Recommendations
References
Appendix A (). Wordlists
Appendix B (). Questionnaires
Appendix C (). Sociolinguistic questionnaire responses

Appendix D (). Subject demographic information
Appendix E (). Bangladesh Kuki-Chin community information
Table of Figures
Figure 1: Outline of the research work
Figure 2: Classification of Kuki-Chin languages in Bangladesh
Figure 3: Map of Bangladesh (Chittagong division shaded)
Figure 4: Map of location of villages visited for this research
Figure 5: Wordlist collection sites
Figure 6: Lexical similarity chart
Figure 7: Bangladesh Kuki-Chin community language use information chart
Figure 8: Information about which language should be used as the medium of
education in primary school
Figure 9: Reasons for sending children to mother tongue and Bangla classes
Figure 10: Responses to language vitality questions
Figure 11: Responses to one other language vitality question

Figure 12: Responses to sociolinguistic questionnaire question 2
Preface
As one part of SIL Bangladeshs efforts to help in the development of Bangladeshs
minority languages, language research was done among the Kuki-Chin communities
of Bangladesh. To do this research we travelled in the Chittagong Hill Tracts from
Manglung Headman Para of Thanci subdistrict (Bandarban district) to Konglak
village of Sajek union in Baghaichari subdistrict (Rangamati district). This report is
a result of this Kuki-Chin language research.
We give our heartfelt thanks to those who helped us in a variety of ways as we did
this research. We want to give special thanks to the Kuki-Chin community leaders
who helped us by giving their valuable time, information, and advice. We are also
very grateful for all the people in each village we visited who enabled us to do this
work more efficiently by welcoming us into their midst and answering our questions.
Finally, we want to say thanks to those who generously fed us and gave us places to
stay at night. We pray for full blessings for each of these people.
Dhaka, Bangladesh
June 2008
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Purposes and goals
The main purpose of this sociolinguistic research was to gather information that
could be of use in a language development program for any of Bangladeshs KukiChin communities.1 Through this research we wanted to learn which Kuki-Chin
languages actually exist in Bangladesh and what the linguistic similarity is among
these languages. Furthermore, we sought to learn what peoples attitudes are
towards various languages, what the approximate populations of the various KukiChin communities are, whether there are regional differences within a given KukiChin language, and what languages members of different Kuki-Chin language
communities use to communicate with each other. To fulfill these purposes, we set
the following goals:
1. To know which Kuki-Chin languages are used in Bangladesh

2. To determine the extent of the linguistic relationship among these Kuki-Chin
languages
3. To investigate regional differences within each of the various Kuki-Chin

languages in Bangladesh
4. To better understand speakers attitudes towards other Kuki-Chin languages

and also towards Bangla
5. To have a better understanding of the bilingual abilities of the members of

the various Kuki-Chin communities in Bangladesh.
To accomplish all of these goals, this research work was divided into two parts: 1) a
study of language variation among the Kuki-Chin languages in Bangladesh and 2) a
language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism study. Figure 1 shows the methods
used in this Kuki-Chin research.
Originally written in Bangla by Mridul Sangma; portions translated by Amy Kim.
5
Figure 1: Outline of the research work
Study
Method
Description
Conversations
Leader
interviews
Study of the
language
varieties
Lexical
similarity
comparison
study
attitudes,
vitality, and
bilingualism
study
Kuki-Chin
community
leaders
Intelligibility
Language
with various
Sociolinguistic
questionnaire
Community
information
List of 306
words
5 questions
19 questions
Focus
Number
Geographical
locations, population
figures, language
At least 10
interviews
differences
Lexical similarity and
2 wordlists
variation among
from each
various communities
community
Language variation
83 subjects
and intelligibility
from 8
among various
villages
communities
representing
Language
5 language
preferences, domains
communities
of language use,
32 questions
questionnaire
ability in a second
language, and
9 villages
education medium
1.1.1. Study of the language varieties

Lexical Similarity Comparison
An initial method used in the language research of the Kuki-Chin communities of
Bangladesh was the gathering of a 306-item wordlist. We went to a total of nine
villages and collected two wordlists from each of five language communities,
making a total of 10 wordlists. Four villages were in three different subdistricts of
Bandarban district, and five villages were in three different subdistricts of
Rangamati district. These villages were chosen based on the information and advice
given us by leaders of the five Kuki-Chin language communities studied. All of the
wordlists were compared with each other in order to ascertain the degree of lexical
similarity among these five language varieties. Appendix . (A.1) in the Bangla
version of this report gives information about how wordlists were compared with
each other.
6
Intelligibility Study
On a language tree, the Kuki-Chin languages of Bangladesh are of the same
language family, but they lie on different branches. As a result, their lexical
similarity is low. Also, within a given language community some regional
differences can be seen, and because of geographical difference, speakers of a single
language community may have neighbors from different language communities. In
light of these differences, we did an intelligibility study to get an idea of how much
speakers from the various communities can understand each other. The
intelligibility study consisted, however, of only a questionnaire. We didnt use other
methods as part of the intelligibility study.
1.1.2. Language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism study
A sociolinguistic questionnaire was used to better understand topics such as the
attitudes that speakers from a particular Kuki-Chin community hold towards other
languages, whether each of these Kuki-Chin language varieties will survive in the
future, and what speakers abilities are in languages other than their mother tongues.
We also wanted to know peoples opinions regarding medium of education. All of
these questions are given in appendix (B) of the Bangla version of this report.
1.2. Language
Language is mans chief way of expressing thoughts, of exchanging ideas, and of
preserving communication. The worlds languages are divided into different families
and branches and sub-branches. In the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh there
are about eleven indigenous people groups (Chakma, Marma, Tripura, Mro,
Tangchangya, Bawm, Chak, Khumi, Pangkhua, Khyang, and Lushai) (Loncheu 2004).
The languages of a majority of these eleven communities have been classified as
part of the Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman language family, and five have been
classified within the Tibeto-Burman language family as being Kuki-Chin-Naga, KukiChin. These five languages are Pangkhua, Bawm, Lushai, Khyang, and Khumi
(Gordon 2005). Although all five of these languages are Kuki-Chin languages, all do
not belong to the same language branch or sub-branch. For example, Pangkhua,
Bawm, and Lushai are all central Kuki-Chin languages. Among these there are no
sub-branches. Among the southern Kuki-Chin languages, however, two sub-branches
are the Sho and the Khumi. Khyang (also known as Chin, Asho) is included in
the Sho sub-branch. Two languages included in the Khumi sub-branch are Chin,
Khumi and Chin, Khumi Awa. Figure 2 depicts the language classifications and
7
relationships of the Kuki-Chin languages in Bangladesh. The shaded boxes contain
the names of the five languages themselves.
Figure 2: Classification of Kuki-Chin languages in Bangladesh
SinoTibetan
TibetoBurman
Kuki-ChinNaga
Kuki-Chin
Central
Chin,
Pangkhua
Bawm
Southern
Mizo
Khumi
Sho
(Lushai)
Chin,
Khumi
Chin, Asho
(Khyang)
Mizo (Lushai) is the official language of the state of Mizoram, India. There is a
variety of literature in Mizo, which is written in Roman script. There is also
literature available in Bawm and in Khumi, both of which are written in Roman
script. In Pangkhua and Khyang, however, there is essentially no literature although,
of course, there are oral folk tales and songs in these languages. Pangkhua
community members use Lushai literature, and those Khyang who live near Bawm
speakers use some Bawm literature.
1.3. Geographical location
The Chittagong Hill Tracts are situated in the southeast of Bangladesh. Most parts of
this area are covered with hills and dense forests, and the area has many waterfalls
8
and more than 100 mountain streams. Along the southeast border of the Chittagong
Hill Tracts lie Myanmars Chin and Rakhine states, to the east and northeast is
Indias Mizoram state, and to the north and northwest is Indias Tripura state.
Within Bangladesh the western and southern borders of the Chittagong Hill Tracts
are made up of the Chittagong district and the Coxs Bazar district borders,
respectively. The Chittagong Hill Tracts are divided into three districts: Rangamati,
Bandarban, and Khagrachari. Approximately half of the total population in these
three hill districts are from indigenous communities (Wikipedia 2008). The KukiChin communities discussed in this report live in this area along with members of
other indigenous communities. Figure 3 shows all of Chittagong division in relation

to the country of Bangladesh.
9
Figure 3: Map of Bangladesh (Chittagong division shaded)
N
E
S
Rajshahi
Division
Sylhet
Division
Dhaka
Division
Khulna
Division
Barisal
Division
Division boundary
International boundary
Chittagong
Chittagong
Division
Division
MYANMAR
Most members of the Kuki-Chin communities live in Rangamati and Bandarban

districts of Chittagong division. The Kuki-Chin villages we visited for the purposes
of this research are given in figure 4.
10
Figure 4: Map of location of villages visited for this research
11
Pangkhua
At present many people from the Pangkhua community in Bangladesh live in
Bilaichari Pangkhua Para, a village in Bilaichari subdistrict in the southeastern part
of Rangamati district. There are also a few Pangkhua villages in Barkal and
Jorachari subdistricts of Rangamati district, and there are a couple more villages in
Sajek union of Baghaichari subdistrict, which is along the borders of the Indian
states of Mizoram and Tripura.
Along Kaptai lake in Jorachari, Barkal, and Bilaichari subdistricts, there are many
small islands that look like hills in the lake. To get to any Pangkhua villages in this
area, one must go by motor boat. It is best to travel there during or just after rainy
season because at these times the lake is full, making travel by motor boat to any
area possible. In summertime before rainy season, however, the water level in the
lake is lower, making travel difficult. During this time one must walk long distances
to most places. Most Pangkhua villages in Sajek union of Baghaichari subdistrict are
situated in difficult-to-access hilly areas.
Bawm
The Bawm live in both Rangamati and Bandarban districts, but most are in
Bandarban district. Bethel Para in Ruma subdistrict of Bandarban district is one
large Bawm village. The Bawm live in other places in Ruma subdistrict and also in
various places in Rowangchari and Thanci subdistricts of Bandarban district. In
Rangamati district there are some Bawm living in Rangamati Sadar and in Barkal
and Bilaichari subdistricts.
Lushai
The population of the Lushai in Bangladesh is very small. Although there are some
Lushai families living in Bandarban Sadar subdistrict, most of these families have
become mixed with other people groups, especially with the Bawm. At present
Mahmuam Para in the Ruilui area of Sajek union in northern Rangamati district is
the only known Lushai village in Bangladesh. There are also reportedly a few Lushai
families living in Sylhet Sadar subdistrict in Sylhet district.
Khyang
The majority of the Khyang in Bangladesh live in Ghilachari union of Rajasthali
subdistrict in Rangamati district and in Bandarban Sadar, Rowangchari, and Thanci
12
subdistricts in Bandarban district. In addition, there are several Khyang community
members living in Chandanaish subdistrict of Chittagong district.
Khumi
The Khumi generally live in relatively difficult-to-access villages in the forests of
Rowangchari, Ruma, and Thanci subdistricts of Bandarban district. Among these
three subdistricts there are more Khumi people in Thanci than in the other two.
Nearly all of the above-mentioned places are in hilly areas, and to reach most of
them one must travel by paths in the hills. An exception to this is the area where the
Khyang live in and around Ghungurumukh Para in Bandarban Sadar subdistrict,
which is more of a plains area.
2. Summary of Findings
2.1. Study of the language varieties
There is not a great amount of linguistic similarity among the five Kuki-Chin
languages found in Bangladesh, and each should be considered a language that is

separate from the others. The amount of similarity among the Pangkhua, Bawm, and
Lushai languages is a little greater than is the similarity in any other combination of
languages. The lexical similarity percentages among these three languages is 30
47%. Thus, even a speaker of any one of these three languages must learn the other
two languages to understand them well.
Within each of the Pangkhua and Lushai languages, there are small language
differences but no great regional or dialectal differences. Among Bawm speakers,

those who live rather far away from the center of the Bawm people group recognize
some regional differences in Bawm speech. In spite of these differences, Bawm
people from any one area have good understanding of the language of Bawm people
from any other area.
Among each of the Khyang and Khumi language communities, however, notable
regional differences do exist. The names of the two main Khyang language varieties
are Laitu (plains area Khyang) and Kongtu (hill area Khyang). The lexical similarity
percentage between these two varieties is 78%. The plains area Khyang can
reportedly understand Kongtu better than the hill area Khyang can understand Laitu.
13
Although regional language differences also exist among the Khumi, most
questionnaire subjects said they can understand most of the speech of Khumi people
from other areas. It is also very possible that, although there are differences between
the Khumi language of Myanmar and that of Bangladesh, these people, too, can
understand each other. Based on researcher observation, the use of Khumi literature
from Myanmar, and a lexical similarity percentage of 6872% between Myanmar
Khumi and Bangladesh Khumi, it can be said that Bangladesh Khumi people can
probably communicate somewhat easily with the Khumi from Myanmar. Detailed
information of all the lexical similarity percentages are given in section 3.3, figure 6.
2.2. Language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism study
Mother tongue use among the people from each of the five Kuki-Chin communities
in Bangladesh is strong. They still use their mother tongue among themselves, but
with their neighbors from other language groups they speak the neighboring
language or Bangla. With the exception of the Khumi, people from each of the other
four language groups said they think their children and grandchildren will speak
their mother tongue in the future. Given this and the strong mother tongue language
use taking place today, it is probable that these languages will remain vital for at
least a few more generations.
In the not-too-distant future, however, Lushai may no longer be used in Bangladesh
because their population is very small and continues to decrease. In India, however,
Lushai or Mizo language may remain vital for ages to come because in Mizoram
there is a lot of literature written in Lushai and Lushai language use is strong.
Among the other four languages discussed here, Khumi is possibly the least vital.
For very practical reasons, people from Bangladeshs Kuki-Chin communities
expressed the opinion that the language of instruction in primary school should be
Bangla. They believe that if their children are taught in Bangla, then these children
will be able to learn Bangla well. They also said, however, that their children should
first learn in their mother tongue and then in Bangla. It should be noted that the
Bawm community has an especially strong positive attitude towards their mother
tongue. Among the other four communities, peoples attitudes towards their mother
tongue do not seem to be negative, but they also are not notably positive.
14
The languages that Bangladeshs Kuki-Chin community members speak as second
languages are largely determined by who their neighbors are. Speakers of a given
Kuki-Chin community may speak Marma, Chakma, Tripura, or another Kuki-Chin
language if these are who their neighbors are. Many also speak some Bangla. This
research shows, however, that none of these five Kuki-Chin communities has
sufficient ability in either Bangla or in a neighboring language to be able to use that
languages written or oral literature well.
3. Study of the Language Varieties

3.1. Procedures
Comparing the words of different language varieties is one way to measure lexical
similarity. In this research of Bangladeshs Kuki-Chin languages, 306-item wordlists
were collected in different Kuki-Chin languages. Lexical similarities were then
calculated as a percentage of these 306 words which resemble each other in sound
(Blair 1990). Normally a wordlist is collected in the same village from two separate
people so as to ensure greater accuracy and certainty of the words. During this
survey, however, in each area where a wordlist was collected there were several
people sitting with the wordlist informant. Thus, the wordlist was not collected a
second time because through the group we could be sure that the word given by the
main informant was accurate and used in that area. In Konglak, however, it was not
possible to follow this method when collecting a Pangkhua wordlist because other
than the one wordlist informantwho was not even born or brought up in that
neighborhoodnobody else knew Pangkhua well. The wordlists were written using
the International Phonetic Alphabet. They were then compared according to the
established procedures given in appendices .. and .. in the Bangla version of
this report. The WordSurv computer program designed by SIL (Wimbish 1989) was
used to do the final lexical similarity calculations.
A sociolinguistic questionnaire, a community information questionnaire, and leader
interviews were used to better understand how well speakers of one Kuki-Chin
language variety are able to understand other Kuki-Chin languages in Bangladesh.

Questions 7ad and 8 of the sociolinguistic questionnaire were about language
variation and intelligibility. These questions are given in appendix . (B.1) in the
Bangla version of this report. Other questions of the sociolinguistic questionnaire
15
were used to study bilingualism, language attitudes, and language vitality, all of
which are discussed in section 4 of this report.
The questionnaires were asked directly in Bangla with subjects who could
understand Bangla. With those subjects who could not understand Bangla well, the
questions were asked in that persons mother tongue with the assistance of someone
from their community.
Wordlists were collected in a total of nine villages in two hill districts. These nine
villages represent five Kuki-Chin communities. Figure 5 shows which community
each wordlist was collected from and which subdistrict and district that collection
site is located in.
Figure 5: Wordlist collection sites
Village
Community
Subdistrict and district
Bilaichari
Pangkhua
Bilaichari, Rangamati
Konglak
Pangkhua
Baghaichari, Rangamati
Bethel Para
Bawm
Ruma, Bandarban
Jamunachari
Bawm
Bilaichari, Rangamati
Bethel Para
Lushai
Ruma, Bandarban
Mahmuam Para (Ruilui area)
Lushai
Baghaichari, Rangamati
Boro Kukyachari
Khyang
Rajasthali, Rangamati
Ghungurumukh Para
Khyang
Bandarban Sadar, Bandarban
Manglung Headman Para
Khumi
Thanci, Bandarban
Prongphung Para
Khumi
Ruma, Bandarban
These wordlist sites were chosen based on information given by leaders of the
various Kuki-Chin communities. In talking with various leaders and other people,
we came to know that, apart from Lushai, there is some variation within each of the
other languages, and this language variation is often based on geographical
difference. Thus, to better understand these differences or similarities, two sites
were chosen for each language community. Importance was also given to distance
and transportation to a village. In Bangladesh most Kuki-Chin villages are in
difficult-to-access areas of Rangamati and Bandarban districts, and some villages
have small populations while others have a larger number of people. Those villages
16
which have comparatively large populations were chosen as long as they could be
accessed. As much as was possible, we chose villages where a good and accurate
wordlist could be collected and where it was possible to get a good sample of
subjects for the sociolinguistic questionnaire.
At present the Pangkhua people live in Bilaichari, Jorachari, Barkal, and
Baghaichari subdistricts of Rangamati district. Within Baghaichari they live in only
a couple villages in Sajek union. In comparison with Baghaichari, Jorachari and
Barkal are closer to Bilaichari. Also, the Pangkhua in Bilaichari said that in the three
subdistricts of Bilaichari, Jorachari, and Barkal the Pangkhua is the same. Within
Barkal and Bilaichari subdistricts the largest Pangkhua village is Bilaichari
Pangkhua Para. Thus, Bilaichari Pangkhua Para was chosen as one data collection
site. Because Konglak village of Sajek union in Baghaichari subdistrict is remote,
this was chosen as a second Pangkhua site in order to be able to understand if there
is any language difference based on distance. Konglak was chosen over other
villages in Sajek union because other villages are very difficult to access, and there
wasnt time to go by foot to these villages which take a long time to reach.
According to Bangladeshs Bawm community leaders, there is a little difference in
the pronunciation and intonation of the Bawm spoken by those in Rangamati as
compared to that spoken by those in Bandarban. Thus, Jamunachari Bawm Para in
Bilaichari subdistrict of Rangamati district and Bethel Para in Ruma subdistrict of
Bandarban district were chosen as the two Bawm data collection sites. These sites
were also chosen because they are far from each other, and there isnt much contact
between the two, so these would give a good measure of language differences. Also,
these two particular villages have larger populations than others and therefore made
better subject sampling possible.
The population of Lushai in Bangladesh is small, and the only Lushai village in
Bangladesh is Mahmuam Para in the Ruilui area of Sajek union in Baghaichari
subdistrict, Rangamati. There are still fifteen families there, and they use their own
language. Thus, a wordlist was collected from Mahmuam Para. Also, at the time of
collecting a Bawm wordlist in Bethel Para, we learned that there was an older
Lushai man living there who still can speak Lushai well, so a wordlist was also
elicited from him in order to get what could possibly be a pure Lushai wordlist.
17
Discussions with Khyang leaders revealed that, among the Khyang, those who live in
hilly areas are called Kongtu and those who live in plains areas are called Laitu, and
there are some differences in words and pronunciation between these two groups
(Thoisafrue Khyang 2007, personal communication). To better understand the
amount of language difference between these two groups, Boro Kukyachari, which is
in the hilly area of Rajasthali subdistrict in Rangamati district, and Ghungurumukh
Para, which is in the plains area of Bandarban Sadar subdistrict in Bandarban
district, were the two Khyang sites chosen.
According to two young, educated Khumi men, Khumi people in Rowangchari and
Ruma subdistricts of Bandarban district speak the same, but those in Thanci
subdistrict speak Khumi with different pronunciation and intonation (Thanghloi

Khumi and Shiong Khumi 2007, personal communication). To understand how
similar or different the Khumi varieties spoken in these areas are, one village from
Ruma subdistrict and one village from Thanci subdistrict were chosen even though
they were difficult to access. Also, to see how similar the Khumi of Myanmar and
that of Bangladesh are, a Myanmar Khumi wordlist collected by a linguist working
there was compared with the ten Kuki-Chin wordlists collected in Bangladesh.
Finally, a standard Bangla wordlist was compared with each of these wordlists.
The sociolinguistic questionnaire was used in eight villages with a total of 83 people.
Among them 11 were Pangkhua, 21 were Bawm, 10 were Lushai, 20 were Khyang,
and 21 were Khumi. In each village the questionnaire was asked of at least 10
people including both men and women, more-educated and less-educated people,
and people of varying ages. In Bethel Para the questionnaire was not asked of the
Lushai because, other than the one wordlist informant, there were no other Lushai
people. Similarly, the questionnaire was not used in the Pangkhua village of
Konglak because the people no longer consistently use Pangkhua as their mother
tongue and therefore do not speak Pangkhua well. The wordlist informant from
Konglak, however, said he still knows the Pangkhua language.
This sociolinguistic questionnaire was used to gain a better understanding of
Bangladeshs Kuki-Chin language varieties, speakers attitudes towards each others
language, intelligibility, language vitality, and bilingualism. Most of these issues are
covered in section 4 of this report, so a more detailed discussion of the
18
questionnaire sample is given in section 4.2. Demographic information on each
subject is given in appendix . (D.2) in the Bangla version of this report.
3.3. Results
Thus, a total of 10 wordlists from the five Bangladesh Kuki-Chin communities, a
Khumi wordlist from Myanmar, and a Bangla wordlist are included in this report.
Lexical similarity between each pair of wordlists is given in figure 6. The letter in
parentheses is that villages code letter for the wordlists given in appendix . (A.3)
of the Bangla version of this report.
Figure 6: Lexical similarity chart
(a) Bilaichari
Pangkhua
88
(l) Konglak
38
41
(i) Bethel Para
36
38
84
(b) Jamunachari
31
32
47
47
(j) Bethel Para
30
33
46
46
91
12
12
(c) Boro Kukyachari

78
(k) Ghungurumukh Para
11
11
10
10
Bawm
Lushai
(m) Mahmuam Para
Khyang
(g) Manglung Headman Para
10
10
82
(h) Prongphung Para
68
72
Khumi
(e) Myanmar
0
(0) Bangla
3.3.1. Pangkhua
The lexical similarity between the two Pangkhua wordlists is 88%, which indicates
there is not substantial difference within the Pangkhua language, especially
considering that these two Pangkhua villages are far apart and that speakers from
these two villages do not have regular contact with each other. Among the few
Pangkhua questionnaire subjects who said in reply to question 7a2 that there are
7a. Are there any (mother tongue) speakers who speak differently than you?
19
some Pangkhua who speak differently, all then replied to question 7d3 that, in spite
of these differences, they can understand all of this different type of Pangkhua.
In response to sociolinguistic questionnaire question 8 Among Bawm, Khumi,
Lushai, Khyang, Pangkhua, and Mro [name all but subjects mother tongue] which
one is easiest for you to understand?four Pangkhua subjects said Lushai is easiest
for them. Three of these four subjects were educated. Because the Pangkhua are
Christian and use Lushai language Christian literature, it is possible that these three
who are more educated understand Lushai better than those who are uneducated.
The other seven questionnaire subjects said Bawm is easiest for them to understand,
and five of these seven were uneducated. The Pangkhua in this area have regular
contact with the Bawm, so they have had good opportunity to use Bawm. It should
be noted that the questionnaire was asked only of Pangkhua living in Bilaichari. The
Pangkhua in Konglak can understand Lushai just as well as their own language
because they live near the Lushai and their languages are related.
3.3.2. Bawm
The Bawm wordlist from Jamunachari in Bilaichari subdistrict of Rangamati district
and the Bawm wordlist from Bethel Para in Ruma subdistrict of Bandarban district
have a lexical similarity of 84%. Even though these two villages are located in two
different districts with a lot of distance between them, still the lexical similarity is
fairly high. Based on this one lexical similarity figure alone, it is difficult to say
whether the people from these two villages use the same language. Thus, to try to
get a clearer understanding of this issue, the sociolinguistic questionnaire was used
with 21 people from these two villages. Of these 21 people 12 replied to question 7a
that there are regional differences in the Bawm language. It is worth mentioning
that 10 of these 12 subjects were from Jamunachari, and the other two were from
Bethel Para. Possibly because they live far from the main Bawm people group area,
those from Jamunachari are more aware of such regional differences. In response to
question 7d, however, each of these 12 people said that, although there are Bawm
people who speak differently than they do, they can understand all of these peoples
speech. Thus, although the lexical similarity percentage is not conclusively high, it
7d. When you speak with someone from (each of) these places, how much do you understand?
(little, half, most, all)
20
can be assumed from the questionnaire responses that, although they live far apart,
Bawm people from one area have good comprehension of the Bawm used in another
area.
Because the languages share some similarity, Bawm people can also understand
some Lushai. This seems to be especially true for the Bawm living in Bethel Para.
Among the 11 questionnaire subjects from Bethel Para, seven replied to question 8
that Lushai is the easiest Kuki-Chin language for them to understand. This does not
mean, however, that their understanding is sufficiently good to be able to use Lushai
literature. Among the 10 questionnaire subjects from Jamunachari, nine said
Pangkhua is the easiest Kuki-Chin language for them to understand because they
live near the Pangkhua community.
3.3.3. Lushai
The lexical similarity percentage between the two Lushai wordlists is greater than
that between any other two wordlists. The lexical similarity between the two
villages is 91%, and this in spite of the fact that the two villages are in two separate
districts and are very far from each other. Based on this similarity percentage it can
be said that the Lushai still use one language. The answers to question 7a of the
questionnaire support this: all 10 subjects from Mahmuam Para said there are no
Lushai speakers who speak differently than they do, and there is no place where
Lushai is spoken differently.
Because Pangkhua, Bawm, and Lushai all lie on the same branch of the TibetoBurman language family, the lexical similarities among them are greater than they
are between other Kuki-Chin languages in Bangladesh. As is shown in figure 2, these
three languages are all classified as Kuki-Chin, Central languages. The lexical
similarity between Pangkhua and Bawm is 3641%, and that between Pangkhua
and Lushai is 3033%. Among these three languages the greatest lexical similarity is
found between Bawm and Lushai: 46%. These percentages are not high enough to
maintain that these are dialects of the same language, but the lexical similarities
among these three languages are still greater than any of the other lexical similarity
percentages. If speakers of these three languages have regular contact with each
other, they will be able to learn one anothers languages more easily than they could
learn the other Kuki-Chin languages.
21
3.3.4. Khyang
The lexical similarity between the Khyang of Rajasthali and that of Bandarban is
78%. Although these wordlists are from the same people group, the lexical
similarity between them is less than the similarities between wordlists from each of
the above-mentioned groups. In addition, 17 of the 20 sociolinguistic questionnaire
subjects replied to question 7a that there are, in fact, some regional differences
within the Khyang language. For example, there are differences between the
language spoken by the Khyang who live in the hills and that spoken by the Khyang
who live on the plains. They call the Khyang who live in the hills Kongtu and
those who live in the plains Laitu. Of the two Khyang villages visited, the people
in Boro Kukyachari of Rajasthali are Kongtu and those in Ghungurumukh Para of
Bandarban are Laitu. Nearly all of the questionnaire subjects from Boro Kukyachari
said they are able to understand about half of the plains area Laitu language. On the
other hand, most of the Ghungurumukh Para subjects said they can understand most
of the hills area Kongtu language. This limited information lends itself to the
hypothesis that the plains area Khyang (the Laitu) can understand hills area Khyang
language (Kongtu) better than the hills area Khyang (the Kongtu) can understand
the language of the plains Khyang (Laitu). This data is not sufficient to be able to
say whether or not all of the Khyang in Bangladesh will be able to use the same
literature.
3.3.5. Khumi
The lexical similarity between the two Khumi wordlists from Ruma and Thanci
subdistricts of Bandarban district is 82%. That is to say, there is some difference
between the Khumi varieties spoken in these two areas. Community leaders had
mentioned that there are some differences between the words and the sounds of the
Khumi varieties spoken in Ruma and in Thanci. Also, a total of 21 subjects from
these two areas were asked the sociolinguistic questionnaire. Nineteen of the 21
subjects said in response to question 7a that there are differences in the way Khumi
is spoken, and they, too, especially mentioned differences between the variety
spoken in Ruma and that spoken in Thanci. Among the 19 subjects who mentioned
differences, 15 said they are able to understand most of the speech of the other
variety.
The two Khumi wordlists collected in Bangladesh were also compared with a Khumi
wordlist collected in Myanmar. The wordlist from Myanmar was collected by a
22
linguist doing this same type of language research sometime after 2002 (Helga SoHartman 2008, personal communication). The list from Myanmar did not have all
the items in the 306-item wordlist used in this research, but there were enough of
the same items present that comparison was possible. The resulting lexical
similarities were 6872% similarity between Bangladesh Khumi and Myanmar
Khumi.
While doing Kuki-Chin research in Bangladesh, some of us were privileged to sit in
on a conversation between a young Bangladesh Khumi man and a young Khumi
man who had just come into Bangladesh from Myanmar. These two Khumi men
from different countries talked quite easily with each other, and each could
reportedly understand all of the others speech. During this same meeting a small
portion of some Khumi literature published in Myanmar was read, and each Khumi
person who heard it said he could understand everything he had heard. Thus, it
seems likely that Khumi speakers in Bangladesh could use Khumi literature from
Myanmar either as it is or after some adaptation has been done.
In response to question 8 on the sociolinguistic questionnaire, most of the Lushai,
Khyang, and Khumi subjects said that no Kuki-Chin language other than their
mother tongue is even remotely easy for them to understand. Thus, it can be
assumed that people from these three communities cannot use literature in any
other Kuki-Chin language.
Although the above-mentioned languages are all classified as Kuki-Chin languages
within the Tibeto-Burman language family, they are not all of the same branch.
Thus, their lexical similarity is quite low. As was mentioned, the Pangkhua, Bawm,
and Lushai all belong to the central branch of Kuki-Chin languages. Within this
central branch there are no smaller branches. Thus, there is more lexical similarity
among these languages than between any of these and Khyang or Khumi. Khyang
and Khumi both belong to the southern branch of Kuki-Chin languages. The
southern branch, however, is further divided into smaller branches (see figure 2).
For example, Khyangalso known as Chin, Ashois part of the Sho branch of
Southern Kuki-Chin. Chin, Khumi is part of the Khumi branch along with Chin,
Khumi Awa. Thus, even though Khumi and Khyang are both Southern Kuki-Chin
languages, they are only 811% lexically similar because they are on different sub-
23
branches. This leads to a more detailed discussion on each communitys bilingualism,
which is explored in section 4.3.4.
Each of the above-mentioned Kuki-Chin languages was also compared with a Bangla
wordlist, but none of these languages has much lexical similarity with Bangla. The
lexical similarities between Bangla and the five Kuki-Chin languages in Bangladesh
are 13%. This indicates that there is minimal borrowing of Bangla words by
speakers of these Kuki-Chin languages.
4. Language Attitudes, Vitality, and Bilingualism Study

4.1. Procedures
A study of language attitudes is generally carried out in an effort to ascertain
peoples perceptions of the different speech varieties with which they have contact.
By studying how various languages are perceived, it is possible to get an idea of
how positive or negative people are towards their own language and towards other
language varieties. A sociolinguistic questionnaire was used to study language
attitudes. On this questionnaire there were five questions about language attitudes
(questions 13, 14a-b, and 15a-b).
A language vitality study was done in order to better understand whether children
of these people groups will speak that groups mother tongue in the future. This was
done by asking subjects which language they use in various domains, everyday
situations in which one language variety is considered more appropriate than
another (Fasold 1992). The vitality of a language is also understood by asking

questions such as, What language will the next generation of children speak?
What language do children speak best? Can children speak their mother tongue
well? What other languages can children speak? Questionnaire questions 3, 9,
10a-b, 11, and 12 are about language vitality.
Bilingualism refers to the ability of an individual or a group of people to use a
language other than their mother tongue. There are several ways to study
bilingualism. For this Kuki-Chin research bilingualism was studied through
observation, through talking with various Kuki-Chin community members, and
through the questionnaire. Sociolinguistic questionnaire questions 2, 4, and 5 are

about bilingualism.
24
Through the help of their own community members, most Kuki-Chin questionnaire
subjects were asked these questions in their mother tongue. Those who could speak
and understand Bangla well enough were asked the questions directly in Bangla.
The questions are in appendix . (B.1) and the responses are in appendix (C) of
the Bangla version of this report.
The sociolinguistic questionnaire was used with people in eight villages. It was not
used in Bethel Para with Lushai people or in Konglak with Pangkhua people. In each
of these two particular villages only a wordlist was collected. In Bethel Para there
are no Lushai people other than the wordlist informant, so it was not possible to use
the questionnaire there among the Lushai. In Konglak people other than the wordlist
informant no longer know the Pangkhua language well, so in this village, too, the
sociolinguistic questionnaire was not used. The researchers generally decided which
villages to visit after talking with various community leaders.
In each of the eight Kuki-Chin villages where the sociolinguistic questionnaire was
used, it was administered to at least 10 people. Among these 10 people there were
men and women, younger and older people, and more-educated and less-educated
people. Subjects whose ages were 1834 years old were considered younger, and
those whose ages were 35 years old or greater were considered older. Those who
had studied through less than class 8 were counted as less-educated, and those
who had studied through class 8 or more were considered educated.
In each village where the sociolinguistic questionnaire was administered, the
researchers tried to ask the questionnaire of at least five people in each of those six
demographic categories mentioned. This, however, was not possible in every village.
For example, other than in the Bawm and Pangkhua villages, it was not possible to
find five educated people. This was particularly true for the Khumi village of
Manglung Headman Para, where not even one person who had studied through at
least class 8 could be found. In each of three other villages (the Khumi village of
Prongphung Para, the Khyang village of Boro Kukyachari, and the Lushai village of
Mahmuam Para), the questionnaire was administered to only two or three people
who had passed at least class 8. Finally, because there are few older people living in
Mahmuam Para, it was not possible to get a good balance of older and younger
questionnaire subjects.
25
4.3. Results
The following discussion about Kuki-Chin speakers language attitudes, the vitality
of their languages, and bilingualism is based on responses to the sociolinguistic
questionnaire, the opinions of various community leaders, and the researchers
observations.
4.3.1. Language use

The first step in researching the language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism of a
people group is to study what languages they use in various domains. There were
five questions about language use in the sociolinguistic questionnaire (questions 1a
d and 6). Following is a discussion about what languages Kuki-Chin speakers in
Bangladesh use in various domains. It should be mentioned that, because some
subjects said they use more than one language in a given domain, the sum of
percentages for some questions is greater than 100 percent.
Figure 7: Bangladesh Kuki-Chin community language use information chart
Key: MT = mother tongue
Question
What language do you
Response
use most of the time
Community
Pangkhua Bawm
Lushai
Khyang
Khumi
MT
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
MT
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
MT
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
Bangla
--
--
--
10%
5%
Marma
--
--
--
40%
48%
Mro
--
5%
--
--
--
MT
9%
48%
--
50%
14%
with shopkeepers in
Bangla
82%
95%
90%
90%
33%
the market?
Marma
--
38%
--
20%
76%
other
9%
--
20%
5%
33%
at home?
with your MT
friends?
at church/ temple?
26
Language used most of the time at home, with mother tongue friends, and at
church/temple
As is shown in figure 7, all the subjects from each Kuki-Chin community said they
use their mother tongue to communicate both at home and with friends from their
language group. The Pangkhua and the Lushai all said they use their mother tongue
most of the time at church, too. All of the Bawm subjects also said they use their
mother tongue at church although one Bawm preacher added that he uses his own
Bawm language when attending church with Bawm people but uses the Mro
language when preaching among people from the Mro community. All of these
responses indicate that the people from each of these three communities still use
their own language among themselves most of the time.
Each of these three communities is Christian, and people from other communities
generally do not attend their churches. Thus, they have good opportunity to use
their mother tongue most of the time. The Khyang and Khumi subjects also said
they use their mother tongue at home and with friends from their language group.
Among these subjects, however, nearly half said that at church or a temple they use
Marma along with their mother tongue. Interestingly, those Khyang subjects who
said they use Marma at church or the temple are all from Ghungurumukh Para. The
majority of people from this village are Buddhist. There are many Buddhists among
the Khumi, too, and the religious teachers for both Khyang and Khumi Buddhists are
Marma. Thus, along with their mother tongue, the Khyang and Khumi have to use
Marma. It is possible that, because of their religion, these peoples languages will be
increasingly influenced by Marma in the future.
Language used with shopkeepers in the market
Regarding language used with shopkeepers in the market, the fact of the matter is
that almost all Kuki-Chin people in Bangladesh use the language of the shopkeeper.
Thus, if the shopkeeper is Bengali, they use Bangla; if he is Marma, they use Marma;
and if he is from their own community, they use their own language. The
researchers of this report did notice that some Bengali shopkeepers who had lived in
the area for a long time had become quite competent in using Marma or Bawm, and
with these shopkeepers Kuki-Chin people speak Marma or Bawm.
Compared with the other Kuki-Chin communities, the situation of the Khumi is
different. Most people from Manglung Headman Para use Marma in the market
27
because the markets in their neighboring areas are in Marma areas, and most of the
shopkeepers are Marma. It is worth noting that none of the questionnaire subjects
from Manglung Headman Para said they use Bangla in the market. On the other
hand, of the 11 Khumi subjects from Prongphung Para, seven said they use Bangla
with shopkeepers, eight said they use Marma, and five said they use Bawm. Thus, of
all five Kuki-Chin communities, only the Khumi use Marma rather than Bangla in
the market most of the time.
Language used most in a typical week
There was one other question about language use on the sociolinguistic
questionnaire. It asked, In a typical week what language do you use the most? To
this question nearly all subjects replied that they use their mother tongue. This is
because in a normal week they are with people from their own language community
most of the time, and with their own people they use their mother tongue. One
Khyang and two Bawm preachers did say that for their preaching work they use
another language along with their mother tongue because they preach among
people groups other than their own. Another two Khyang subjects said they use
Bangla most of the time. Both of these subjects are teachers and they must use
Bangla for their work.
Although this language use research among the Kuki-Chin of Bangladesh is not very
comprehensive, the data does show that they still use their mother tongue whenever
possible. The data also shows that they often must use another language such as
Bangla, Marma, or Bawm when they go outside of their community. Especially the
Pangkhua, the Jamunachari Bawm, the Boro Kukyachari Khyang, and the Lushai use
Bangla in the market while the Khumi use Marma a lot in the market.
4.3.2. Language attitudes
Understanding language attitudes is another part of language research. Thus, the
sociolinguistic questionnaire has questions about language attitudes along with
questions about other topics. To gain a better understanding of the language
attitudes held by the various Kuki-Chin communities, the following question was
asked, What language should be used as the medium of education in primary
school? Responses from subjects from the five Kuki-Chin communities are given in
figure 8. Because some respondents gave more than one language name, the sum of
percentages for some communities is greater than 100 percent.
28
Figure 8: Information about which language should be used as the medium of
education in primary school
Community
Response
mother tongue
Bangla
English
Pangkhua
9% (1/11)
82% (9/11)
9% (1/11)
Bawm
20% (4/20)
95% (19/20)
25% (5/20)
Lushai
20% (2/10)
50% (5/10)
50% (5/10)
Khyang
25% (5/20)
95% (19/20)
--
Khumi
10% (2/21)
100% (21/21)
--
As figure 8 shows, most of the subjects from the Pangkhua, Bawm, and Khyang
communities said Bangla should be used as the medium of education in primary
school, and all of the Khumi subjects were of the opinion that Bangla should be used
in this situation. Some subjects gave reasons for their opinions, saying that Bangla is
the one language in Bangladesh that is used for education and that only Bangla can
be used in all situations. Thus, they said, to live a more developed life and to
accomplish positive change in life through education, there is no alternative to

learning Bangla.
Especially some of the Bawm and Khyang subjects were also of the opinion that
their mother tongue should be used as the medium of education in primary school.
Among these subjects many said that in primary school the children should first be
taught in their mother tongue and then later be taught in Bangla.
Among the Lushai subjects one-half said Bangla and one-half said English should be
the medium of primary school education. Among those who said English should be
used, two people said their mother tongue should also be used alongside English to
teach their children. In explaining why they said English should be used, some of
the Lushai subjects said that this would be helpful for their childrens higher studies
in the future and also that this would help them become more developed.
All of the Khumi subjects said Bangla should be the medium of education in primary
school. Also, among the 21 Khumi subjects, two people said that their mother
tongue should be used as an education medium alongside Bangla so that the
children do not forget their mother tongue.
29
Not a lot can be said based on this limited information, but it can be said that, other
than the Lushai, the majority of subjects from each of the other communities think
that because they live in Bangladesh, Bangla should be the medium of education in
primary school. Some subjects, however, did say their mother tongue should be
used alongside Bangla or English for giving teaching instruction at the primary
school level.
In studying language attitudes, two sets of questions about a language education
program were asked along with the question mentioned about education medium.
The first set of questions was used only in villages where there was an existing
mother tongue class, and these questions asked about the success of the class.4 The
second set of questions was used in villages where there was not an existing mother
tongue class, and these questions asked subjects if they would send their children to
a multilingual education class and why.5
The first set of these two questions was asked only of the Bawm because only among
the Bawm is there already a mother tongue education program running. The second
set of questions was not asked of the Bawm because it was not applicable given that
they already have a language education program. Bawm community members
explained that the Bawm language education program is being run by their own
efforts and is successful because of community members cooperation. The result of
this language education program is that Bawm children can freely read literature in
their own language. Among the Kuki-Chin communities in Bangladesh, only the
Bawm are running their own education program, and this largely through their own
efforts. Though other factors are possible, this indicates the Bawm have a stronger
positive attitude towards their mother tongue than do the other communities.
Because there is not a mother tongue education program running among the
Pangkhua, the Lushai, the Khyang, or the Khumi, the second set of questions about a
language education program was asked of members of these communities. Each of
14a. I have been told there is a mother tongue literacy program here. Do you know any children
who go to these classes? 14b. If yes, how successful do you think these classes are?
5
15a. If your community leaders set up a class to teach young children first how to read and write in
their mother tongue and then how to read and write Bangla, would you send your children? 15b.
Why or why not?
30
the Khyang and Khumi subjects responded that they would send their children to
such a class. Of the 11 Pangkhua subjects eight said they would send their children,
two said they didnt know if they would send their children or not, and one said he
would not send his children, reasoning that they can learn their mother tongue at
home and therefore do not need such a class.
To this same question eight of the 10 Lushai subjects said they would send their
children to such a class, and two said they would not. One of these two said this
countrys provision for education is not good, so he will send his children to India
for school. The other subject who first said he wouldnt send his children to this
type of class then explained that if the class was good he would send them, but
otherwise he, too, would send his children to India for their education.
Those subjects who answered yes to this question were also asked why they would
send their children to such a class. A summary of their various reasons is given in
figure 9. The numbers in parentheses represent the number of subjects from each
community who answered yes to this question.
Figure 9: Reasons for sending children to mother tongue and Bangla classes
Response Rate
Reason
Pangkhua
Lushai
Khyang
Khumi
For education
38%
25%
15%
52%
For learning language
25%
50%
25%
33%
To preserve their MT
--
--
20%
14%
For their future development
13%
--
15%
--
To learn Bangla well
13%
13%
5%
--
To learn their MT
13%
--
10%
--
For development of their MT
--
--
5%
--
To be able to express their thoughts
--
--
5%
--
Do not know
--
13%
--
--
(8)
(8)
(20)
(21)
Figure 9 shows that most people from each community said they would send their
children to mother tongue and Bangla classes for reasons having to do with
education and learning language. Because the education rate among most of these
31
communities is very low, they have given importance to education of their children
and recognize that for good education to happen, the children must learn Bangla
along with their mother tongue.
Many subjects from each community also said they would send their children to this
type of class because their children will be able to learn Bangla along with their
mother tongue, and if they are able to learn Bangla along with their mother tongue,
they will be able to learn Bangla well, which will lead to improved lives for them.
Other subjects want to send their children to such classes because they think that
preserving their language is important and that this will be possible through this
type of education program.
This language attitudes data shows that nearly all of the communities questionnaire
subjects said the medium of education should be Bangla instead of their mother
tongue and that half of the Lushai subjects said the education medium should be
Bangla, and half said it should be English. This does not, however, mean that these
communities have a negative attitude towards their mother tongues. Rather, for
practical reasons they advise using Bangla and to a lesser extent English for
education. Similarly, just as some of the subjects said it is important to preserve
their language, many also said it is imperative that Bangla be learned.
We researchers perceived a positive attitude among the Bawm towards their mother
tongue, for in each of their villages there is a mother tongue education center. For
the other four communities, however, information is too limited for us to say
whether their attitudes towards their mother tongues are positive or negative. They
did express interest in an education program that teaches their children to first learn
in their mother tongue and then in Bangla, but they do not have any such programs
at present nor did the researchers notice real interest in the community as a whole
in starting such a program. This could be due not only to language attitudes but also
to issues such as a groups economic position or a lack of information about how to
start such a program.
4.3.3. Language vitality
In addition to language use and language attitudes, language vitality was also
studied as part of this research. The vitality of a language is dependent upon
language use, especially upon the language use of children. Thus, to study language
32
vitality, some questions about childrens language use were included in the
sociolinguistic questionnaire. Questions 3 and 912 are about language vitality. A
summary of responses to most of these questions is given in figure 10.
Figure 10: Responses to language vitality questions
Abbreviations:
Subjects best language = 3. What language do you speak best?
Kids first language = 9. What language do children in your village speak first?
Kids best language = 11. What language do young people (age 10) in your village
speak best?
Other language before school = 10a. Before starting school, do many children in
your village speak any language besides your MT?
Which language = 10b. If yes, which one(s)?
MT = mother tongue
Subjects
Community
best
Kids
first
Kids
best
Other language before

school
language language language
Which
language
MT
MT
MT
yes
no
dont know
Pangkhua
100%
100%
100%
18%
82%
--
Bangla
Bawm
100%
100%
100%
--
95%
5%
--
Lushai
100%
100%
100%
--
100%
--
--
Khyang
100%
100%
100%
--
100%
--
--
Khumi
100%
100%
100%
--
100%
--
--
The information in figure 10 indicates that the Kuki-Chin communities of

Bangladesh are still able to speak their own languages well. Even their children
speak their mother tongue as their best language, and their mother tongue is the
language they use when they first start to speak. Also, most children cannot speak a
language besides their mother tongue before starting school. Out of all the
sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects, only two Pangkhua subjects said many
children from their village speak another language in this case Bangla before
starting school, and one of these subjects qualified his answer by saying they speak
a little Bangla.
In all of the communities that the researchers of this report have researched in the
past, never before has 100% of any communitys subjects said that they and their
33
communitys children speak their mother tongue as their best and first language.
This indicates that Bangladeshs Kuki-Chin languages are very vital.
One other question concerning language vitality was used in this study. Figure 11
displays the answers from the various communities.
Figure 11: Responses to one other language vitality question
Question 12: In about 30 years, when the children of this village grow up and have children
of their own, what language do you think those children will speak?
Response
Community
MT &
Bangla &
MT &
dont
Bangla
English
English
know
--
--
--
--
--
76%
10%
5%
5%
5%
--
Lushai
100%
--
--
--
--
--
Khyang
75%
15%
--
--
--
10%
Khumi
38%
43%
5%
--
--
14%
MT
Bangla
Pangkhua
100%
Bawm
In response to the above-mentioned question, each of the Pangkhua and Lushai
subjects said in the future their communitys children will speak their own language.
Among the Bawm and the Khyang most of the subjects said their communitys future
generation of children will speak their mother tongue, but three Khyang subjects
(15%) and two Bawm subjects (10%) said that in the future children in their village
will speak Bangla, explaining that they would be educated in Bangla and would
therefore speak it. There was also one Bawm subject who said the children would
speak both Bawm and Bangla, another one who said they would speak Bangla and
English, and one other who said they would speak Bawm and English.
On this issue the Khumi community is somewhat of an exception. Khumi subjects
said they speak Khumi as their best language, and at present Khumi children speak
Khumi as their best and first language. Still, almost half of the subjects (9 out of 21
subjects) said that in the future Khumi children will speak Bangla while nearly the
same number (8 out of 21 subjects) said future Khumi children will still speak
Khumi. Of those who said future Khumi children will speak Bangla rather than
Khumi, one subject went on to explain that they will do so because they will be
34
educated in Bangla. One other subject said the future generation of Khumi children
will speak both Khumi and Bangla.
In summary it can be said that, although some Kuki-Chin peoplemost notably nine
of the Khumi subjectsthink the future generation of children in their community
will speak Bangla instead of their own communitys language, it is highly unlikely
that the various Kuki-Chin languages of Bangladesh will be lost. This is because in
almost every community most of the members speak their own language among
themselves. The situation of the Lushai, however, is different in that the Lushai
language may no longer be used in Bangladesh in the not-too-distant future.
According to the headman of the one remaining area in Bangladesh where Lushai is
still used today, it is possible that some day the Lushai from that area will move to
India. In India, however, Lushai is a very vital language.
4.3.4. Bilingualism
Along with language use, attitudes, and vitality, bilingualism was a part of the
sociolinguistic research done among Bangladeshs Kuki-Chin communities. Three
questions on the questionnaire (questions 2, 4, and 5) were used to better
understand the bilingualism abilities of these various Kuki-Chin communities. A

discussion on the responses given to each of these three questions follows.
Question 2: What languages can you speak in addition to your mother tongue?
Responses
Commu-
Baw
Tri-
Tang-
Pang-
Eng-
pura
changya
khua
lish
--
91%
--
--
--
--
57%
14%
14%
14%
48%
--
--
40%
--
--
90%
--
--
10%
--
80%
35%
--
--
25%
20%
15%
15%
--
5%
90%
--
--
38%
5%
--
--
--
--
10%
nity
Bangla
Marma
Chakma
Lushai
Mro
Pangkhua
82%
9%
73%
82%
Bawm
70%
62%
43%
Lushai
100%
--
Khyang
95%
Khumi
62%
The information given in figure 12 shows that most subjects from each community
said they are able to speak a neighboring language along with Bangla. For example,
the Pangkhua subjects who are from Bilaichari Pangkhua Para live near Chakma
and Bawm communities and have regular contact with them. Because of this, many
of the Pangkhua subjects said they are able to speak Bawm and Chakma in addition
none
35
to their mother tongue. Additionally, 82% of the Pangkhua subjects said they can
speak Bangla. The same percentage of Pangkhua subjects also said they can speak
Lushai. The Pangkhua are Christian, but there is not Christian literature in their
language, so they use Lushai Christian books. Thus, although there are not Lushai
people living in Bilaichari, many Pangkhua people there can speak some Lushai.
People living in the two Bawm villages where this language research took place
have opportunity to use Bangla. Thus, 70% of the Bawm subjects said they are able
to speak Bangla in addition to their mother tongue. Also, because they live near
Marma communities and have regular contact with them, 62% of the Bawm subjects
said they can speak Marma. Because the Bawm from Jamunachari have neighbors
from several language communities, a few of the subjects from there said they can
speak Tripura and/or Tangchangya, all but one subject said they can speak Chakma,
and each of the Jamunachari subjects said they can speak Pangkhua. None of the
Bawm subjects from Bethel Para of Ruma subdistrict reported being able to speak
Tripura, Tangchangya, Chakma, or Pangkhua.
Figure 12 shows that 57% of the Bawm subjects said they can speak Lushai.
Although it is not regular, the Bawm do have contact with the Lushai and therefore
have some opportunity to speak Lushai. They are naturally able to understand
Lushai more easily than other languages because there is some similarity with their
language. Thus, more than half of the Bawm subjects said they can speak Lushai.
Each of the Lushai subjects said they can speak Bangla along with their mother
tongue. This is because when they go outside of their village or speak with people
from other communities, they must use Bangla. Therefore they, too, have had an
opportunity to use Bangla. The Lushai living in Mahmuam Para have Tripura
neighbors living close by and therefore hear and use the Tripura language most days.
Thus, 90% of the Lushai subjects said they can also speak Tripura. Finally, a few of
the Lushai subjects said they can speak a little Chakma.
The information given in figure 12 shows that, besides their mother tongue, most of
the Khyang can speak Bangla and Marma. This is because when the Khyang go
outside of their community, they often speak Bangla and Marma. In addition to
speaking these languages, many of the subjects from Boro Kukyachari in Rajasthali
said they can speak Chakma, Tripura, and/or Bawm. Thus it seems that the Khyang
living in the Rajasthali area can speak several languages to at least some extent.
36
As was their language vitality situation, the bilingualism situation of the Khumi
community in Bangladesh is different from those of the other Kuki-Chin
communities. Compared with the other Kuki-Chin communities, the Khumi

communitys Bangla ability is low. This is probably because the Khumi live farther
from Bengali communities and have little communication with Bengalis and so do
not have much opportunity to use Bangla. On the other hand most of the Khumi
subjects said they can speak Marma in addition to their mother tongue because
when they speak with people from other language communities in their area, they
use Marma more than Bangla or any other language. It should be noted that
Bandarban district of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is predominantly a Marma area.

Thus, Marma is used as a language of wider communication among most of the
indigenous peoples of Bandarban. Some of the Khumi subjects also said they can
speak Mro because they live near Mro communities. Finally, two older female
subjects from Manglung Headman Para of Thanci district said they cant speak any
language other than their mother tongue because they do not have interaction with
people outside of the Khumi community.
Because the populations of these communities are small, speakers from them find
that in important situations they generally must use the languages of larger,
neighboring communities. Thus, although they may not be very fluent in these
neighboring languages, they are able to say what they need to when needed. People
from the various Kuki-Chin communities in Bangladesh speak not only some Bangla
but also neighboring minority languages. Different minority language groups live in
different geographical areas, and the various Kuki-Chin communities also live in
different areas. Thus, a communitys ability in a minority language is dependent on
where that community is located and who their neighbors are. One goal of this
Kuki-Chin research was to better understand how well Kuki-Chin speakers can
understand the languages mentioned. Discussion on this follows.
37
Question 4: What language do you speak second best (after your mother tongue)?
Responses
Community
Bangla
Bawm
Lushai
Pangkhua
36%
36%
18%
Bawm
62%
Lushai
50%
Khyang
Khumi
Pang-
Chakma
Marma
9%
5%
24%
--
70%
--
10%
--
khua
Tri-
not
pura
applicable
--
--
--
--
10%
--
--
--
--
--
50%
--
--
--
--
25%
--
5%
--
--
--
81%
--
10%
The information in figure 13 shows that four Pangkhua subjects (36%) said they
speak Bangla as their second-best language. Each went on to say that they can
always say what they want to say in Bangla, and each of these four subjects was
educated. Four other Pangkhua subjects said Bawm is their second-best language,
but three of these four said that, although Bawm is their second-best language, they
cannot always say what they want to say in Bawm. The other one said he can
always say what he wants to say in Bawm. Also, none of these four subjects who
named Bawm as their second-best language had been educated up to class 8. This
data indicates that those Pangkhua who are educated have good bilingual ability in
Bangla, but the Pangkhua community as a whole does not have sufficient ability in
Bangla to be able to use Bangla literature. Two other Pangkhua subjects said that
they speak Lushai as their second-best language and that they can always say what
they want to say in Lushai. One other Pangkhua subject said her second-best
language is Chakma.
The discussion in the previous paragraph is about only those Pangkhua from
Bilaichari Pangkhua Para. It can be assumed that other Pangkhua villages in this
area have a more-or-less similar situation with regards to bilingualism. The situation
among the Pangkhua living in Sajek union of Baghaichari subdistrict in Rangamati
district, however, is different. There is not a lot of detailed information available,
but a little formal research, travels through that area, and conversations that the
author had with people from that area all indicate that this area is near the Mizoram,
India, border and that the Pangkhua living there have regular contact with the
Lushai of Mizoram. This and the fact that this area is separated from Bengali
38
communities indicate that the Pangkhua there speak Lushai much better than
Bangla. In fact the Pangkhua people from Konglak village in Sajek union no longer
use Pangkhua as their mother tongue but instead speak Lushai as their first
language.
Among the Bawm subjects 13 (62%) said Bangla is their second-best language. Four
of these 13 people are from Jamunachari, and each of these four said they could
always say what they wanted to say in Bangla, presumably because each of them is
educated. The other nine Bawm subjects who said Bangla is their second-best
language are from Bethel Para, and eight of these people said they cannot always
say what they want to say in Bangla. The one subject who said he can always say
what he wants in Bangla is a health worker. It is assumed that because Bangla is
important for his work, he knows more Bangla than the other subjects. Two other
Bawm subjects said Marma is their second-best language, and one said Lushai is his
second-best language. Each of the two who named Marma said they had lived in
Marma areas for some time and therefore had the opportunity to learn and use
Marma. They each said they can always say what they want to say in Marma.
Five other Bawm subjects said they speak Pangkhua as their second-best language.
All of these subjects said they can always say what they want to say in Pangkhua,
and all are from Jamunachari Bawm Para. These peoples closest neighbors are
Pangkhua, they have regular contact with the Pangkhua, and they have opportunity
to use the Pangkhua language. In other areas where the Bawm live, however, there
are not Pangkhua people living nearby. Thus, in areas other than Jamunachari, the
Bawm do not know the Pangkhua language or at least do not speak it as their
second-best language. For the Bawm community as a whole, then, it can be
concluded that they are not sufficiently bilingual in Bangla, Marma, or Pangkhua.
Among the Lushai subjects five (50%) named Bangla as their second-best language,
and five others (50%) named Tripura. Of the five who named Bangla, four said they
are always able to say what they want to say in Bangla. The population of the
Lushai in Bangladesh is very small, and, other than with their closest neighbors, the
Tripura, they have to use Bangla to speak with other people in most situations.
Perhaps for these reasons these people speak Bangla as their second-best language.
In spite of the fact that half of the subjects said Bangla is their second-best language,
the researchers had to use the help of a translator to speak with many of them
39
because they could not directly understand the researchers Bangla. Thus it can be
assumed that this level of Bangla ability is not sufficient to understand Bangla
literature or to maintain a conversation in Bangla.
Of the five Lushai subjects who named Tripura as their second-best language, four
said they can always say what they want to say in Tripura. This is because the
neighbors living closest to the Lushai in Mahmuam Para are Tripura, and the
population of the Tripura is greater than that of the Lushai. Thus, the Lushai must
learn Tripura in order to be able to have regular interaction with their Tripura
neighbors. The result is that they are able to speak Tripura along with their mother
tongue. It seems, therefore, that a Lushai persons second-best language is
dependent upon whom they have the most regular contact with and upon who their
neighbors are.
Seventy percent of the Khyang subjects named Bangla as their second-best language,
and among these subjects most (86%) said they can always say what they want to
say in Bangla. In spite of these responses, it is suspected that the Bangla ability of
the Khyang as a community is not as great as that of some other communities. They
usually use Bangla only for simple chatting and cannot speak about or understand
deep topics in Bangla. Notably, many people had difficulty understanding the
language used in this researchs sociolinguistic questionnaire.
Some Khyang can also speak Marma. This is because the Marma live near some of
them, some have regular contact with the Marma, and some share a religion with
the Marma. Thus, five of the Khyang subjects (25%) said Marma is their second-best
language, and three of these people said they can always say what they want to say
in Marma. The other twowho said they cannot always say what they want to say
in Marma even though it is their second-best languageare older women who stay
at home most of the time and therefore have little opportunity to use Marma. One
other Khyang subject said she doesnt speak any language other than Khyang, so this
question was not applicable for her.
Of all the Kuki-Chin communities in Bangladesh, the education rate of the Khumi is
the lowest. Between the two Khumi villages where research was done, only two
people who had been educated through at least class 8 could be found, and both of
these people were young men. Furthermore, only these two men named Bangla as
their second-best language. They said they can always say what they want to say in
40
Bangla because during their school years each of them stayed with other students
from a mix of ethnic communities and there had a lot of opportunity to use Bangla.
Another 17 of the Khumi subjects (81%) said Marma is their second-best language.
Nine out of these 17 subjects said they can always say what they want to say in
Marma because they have to use Marma in many situations. The other eight subjects
who named Marma as their second-best language cannot always say what they want
to say in Marma, and of these eight people seven are from Manglung Headman Para.
People from this village generally do not go out much and therefore have little
contact with people from other communities and little opportunity to use Marma or
any other second language. Thus, although Marma is their second-best language,
they do not have strong bilingual ability in Marma. Two Khumi women who were
both over 40 years old said they cannot speak any language other than their mother
tongue. Thus, question 4 would not be applicable for them and therefore was not
asked of them.
In conclusion, the Kuki-Chin people of Bangladesh speak their own language as their
best language, and after that they can speak Bangla and also some neighboring
languages. They especially find that they must learn the languages of neighboring
communities who have a greater population than their own or whose language is
used as a language of wider communication in the area. Thus, people from the same
language community who live in two different areas may be able to speak different
languages. Although they can speak various neighboring languages, no community
has sufficient ability in any given neighboring language to be able to understand
literature in that language. Also, many people from each language community other
than Khumi said they speak Bangla as their second-best language. In each case,
however, the Bangla ability of the community as a whole is not sufficient for them
to understand Bangla literature well.
41
5. Recommendations
Communities are able to achieve their development goals when their vision and
effort are accompanied by a positive environment. Each community needs to decide
for itself what its goals are and how these goals can be met. Although outside
organizations can help communities in this work, it is the responsibility of each
community to start and continue language and development work.
There is a linguistic relationship among the five Kuki-Chin communities of
Bangladesh, but their languages are not the same. Also, just as their languages are
different, so are their ethnic distinctions, their identities, and their cultures. Of
course, their language and development needs are also different. Thus, the
recommendations for each of these five communities are different.
Although the recommendations given for each community are separate, some of the
situations these five communities face are similar. Thus, a few recommendations can
be made that are applicable for every community. For example, each community
could form a group of community leaders who will make decisions about language
and development needs, and the people of a given community must be informed
about that groups responsibility. This groups leaders will be appointed according to
the communitys various situations, such as their traditional building structures and
their existing political system. It is probable each community will use different ways
to build a language and development group and select leaders for this group. Each
community may give its committee a unique name, but for the sake of clarity in
these recommendations, the name language and development committee is used
to refer to this decision-making group.
Pangkhua
Among the Kuki-Chin communities in Bangladesh, the language situation of the
Pangkhua community is unique. It is especially worth noting that the language
situation of the Pangkhua people in Bilaichari and that of the Pangkhua people in
Sajek union are not the same. Among the Pangkhua in the Bilaichari area, those
who are educated use Lushai literature, but many people from this area said they
actually understand Bawm better than Lushai. Thus, one recommendation for the
Pangkhua people in the Bilaichari area is that they try to make more use of the
Bawm literature available in Bangladesh. On the other hand, the Pangkhua who live
in Sajek union are able to use the literature of the Mizo (Lushai) language of India
42
because these Pangkhua people understand Mizo well. Some frequently go to
Mizoram state, and through this they are able to learn the Mizo language well. Thus,
it seems they should not have trouble understanding Mizo literature. If the existing
literature in both Mizo and Bawm can meet the needs of the Pangkhua people, then
they would not need to spend the time, talent, and finances necessary for good
language development work in the Pangkhua language.
If, however, there is a need for developing their own language and there are
sufficient interest and suitable people available for a Pangkhua language
development program, then the Pangkhua community can still get help from
existing Bawm or Mizo materials, which can be adapted to Pangkhua since these
three languages are all of the same language family branch. Using these existing
materials will make the literature development process a little less difficult. Also,
the Pangkhua of Bangladesh could develop an MLE (Multilingual Education)
program through which children are first taught to read and write in their mother
tongue and then taught to read and write in a second language. Through this, their
children could first learn literacy skills in their mother tongue, and then they should
be able to better learn to read and write in a second language. As a result these
children in the future should be able to read and write in this second language with
less difficulty.
Thus, the Pangkhua community has an important decision to make with regards to
language development: will they develop their own language from the start, or will
they first see if the Pangkhua community as a whole can make more use of Bawm
and Mizo literature? To make such a decision, it is important that the Pangkhua
form a language and development committee which can discern which approach is
better for the community. It would then be the responsibility of the committee to
oversee the chosen language development program.
Bawm
Among the Kuki-Chin languages of Bangladesh, the Bawm language is fairly
developed and has a good amount of literature. In the Bawm language there are
already dictionaries, religious literature, and literature about Bawm history. In
addition to these, the Bawm could write small, easy books with short stories, folk
stories, or science fiction. With these types of books available, readers of all levels
43
could develop an interest in reading their own language, and there would be a
greater culture of reading in their own language.
If there is sufficient interest in the Bawm community as a whole for their children to
learn Bangla better, they could start an MLE program. To run such an MLE program
well, it is important that the Bawm community have a clear idea of what a language
committees responsibilities and duties are. For example, this language and
development committee would have to understand how an MLE program is started,

what types of books and other literature are used in such a program, and what the
other key components of such a program are. It would also have to develop the
ability needed to run such a program.
Lushai
In the Indian state of Mizoram, the Mizo (Lushai) language is very developed and
has a lot of literature. Therefore, those Lushai who are currently living in
Bangladesh could use Mizo literature from India (such as small story books) as part
of an MLE program for their children. Through such a program the Bangladeshi
Lushai children could learn to read and write their mother tongue and also a second
language such as Bangla or English. To run an MLE program it is important to form
a language and development committee. For the Lushai a language and
development committees responsibilities would include understanding how to begin
an MLE program, learning more about what types of literature and other teaching
aids are available in Mizoram, discussing with and getting advice from leaders in
Mizoram, and bringing more literature from Mizoram and making use of it. In
addition, the Lushai in Bangladesh could also produce their own childrens literature
and folk stories and through these create more excitement about reading among a
new generation of readers.
Khyang
Among the Khyang in Bangladesh there are linguistic differences between the
Kongtu, who live in the hills, and the Laitu, who live on the plains. A decision needs
to be made as to whether language development should take place in both Kongtu
and Laitu or in only one variety. It would be best if leaders from both of these
Khyang communities can come together to form one language and development
committee. Based on this united foundation of a joint language and development
committee, it could be decided which Khyang language varietyor bothshould be
44
used for language development. It will be good if the Khyang community as a whole
is able to use one set of literature because language development work is difficult
and requires a lot of resources from a community. If, however, using the same
Khyang literature is not possible, then they could work together to develop
literature in the two varieties, making small books for children, helpful books, etc.
Through the use of such books, Khyang community interest in reading mother
tongue literature could be developed.
For the Khyang, too, starting an MLE program is important. If it is determined that
both Khyang language varieties need to be developed, the Khyang children would
use separate materials at the start of the program. For developing the materials that
would be used for transitioningor bridgingfrom Khyang to Bangla, people from
both Khyang varieties can share ideas and methods.
The Kongtu and the Laitu reportedly cannot understand each other well, at least
initially. Thus, before a decision is made about the previously-mentioned topic of

which variety to develop, more study could be done to see how much
comprehension there is between speakers of the two varieties. SIL Bangladesh has a
lot of experience in this type of work and, if needed, can help the Khyang
community with it. Before doing intelligibility testing between the two communities,
the Khyang language and development committee could develop very small books
in each language variety. These books could then be used for testing intelligibility in
Khyang villages.
Because the population of the Khyang community is small, Khyang community
leaders must work together no matter what the linguistic situation. As was
mentioned, it is important that there be leaders from each of the two language
varieties on the committee as a way of facilitating working together. Through this
committee they can encourage and advise each other and help each other with the
various aspects of language development.
Khumi
Although there are regional linguistic differences among the Khumi in Bangladesh,
it seems they can understand each other. Thus, the Khumi from the Thanci area and
the Khumi from the Ruma and Rowangchari areas should be able to use the same
literature. If the Khumi in Bangladesh want to develop their mother tongue, then
they, too, should form a language and development committee, and on the
45
committee there should be leadership representation from both geographical areas.
This committee should communicate with leaders from the Khumi community in
Myanmar to get more information about what Khumi literature is available there.
They can then see if the Khumi here can understand it well. If they can, the Khumi
language development work here will be lessened. Also, childrens literature, short
stories, folk stories, and other fictional stories need to be produced for a new
generation of readers. These can then be used as helpful materials for children in an
MLE program. A result of this would be that, just as children would have more
interest in reading in their mother tongue, so their mother tongue itself would also
become stronger. This would give Khumi children a positive introduction to reading
and writing in a second language. Finally, in their language development efforts the
Khumi of Bangladesh can use the Myanmar Khumi alphabet.
SIL Bangladesh is not a funding organization. SIL Bangladesh is a research, training,

and consulting organization which seeks to be a helpful partner to community-
owned language and development initiatives. Responsibility for taking the first steps
of any language and development program, however, lies with the language
speakers themselves. First they need to identify appropriate people from their
communities to head up any language and development projects they are interested
in. The community members must then do further information and materials
gathering regarding language development that has already taken place, and they
need to try to establish good working relationships among all those involved in
language and development efforts for their community. Other resources needed for
the long life of a project whether they be human, financial, or logistical should
also be identified. When these initial steps are taken and when there are adequate
community vision, organization, and dedication to the work, then SIL will be able to
come alongside as a partner and work with the five Kuki-Chin communities of
Bangladesh. Usually in the area of language development SIL is able to provide basic
training and consulting in language and development matters such as program
design, writing system development, education program planning, curriculum,
materials development, and teacher training.
46
References
Blair, Frank. 1990. Survey on a shoestring: A manual for small-scale language surveys.
Dallas: The Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at
Arlington.
Fasold, Ralph. 1992. The sociolinguistics of society. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Gordon, Raymond G., Jr., ed. 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Fifteenth
edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version.
http://www.ethnologue.com/ (accessed 21 April 2008).

Loncheu, S. 2004. The Bawm Indigenous People. http://bawm.info/Bawms.htm
(accessed 21 April 2008).
Wikipedia. 2008. Chittagong Hill Tracts.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chittagong_Hill_Tracts (accessed 26 May 2008).
Wimbish, John S. 1989. WordSurv: A program for analyzing language survey wordlists.
Dallas: The Summer Institute of Linguistics.
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(st $) !K 7 !i bg ei b A A+ !7 di
b 8 K1 7 & A e U1 / 8 7 ei A (st *) e
/ U1 $ 8o 7 p ei A (st $) ! b[ ei b A
A+ !7 st an b A+ !g L U A:
st *:
. di n g b ![ 1 8g hh F A
K. s8g hh F A aF nr Ao u !kt p ei A A
. di n g b ![ 8g 7 n A nt u p ei, an k
b ![ ei U as F A
st $:
di n g b ![ 8g !K I nt u p ei e 8 +
ei + 8 A A e 7 b ![ ei as F
47
st -:
. di n g b ![ 8g u I A
K. b ![ 8g U1 7 e e ak 8 F !i 8 b ![
L K
u 8 d an di n [ b ![g o a u t
b U8 A+ ei an p1 mp b L
8 WordSurv !pg A71 b ![g b
A+ SIL
A+
N 8 a pt b g ulK k- [g !F d
I t eK j o 1 ! an b bg
A
.$. b +L k1

m pt b m8 +L k1 g eK L U A ei b
n F bg Ak an8 u8 !7g b L I
e k ei N 8 a pt b U1 g b
b antLk
8 A !g no entry A !K
A+ b 8g L !K n U go an A:
dt 8g ei 8 A 1 A+
d s8 lK ! b F !g ei 8 A 1 A+
s8 u F an1 h A nt 8 b o
an 1 8 F L an1 h s 8 u !F
I st $ an A+
!7 b ![ ! e b aU8 u 1 8 '8 u 1 8
F L ei 8 (st *) A 1 A+
KL b F KL b L mk I
g an A+:
u s, U1 s m s s !l 1h hg I ! 8 A 1
A
ah h L A
b ![ e b eF u di s8 a e b anr e
s8 b L ei 8 A 1 A+ aF !K n
nt u p ei ei U s8o st * an A+
b 1h b u n n h b
F L st -.K an A+
48
b 1h [sh] e [j] 8g 7Fk b

1h [] e [d] 8g F ei 8 A A+
p p b I e K1 ! I+ p !7 b
I ei K1 + !g ei b A 1 A+ e ei !PLk A
h A+ b n F i 8g mk [g
A 1A A+ [ A 1h i 8 o [g !
A:
i 8
a
b
c
e
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
0
[
i+[ K [
7L+[ ()
[ k1+[ (K)
(KL)
L !Ad1 [ (KL)
pJL [ (KL)
!F [ ()
!F [ (Li)
hLr
L LK [ (K)
(K)
hL [ (Li)
()
49
.-. b
1 sky (I)
1
5 cloud (!h)
aka
[0]
mh
[0]
h
mit um
rvan
van
[bijm]
vandom
hn
[ck]
khhiu
5
5
[al]
kn i
[gh]
kni
[e]
2 sun ('7)8
1
urdo
ni
kn i
kni
khni
kn i
kn ito
kni
[al]
[bi]
[ck]
k upni
h
t um
khupni
tmi
[gh]
[jm]
[gh]
[e]
[0]
6 rain (N)
[abijlm]
[g]
b!"i
kh
[ck]
khua
[al]
[g]
rua#
[bijm]
kn iam ai
kn inai
kni ni#
[e]
[h]
[e]
3 moon ({)
[0]
[ck]
[h]
[g]
[e]
7 rainbow ( Un)
tad
hla
[abil]
k r
dhnu
[ck]
lo
tuta#aikh
lou
dum ta
tumta
[bi]
thla
3
4
[c]
lo
dhm
hnahom
ia
kh#
t imbal
shanj
[0]
[e]
[gh]
[jm]
[e]
4 star ()
1
taa
[0]
arfi
[bi]
ari
[ajlm]
ari
a
[ck]
a
[ck]
kaii
k ishi
kaii
[ajlm]
[0]
[l]
[k]
[g]
[h]
[jm]
[e]
8 wind ()
[gh]
[e]
[gh]
50
no entry
bata
hli
[abijl]
khri
[ck]
al i
[gh]
thli
[m]
[0]
[e]
[a]
9 lightning (d1 )

1
b!d ut tmkano
kltmlk
tktla
khrai#khra
13 water ()
[0]
[al]
[b]
[c]
k raik ra
[k]
mls idei
alu!d i
mimtlalk
kolp
[e]
mh rdon
khmrit(
k uari
khuri
khopuiri
k uari
khuri
kk um
[a]
[bi]
[jm]
tu
[bi]
tu
tui
[achjklm]
ti
[bi]
tui
[achjklm]
kn ipjuna
knipj)
al ipk a
hum
[g]
[e]
[h]
[k]
k uanrum
[l]
nodi
tuidil
tv a
tvo
tuv u
ohlo
lui
tip a
va
[0]
[a]
[bi]
[e]
[h]
[ck]
[jm]
[g]
[l]
ma"i
[0]
tual
[abil]
de!k
[ck]
klo
[gh]
lii
[jm]
11 sea (/Ld)
ao / mudo
tip i
tuipui
mrt
pnlei
[e]
puli
[g]
[a]
[ck]
uida
tiumumrt
[h]
tuifinriet
[i]
[jlm]
paha+
tla
khuiju
mo
m,i
[e]
moi
[h]
k il-.n
[e]
kada
[0]
ni
[abi]
n
kiup
an ipa
an-np-i
[e]
tirdiak
[jm]
12 mountain (A[)
1
16 mud ()
[0]
[b]
6
7
[e]
15 soil/ground ()
[c]
[g]
[b]
[0]
[b]
[0]
14 river ()
[i]
10 thunder (!h 8)
pani
[gh]
[jm]
[0]
[abijlm]
[ck]
[g]
51
k rok
[l]
[c]
[gh]
[k]
17 dust (UL)
21 silver (r)
dhula
ab uim!di
ub uim!di
v!laidip
dhui
[c]
[g]
[0]
[l]
[a]
[b]
an /
khl okhuna
nonde#
h
[e]
p !lk u
likhu
hui
vaivut
[h]
[i]
[j]
upa
[0]
rupa
[b]
laikul
hen
muta
[g]
[h]
[a]
[ck]
takata
takaa
takarua
takaa
tnk#
[i]
[jlm]
[i]
[e]
[k]
22 today (I)
[m]
18 stone (F)
1
patho
luha
lut
lu
no entry
[e]
ad
[0]
vaini
[h]
[0]
[a]
vini
[al]
[jm]
wan i
[g]
[bcikl]
tuun
[bi]
ls o
luo
lsho
luha
[e]
[gh]
[e]
tnhp
[ck]
uvoiin
[j]
voiin
[m]
[a]
23 yesterday (/)
19 sand ()
tokal / kalke
bali
[0]
mdan
[ab]
balu
[alm]
mdan
[l]
midana
nidan
jnd)
[e]
jnd
[g]
jnt#
tualv!laidip
ti l
i#i
[h]
ti#i
ph!ld!p
tiau
d
i#i
[b]
[c]
[g]
[i]
[j]
[k]
[h]
s pu
[e]
20 gold (!)
1
ona
un
ha
[0]
[abi]
[ck]
mk-#
[e]
muk u
[gh]
rait(tak
rakatak
[jl]
[m]
52
[i]
[j]
[ck]
dd
jnd)
[e]
jnd
[g]
nim in
[h]
[m]
[0]
24 tomorrow (I)

1
aamikal
naktuk
h
t aituk
thai
h t#
29 morning ()
1
kal
[jm]
tukdi
[al]
di
k(kh
[0]
[b]
ht #
k1 a
vaikhoa
[c]
[k]
[g]
t aidi
khndn
[bijm]
[ck]
k mn
khma
[e]
[h]
no entry
[e]
dupur
oun
un
thu n
[0]
[a]
[bil]
apta
[ck]
hu
pta
[0]
khoun
[g]
30 noon (dL)
[i]
[e]
25 week (p)
[al]
[h]
[0]
tlkar
[abijlm]
tahata
[gh]
26 month ()
[jm]
[c]
[k]
h
kn it o
[gh]
knit u2n
[e]
31 evening (n1)
no entry
no entry
ma
[0]
ondha
hla
[al]
daitia
[al]
thla
danlai
[b]
danlbaia
[e]
[bijm]
h
[e]
[0]
k uk r
lu
[h]
mdl
lu
[g]
d
kn idna#
[ck]
27 year (+)
1
btho
[0]
km
[a]
[bijlm]
kum
khokum
ni
shliei
d!n
ni
[gh]
[e]
[0]
[abijlm]
k mhn!p
kn i
kn iri
[ck]
[g]
h
lailam
hmuhmap
knit u2n
[j]
t imhlim
[k]
[m]
32 night ()
[ck]
28 day ()
1
[c]
[g]
8
9
[i]
[h]
[e]
53
at
dilai
dan
[bijm]
w
[g]
jn
[ck]
vina
su
[0]
[al]
[h]
[e]
[h]
33 paddy rice (U)
38 potato (IL)
dhan
[0]
no entry
a
[al]
alu
fa
[bi]
belaialu
[h]
t
bilatiha
[c]
[ck]
bu#
[jm]
so.
[e]
tu
tal
[0abgijlm]
hat e!#
[k]
39 cauliflower (JL)
[gh]
34 uncooked rice ()

1
[e]
[0]
no entry
4ulkopi
phulkbi
[e]
[0]
[aj]
ai
fakfa
t
[ck]
son
[e]
tunei
tunei
[h]
bu#fai
[jm]
no entry
[e]
akai
[l]
badakpi
[ck]
[a]
[bi]
p ulkopi
kopip
[g]
kupip
[h]
parbor
[ilm]
[bck]
[g]
40 cabbage ({U)
35 cooked rice ()
bad akopi
[0]
[abijlm]
diklum
bhat
[0]
kupial
bu
[al]
aimokatp o
bu#
[bcik]
bu#
beu
[gh]
bun
[0]
to
[jm]
andak
[al]
bu#
[bcik]
bo n
bu#
[g]
41 eggplant (!g)
[e]
[e]
36 wheat ()
0
no entry
m
[0abcijlm]
ata
[ghk]
[e]
bhu" a
[0]
[al]
miai
vai#mum
vaimim
hmuka
mktin
me!kt
meukt ai
kolmum
[bi]
h
t e!
mt,u
mit
bok(bon
[ck]
[e]
[gh]
[jm]
42 peanut ()
37 corn ('T)
1
[h]
badam
[0abcghijklm]
pid
[e]
43 tree (+)
[b]
[jm]
[ck]
[e]
[h]
[g]
[i]
54
ath
[0]
t ei
thi
deikun
[abij]
[cklm]
deiko
dik
[h]
[e]
[g]
44 branch (d)
1
1al
47 root (')
[0]
t eim!ta
[a]
mul
[0]
t eirudu
h
"r
[bi]
t idu
ba
[ck]
thiradu
dai
tnjn
[g]
snpe
tampai
7
8
[e]
[h]
[jm]
[lm]
pata
[0]
hna#
[jm]
na#
ii
a
i
5
[abil]
[c]
[gh]
[k]
[e]
ka"a
[0]
t iram
[bi]
uiuku
[c]
iu
tuio
[k]
ba
ruwa
[al]
mau
[bijm]
[0]
j
[k]
[c]
hu
[g]
h-
[e]
h/dai
[h]
kas au
hli
[k]
ihli
[c]
4l
[al]
mra
ra#
thi#
rili
hli
li
[gh]
48 bamboo ({)
46 thorn ({)
1
[jm]
thidu
[e]
t idu
[j]
45 leaf ()
[e]
49 fruit (J)
[jm]
[bi]
[0]
[al]
[bim]
[e]
al i
[g]
t ai
[gh]
al ei
[h]
ethi
[c]
[k]
"lai
[j]
[jm]
the!
[k]
hli
hli
ihli
[l]
t idar
[jm]
t i"ra
[a]
[c]
50 jackfruit ({^)
55
ka"hal
[0]
la#ui
[m]
lo#oi
[al]
la# (thai)
hnuhnun
nunun
pini (thi)
l
[e]
[gh]
[j]
[bi]
[ck]
51 coconut (ripe) ()

1
naikl
luluk
daba
onshi
ui
55 seed ()
1
bid
ti.i
[bij]
ti
[k]
[e]
!ti
[c]
m8
[0m]
[al]
[g]
h
[0]
[abil]
[e]
unti (t i)
[c]
mu
[g]
unti (thei)
[k]
m/
[h]
[h]
tlaiti
kikua (t ai)
52 banana ()
56 sugarcane (IK)
1
akh
kumo
[a]
[j]
kumu
[l]
[m]
faifu
[bi]
thahlai
[ck]
ptti
[gh]
kla
nanta
balhla
banhla
banla
hnampo
ku"i
[gh]
psin
kuti
[e]
fu
[0]
[al]
[bi]
[ck]
53 mango (I)
1
am
[0]
[e]
[jm]
57 betelnut (s)
[0]
[jm]
upai
[0]
t hai
pandmara
thihai
[abijl]
pandora#
hithi
[ck]
komthi
[m]
[ck]
ap n
[e]
koui
phu
[g]
kunshi#
[h]
kui
[h]
kuva
[m]
kuvra
uip u
54 flower (JL)
1
4ul
[0]
par
[al]
papar
tompar
khipa
p
ks
[g]
[e]
[j]
58 lime for betelnut (L)

[jm]
[bi]
[ck]
[gh]
h
[al]
[bi]
[e]
t!nai
tun
hlt!bb
holdap
t un
thu
56
t u
[ajlm]
[0]
[a]
[bi]
[ck]
[e]
[gh]
59 liquor ()
1
md
du.u
alak
ara
arak
r
ra
64 onion (!{)
0
no entry
pad
[k]
m!dau
[h]
m!dau
[c]
prun
purun
[jm]
n
[ck]
meija
[g]
[0]
[abijlm]
[e]
[g]
60 milk (dU)
1
dudh
[0]
run u
nu k
ti#tui
[e]
[0]
[l]
[a]
[bi]
m!dau
m!ekam
[a]
[h]
[al]
65 garlic (s)
[bi]
[ck]
un
[0]
knuh
[gh]
dauau/m!dau
hnut
[jm]
mdauau
shi2knuitui
prunau
purunau
[jm]
nbk
[ck]
mjkul:n
[0j]
meijakulu
[ackl]
m!ekaulu
[e]
61 oil (!)
[bi]
no entry
tl
i
ariak
[bi]
mdauau
a iha
[g]
m!ekaulu
miha
hriak
[e]
no entry
mao
m#
[e]
[0]
[al]
[bi]
[l]
onpl
mo
[gh]
a
[jm]
63 salt ()
/
m!t(ti
tit
ti
nun
[0]
[al]
[bi]
[cjkm]
pl o
plo i
[0]
maria
[abil]
[jm]
marta
mt
ampr
[h]
opr
[g]
[ck]
s mr
[e]
67 elephant (A)
[k]
mo!t
[c]
lbon
[gh]
[e]
57
hati
ai
[abijlm]
mui
[ck]
k ai
[0]
ks 2i
[g]
[h]
66 pepper ()
62 meat ()
[e]
[h]
[m]
[a]
[l]
[gh]
[e]
[h]
68 tiger (h)
72 rabbit (K)
bah
[0]
khro
ki
[al]
midupui
[al]
[0]
aki
[m]
adupui
[m]
eki
[j]
udupui
[j]
tk ai
d!nampi
[b]
duampi
[i]
dun
[ck]
ju;
[e]
ju
aiphu
[gh]
tki
tk ai
t ui
tk ai
tki
[e]
[bi]
[ck]
[gh]
[e]
69 bear (L)
1
b aluk
vom
[g]
73 snake ()
[h]
[0]
ap
[abil]
mrul
[l]
ho m
[ck]
murul
[a]
tv-
[e]
rul
twa
tv-
vom
[gh]
[e]
[jm]
70 deer (A)
1
ho!n
k(khi
[0]
[bijm]
p l
[k]
phl
[c]
pv-i
[e]
pb u
[g]
pub ui
[h]
[0]
74 crocodile (k)
[gh]
k(k i
[jm]
kumir
k(khi
[l]
tiartam
!k(khi
[abi]
tuiartam
ki
am
[ck]
shkhi
ta
[gh]
shta.n
ol
[ck]
[e]
71 monkey ()
1
bano
[0]
[bi]
[al]
[e]
[jm]
[0]
du
j
kl ai
kli
75 house lizard ()
[abijlm]
[ck]
[gh]
[e]
58
"!k"!ki
[0]
bahlr
[al]
batlr
[bi]
imhlta
klbu
[g]
tit
[h]
daidp
[jm]
pnb-k<ei
[ck]
[e]
76 turtle (k)
1
kt"hop
rtl
81 buffalo (A)
[0]
[al]
tl
aiphak
u
u.kei#
uki
[jm]
[bi]
[ck]
[e]
[gh]
77 frog (1)
1
b
mohi
tli
tialoi
bino
[e]
paino
[h]
painu
[g]
loi
[0]
[abl]
[i]
[ck]
[jm]
82 horn (of buffalo) ()
[0]
t#u
[bi]
i
to#u
[al]
(bino) tki
-p o#
[e]
iki
up
[k]
rik i
[al]
uph
[c]
tk i
[gh]
[gh]
ki
up u
tuu#
[0]
[ck]
[bijm]
[jm]
83 tail (!)
78 dog (kk)
ld
[0]
[i]
kukur
mi
[ghm]
rmi
[l]
ui
[abceijkl]
r!mai
[a]
tm ai
tmi2
[0]
79 cat ([)
[gh]
[e]
bi+al
[0]
mi
[jm]
l i
[al]
mi
[b]
ido
[bi]
hmi
min
mio
[gh]
mi-;
[e]
do#t
[ck]
hmi
tmi2
80 cow (r)
ou
tp
il
l
[c]
i
[g]
[c]
[e]
84 goat (+)
[jm]
[k]
[0]
[abil]
[k]
no entry
h
[e]
t aol
kl
[abijlm]
ma#
[ck]
mi#i
[0]
[gh]
85 pig (e)
s i2
[e]
ukor
ra
[h]
vk
[abijlm]
bo
[jm]
wk
[ck]
.o#
59
[0]
[gh]
[e]
[e]
86 rat (id)
1
idur
mdu
90 duck (A{)
[0]
ha
[l]
vrak
[0]
[aj]
m!du
[a]
varak
p!du
[h]
vrak
adu
[m]
wmpi
[j]
rmpi#
[e]
rampai
[h]
raopai
[g]
udu
bju
dunam
dunam
hiu
bju
p!du
p!ju
[i]
[m]
[abil]
[ck]
[e]
[b]
91 bird (K)
[ck]
pakhi
[h]
va
[abil]
[g]
[ck]
tvo
[e]
tw
[g]
[0]
tuvu
[h]
[e]
87 chicken (adult female) (L)
[0]
muri
ar
[abijlm]
v a
[cgk]
tvo
[e]

[e]
tuvu
[h]
anu
[jm]
[h]
92 insect (!)
88 egg (d)
poka
ran u
rlu
[0]
1im
artui
ti
[k]
rul u
ti
[c]
thaulu
ti
p
[ck]
ti
[k]
mi
[egh]
kd-
[e]
paa
ti
[c]
rtui
rut ui
[0]
[jm]
[bi]
aku1 u
kd-
kud ui
[l]
[a]
[bi]
[j]
93 cockroach (!)
[l]
[a]
[g]
[e]
[h]
89 fish (+)
h
[m]
tlapoka
h
k aula
kholu
[g]
khnlo
[e]
k alu
[h]
kholu
[g]
k lu
[abil]
tuktu
[e]
tuktur
mat
a
o
[ck]
u
[gh]
ha
[0]
[jm]
60
[al]
3
3
[0]
[ck]
[jm]
[bi]
94 bee (!C+)
1
2
ruk(k uwai
h
k oi
khuwai
k i
k
khoi
[bijm]
[ck]
[al]
[e]
4
5
[0]
3
4
97 ant ({[)
moumathi
k i
k oi
khoi
pip+a
[0]
m!
[al]
arn
rt
[b]
[i]
imi
phaili
[gh]
[ck]
fahmir
[jm]
[ck]
[e]
98 mosquito ()
[h]
95 fly (+)
h
ma
mara
pil
[0]
[abil]
mat i
mat(t au
[i]
srn
m!t(thau
[al]
tara
tara
[e]
no entry
[h]
[g]
[0]
pt(t
[h]
[c]
[e]
[g]
[h]
pt(t
[g]
t oui
thauvai
[b]
pil iaa
k ru
thau
pil
[jm]
[k]
[c]
99 head (F)
[jm]
[k]
h
matha
[0]
pt(t
[h]
lu
[abghijlm]
pt(th
[g]
lu
[e]
pthu#
[e]
luki
luki
96 spider ([)

1
mako+a
[0]
boubra
[a]
maimranubo
h
[k]
[c]
100 face (LK)

[b]
mukh
[0]
hml
[j]
ml
bak u
klapuhu
hmoi
tlahu
[h]
hmai
[m]
maimom
[jm]
hmi
[c]
maimop
[i]
mimai
tiktikonu
me#mi
[ck]
[g]
p np olk
[l]
[e]
61
[abil]
[k]
meimai
hmoi
me#mi
[g]
[e]
[h]
[k]
[e]
101 neck (/h[)

0
no entry
ha+
tukbru
tukpru
ouktuk
kn o
ku
ho
106 cheek ()

1
al
b!
[bi]
ebe!
[al]
tnbn
[ck]
tub
[e]
[0]
[i]
102 hair (L)

tul
am

shn
lum
rum
[ck]
[e]
[gh]
107 chin (L)
[jm]
[abijlm]
[g]
[h]
o
[0]
[0]
[abijlm]
[h]
tibuk
[0]
m!k(k a
kkh
kha
titub u
teitb
[al]
[ck]
[bi]
k ab
[gh]
[e]
[jm]
[e]
108 mouth (LK)
[k]
[c]
t
[g]
103 eye (!K)

1
tok
m!t
im!k
mi
[gh]
me#
[e]
[0]
mukh
[0]
mur
[abil]
lb
[k]
[c]
[e]
[abijlm]
leb o
[ck]
leb
ka
[g]
[h]
[jm]
109 tongue ()
104 nose ()
d!b
ml ai
[a]
mliei
[l]
pli
lai
[b]
[c]
li
[ijm]
[gh]
lei
[k]
ele!
[c]
pli
[e]
pli
[e]
plai
nak
hnar
nar
hnokth
hnkth
nutra
nottn
[e]
[0]
[jm]
[abil]
[k]
105 ear ()

1
kno
kan
kn u
[g]
[h]
[e]
[0]
kun u
nak(kh
hnoku
[k]
hnku
[c]
b
[abil]
[jm]
62
[0]
[e]
[gh]
110 tooth ({)
114 finger (IgL)
dat
aul
ha
[abijlm]
ku"mar
3
3
[ck]
ukutpem
ohu
[g]
kipri
h (khamtapara)
ku#pjn
ho
hu
[0]
[c]
[e]
[h]
111 elbow (ni)

konui
ku"ik i
ku"+ak i
kiu
bnkiu
kit!k i
kiut!k i
ku"ik i
ku#ski
[e]
kit!k i
[h]
kiut!k i
[0]
kipun
kutdu"+a
[h]
nk
ku"m!t in
[l]
kut in
ukut in
[ck]
tiin
[h]
ku#psn
k!pt
[g]
[a]
[al]
[bi]
[ck]
[jm]
[e]
[g]
ku#psn
[e]
kip!t in
[h]
116 knee (AL)
[g]
[0]
[abijlm]
ha"u
[0]
h
rk(k up
[l]
ruk(khup
[a]
k up
[bijm]
ukut
[ck]
k oklu
[k]
ku#
[e]
khru
[c]
kiu
[gh]
113 palm (A L)

1
hatr talu
ku"m!d a
kutda
h
kutp a
ukuthjo
ukutjo
[gh]
[e]
k #k u
k e#k u
117 foot (/)
[0]
[al]
pa / pd
h
[0]
[bi]
p i
[al]
[jm]
k
[bijm]
[c]
k(kh
[k]
ku#pdo2i
kipiu
[m]
[0]
[a]
112 hand (A)

kut
[e]
[ck]
[g]
[bijm]
hat
[abijl]
115 fingernail (K)
[0]
[e]
[gh]
63
[k]
[c]
kh
[gh]
khe#
[e]
118 bone (A[)
123 belly (!)
ha+
[0]
p"
ru#
[abijlm]
m!d il
ij
[k]
po
oij
[c]
hn
[ck]
ihi
kj
[g]
heu#
kidi
h!u
kju#
pum
[g]
[e]
[h]
119 fat (8)

1
torbi
h
[0]
[al]
[bi]
[h]
[e]
[jm]
124 chest (L)
[0]
t u
[e]
buk
thau
[abijlm]
ta
[0]
[al]
t u
[k]
ir
t u
[c]
kata
kol o
[g]
pl u
thu
pl
om
[e]
t o
[h]
120 skin ([)
[bi]
[ck]
[gh]
[e]
[jm]
125 back (^)

[0]
pi"h
vun
[abijlm]
nukh
un
[k]
k
u n
[c]
hnu
[k]
pe#
[e]
uhnu
[c]
tam+a
pe!
[gh]
121 blood (k)

1
kto
thi
[acghkl]
thi.
[e]
[al]
[bi]
lot o#n a
[g]
nithun a
[h]
hnuda
[0]
[0]
nit u
[jm]
[e]
126 body (/!A)
t !n
[jm]
no entry
thin
[bi]
a / dho
taka
kantha
upum
[a]
ai
[g]
[l]
tla
[h]
122 sweat (h)

1
am
[0]
rahan
rahlan
h
t lan
k(k rn
khrn
kuthna
k.ui#
[e]
kuiha
[h]
[bijm]
[k]
[c]
[g]
64
[e]
[0]
[abijlm]
[c]
[ck]
127 person (!)

1
lok
mi
132 mother ()
[0]
[al]
m!nu
mihri
minu
[i]
[jm]
[b]
k r
[ck]
khumi
[egh]
puu
mipa
pt
neamto
nempso
niaoto
[0]
ma
[0c]
[abijklm]
nu
anu
[g]
am
[h]
ami
pal
[abijlm]
pt
[ck]
[0]
dv o
[ck]
d!w
jwo
[h]
[h]
[g]
[e]
[e]
134 wife (st)
[g]
moh!la
[e]
[abijlm]
129 woman (A)

1
no entry
133 husband (s)
128 man (Lr)

1
[0]
sti
[0]
du
[al]
nup i
nunau
[abil]
p ia
mut
[ck]
aiju
nemps
ju
niaot
aidu
nipui
hmeitia
[m]
meithia
[j]
[e]
[g]
[bijm]
[ck]
[g]
[e]
[h]
[h]
135 son (!+)
130 family ()
no entry
thl
mipanaupa
[e]
[0]
no entry
fp a
[bijm]
poibar
[0]
p a
[l]
tukua
[ajm]
tp o
douu
[i]
pt t
douukhur
tn niaot
im
di"hiu
[e]
[bl]
[a]
[h]
[ck]
[g]
[ck]
h
dit e#
136 daughter (!)
[g]
[h]
131 father ()
no entry
mj
nunaunaupa
[e]
[0]
baba
[0]
fn u
[bijm]
pa
[abijlm]
n u
[l]
[ck]
tn i
apo
[gh]
mut t
ampo
[e]
tn niaot
65
[a]
[h]
[ck]
[g]
137 elder brother ([ i/)

1
b+o bhai / dada
upa
3
4
141 friend (nL)

1
bondhu
[abijl]
ian
at a
[ck]
koi
mjo
[e]
kanbn
amio
[h]
hi
aio
[g]
aho
[h]
oho
[g]
[m]
[j]
[0]
[m]
138 elder sister ([ !/)

1
b+o bon / didi
lun u
on u
unu
it(ti
aioniaot
tuito
mjo
[bj]
[ck]
[g]
[h]
[m]
[e]
139 younger brother (!+ i)

2
puipa
thuapuipa
naupa
belkt
nniaot
mnu
amno
nu
[k]
nau
[m]
[c]
[g]
[e]
[h]
t o"o bon
puinu
thuapuinu
farnu
bu
[c]
tiso
[e]
nniaot
tuitooi
[0]
[a]
[bm]
jaunu
nulkt
nam
imi
[0]
[ck]
rm i
hmi
[jm]
imi
[ck]
m!n
am i
imi
m.
[al]
[bi]
[gh]
[ck]
[e]
am
awa
h
[0]
[g]
k uwa
nam
vn
ava
[h]
awa
[g]
[l]
" ien
[abijlm]
[ck]
[e]
144 house ([)
140 younger sister (!+ !)

2
" ian
143 village (g)

[a]
[bij]
[e]
[0]
[l]
[ck]
142 name ()
[l]
tho"o bhai
[bi]
[0]
[ai]
[0]
[al]
[g]
[h]
[ij]
[k]
66
ba+i / hr
n
[e]
in
[abijlm]
im
[ck]
[gh]
[0]
145 door ()

1
drda
ink ar
1
2
[abil]
kok ar
takhuwa
149 pillow ()

[0]
k"("
kt(t
kthu
ot
[0]
h
luk(k an
h
[jm]
luk am
[c]
an#tli
[g]
bal!
[h]
[e]
[k]
146 window ()
k um
[al]
[jm]
[bi]
[ck]
luth2n
lutl
luk(khan
luth2n
[e]
[gh]
[al]
[e]
150 blanket (m)
danala
va#ankt
[al]
khmbl
[a]
laotko"
[i]
kmbol
[0cl]
[bi]
[0]
lootk ar
lakta
puanbu
puanlum
[gh]
kn i
[gh]
[e]
kni.
[e]
il
[b]
[ck]
h
taibpak u
h
t b=,pak o
tukvar
[j]
tukvr
[m]
t ad / tal
intlun
[alm]
te#k ru
bd i
5
5
p u
[0]
[bij]
intu
[al]
[bjm]
k itip
[ck]
pdu
[e]
[h]
ki!b u
[gh]
[ck]
[i]
[e]
no entry
b+a
dubun
kusb
kutbi
[0]
rdai
2
4
152 clothing (!)
148 fence (![)
dai
ati
np u.
[g]
[k]
151 ring (on finger) (I)
147 roof (+/)
[jm]
[e]
[0]
[a]
[bi]
t aram
[k]
t aramlua
ba
ap ai
poak
krd
awat
wat
[k]
at
[h]
to
[0]
[ab]
[c]
[g]
rukfen
thomhno
[h]
ia
bisu
[c]
[m]
ap a
[g]
inkul
[j]
ruhuandai
[l]
67
[i]
[jm]
[l]
[e]
153 medicine (U)

1
2
oud
lau
[al]
laupan
t
157 broom (l[L)
[0]
1
[b]
[k]
[c]
h
no entry
h
d a+u
[0]
np
[gh]
inphi
[al]
munp !a
h
.s i
[e]
np
a i
[gh]
munph!a
6
7
turpa
[i]
damdoi
[jm]
154 paper ()
[e]
[im]
[gh]
[im]
[bj]
[bj]
munp !#
munp !#
phamphei#
[ck]
158 spoon (for eating) ()
kaod
[0]
laui
[abl]
tamot
[0]
haili
[abil]
kuk
taku
[cghk]
tna
[i]
3
4
sku
[e]
h
l#k apuan
[jm]
155 needle (s{i)

1
u" / ui
ri im
im
phm
[0]
[al]
[c]
p rm
[k]
eupri
spr
tupri
h
k uto
khuilo
t
t irfian
sh.n
[g]
[e]
[h]
uri
thui
tmdumt
namt
tmt
aitu
t r!m
[i]
hriau
[jm]
156 thread (s)

1
uta
m!l a
ladai
phi
kla
klakai
la
[jm]
[e]
no entry
no entry
[g]
[k]
[h]
159 knife (to cut meat) (+L)
[b]
[c]
[e]
[e]
[c]
[0]
[a]
[i]
[bjlm]
[g]
haito
[h]
tmt
[bjlm]
timt
[k]
[0]
160 hammer (AL[)
[al]
[bi]
[ck]
[g]
[h]
[jm]
68
no entry
hatu+i
[0]
tb au
[abil]
[e]
tub au
[j]
tub ou
[m]
maltu
mat ul
ik i
t!k i
[c]
[k]
[g]
[h]
161 axe (k^)

0
165 fire (Ig)
no entry
h
[e]
aun
[0]
mi
[e]
mai
[bghi]
mei
[acjklm]
ku" ar
hripui
ripui
rai#klu
hi
p!oi
[h]
thai
[0]
piai
[g]
rvut
[al]
v!t(tam
kuk
mi.phu
maiphu
maiphulo
vut
[0]
[jm]
[al]
[bi]
166 ashes (+i)
[ck]
162 bow (Un)

1
dhnuk
[0]
h
airuk r
airuwa
li
thl
[ck]
thai
[g]
6
6
7
8
[m]
[al]
[b]
[e]
[g]
t ,iliho
[e]
t ailihu
[h]
[i]
tnti
[jm]
[j]
163 arrow ()
dhoa
[0]
h
mi.k .
h
maik /
[gh]
maikhu
[abil]
mik u
[cjkm]
168 candle (!)
tir
t al
[alm]
mombati
laha
[b]
mumbt i
4
5
6
6
7
8
8
[0]
k ak
[c]
klu
[g]
mumbati
[bc]
ph!odai
[h]
[h]
ap!t au
[i]
timitam
lit al
h
t aldum
[e]
[j]
t oltam
[k]
164 spear (8)
[k]
h
p judin
ph!odai
ph!ed
aikio
[h]
aikl
[a]
fai
[bi]
nouka
fei
[jm]
m!l
#
[ck]
tvi.
tuwi
[g]
p judin
169 boat (!C)

[0]
[al]
pl
[e]
l
[gh]
lu
[l]
pl
[e]
p!l
[gh]
69
[e]
[h]
fik o
[i]
at(t auk nbar
bra
[g]
[0]
[j]
p !ed
[0al]
(t ,iliho) ks u

k o
[e]
2
2
[h]
167 smoke (!U{)
fi
[bi]
[ck]
[e]
[bijm]
[ck]
[e]
[m]
170 road (s/[)
174 to sit ()
asta / o+ok
lampi
lampui
ln
[e]
lam
[b]
la
lm
kopui
[0]
[i]
[al]
[gh]
[ck]
[jm]
171 to go (7o)
0
no entry
dawa
kal
ba
!ntau
tau
[bi]
um
[c]
t# (ni#)
[0]
[al]
at!e (na)
thru
umho
[k]
175 to lie down (!)

0
no entry
oa
[abijlm]
aal
[l]
[e]
[e]
[0]
ett
ial
[a]
ett(th
[k]
dau
[bi]
tuku (na)
[gh]
hjl
j (na)
dou (na)
mudal
hiolhlo
[c]
172 to come (I)

aa
hkal
h
d!o (na)
ju (n2i#)
[gh]
[jm]
[0]
[e]
[0]
[al]
[bim]
[c]
[g]
[h]
[jm]
[k]
176 to walk (A{)
[c]
[gh]
ha"a
[e]
akal
kal
tti
lukal
[j]
l ho
[k]
[0]
[al]
[bijm]
[c]
tteihio
173 to stand ({[)
l.u (n2i#)
da+ano
[0]
al !o (na)
!ndi
[al]
dir
ada
[c]
adu (na)
di
ajaho
[gh]
[jm]
h
[e]
[gh]
177 to fly (u[)
[bi]
[k]
[k]
nt u (no2i#)
[e]
70
u+a
ath
[a]
vua
[bl]
pai
[c]
kh
[e]
ak(kh! (na)
dua
[i]
thlok
[jm]
apaihio
[0]
[k]
[gh]
178 to enter (!o)

1
1hoka
alut
181 to see (!K)

1
dkha
[a]
am u
[bijlm]
anmu
[c]
mu#
ut(tho
t(
kh (na)
hmu
[jm]
nu
[e]
[0]
lut
wa
kun (n2i#)
ku (na)
woho
[e]
[gh]
[k]
179 to kick (F )

1
lathi maa
am! oi
mui
pet
pet
i
mui
[l]
[bi]
[k]
[c]
[gh]
[0]
182 to hear (!)
[a]
[l]
[i]
[0]
[a]
[b]
[c]
[l]
t iao (na)
pthui (ni#)
p!t(t ui (na)
thui
e!hio
pet
pthui (ni#)
ona
rai
[0]
[al]
t i.#
thai#
jok(kha
[e]
[bi]
[k]
jk
[e]
ta (na)
[h]
tai (na)
[g]
[jm]
[k]
[c]
ait la
hria
[g]
[h]
[j]
[m]
[b]
183 to wait (ak )
[e]
pkkha ka
180 to swim ({ )
hak
atar ka"a
[0]
ak
tui anliao
[l]
touho
[a]
tu
[i]
jeun (ni#)
[b]
adei (na)
[h]
adie (na)
[g]
tui !nliao
ti liau
ti liou
du
tu.ju (ni#)
[c]
tui jao (na)
hlu
tui hlu
#juhuo
[0]
[jm]
[abil]
[k]
[c]
[e]
[e]
[gh]
184 to cry ({)
[m]
[j]
[k]
71
kada
[0]
tap
[al]
"rap
[bijm]
akap
[c]
h
akap(p o
vo#
vuo (na)
[k]
[e]
[gh]
185 to cook (n )

1
an a ka
boaniam
ua
bu#ho
bu#
thu (n2i#)
189 to sing ( o)
[0]
[al]
[bi]
[k]
[c]
t iao (na)
thum
[e]
[gh]
[jm]
but
[a]
laak
#i
khul>t> n.thu, (n(i#) [ e]
klothu (na)
dai
o#oihio
#
k (na)
[g]
[c]
ki (na)
[h]
[c]
ki#
bi
[c]
oouuhuo
[k]
[i]
but(t o
[k]
b (na)
[gh]
b# (n2i#)
thuhmin
[e]
t umhlum
[m]
187 to eat (Ko)

h
k awa
ak
ak
[0]
[al]
[bijm]
[e]
191 to laugh (A)
[j]
[k]
[b]
[0]
[a]
haa
[0]
nui
[ajlm]
ni
ni
nui
[b]
[i]
[c]
[l]
pn/ (n2i#)
pun u (na)
ai
[bi]
i
[jm]
pn/ (n2i#)
#ei
pun u (na)
onuhio
[c]
s (nai#)
[e]
ta (na)
[gh]
#eihio
bla
188 to drink ( )
t
(pani) panka
!m
h!n
bu
n (na)
!n
in
[c]
h
[i]
"ro
[j]
[k]
houhuo
[gh]
ril
[l]
oi
[m]
[e]
[c]
[a]
[b]
hol
#ouk
[0]
kt(t eo (na)
o#ouk(k o
[gh]
[k]
t/ne (n2i#)
h
[e]
[bi]
3
4
[0]
[a]
d!n
[e]
[gh]
192 to speak ()
[k]
[gh]
[jm]
[0]
[al]
[bil]
[c]
i
ua
but
la ak
kam+ano
3
4
idd o ka
pamum
but
[0]
1
2
4
an awa
190 to bite ([)
186 to boil (water) (d )

h
[l]
[jm]
72
[k]
t u (n2i#)
[e]
[gh]
193 to know ()

1
dana
hoi
h
197 to make/do ( )
[0]
[a]
t ai#
thi#
hmt
no entry
toirika
[e]
[0]
[i]
nrl
[a]
[b]
i am
[bijlm]
[c]
pu#ho
pu#
a (na)
ohmot(t o
thai#ko (na)
h+ia
hi
pn (ni#)
[k]
[gh]
[k]
[c]
[gh]
[jm]
198 to work ( )
[l]
[e]
194 to forget (L 7o)

1
b ul dawa
h
[0]
kad ka
tuan
riantuan
ib!#
[0]
[al]
[bi]
[c]
t aila
[a]
ibi#ho
thila
[l]
klua (na)
p !l
[i]
[k]
hnat ok
h
[m]
p !l
[b]
nat ok(
ph!l
[i]
sh, (n2i#)
ihil
[c]
tm i/ (na)
[gh]
tme (n2i#)
[e]
t e!hil
h!lhlo
humano
in
it
i#ip
i#ip(pho
mu
i (na)
i (nai#)
[j]
[e]
199 to play (!K)
[jm]
[k]
195 to sleep (hL)

1
[gh]
[0]
[al]
[bi]
[c]
khla
nlt
pa
lki
[0]
[al]
[bi]
[c]
lkihio
m,u (n2i#)
am o (na)
[g]
amho (na)
[h]
infiam
[k]
[e]
[jm]
[k]
200 to dance ()
[jm]
[gh]
nata
[e]
lam
[abijlm]
lm
[c]
ln (n2i#)
lam
la (na)
lomho
196 to dream (sp !K)

1
pno dkha
mahmu
rm aam u
malaimu#
amoahmuho
mahmu
mn.mn (ni#)
[0]
[c]
[al]
[bi]
[k]
[c]
am aniu (na)
muma
[e]
[gh]
[jm]
73
[0]
[abijlm]
[gh]
[k]
[e]
201 to throw (+L[ )

1
thu+mara
pai
[0]
[al]
#
khu
khuho
[bi]
[c]
[k]
p i# (ni#)
phi (na)
phiu (na)
vom
205 to tie ({U)
[e]
[h]
[g]
[jm]
badha
phuar
[0]
[a]
p uar
khap
aa
k (na)
hli
khuhno
[l]
[bi]
[c]
[gh]
[jm]
[k]
pk e. (n2i#)
206 to wipe (!+)
202 to lift (!)
motha
n t
nt
[l]
not
[jm]
[c]
t en
kt (na)
ptal
toika
tum u (na)
no entry
tola
[0]
mk(k ai
toi
[e]
juho
bok
[a]
[bi]
kial
[gh]
[jm]
[k]
[l]
dhak a dwa
n am
[0]
[a]
[bi]
[c]
[gh]
t(t uho
pjui (ni#)
[k]
[0]
[a]
tat bona
puan
thiam ta
[0]
ta
[abl]
nam
[jlm]
tun
[c]
t ho
tu l
[bi]
t #
pan e (na)
t #
ta#
ni#
nu (na)
nui (n2i#)
nui (na)
otunhno
[g]
[e]
[h]
[k]
[i]
[k]
[c]
[c]
[jm]
[e]
"ana
[0]
lai ka
kai
[al]
oi
it
nuk
[i]
hnuk
[jm]
k(khi
hu (na)
hu#
hui (na)
[e]
"hi"
[i]
[gh]
"hui
[jm]
al a#
al a#ho
[b]
[c]
[k]
r (ni#)
thi (na)
74
[0]
[a]
[gh]
208 to sew (!i )
204 to pull ()
nuk
[e]
207 to weave (on loom) ( !)
203 to push (Uk !o)
[e]
[b]
[c]
[g]
[e]
k aihio
ui
[l]
[h]
[k]
209 to wash (face/hand) (!U)

1
dhoa
r ouk
tol
ab#ho
[k]
b#i
[c]
ps i (ni#)
p!du (na)
p!ju (na)
213 to buy (!)
[0]
[al]
[b]
"rol
il
[e]
[h]
[g]
[i]
[jm]
210 to take bath (! )

1
osol ka
tuiil
tuihl#
tak(khol
kena
hl
hl
hl
[a]
ehli
[c]
tok
vi# (n2i#)
vau (na)
wa (na)
li
ehli#ho
[0]
[a]
[l]
[bi]
[e]
[h]
[g]
[jm]
[k]
214 to sell (k )
[0]
[al]
[c]
[bi]
biki ka
duar
[abijlm]
ed#
[c]
[0]
diu (na)
[g]
dou (na)
[h]
[jm]
jo (n2i#)
[k]
aj#ho
tui#.hu (ni#)
tuihiu (na)
inbual
hluho
[e]
[gh]
211 to cut (something) ()

0
no entry
ka"a
[0]
touk
aoho
at i (na)
at

[e]
[k]
215 to steal (L )

1
tui ka
nro
[abil]
fir
[k]
muk
pviu (ni#)
[jm]
piviu (na)
[c]
ruk
m ik(kho
mruk
[e]
[gh]
212 to burn (![)

1
po+ano
ur
duwa#
[a]
[bi]
[c]
[e]
[gh]
[jm]
[k]
[l]
[0]
216 to lie, fib (F1 )
[al]
[bi]
t#
[0]
[c]
t#ho
p# (na)
hal
k-n (n2i#)
[k]
[gh]
[jm]
[e]
75
m!ttha bla
[0]
[a]
[l]
nk lrl
ank lril
orolthuim
hlihio
ehli
kaitthu (na)
[gh]
ksotp (n2i#)
[e]
okrol
dot
[b]
[k]
[c]
[i]
[jm]
217 to take (!o)

0
no entry
na
lakh
lki
olokiho
la
la (na)
221 to love ()
[e]
[0]
epik
pk
pkh
[0]
[al]
dafa
[k]
khr,# (n2i#)
kr (na)
[gh]
hmaai
kriihio
[bi]
[c]
[e]
[gh]
[jm]
[k]
222 to hate (h )
[0]
hina ka
[al]
nara
[b]
na#ua#
[c]
mriam
ekhet
218 to give (!o)

2
2
3
[c]
[jm]
da
bhalobaa
[abil]
[0]
[a]
[b]
pek
[i]
ete#
p
[jm]
p! u (na)
p (na)
fi#
[i]
pei (ni#)
hua
[jm]
epik
ekli#hio
mhuat
me.2i#. (ni#)
[gh]
[e]
[c]
h
epik(k o
[k]
219 to kill (! !J)

1
m fla
th a
[b]
h
tuk(k o
tuk
pdi# (ni#)
[k]
[c]
[e]
no entry
ek
k ak a
[al]
pkhat
[bim]
p!khat
[j]
pok ou (na)
[g]
hat
tlvui (na)
[h]
hat
ha
t a#tlao
tht
[i]
maa dawa
h
[k]
[c]
[gh]
[jm]
224 two (di)
220 to die ( 7o)

1
[e]
[0]
5
7
[k]
[l]
[gh]
223 one (e)
[0]
[al]
t a#
[c]
[0]
dui
pnika
pnhni
[0]
[al]
ti
t i
[jm]
pn i
d
[c]
pnhni
di (na)
hi
hni
n
[e]
nu
[gh]
[al]
[gh]
de,i# (ni#)
thitlao
d ho
thi#
[e]
[i]
[k]
[b]
76
[j]
[bi]
[c]
[k]
[m]
[e]
225 three ()

1
t!n
t umka
pt(t um
pat(thum
at
rika
[j]
rika
[bi]
p ri
#
[ck]
[gh]
[al]
pt um
h
t o
thum
229 seven ()
[0]
[m]
t u2
[l]
[a]
[bijm]
ri
[ck]
sher#
[e]
[e]
rika
[l]
[gh]
[0]
226 four ()
s er#
[e]
230 eight (I)
tar
[0]
lika
[al]
a"
pl i
[j]
riatka
[al]
[bijm]
pl i
pt
p!l
hli
[bim]
[e]
[gh]
[ck]
227 five ({)
[0]
priat
et
tj
tia
[ck]
[e]
[gh]
231 nine ()
pat
raka
h
[ck]
pk ua
[j]
p.
[e]
pk ua
[bim]
pa
[gh]
tk
pa
tk
k#
[0]
[al]
[bijm]
228 six (+)

1
thi
[0]
pruk
[bijm]
k
uk
triu#
tri
rouka
ni
kuak a
[0]
[al]
[e]
[gh]
[ck]
232 ten ()
[k]
[c]
[e]
[gh]
[al]
77
d
omka
om
pra
[0]
[al]
[jm]
[bi]
ha
[ck]
ho
[e]
hu
[gh]
233 eleven (e)

0
1
no entry
ao
237 thousand (A)
[e]
hada
[0]
t u
[c]
aka
[al]
akhat
[bi]
tuak

[k]
s.n
[0]
h
ompk(k at
ompkhat
laik at
lak
pailak
hulaha
[jm]
[al]
[c]
[bijm]
[k]
[gh]
[e]
[gh]
238 some (+L)
234 twelve ()
k!thu
[0]
tomt
[bi]
tomtika
tomtomka
no entry
bao
ompnhi
ompnhni
klmt
[j]
laini#
[bi]
tlmt
[m]
lihni
[c]
b!t(t
lihni
[c]
pailihni
hulan/
[e]
[0]
[a]
[jm]
[k]
[gh]
h
omlainik a
[l]
235 twenty ()

0
no entry
bi
rb ka
kul
[bcik]
ap
[g]
apor
omhni
maidir
medi
[l]
[a]
[ck]
[h]
[g]
tlmt
tomt
phrei#
[m]
[bi]
[e]
239 many (a)
[e]
nk
ata m
tampi
[bi]
tamtak
[jm]
[h]
b
[jm]
no (na)
ni (n2i#)
[0]
[al]
236 hundred ()

1
rd aka
da
k rak
so wi#
tuwa
tuwair
[0]
[al]
[ck]
[gh]
240 all ()
[0]
b
[bijm]
dv ai
[al]
[ck]
doda
[b]
[al]
[e]
[g]
[h]
78
[0]
haha
[ck]
b.b#
[e]
bb
[gh]
kt
[i]
av ain
[jm]
[e]
241 big ([)

1
b+o
anrol
245 heavy ()

[0]
bhai
[0]
[l]
nr!k
[a]
[a]
anr!k
rit
d
inrl
l
lin (n2i#)
lian
[bijm]
di
lin
[ck]
di (na)
[h]
l
ji, (ni#)
[e]
lin (n2i#)
ajho
[gh]
[e]
[gh]
[e]
242 small (!+)

1
thoto
[l]
[bijm]
[c]
[g]
[k]
246 light (not heavy) (A)
[0]
no entry
[e]
tom
[al]
halka
[0]
m
[bi]
hio
[ck]
lk(t
da
[i]
[ck]
t (n2i#)
th
t.
[e]
[gh]
[jm]
243 long (m)

1
lmba
nai
ai
[0]
u
a
(na)
ei
[ck]
[g]
[h]
[jm]
s u (n2i#)
ai
u
da
da
da
da (na)
[al]
[bjm]
[i]
[bjm]
[g]
[h]
247 fat (!)
[bi]
nda
da
[a]
[l]
3
4
[e]
[l]
[ck]
s u (n2i#)
(na)
shu (n2i#)
[e]
mo"a
nrol
b!t
b!t
athau
[0]
[a]
[b]
[i]
[l]
t u
[ck]
t au
v!uho
lein (n2i#)
[jm]
[gh]
[e]
[h]
248 thin ()
[e]
244 short (length) (K)
tikon
rom
kha"o
[0]
tom
atoi
[al]
akor
toi
[i]
kor
ti
[ck]
k
[0]
[i]
[a]
[l]
[b]
[k]
toi
[bjm]
ku
[g]
veod
[gh]
doi (na)
t.r
[jm]
doi (n2i#)
jei (n2i#)
[h]
[e]
79
[c]
[e]
249 wide, broad (o[)

1
tu+a
kha
[al]
va
kha
kha
[b]
ebi
[c]
ku
[i]
[al]
[g]
tu (na)
dau
prak
252 shallow (a)
[0]
obhir
anthuklau
[0]
nt ouklu
thuklau
thuklau
p uan
thiul (na)
[b]
[jm]
tl
[k]
tilhlo
[e]
u
kont
ntip
bi
bi
mse (n2i#)
kd
di m
[a]
[i]
[jm]
t iuna
ku (n2i#)
[l]
[h]
250 narrow (r)
[g]
[c]
[k]
t iul (na)
thuklau
pdi (n2i#)
[h]
[jm]
[e]
[0]
253 full (cup) (L)8
[c]
puno / bhoa
[b]
!p
[al]
[i]
kht
[i]
kht
[gh]
l ui#
[k]
[jm]
ul ui#
[c]
ko
koi (na)
koi (n2i#)
koi (na)
[al]
lek(k io
[e]
[k]
251 deep ()

h
ob ir
[0]
anthuk
[l]
nthouk
[g]
[h]
[e]
[h]
254 empty (cup) (K)
[a]
[bjm]
t ouk
[i]
no entry
thouk
[c]
khali
[0]
thouk
[b]
aruak
[jm]
thuk
[jm]
r uak
[al]
[i]
[h]
[i]
krau
t ouk
t ouk
[c]
krau
thouk
[i]
h
thuk(kho
hu
[k]
t ouk
k"("hiu
thu (n2i#)
thui (na)
[c]
[g]
[e]
[h]
80
kaikie
kak
[e]
[b]
[k]
[c]
[g]
[h]
[0]
255 hungry (K)

1
2
khid laa
bu#tam
259 bitter ()

1
[0]
[abl]
d ii
dihio
al a (na)
uva
+il"+am
kjul? (na2i#)
[c]
[k]
[gh]
tita
[0]
k a
[abijlm]
h
k(k
kho
kho2 (ni#)
[ck]
[gh]
[e]
[i]
260 spicy, hot (l)
[jm]
[e]
256 thirsty ( o)
dhal
[0]
nt ak
[a]
anthak
[l]
t ak
th!p
!tip
pipaa pawa
tihal
tuihal
[jm]
tuiral
[al]
kso (n2i#)
ahali
[c]
ku
ahalihio
t/hi (n2i#)
tuahai
[gh]
no entry
tuihal
[jm]
paka
[0]
min
[i]
hmin
[jm]
[0]
[bi]
tihal
t/hi (n2i#)
[c]
[e]
257 sweet (N)
[0]
m
min
m (na)
[e]
[g]
[abl]
[h]
hlum
m
hlum
[bi]
min
hlum
[bi]
min
[i]
hmin
[jm]
ihmin
[al]
t lum
tui
[k]
utui
[c]
tu>i (n2i#)
tui
[jm]
258 sour ()
"k
t our
thur
[0]
[abl]
[ijm]
h
[k]
[c]
t(t
t(t
tho (na)
th
tho (n2i#)
[g]
[abl]
[ck]
262 rotten (fruit) ({)
[e]
[gh]
[e]
[gh]
261 ripe ()
[e]
[bi]
mi"i
[k]
[k]
[bijm]
[h]
[g]
[e]
81
pta
[0]
t(t ou
thu
[i]
thu
[ck]
[al]
t u
vu (n2i#)
vi
vi (na)
"roi
[b]
[g]
[jm]
[h]
[e]
263 right (^)
1
"hik
d!kh
d!k
ihi
ti (na)
266 slow (U U)

1
dhi dhi
[0]
[ab]
vualtak am
[al]
[ilm]
dou#a dou#a
du#a du#ahen
kr kra
ekra ekra
a a a a
r t
doi
[j]
mua
[m]
kni n (n2i#)
[0]
[c]
[h]
t
tei (na2i#)
a#
ihiho
[g]
[e]
[j]
[k]
264 wrong (L)

1
bhul
d!klau
apl
pl
t!mil
[b]
[i]
[k]
[c]
[g]
[h]
[e]
[0]
267 same (ei)
[al]
[i]
ki
[b]
arp
batau
[gh]
apl
tipal
kroiaho
hia#
tei. (n2i#)
[i]
[jm]
[k]
[c]
[e]
265 fast ([[)

1
ta+ata+i
[0]
nrakan
[a]
anrakan
[l]
r,n (n2i#)
[0]
[a]
[b]
lupk ia
va r
[h]
wairi
[g]
aiba
[i]
ina
[c]
[jm]
ti#ho
anar
.t. (ni#)
[k]
[l]
[e]
268 different (n)

1
[e]
bhin o
[0]
ra
[bm]
tk ra
ra
[gh]
tkhr# (ni#)
aja
ndakan
[a]
ralei
andakan
[l]
tak
dahen
amranhno
ada
da
da
h
[c]
[i]
[jm]
[k]
82
[gh]
[i]
[m]
[j]
[b]
[ck]
[e]
269 dry (e)
272 cold (weather) (^N)

1
"han1a
[0]
d ai
[al]
ukna
hul
[al]
uhul
[ck]
b!1 i (na)
tar
[il]
pdein (n2i#)
tar
kik
[0]
[b]
p u (na)
[g]
kik
phui (na)
[h]
jl
rau
edl
[c]
jei (ni#)
b!1
[g]
d ai
[al]
[e]
270 wet ()
[b]
[k]
b!1 i (na)
vot
bhida
[0]
adul
[al]
ajul
udul
[c]
bhalo
[0]
tin
[i]
a a#
[al]
[b]
" ra
[bijm]
[jm]
poi
[k]
[g]
pi
[h]
ho
hoi (n2i#)
tin
hu#
u (na)
ui (na)
sui (ni#)
[e]
271 hot (weather) ()

om
[h]
[jm]
273 good ()
[k]
[e]
[i]
[jm]
[h]
[c]
[gh]
[e]
274 bad (K)
[0]
khaap
[al]
[0]
at
l au#
[al]
l
[k]
"h+alau
[jm]
lin
[i]
thlau
ele
[c]
pja#
lin
ho#
bi (na)
bi (ni#)
bi
[g]
lum
[jm]
[b]
[h]
[e]
[bi]
[ck]
[g]
hoi.2 (n2i#)
hoi#le (na)
[e]
[h]
275 new (L)
83
notun
at ar
t ar
thar
at(tha
[0]
[l]
[i]
[abjm]
[ck]
knt (n2i#)
katha
[gh]
[e]
276 old (L)
280 far (')
puano
du
[0]
al ui
nla
[a]
l i
hlui
[bi]
anla
[l]
[jm]
l at
ep em
[c]
la t
ep rem
kn.n)@ (n2i#)
hlmhl
hlomhloa
ka
plo (n2i#)
p!l u
p!l u (na)
hla
[0]
[al]
[k]
[e]
[gh]
277 broken (g)
[i]
[b]
[c]
[k]
[g]
[h]
no entry
bhaa
k(khuai
kuai
[i]
ka"h
kuai
[i]
kaa
kuai
[b]
ks (n2i#)
n ai
[a]
an ai
[l]
nai
nai
hnai
ekena
ka (na)
[e]
281 near (+)
[al]
b un
ak
akoi (na)
kuai
okoi
[c]
[g]
[h]
[i]
[k]
[jm]
278 above (u)
no entry
upoe
tu
tulai
[bi]
tulam
[jm]
dm
dma
k!l
loma
[e]
[0]
[k]
[g]
[h]
no entry
nit
thuwai
talai
d
da
[e]
[0]
[al]
[bi]
[c]
[k]
[g]
kanui
hnuailam
[h]
[jm]
84
[e]
[i]
[b]
[jm]
[c]
ka"
[h]
[0]
ks (n2i#)
ahiowa
[k]
282 right (d)
[c]
an u
[0]
[g]
[al]
279 below ()
[jm]
[0]
[e]
1an
tmba
tmhla
vorlai
eet
[ck]
ata
[h]
lata
[0]
[a]
[l]
[bi]
[g]
lmtn
[e]
dilam
[jm]
[e]
283 left ()
287 green (L)
bam
titouk
k#lai
eto
lnvoi#
[0]
[al]
[bi]
[ck]
[e]
obud
ri
[i]
ari
[l]
ri
[i]
hri
[jm]
[0]
lav
ri
lawoi
[h]
htik
[k]
vilam
[jm]
hti
[c]
h#
k.h.e
[g]
284 black ()

1
kalo
[0]
avom
[al]
ohom
[ck]
[ab]
[gh]
[e]
288 yellow (AL)

1
holud

[ab]
[jm]
[0]
dom
[b]
dum
[ijm]
e
kmno
a
ai
[i]
#i
[ck]
[e]
kamnu
[h]
kanu
[g]
285 white ()

1
ada
[0]
ao
[abi]
aao
[l]
ao
[l]
kndu
kd
[e]
[gh]
289 when (near future) (K)

1
[jm]
kkhon
et!ka
itik
[0]
[jm]
abouk
[k]
buk
[c]
daihuna
kaalu
dait!ka
[i]
ti#khuam
[c]
mn akha
[gh]
itiam
mnkhA2i
kal
knl2u
kal
[h]
[g]
[e]
[g]
286 red ()

1
lal
een
en
[al]
[b]
[k]
290 where (!F)
[0]
[ck]
kothai
[abijlm]
ti
daia#
[0]
[a]
kmse
[e]
kamn
[h]
ma
[c]
ka
[g]
moam
[k]
[ck]
maa
[gh]
ma
[c]
een
kamn
[h]
85
[bi]
k oia
[jm]
khuia
[a]
tiaam
[l]
mA2li
[e]
[e]
291 who (!)
1
k
at ou
au
uwm
295 that thing (o)
[0]
[a]
[bi]
[ck]
am i
[gh]
tu
tu
mi mo?
o"a
ohua
[jm]
[e]
292 what ()
[al]
k ak a
[j]
khikhi
[bm]
[l]
[0]
k ik i
[bm]
k imik i
i
[ck]
hun i
huni
[i]
[gh]
[e]
296 these things (eg)
ki
hi#i
[al]
no entry
dai
[bi]
ulo
im
[ck]
ohihau
ti
[e]
hitlahi
[b]
t i
himi"la
[i]

hthi
[m]
htihi
[j]
[0]
[gh]
[jm]
293 how many ()

1
ki"a
idaka
daidat
paihim
maiiri
dak
mji
[0]
[al]
[bi]
e"a
hihi
hihi
ohi
[jm]
[0]
[jm]
[b]
hihi
hihi
himihi
hihi
hihi
hin i
hini
ni#
nik l
nikhulkh
ohau
hin iti
[c]
[k]
[l]
[gh]
no entry
oulo
[0]
hohau
[a]
huhau
[l]
kh!tlakhi
[jm]
[b]
[e]
[b]
k imi"la
khat!kha
[al]
[a]
297 those things (og)
[gh]
[e]
[0]
[ck]
294 this thing (e)

1
[e]
[i]
ik l
h
[jm]
[c]
h
tuk ulk
huniti
[k]
[gh]
[i]
298 1s (I)
[jm]
no entry
ami
[0]
[e]
kai
[gh]
[ck]
ki
[ck]
ki
[a]
kima
[bil]
keima
[jm]
[b]
[gh]
86
[e]
299 2s (familiar) (L)

0
no entry
tumi
na
na
nama
303 1p (I)
0
no entry
[0]
ama
[ackl]
kini
[l]
kini
[a]
keimani
kini
kini#
kini
[a]
knma
[b]
knma"la
[e]
[gh]
[bijlm]
300 2s (honorific) (I)

0
no entry
apni
nama
na
na
[e]
[0]
[aijlm]
[bck]
[gh]
301 3s (generic/male) (! [L])
[0]
[jm]
[l]
[c]
naki
kini
[l]
kini
[a]
knma
[b]
kaiti
kini
[l]
kini
[a]
[k]
[gh]
no entry

an i
[abil]
huni
[gh]
m a
[jm]
i
[k]
no entry
i
[c]
toma
tu
[0]
304 2p (familiar) (!)
[c]
302 3s (female) (! [st])

0
no entry

an i
huni
tu
i
m a
[i]
[e]
[e]
[e]
[0]
[abil]
[e]
[0]
nani#
nanihau
nama
nama#ni
[jm]
nama"la
[i]
nati
[ck]
[al]
[b]
[gh]
[gh]
305 2p (honorific) (I)
[c]
[k]
[jm]
87
no entry
apnaa
nanihau
nanihauha
nama#ni
[jm]
nanma"la
[bi]
nama#ni
[jm]
nani
[ck]
nani
[ck]
[e]
[0]
nati
nani
nanihau
[l]
[a]
[gh]
[ck]
[l]
306 3p ()
0
no entry
taa
[0]
an i
[b]
ani#
[k]
ik l a
[e]
[c]
niti
an ih au
an i"la
[i]
anma#ni
[jm]
[gh]
[al]
88
K. p\t
K.*. tt p\t
*. m 8 s e 78kt, ! I ! 1A ?
*. [
*K. I nL F
*. 8/n
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$. I +[o I ! ! ?
-. ! I ?
/. e ! I ?
9. e I !7 ! 7 i
?
?. e U pA I ! ! 1A ?
B. e ! () ! I+ 7 I !F I F ?
BK. 7 h{ A, ! ?
B. ei ! !F F?
Bh. I 7K ei e ! F F , K Lk Ll ? (al,
aU8, !, )
&. , KL, Li, K, K e !m (ut ann
g ulK A) g U1 ! I n Ll A?
]. I g e pF ! F ?
*%. I g a !+-!i 1 7o I +[o an !
F ?
*%K. 7 h{ A, ! (g)?
**. I g !+-! (*% + ) ! ?
90
*$. I !F p t + , ei g e 7K [ A e !+! A, K !+-! ! F I ?
*-. k U1 A pF 1 ! 1A u I ?
*[g 7 k 78k L F, */ p\ j r, 7 F
*9 p\ j r]
*/. I e+ !7 I g k 78k L I+ I !
!+-! 7 e k 7?
*/K. 7 h{ A, e kg Lk J Ak I ?
*9. I mp ! 7 pF e K o
[ A K n e k L , I I !+-!
!K ^?
*9K. ! ^ ! ^ ?
K.$. ut 1k F1 kn p\t

k k :
k gA K:
k s:
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$. I ?
-. ut g ?
/. I ! !P 78n [e +?
9. I ! ?
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B. I ?
&. I ?
&K. I ?
91
]. I I !F +? n?

*%. I ! U8 ?
K.-. [ F1 kn

kn p\t
g :
7 U1:
*. I g ! F ! ! as?
$. A ! ! I g ! 1A ?
-. I 88 g ! A 1h Ak?
/. ei g ! e ?
/K. a ! $ p\ ut ulK A+?
9. e g I mp ! ! ! U8 ?
?. I g ! U ?
B. + d h !F as?
&. I g !F e !J ?
&K. I g !F I !i !J ?
&. 7 , + ! !F I !J ?
]. + A !F?
]K. + k ( !nd) !F?
*%. I g ! 1 I+?
*%K. 7 F, ! U?
**. I g an ! U 1 aF u-In) k p) I+?
**K. 7 F, ! U?
92
*$. ei g pF 1 7 u7 !+-! U1 I mp !F
!+-! 1 7k? (i, ! , aU8, )
*-. ei g pF 1 7 u7 ! U1 I mp !F
! 1 7k? (i, ! , aU8, )
*/. ei g I mp ! !+-! ! !P 78n 1 7o
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*9. ei g I mp !+-! 1 7o n pU g
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*?. ei g, I mp !7 +t-+t 1 7k U1 9 !P
! +? (i, !, aU8, )
*B. ei g, I mp !7 +t-+t 1 7k U1 *% !P
! +? (i, !, aU8, )
*&. ei g I mp ! e aF ! u dg +?
*]. I g d1 I+?
$%. I us ?
$*. ei g I mp ! !do an) e?
$*K. 7 h{, A ! ?
$*. ei g I mp p h !do I+?
$$. ei g I mp ! an) !K?
$$K. 7 h{, A ! ?
$$. ei g I mp p h I+?
K./. ! k gA 1h p\t

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93
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-. I e ! ! I+ 7 I F ? I Lk Ll
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-h. t !K, I !K ! ! e ?
/. ! A, J, !nd e d I+ I ? !F
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9. I ! d A ! F ?
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U1 ! F !77 k A 1A A?
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&. I A1 I+? ! 8 1A A+?
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**K. ei sg U ?
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*$. I mp pU A ?
*$K. e Ag ' 7?
94
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+ I n mp + !F o tt p\ utg p
A tt p\g N K.*-e I+ p\ ut 1k
F1 n N h.$-! I+
mk b g +g 1A A+:

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ann
p = p71 /p i
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Electronic Survey Report 2011-025

The Kuki-Chin Communities of

The Kuki-Chin Communities of

SIL Electronic Survey Report 2011-025, March 2011

Appendix B (). Questionnaires

Appendix C (). Sociolinguistic questionnaire responses

Figure 11: Responses to one other language vitality question

1. To know which Kuki-Chin languages are used in Bangladesh

3. To investigate regional differences within each of the various Kuki-Chin

4. To better understand speakers attitudes towards other Kuki-Chin languages

5. To have a better understanding of the bilingual abilities of the members of

Originally written in Bangla by Mridul Sangma; portions translated by Amy Kim.

1.1.1. Study of the language varieties

other indigenous communities. Figure 3 shows all of Chittagong division in relation

Most members of the Kuki-Chin communities live in Rangamati and Bandarban

subdistrict in Rangamati district and in Bandarban Sadar, Rowangchari, and Thanci

languages found in Bangladesh, and each should be considered a language that is

differences but no great regional or dialectal differences. Among Bawm speakers,

3. Study of the Language Varieties

language variety are able to understand other Kuki-Chin languages in Bangladesh.

Subdistrict and district

Mahmuam Para (Ruilui area)

Bandarban Sadar, Bandarban

Manglung Headman Para

Barkal and Bilaichari subdistricts the largest Pangkhua village is Bilaichari

subdistrict speak Khumi with different pronunciation and intonation (Thanghloi

(i) Bethel Para

(j) Bethel Para

(c) Boro Kukyachari

(k) Ghungurumukh Para

(m) Mahmuam Para

(g) Manglung Headman Para

(h) Prongphung Para

(little, half, most, all)

4. Language Attitudes, Vitality, and Bilingualism Study

another (Fasold 1992). The vitality of a language is also understood by asking

through the questionnaire. Sociolinguistic questionnaire questions 2, 4, and 5 are

4.3.1. Language use

use most of the time

accomplish positive change in life through education, there is no alternative to

For learning language

For their future development

To learn Bangla well

For development of their MT

To be able to express their thoughts

Other language before

language language language

The information in figure 10 indicates that the Kuki-Chin communities of

Key: MT = mother tongue

In response to the above-mentioned question, each of the Pangkhua and Lushai

understand the bilingualism abilities of these various Kuki-Chin communities. A

communities. Compared with the other Kuki-Chin communities, the Khumi

Bandarban district of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is predominantly a Marma area.

development committee would have to understand how an MLE program is started,

committee, it could be decided which Khyang language varietyor bothshould be

initially. Thus, before a decision is made about the previously-mentioned topic of

SIL Bangladesh is not a funding organization. SIL Bangladesh is a research, training,

http://www.ethnologue.com/ (accessed 21 April 2008).

Wikipedia. 2008. Chittagong Hill Tracts.

.$. b   +L k1  

 b   1h [sh] e [j] 8g 7Fk  b  

kn iam ai

.$. b +L k1

b 1h [sh] e [j] 8g 7Fk b

kn iam ai

9 lightning (d1 )

10 thunder (!h 8)

23 yesterday (/)

24 tomorrow (I)

33 paddy rice (U)

34 uncooked rice ()

35 cooked rice ()

51 coconut (ripe) ()

58 lime for betelnut (L)

82 horn (of buffalo) ()

87 chicken (adult female) (L)

96 spider ([)

100 face (LK)

101 neck (/h[)

106 cheek ()

102 hair (L)

107 chin (L)

108 mouth (LK)

103 eye (!K)

104 nose ()

105 ear ()

110 tooth ({)

111 elbow (ni)

116 knee (AL)

113 palm (A L)

117 foot (/)

112 hand (A)

115 fingernail (K)

123 belly (!)

119 fat (8)

124 chest (L)

120 skin ([)

125 back (^)

121 blood (k)

126 body (/!A)

122 sweat (h)

127 person (!)

132 mother ()

134 wife (st)

129 woman (A)

133 husband (s)

128 man (Lr)

135 son (!+)

130 family ()

136 daughter (!)

137 elder brother ([ i/)

138 elder sister ([ !/)

139 younger brother (!+ i)

144 house ([)

140 younger sister (!+ !)

143 village (g)

142 name ()

145 door ()

149 pillow ()

146 window ()

150 blanket (m)

152 clothing (!)

151 ring (on finger) (I)

147 roof (+/)

153 medicine (U)

154 paper ()

158 spoon (for eating) ()

156 thread (s)