In this regard, please prepare your final document (not more than 5 pages, including references) for inclusion

in the bound copies of the forum output which will include the following: Introduction: development of the problem under investigation, including its historical antecedents, and statement of thepurpose of the investigation. Method: description of the procedures used to conduct the investigation. Results: Report of the findings and analyses. Discussion: Summary, interpretation and implication of the results.

Title: THE POTABILITY OF WATER SOURCES in DANAO CITY Research Proponents: ENGR. DELFA G. CASTILLA Project Leader DR. ROSE MARY ALMACEN MR. RICARDO GARBO DELIA G. SABIO MA. LUISA T. JOPIA

Introduction: Before the 19th century Industrial Revolution, people lived more in harmony with their immediate environment. As industrialization has spread around the globe, so the problem of pollution has spread with it. There is more waste water generated and dispersed today than at any other time in the history of our planet: more than one out of six people lack access to safe drinking water, namely 1.1 billion people, and more than two out of six lack adequate sanitation, namely 2.6 billion people (Estimation for 2002, by the WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2004). There were 3900 children die every day from water borne diseases (WHO 2004). One must know that these figures represent only people with very poor conditions. In reality, these figures should be much higher. According to the report of Jocelyn Uy in the Philippine Daily Inquirer dated January 26, 2008; five of every 10 Filipinos believe water pollution is a serious threat to their health and environment (SWS Survey 2008); there is also recent World Bank study warned of a possible water scarcity problem in the country by 2025. One of the main objectives of the World Water Council is to increase awareness of the water issue. Decision-makers at all levels must be implicated. One of the Millennium Development Goals is to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation. Last Feb. 15, 2011, Sunstar Daily reported an outbreak of water-borne diseases of typhoid and cholera in Cebu. Mentioned in particulars were Danao City and Catmon and some isolated cases in the southern parts of Cebu. This study was conducted in order to assess the water quality of Danao City and Catmon where the outbreak occurred and also to evaluate the extent of water pollution. A field experiment was conducted Oct. 1, 2012 and Dec. 13, 2012. Water samples were taken and subjected to laboratory analysis by University of San Carlos Laboratory in the

following parameters; fecal coliforms, total coliforms, pH, turbidity (NTU), total dissolved solids, chloride, sulfate, total iron, cadmium, lead, and manganese. The environment of the water sources were also included by fielding questionnaires answered by the caretakers of the water sources. Laboratory results were compared with the Philippines National Standards for Drinking Water 2007 with the following results: fecal coliforms in Taytay, Tuburan, Tupas, and Catmon failed with the respective results Too Numerous To Count (TNTC), 61, 2, and 4; for total coliforms all samples failed; for total dissolved solids CTU-Sabang, CTU-Centrum, Taytay and Tupas failed with the results of 565(+9), 645(+37), 562(+16), and 717(+45) respectively; for sulfate only Taytay failed with a result of 302(+2); and for manganese only Tupas failed with a result of 0.524(+0.00159). All water samples passed in the following parameters; turbidity, pH, chloride, total iron, cadmium, and lead content. Reasons for water contamination were: near to the residential areas; near to septic tank; near to the livestock animals; near to industries and schools; dont have proper waste water disposal practices and some do not have toilets and the water sources were not cemented or properly contained. This study concluded that the water from Danao and Catmon were not potable and needs to be treated prior to distribution. "There is a water crisis today. But the crisis is not about having too little water to satisfy our needs. It is a crisis of managing water so badly that billions of people - and the environment - suffer badly." World Water Vision Report, 2010 Water is the major constituent of living matter. From 50 to 90 percent of the weight of living organisms is water (Redmond, 2008). Water is also a universal solvent, wherein it transport, combine, and chemically break down substances. It is very necessary for earth's natural processes to occur and therefore sustain life on Earth, not only for humans but also animals, plants and other organisms. When Earth's population was much smaller, no one believed pollution would ever present a serious problem. It was once popularly believed that the oceans were far too big to pollute. Today, with around 7 billion people on the planet, it has become apparent that there are limits. Pollution is one of the signs that humans have exceeded those limits. How serious is the problem? According to the environmental campaign organization WWF, "Pollution from toxic chemicals threatens life on this planet. Every ocean and every continent, from the tropics to the once-pristine polar regions, is contaminated." While the world's population tripled in the 20th century, the use of renewable water resources has grown six-fold. Within the next fifty years, the world population will increase by another 40 to 50 %. (World Water Council, 2004) This population growth - coupled with industrialization and urbanization - will result in an increasing demand for water and will have serious consequences on the environment. There is more waste water generated and dispersed today than at any other time in the history of our planet: more than one out of six people lack access to safe drinking water, namely 1.1 billion people, and more than two out of six lack adequate sanitation, namely 2.6 billion people (Estimation for 2002, by the WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2004). There were 3900 children die

every day from water borne diseases (WHO 2004). One must know that these figures represent only people with very poor conditions. In reality, these figures should be much higher. The July, 2004 census of Philippine population is 86.2 million and projected to reach 100 million in 14 years. The current population growth rate is 2.71% or 3 persons born per minute. With the rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization reduce the quality of Philippine waters, especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and agricultural activities. The discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater and agricultural runoff has caused extensive pollution of the receiving water-bodies. This effluent is in the form of raw sewage, detergents, fertilizer, heavy metals, chemical products, oils, and even solid waste. Each of these pollutants has a different noxious effect that influences human livelihood and translates into economic costs. The adverse impact of water pollution costs the economy an estimated Php67 billion annually (WEPA, 2003). According to the report of Jocelyn Uy in the Philippine Daily Inquirer dated January 26, 2008; five of every 10 Filipinos believe water pollution is a serious threat to their health and environment (SWS Survey 2008); there is also recent World Bank study warned of a possible water scarcity problem in the country by 2025. One of the main objectives of the World Water Council is to increase awareness of the water issue. Decision-makers at all levels must be implicated. One of the Millennium Development Goals is to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation. Danao City is one of the industrialized cities in Central Visayas. It is a 3 rd class city of Cebu province with a population of 119,252 as per Philippine Census 2005. The biggest company being built in Danao City was the Cebu Mitsumi with more than 10,000 workers. There are also a lot of factories in Danao built by the Duranos clan but some of it is not in operation now. Different cottage industries producing different products; like gun making, pottery, mango juice, rattan furniture, metal foundry shop and many others. It has its own waterworks system but is available only to the residents in the Poblacion, Looc and Suba. Only 30% of the households in the Poblacion are served by the system. About 13% have individual faucets, while 17% are using the public faucets. One of the problems plaguing the system is the water pressure. A great number of households, about 40% are getting water from dug wells, springs, or rivers. Others have artesian wells as sources of water. The two major sources of water in the city are the Tuburan Springs and Quisol Springs. The volume of supply is estimated to be 2,254 liters per minute or 700 gallons per minute. At present, there are 1,221 households having water connections with the annual collections at P490,236.00. Last Feb. 15, 2011, Department of Health (DOH) 7 had asked towns to create a committee that will focus on monitoring the quality of drinking water. The move came following reports of outbreaks of water-borne diseases; typhoid and cholera, in four local government units (LGUs). In Danao City, cholera struck 300 persons and claimed six lives. In Catmon, the DOH 7 recorded 15 diarrhea cases and one death others were in Alegria and Balamban (Sunstar, 2011). With these scenarios, water should be recognized as a great priority. The proponent wishes to know the extent of water pollution in Danao City as well as the environmental risk and reliability analysis. Risk and reliability analysis may also provide a general methodology for the assessment of the safety of water related engineering projects in Danao, thus recommend actions for intervention. General Objectives:

1. To evaluate the potability of the water sources in the chosen environment through; a. physical analysis of the saltwater (pH, turbidity, total dissolved solids) b. microbiological analysis (fecal coliforms, total coliforms) c. metal analysis (cadmium, lead, manganese) d. chemical analysis (chloride, sulfate, total iron). 2. To know the status of the potable water sources as per interview by the respondents in terms possible reasons of contamination. 3. To identify the reasons/sources water pollution, if it is existing. 4. To identify the extent of the seawater seepage in the water sources of Danao City. 5. To formulate an equation for the sea water penetration in the presence of chloride (mg Cl/L) with respect to the distance of the water source from the shoreline. 6. To provide awareness to the stakeholders on the extent of safety of potable water in the city of Danao.

Origin Genesis 1-2

Water Related Diseases

precipitatio n

Water Cycle

Population: Genesis, Aristotle & Malthusian Theory of Population

evaporation

Water Management System Pollution: Water

Ocean

Fresh Water
Water Quality and Analysis: R.A. 9275 Waste Water Treatment

Desalinatio n

Fig. 1. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Theoretical and Conceptual Background And God said, let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven. Genesis 1:20 God is so great that he dont want His people to perish, He provided all the natural resources for the humankind to use. Natural resources include plants, animals, mineral deposits, soils, clean air, and water. There are 1.3 109 km3 of water in the oceans, 3.3 107 km3 in the polar ice caps, 2 105 km3 in glaciers, 105 km3 in lakes, and 1.2 103 km3 in rivers. In addition, 2.2 105 km3 of water fall annually as precipitation." (Debenedetti, 2003) The water in the ocean is salty and not fit to drink. The water in the polar ice caps and in glaciers will mix with the water in the ocean. The world's oceans comprise 97.3% of the total water on earth and consist of 5 oceans: Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Southern. The current range for the volume of the world's ocean is from 1.3 to 1.5 billion cubic kilometers and it will still get larger and larger as time passes. These processes are continuing today. It is estimated that the volume of the earth's ocean increases by 1 cubic meter every year. (Elert, 2001) About 2 percent of the planet's water is fresh, but 1.6 percent of the planet's water is locked up in the polar ice caps and glaciers. Another 0.36 percent is found underground in aquifers and wells. Only about 0.036 percent of the planet's total water

supply is found in lakes and rivers (Qadri, 2000). That's still thousands of trillions of gallons, but it's a very small amount compared to all the water available. The freshwater resources, such as the water in streams, rivers, lakes, and groundwater that provide people and all life forms with most of the water they need every day to live. Even if freshwater is just 2% it is enough due to water cycle. Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle is a series of movements of water above, on, and below the surface of the earth. The water cycle consists of four distinct stages: storage, evaporation, precipitation, and runoff. Water may be stored temporarily in the ground; in oceans, lakes, and rivers; and in ice caps and glaciers. It evaporates from the earths surface, condenses in clouds, falls back to the earth as precipitation (rain or snow), and eventually either runs into the seas or reevaporates into the atmosphere (Gedzelman, 2008). Almost all the water on the earth has passed through the water cycle countless times. Very little water has been created or lost over the past billion years. Water from precipitation which is called rain continually seeps into the ground to recharge the aquifers, while at the same time water in the ground continually recharges rivers through seepage. Even though you may only notice water on the Earth's surface, there is much more freshwater stored in the ground than there is in liquid form on the surface. In fact, some of the water you see flowing in rivers comes from seepage of groundwater into river beds. The amount of water that seeps into the ground depends on how steep the land is and what is under ground. For example: places that have lots of sand underground will allow more water to sink in than ones that have lots of rock. When the water seeps down, it will reach a layer of ground that already has water in it. That is the saturated zone. The highest point in the saturated zone is called the water

table. The water table can raise and lower depending on seasons and rainfall. Groundwater flows through layers of sand, clay, rock, and gravel. This cleans the water. Because groundwater stays underground, things that fall into surface water can't fall into it. This means that groundwater stays cleaner than water on the surface. It

has its problems, too. When farmers use fertilizers and insecticides, rain will wash them into the soil where they get into aquifers or groundwater. Gas stations have big, underground tanks where they keep the gas. If these leak, the gas sinks into the groundwater, too. Groundwater doesn't need as much treatment as surface water, but it usually gets some because of these problems. Man was created by God to have dominion over the living things that moved upon the earth (Genesis 1:27-28). Aristotle, the Greek philosopher had theorized that successful creatures on earth possessed a gift or perfecting principle (King, 2008) that enabled them to rise to meet the demands of this world. Those who perished did not have the perfecting principles. Man had mastered procreation that is why the world now is overpopulated. Malthus (1798) recognized that population if unchecked, grows at a geometric rate: 1 2 4 8 16 32. However, food only increases at an arithmetic rate, as land is finite: 1 2 3 4 5 6. Human population tends to grow faster than the power in the earth to produce subsistence. Today, there are around 7 billion people on the planet (Woodford, 2012). The effects of these two unequal powers must be kept equal. This principle can be used as a preventive measure, humans should limit their population size voluntarily or else we cant apply the perfecting principle. It is a tenet of the neo-Malthusian position that population growth inexorably leads to the destruction of the environment. It is only a matter of time before the earths

carrying capacity will collapse under the pressure of people. One of the ways that humanity is biting the hand that feeds it is through pollution of the air and water. Water pollution is usually caused by human activities. One traditional way that hydrologists concerned with social water issues measure scarcity is by looking at per-capita water availability or use; i.e., the water available or used in a region per person. Assuming that the world's renewable freshwater supply is relatively constant, the average amount of water available per person in 1850 was about 43,000 cubic meters per year. By 1990, this figure had dropped to 9,000 cubic meters per year, simply because of the increase in global population. When measured this way, the spatial and temporal distribution problems described above become even more evident. Water pollution can be defined in many ways. Usually, it means one or more substances have built up in water to such an extent that they cause problems for animals or people. Oceans, lakes, rivers, and other inland waters can naturally clean up a certain amount of pollution by dispersing it harmlessly. It is all about quantities: how much of a polluting substance is released and how big a volume of water it is released into (MBG, 2006). A small quantity of a toxic chemical may have little impact if it is spilled into the ocean from a ship. But the same amount of the same chemical can have a much bigger impact pumped into a lake or river, where there is less clean water to disperse it. This, in turn, could affect the health of all the plants, animals, and humans whose lives depend on the river. A 1971 United Nations report defined ocean pollution as: "The introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment

including estuaries resulting in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities, including fishing, impairment of quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities." Water pollution almost always means that some damage has been done to an ocean, river, lake, or other water source. Fortunately, Earth is forgiving and damage from water pollution is often reversible. Adult human needs to drink at least 1.5 liters of water a day to replace fluid lost in urine, sweat, and respired air and to perform essential biochemical functions. Moreover, almost 90 percent of body mass is water. Water, however, can also carry dangerous pathogens and toxic chemicals into the body. The catalogue of waterborne pathogens is long, and it includes many that are well-known as well as far larger numbers of more obscure organisms. Waterborne pathogens include viruses (e.g., hepatitis A, poliomyelitis); bacteria (e.g., cholera, typhoid, coliform organisms); protozoa (e.g., cryptosporidiosum, amebae, giardia); worms (e.g., schistosomia, guinea worm); and toxins (e.g., arsenic, cadmium, numerous organic chemicals). (Last, 2000) Water also harbors the intermediate stages of many parasites, either as freeliving larvae or in some other form, and it is the vehicle for essential stages in the life cycle of many dangerous insect vectors, notably mosquitoes and blackflies. Chemical contamination or pollution of drinking water is another serious problemone that has become a great deal worse in the modern industrial era, due to the widespread, and often unregulated, discharge of toxic substances into rivers, lakes, and oceans. Water sources like springs, rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, wells, reservoirs, and rainwater runoff into tanks and cisterns can all be contaminated by fecal matter of

human or animal origin (Santo Domingo, 2010). Organic matter of other origin like dead animals and decaying vegetation can contaminate drinking water too, in ways that range from very dangerous to merely unpleasant. There is no easy way to solve water pollution; if there were, it wouldn't be so much of a problem. Broadly speaking, there are three different things that can help to tackle the problemeducation, laws, and economicsand they work together as a team (Woodford, 2012). Educating the people is a way of making them aware of the problem so that they can stop dumping their waste water anywhere. Concerned citizens should form a group as a watchdog for water quality. Greater public awareness can make a positive difference. The best to implement the effective Waste Water Management is by passing laws whether local, national or global. The international laws governing the oceans are as follows; the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (signed by over 120 nations), the 1978 MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, and the 1998 OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic. Most countries also have their own water pollution laws. In the United States, for example, there is the 1972 Clean Water Act and the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act. In the Philippines, Republic Act No. 9275 was enacted last 2004 otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Water Act. Its aim is to protect the countrys water bodies from pollution from land-based sources like industries and commercial establishments, agriculture and community/household activities. It provides for a comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent and minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral and participatory approach involving all the stakeholders.

Most environmental experts agree that the best way to tackle pollution is through something called the polluter pays principle (Woodford, 2012). This means that whoever causes pollution should have to pay to clean it up, one way or another. Polluter pays can operate in all kinds of ways. It could mean that tanker owners should have to take out insurance that covers the cost of oil spill cleanups, for example. It could also mean that shoppers should have to pay for their plastic grocery bags, as is now common in Ireland, to encourage recycling and minimize waste. Or it could mean that factories that use rivers must have their water inlet pipes downstream of their effluent outflow pipes, so if they cause pollution they themselves are the first people to suffer. Ultimately, the polluter pays principle is designed to deter people from polluting by making it less expensive for them to behave in an environmentally responsible way. With these suggested strategies, the Malthusian Theory will not happen. Water from suspect sources usually can be made safe to drink by boiling. Ancient empirical observation of this fact in India and China may have led to the popularity in those countries of drinking tea and other infusions made with boiling water. However, boiling is neither practical nor sensible for the treatment of large municipal water supplies. These must be protected by appropriate treatment measuresfiltration and purification generally through chlorination that were developed mainly in the nineteenth century in the industrial nations. Provision of safe drinking water supplies has been among the most effective and important measures ever taken to advance the public's health. The other essential components in the prevention of waterborne diseases are the sanitary disposal of sewage and the environmental control of toxic chemicals. Sanitary

services are based on sewage disposal systems in most organized urban communities. The combination of sanitary disposal of human sewage and the provision of safe water supplies has virtually eliminated many of the serious waterborne epidemic diseases that took such a heavy toll of life until the early years of the twentieth century. However, sanitary services break down when floods, earthquakes, and other disasters occur, and at such times it is essential to boil water to ensure that pathogens are killed. Other methods, such as the use of iodine or chloramine in tablet or powder form are sometimes used; both under emergency conditions and by backpackers and the like, but these methods are less effective than boiling. For general guidelines to have a safe potable water some tips are suggested WEPA, 2012. Potable water should be tested more often if theres suspect of water contamination. Each year, test for coliform bacteria, nitrate, pH and TDS should be done. It is best to test these contaminants during summer or following a rainy period. These kinds of tests should also be conducted after repairing or replacing an old well or pipes, and after installing a new well pump. Every 3 years, test for sulfate, chloride, iron, manganese, lead, hardness and corrosion index should be done. If a new baby is expected in the household it is a good idea to test for nitrate in the early months of a pregnancy, before bringing an infant home, and again during the first 6 months of the baby's life. (http://inspectapedia.com/water/watrtest.htm, 2012) Where you live, or what you are living next to, can sometimes affect the quality of your well water. If someone in your family becomes ill, or the taste, odor or color of your water changes, your water supply may be contaminated. If your well is in an area of intensive agricultural use: test for pesticides commonly used in the area, coliform

bacteria, nitrate, pH and TDS. If you live near a coal or other mining operation: test for iron, manganese, aluminum, pH and corrosion index. If your well is near a gas drilling operation: test for chloride, sodium, barium and strontium. If your water, smells like gasoline or fuel oil, and your well is located near on operational or abandoned gas station or buried fuel storage tanks: test for fuel components or volatile organic compounds ('OC's). If your well is near a dump, junkyard, landfill, factory, or dry cleaning operation: test for volatile organic chemicals (such as gasoline components and cleaning solvents) pH, TDS, chloride, sulfate and metals. If your well is near seawater, a road salt storage site, or a heavily salted roadway and you notice the water tastes salty or signs of corrosion appear on pipes: test for chloride, TDS and sodium. (http://www.experts123.com/q/what-is-the-safe-distance-between-a-water-sourface-anda-toilet.html) Amrita Virtual Lab Collaborative Platform had the following theories about water content: Water clarity is measured by monitoring the turbidity. This is useful to check the effectiveness of the treatment process, but is no use in controlling dosing or investigating the source of a problem if one arises. Turbidity is the amount of particulate matter that is suspended in water. Turbidity measures the scattering effect that suspended solids have on light: the higher the intensity of scattered light, the higher the turbidity. Alkalinity is an aggregate property of the water sample which measures the acidneutralizing capacity of a water sample. It can be interpreted in terms specific substances only when a complete chemical composition of the sample is also

performed. The alkalinity of surface water is due to the carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide content and is often interpreted in terms of the concentrations of these constituents. Higher the alkalinity, greater is the capacity of water to neutralize acids. Conversely lower the alkalinity less will be the neutralizing capacity. Alkalinity of sample can be estimated by titration with standard H 2SO4 or HCI solution. Titration to pH 8.3 or decolorization of phenolphthalein indicator will indicate complete neutralization of OH and 1/2 of CO32-, while to pH 4.5 or sharp change from yellow to orange of methyl orange indicator will indicate total alkalinity. Saline water contains about 35,000 ppm of salt while fresh water has less than 1,000 ppm (Water Supply Paper, 1958). This saline water can be made into freshwater, which everyone needs everyday. The process is called desalination, and it is being used more and more around the world to provide people with needed freshwater. Advances in technology are allowing desalination to become a reliable and costeffective water-scarcity solution transforming both brackish and sea water into fresh water. The Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water were presented in Table 1 as adapted by University of San Carlos Water Laboratory wherein eleven parameters of drinking water quality will be tested. Table 1 Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water adapted by USC-Water Lab Parameters Method Used Physical & Chemical Test:
Turbidity pH Total dissolved solids Chloride Sulfate Total Iron Turbidity Meter Glass Electrode Gravimetric Argentometric Titration Turbidimetric Phenanthroline, Colorimetric

Maximum Level (mg/L)

5 NTU (Nepheloturbidity unit) 6.5-8.5 500 250.0 250.00 1.0

Microbiological Test:

Fecal Coliforms Total Coliforms

Membrane Filtration Membrane Filtration AAS Flame Technique AAS Flame Technique AAS Flame Technique

<1 fecal coliform colony/100 ml <1 fecal coliform colony/100 ml 0.003 0.01 0.4

Trace Metals:
Cadmium Lead Manganese

According to the Secretary of Health, Francisco T. Duque III (2007), the common causes of drinking water pollutants were as follows: Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of water (or other fluid) caused by individual particles that are too small to be seen without magnification. Turbidity in drinking water is caused by particulate matter that may be present from source as a consequence of inadequate filtration or from resuspension of sediment in the distribution system. Most causes turbidity are due to the presence of suspended matter such as clay, silt, fine organic or inorganic matter and microorganisms. Soil scientists divide soil particles, also known as soil separates, into three main size groups: sand, silt, and clay. According to the classification scheme used by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the size designations are: sand, 0.05 to 2.00 mm (0.002 to 0.08 in); silt 0.002 to 0.05 mm (0.00008 to 0.002 in); and clay, less than 0.002 mm (0.00008 in). Depending upon the rock materials from which they were derived, these assorted mineral particles ultimately release the chemicals on which plants depend for survival, such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulfur, iron, and manganese. The degree of water turbidity affects the amount of sunlight that can penetrate through the water column and may therefore be a limiting factor of photosynthesis of marine plants.

pH is a numerical measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water ranging from 0 to 14. Neutral waters have pH near 7. Acidic waters have pH less than 7 and alkaline waters have pH greater than 7. Total dissolved solids (TDS) in drinking water originate from natural sources, sewage, urban runoff and industrial wastewater. Chloride in drinking water originates from natural sources, sewage and industrial effluents, urban runoff, and seawater intrusion. Seawater intrusion or salinity is defined as the total solids in water after all carbonates have been converted to oxides, all bromides and iodide have been replaced by chloride, and all organic matter has been oxidized. Terms associated with salinity are chlorinity and chlorosity. Chlorinity includes chloride, bromide,and iodide, all reported as chloride while chlorosity is the chlorinity multiplied by water density at 20oC. The chloride content of water is often used as a guiding parameter for the salt content of water, e.g. in case of the intrusion of seawater into an aquifer or the estimation of the inorganic pollution of water. Sulfates occur in natural waters and in wastewater. If high concentrations are consumed in drinking water, there may be objectionable tastes or unwanted laxative effects, but there is no significant danger to public health from sulfates. Iron is found in natural fresh waters. It may be present in drinking water as a result of the use or iron coagulants or the corrosion of steel and cast iron pipes during water distribution. Fecal Coliforms Bacteria is a group of bacteria normally present in large numbers in the intestinal tracts of humans and other warm blooded animals.

Specifically, the group includes all the rod shaped bacteria that are nonsporeforming, GramNegative, lactosefermenting in 24 hours at 44.5C, and which can grow with or without oxygen. Bacteria included in this classification represent a subgroup of the larger group termed coliform. Drinking-water supplies should be free from contamination by human and animal excreta, which can contain a variety of microbial contaminants. Microbiological parameters are indices of potential waterborne diseases and, in general, are limited to bacteria, viruses and pathogenic protozoa. The major interest in classifying and issuing standards is the identification, quantification, and evaluation of organisms associated with waterborne diseases. Practically, all pathogenic organisms that can be carried by water originate from the intestinal tract of warm blooded animals. Bacterial intestinal pathogens known to be transmitted in drinking-water are strains of Salmonella, Shigella, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Yersinia enterocolitica and Campylobacter fetus, Legionella pneumophila although, a soil bacterium, may be contracted by inhalation exposure to the bacteria in water. There are also many common viral and protozoan organisms that transmit disease in humans. Human enteric viruses that may be present in water include Poliovirus, Echovirus, Coxsackie Virus A, Coxsackie Virus B, new enterovirus types 68-71, Hepatitis type A, Gastroenteritis type Norwalk, Rotavirus and Adenovirus . The protozoans are Giardia, Cryptosporidium spp, Entamoeba histolytica, Balantidium coli, Naegleria and Acanthamoeba. (CE 521B Notes 1, 2nd sem AY 2010-2011 Department of Civil Engineering University of San Carlos)

Public health concern regarding cyanobacteria relates to their potential to produce a variety of toxins, known as cyanotoxins. In contrast to pathogenic bacteria, cyanobacteria do not proliferate within the human body after uptake; they proliferate only in the aquatic environment before intake. Toxic peptides (e.g., microcystins) are usually contained within the cells and may be largely eliminated by filtration. However, toxic alkaloids such as cylindrospermospsin and neurotoxins are also released into the water and may pass through filtration systems. Frequent examinations for fecal indicator organisms remain as the most sensitive and specific way of assessing the hygienic quality of water. Fecal indicator bacteria should fulfill certain criteria to give meaningful results. The tests required to detect specific pathogens are generally very difficult and expensive so it is impractical for water systems to routinely test for specific types of organisms. A more practical approach is to examine the water for indicator organisms specifically associated with fecal contamination. An indicator organism essentially provides evidence of fecal contamination from humans or warm-blooded animals. The criteria for an ideal organism are as follows: a. Always present when pathogenic organism of concern is present, and absent in clean, uncontaminated water. b. Present in large numbers in the feces of humans and warm-blooded animals c. Respond to natural environmental conditions and to treatment process in a manner similar to the waterborne pathogens of interest d. Readily detectable by simple methods, easy to isolate, identify and enumerate e. Ratio of indicator/pathogen should be high f. Indicator and pathogen should come from the same source or gastrointestinal tract. Coliform Organisms (Total Coliforms) is defined as all the aerobic and facultative anaerobic, gram-negative, nonsporeforming, rod-shaped bacteria that

ferment lactose with gas formation within 48 h at 35oC. This definition includes E. coli, the most numerous facultative bacterium in the feces of warm-blooded animals, plus species belonging to the genera Enterobacter, Klebsiella, and Citrobacter. Total coliform could be considered as part of natural aquatic flora because of their regrowth in water. Because of this characteristic, their detection in water supply may mean false positive for fecal contamination. Another way by which false positive can occur is when the bacteria Aeromonas is present in the sample. Aeromonas can biochemically mimic the coliform group. False negatives can occur when coliforms are present along with high populations of HPC bacteria. The presence of HPC bacteria may restrict the activities of coliform group bacteria. Water intended for human consumption should contain no indicator organisms. However, pathogens more resistant to conventional environmental conditions or treatment technologies may be present in treated drinking-water in the absence of E. coli or total coliforms. Protozoa and some enteroviruses are more resistant to many disinfectants including chlorine, and may remain viable and pathogenic in drinking-water following disinfection process. Cadmium is used in manufacture of steel, plastics and battery and released to the environment through wastewater or fumes. Cadmium is released in water supply as impurity of the zinc coating of galvanized pipes and solders and metal fittings. Lead may be present in water primarily from plumbing systems containing lead pipes, solder, fittings or the service connections to the homes. Although it may be found naturally occurring in certain areas, rarely is it present in water supply as a result of its dissolution from natural sources.

Manganese is naturally occurring in many surface and groundwater sources, particularly in anaerobic or low oxidation conditions. The minimum frequency of sampling for drinking water were presented in Table 2 taken from the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water. Table 2. Minimum Frequency of Sampling for Drinking-Water Supply Systems
Source & Mode of Supply Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Population Served 90-500 600 Less than 5,000 5,000-100,000 More than 100,000 Frequency of Sampling Microbiological Test Once in 3 months Once in 2 months 1 sample/month 1 sample/5000 population monthly 20 samples & additional sample/10,000 population monthly Before delivery to users 1 sample monthly 1 sample monthly 1 Physical & Chemical Test Once a year Once a year Once a year Once a year Once a year Once a year Twice a year Twice a year

Emergency Supplies of Drinking Water Water Refilling Stations Water Vending Machines

Related Literature The study made by Alalim (2006) in Daanbantayan, Cebu had a similarity in this study. However, that study was descriptive in which the extent of water potability was based on the perceptions of the respondents. This study will use both descriptive and experimental method in which different parameters will be measured to identify the presence of pollutants in the fresh water. The degree of seawater seepage will be also determined and will be used for forecasting of fresh water availability. Population growth, urbanization, and industrialization reduce the quality of Philippine waters, especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and agricultural activities as quoted by Pulley and Serra in the Philippine Environment Monitor 2003. The discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater and agricultural

runoff has caused extensive pollution of the receiving water-bodies. This effluent is in the form of raw sewage, detergents, fertilizer, heavy metals, chemical products, oils, and even solid waste. Each of these pollutants has a different noxious effect that influences human livelihood and translates into economic costs. The adverse impact of water pollution costs the economy an estimated Php 67 billion annually (more than US $ 1.3 billion). The Government continues its fight against worsening water pollution by espousing and including among its priorities, environment policies, legislation, and decrees that address the growing need to control water pollution. In the last few years, the Government has also employed economic instruments such as pollution fines and environmental taxes. The pending Clean Water Act proposes an integrated, holistic, decentralized and participatory approach to abating, preventing and controlling water pollution in the country. This monumental step, taken collectively by various stakeholders, is the first attempt to consolidate different fragmented laws and provide a unified direction and focus to fighting water pollution. The Philippines Environment Monitor 2003 comprises eight sections: (i) an overview of the countrys water quality and availability status, and water pollution conditions of surface, ground and coastal waters by region; (ii) the sources of water pollution, including various types of effluents, their generation, and the effects of wastewater discharges to human health and the environment; (iii) the four critical regions that were found to have unsatisfactory rating for water quality and quantity; (iv) the effects and economic losses due to polluted waters, health cost, and costs to fishery and tourism sectors; (v) a description of the water policies, institutional arrangements in water resources management, and enforcement of standards and economic

instruments; (vi) urban sanitation and sewerage program and performance; (vii) investment requirements in water pollution control; and (viii) the challenges in implementing an integrated water resources management program.

Methodology Descriptive method was undertaken in this study. It underwent three Phases; Phase 1 was the identification of water sources in Danao City through interview of the Department Head of Danao City Water Works. Phase 2 will be the sampling stage by taking water samples from the water sources in five areas in Danao City and were subjected to different water analysis like physical analysis (turbidity, pH, total dissolved solids), microbiological analysis (fecal coliforms, total coliforms) , metal analysis (cadmium, lead, manganese), and chemical analysis (chloride, sulfate, iron). The

testing will be done only once per area since the water sources were identified under Level 1 and 2 as per Philippine National Standards for drinking water. The water samples will be taken right away to the accredited water testing center of USC-Water Laboratory. Phase 3 was the personal interview with the caretaker of the deep well following the self-made questionnaire and field inspections wherein actual measurements were done and actual observations of the state of the sampling site were also recorded by the researcher.

Letter requesting permission to conduct the study were made and was given to Danao City mayor personally and to the barangay captains of Sabang, Tuburan, Poblacion and Taytay. Data was in terms of frequencies, percentages, and mean using MegaStat software. Regression formula was also used in identifying the extent of the sea water seepage through the presence of chloride in the water sample with respect to the distance of the water source from the shoreline. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Table 3. Water Testing Laboratory Results by the USC-Water Laboratory
PARAMETER CTU, Sabang CTU-CENTRUM, Sabang <1 1 0.51 7.16 645(+37) 111 4.75(+0.47) 0.023(+0.001) <0.00025 <0.0075 0.0024(+0.0001) TAYTAY TUBURAN SUR TUPAZ, Poblacion 2 49 0.13 7.06 717(+45) 50.9 62.8(+0.9) 0.035(+0.003) 0.00145(+0.00010) <0.0075 0.5241(+0.0159) PNS Drinking Water 2007 <1 <1 5 6.5 8.5 500 250.0 250.00 1.0 0.003 0.01 0.4

Fecal Coliforms Total Coliforms Turbidity (NTU) pH Total dissolved solids Chloride (mg Cl/L) Sulfate (mg SO4/L) Total Iron (mg Fe/L) Cadmium (mg Cd/L) Lead (mg Pb/L) Manganese (mg Mn/L)

<1 2 0.07 7.09 565 (+9) 80.8 19.8(+0.1) 0.02 <0.00025 <0.0075 0.0012(+0.0002)

TNTC TNTC 0.43 6.98 562 (+16) 39.2 302 (+2) 0.05 <0.00025 <0.0075 0.0027

61 TNTC 0.76 6.80 475 (+19) 17.6 11.7(+1.2) 0.22(+0.01) <0.00025 <0.0075 0.0009(+0.0001)

Note:

TNTC Too Numerous To Count (>200 colonies per 100 ml) PNS Philippine National Standard Number in parenthesis ( ), denotes 95% confidence level Failed as to PNS Drinking Water 2007

Water samples were taken from five sources in Danao City specifically in CTU Sabang, CTU-CENTRUM Sabang, Taytay, Tuburan Sur, and Tupaz Poblacion. Only the parameters that failed as to PNS Drinking Water 2007 were being discussed in order to trace the possible reasons of the contaminants.

Table 4. Contaminant Source Inventory Table

Questions
Year Constructed Deep of the Drilling (ft) Maintained by Agency/Private Frequency of Preventive Maintenance Is there a budget for maintenance? Last water treatment Is there a presence of corrosion in the pipe? Cemented area surrounding the deep well (square meters) Did the users washed their clothes near the well? (within 100 m) Did the users take a bath or bathe their animals near the well? Did you see any unrestricted livestock 100 meters away? Number of population/households using the deep well All the households have toilets Is it shady? (sun rays cannot penetrate within the area? Is there a presence of soil erosion within 100m perimeter? Distance of the nearest house (meters) Distance of the nearest septic tank (meters) Distance of the nearest vegetable garden or agricultural farm using pesticides within 100 Distance of the nearest poultry, piggery or livestock animals (m) Distance of the nearest uncemented water drainage Distance of the nearest industrial site or factory (meters) What is their product or business? Distance from the public road (m) Distance from the shoreline (meters) What kind of soil the area has as to texture? (sand, clay, silt)

CTU-Danao
1968 55 CTU-Danao Once a month Yes Jan. 11, 2010 Yes None No No Yes 2,000 population Yes Yes No 9 11 None None None 250 Furniture/car wash 300 250 Silt

CTUCentrum
2010 140 CTU-Danao Once a month Yes None None 16 No No Yes 2,000 population Yes No No 6 19 None 142 87 200 Furniture/car wash 230 450 Silt

Taytay
1983 20 Private None None None Yes 20 Yes Yes Yes 5 households Yes No No 2 10 None 60 100 300 Gasoline station/Food Products 25 950 Sand

Tuburan Sur
1989 40 City Hall None Yes None Yes None Yes Yes Yes 107 households No Yes Yes 8 56 None 22 None 1000 Food Products 30 2500 Silt

Tupaz, Poblacion
1952 40 Private None None None Yes 16 Yes No Yes 50 households Yes Yes No 6 10 None None 300 500 Hospital 15 750 Sand

Figure 2.

Taytay

Fig. 2 Map of potential contaminant sources depicted on an aerial view

Microbiological Test Result (Fecal and Total Coliforms) As to microbiological tests specifically Total Coliforms all the water sources failed since the PNS Drinking Water Standard should be less than one fecal colony per 100 ml of water. CTU-CENTRUM had 1, CTU - Sabang had 2, Tupaz Poblacion had 49 and Taytay and Tuburan Sur had 100 ml of water. In order to identify and locate potential sources of contamination, the caretaker of the five deep wells were being interviewed and the results were presented in Table 4. All samples taken from the different sampling stations were found to be well below the required level of tolerated quantity of coliform for drinking water. High level of coliform found in Taytay is quite understandable due to the following reasons; even if the area near the well had been cemented the nearest septic tank is only 10 meters which is supposed to be to 100 meters away from the water source to avoid water contamination; dogs also roam around the area and as dogs its just normal to moved their wastes anywhere thus contaminating the water source; a piggery can be found within 60 meters thus adding contamination. Same thing in Tuburan Sur wherein the users bathe their animals near the well and while the animals were taking a bath they just move their feces there and since it is not cemented the animal feces goes directly to the water source; not all households have toilets, so they just move their wastes anywhere where they cant be seen and the too numerous to count or more than 200 colonies per

human waste goes to the water source as well; the nearest septic tank is only 56 meters away and a piggery can be found 22 meters away which added air pollution aside from water pollution. In Tupaz, Poblacion only the septic tank which is 10 meters away caused the presence of 2 fecal coliforms and 49 total coliforms which made the water not suitable for drinking. It can be used for cooking provided that it should undergo a boiling point. In CTU-Danao Campus dogs, cats, chicken and goats were roaming around the campus and the nearest septic tank is only 9 meters away thus contaminating the water sources. Test Result of Total Dissolved Solids All the water sources being tested except in Tuburan Sur failed as to the amount of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) ranging from 562-717 mg solids/L which is 12 to 43% higher than the PNSDW for TDS. The possible reasons of the this contamination were as follows; CTU-Danao is very near to DECA Homes which is just 9 meters away and also near the school canteen which dont have a proper waste water disposal. The nearest furniture shop is just 250 meters away. CTU-Centrum water source is 6 meters to the nearest residence, 19 meters to the nearest septic tank and 200 meters to the furniture shop. The deep wells of Taytay and Tupaz, Poblacion were privately owned and within the residential areas thus the greater the presence of total dissolved solids. Sulfates Test Result With regards to the amount of sulfates only the deep well in Taytay failed since the nearest septic tank is just 10 meters away and it is within a residential area and there is also the presence of a river 100 meters away.

Manganese Test Result The deep well in Tupaz, Poblacion was higher by 31% in manganese content than the PNS Drinking Water since it is located in the city proper and most of the areas there are cemented so oxygen cannot penetrate within the soil. Manganese can be found in an anaerobic or low oxidation conditions. Chloride/Salinity Nowadays, theres an invasion of a body of fresh water by a body of salt water, due to its greater density as a result of global warming. It can occur either in surface or groundwater bodies thus it can contaminate our water sources. So, according to USCWater Laboratory the chloride content of water is often used as a guiding parameter for the salt content or the salinity of the water source.

Table 5. Cloride content of the water source and its distance from the nearest shoreline Chloride (mg Cl/L) Distance from the shoreline PNS=250 (meters) CTU-Sabang 80.8 712 CTU-Centrum 111 450 Taytay 39.2 950 Tuburan Sur 17.6 2500 Tupaz, Pob. 50.9 750 Regression Analysis
r Adjusted r r Std. Error n k Dep. Var. ANOVA table Source SS df MS F p-value 0.622 0.496 -0.789 580.653 5 1 (meters)

Regression Residual Total Regression output variables Intercept PNS=250

1,662,761.509 1 1,011,473.690 9 2,674,235.200 0

1 3 4

1,662,761.5091 337,157.8970

4.93

.1130

b: a: Formula:

coefficients 2,128.7184 -17.6347 -17.63469739 2128.718374

std. error 541.9261 7.9409

t (df=3) 3.928 -2.221

pvalue .0294 .1130

confidence interval 95% lower 95% upper 404.0677 3,853.3691 -42.9062 7.6368

y=a+bx Example: if x = 100 meters y=a+bx=2128.718374+(-17.63469739)(100)=365 mg/L of chloride In using this regression formula, if the distance of the water source from the nearest shoreline is 100 meters, there will be 365 mg/L of chloride, it means that the nearer the water source to the shoreline the greater is the presence of chloride which is also the indication of the sea water penetration. GANNT CHART Table 5. Shows the work schedule of the whole research project

Activities Preliminaries Distribution of Questionnaires & Interviews First Water Sampling Second Water Sampling Third Sea Water Sampling Data Processing

June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan

Report Writing & Editing Submission of Reports / Dissemination

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Prepared by: DELFA G. CASTILLA CTU Danao Campus