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Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/snb

Greenhouse gas analyzer for measurements of carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor aboard an unmanned aerial vehicle
Elena S.F. Berman a, , Matthew Fladeland b , Jimmy Liem a , Richard Kolyer b , Manish Gupta a
a b

Los Gatos Research, 67 East Evelyn Ave, Suite 3, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, United States

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
A compact, lightweight atmospheric gas analyzer has been integrated into and own on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Sensor Integrated Environmental Remote Research Aircraft (SIERRA) unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and deployed to make highly accurate, 1 Hz measurements of methane, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. The analyzer was used to measure gas concentrations in ight and to demonstrate the system for providing measurements at altitudes as low as 10 m and in remote locations. The rst ights were conducted at Crows Landing, CA, an agricultural site, with H2 O concentrations showing distinct structure and sharp features that were well outside of the measurement noise. The instrument was then deployed in Svalbard, Norway prior to the NASA Characterization of Arctic Sea Ice Experiment (CASIE). During the Svalbard ight, there was minimal variation in the CO2 and CH4 concentrations, but the water concentration changed dramatically, oscillating as the aircraft moved repeatedly through its racetrack shaped ight pattern. The regions of high water concentration corresponded to low-lying areas which collect runoff from the nearby Vestre Broggerbreen glacier. This novel, integrated instrument-aircraft system allows more numerous and efcient measurements of carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor concentrations at low-altitudes and in remote or dangerous locations. 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 20 December 2011 Received in revised form 5 April 2012 Accepted 10 April 2012 Available online xxx Keywords: Greenhouse gas ICOS UAV Optical sensor Carbon dioxide Methane Water vapor

1. Introduction The accurate quantication of greenhouse gases is critically important for determining how the global environment is changing, what drives these changes, and the potential consequences for human civilization [1]. Ideally, this quantication is provided with high accuracy, fast time response, and high spatial resolution at relatively low cost. The three most important greenhouse gases, in terms of abundance and contribution to the greenhouse effect, are water vapor (H2 O), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), and methane (CH4 ). Water vapor is the primary driver behind the development of weather systems. Moreover, it strongly absorbs terrestrial radiation, and thus provides strong positive feedback of the greenhouse effect [1]. Although water vapor measurements are routinely made by ground-based stations and environmental monitoring satellites, more accurate quantication and spatial precision are required for climate modeling [2]. Carbon dioxide is the key species in the atmospheric carbon cycle and has been implicated as the foremost gas responsible for climate change. In order to better understand the global carbon cycle and predict future climate change, scientists

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 650 965 7772x239; fax: +1 650 965 7074. E-mail address: e.berman@lgrinc.com (E.S.F. Berman). 0925-4005/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2012.04.036

need to accurately quantify the spatial and temporal distribution of carbon dioxide. Methane also plays a critical role in global climate change, with a global warming potential that is 72 times larger than CO2 in a 20 year time horizon [2]. However, unlike CO2 , atmospheric methane is more difcult to measure, often requiring off-line laboratory analysis using a gas chromatograph coupled to a ame ionization detector [3]. Methane quantication is important in studying the carbon cycle where vertical proling and higher resolution provide additional data on key methane sources and sinks. Currently, greenhouse gases are measured primarily at a network of atmospheric monitoring sites around the globe, such as the NOAA Mauna Loa Observatory, which provide single-location measurements of greenhouse gas concentrations at the Earths surface [2]. These measurements are complemented by satellite-based sounding systems which measure greenhouse gases in various layers of the atmosphere such as the NASA Atmospheric Infrared Sounder [4] and the JAXA GOSAT which measures total column concentrations using infrared spectroscopy [5,6]. These measurement strategies have several advantages including wide global coverage and multi-species detection. However, as a complement to these measurements, in situ monitoring with higher accuracy, faster time response, and more spatial resolution is required for a more complete understanding of climate change [7]. For example, current

Please cite this article in press as: E.S.F. Berman, et al., Greenhouse gas analyzer for measurements of carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor aboard an unmanned aerial vehicle, Sens. Actuators B: Chem. (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2012.04.036

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Fig. 1. Schematic of the unmanned aerial vehicle greenhouse gas analyzer showing the top (a) bottom (c) and assembled (b) UAV GGA. The fully assembled UAV GGA measures approximately 30.5 cm 30.5 cm 28 cm and weighs 19.5 kg.

satellite instrumentation, like the Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS), provides a best-case 1.5 km of vertical resolution and 200 km of horizontal resolution for water vapor measurements [8], which is insufcient to resolve StratosphericTropospheric exchange (STE) mechanisms (tropopause folding) [911]. Likewise, accurate vertical proling is necessary to study large carbon sinks and sources (e.g. Amazon forest), where satellite data is insufcient for current climate modeling efforts [2]. Finally, in situ data can also be used to provide verication of satellite observations. In the past, most such airborne measurements have been made using comprehensive, large-scale, eld campaigns on piloted aircraft, such as the DC-8, WB-57F, and ER-2 (e.g. [7,1012]). In an effort to make these measurements more efcient and cost effective, research is underway to use smaller, unmanned aircraft [13]. Thus, new instrumentation is required that can autonomously measure greenhouse gases while meeting the size, weight, and power limitations of UAVs. For example, NASAs Sensor Integrated Environmental Remote Research Aircraft (SIERRA) UAV is midsize UAV with a 6.1 m wing span, 3.6 m long and 1.4 m high. The SIERRA has a cruising speed of 28 m/s and a maximum altitude of 3600 m. The SIERRA can carry a 40 kg payload measuring 40.5 cm 40.5 cm 30.5 cm and can provide up to 200 W of aircraft power. In order to meet these stringent requirements for autonomous airborne deployments, we have exploited near infrared Off-Axis Integrated Cavity Output Spectroscopy (Off-Axis ICOS) [14,15]. Briey, Off-Axis ICOS employs a high-nesse optical cavity as an absorption cell for laser spectroscopic measurements. The technique uses an off-axis trajectory of the laser beam through the optical cavity to produce an effective path length of several kilometers, allowing sensitive spectroscopic measurements while avoiding excessive noise due to constructive/destructive interferences. The sensitivity of Off-Axis ICOS makes possible the accurate measurement of atmospheric quantities of H2 O, CO2 , and CH4 in a lightweight and miniaturized package suitable for UAV deployment. Besides its high sensitivity, Off-Axis ICOS is also inherently robust and self-calibrating. Since the pathlength only depends on

losses in the cavity and not on the exact beam alignment, it is not necessary to stringently align the optical cavity or the input beam. This allows the Off-Axis ICOS technique to tolerate a very high degree of mechanical vibration and promotes its use as a ight instrument (see [12] for example). Moreover, this unique platform permits self-calibration by rapidly switching the laser off and measuring the decay of light out of the cavity (similar to the well-established technique of cavity ringdown spectroscopy) [16]. Due to the robustness and sensitivity of Off-Axis ICOS technology, researchers routinely measure absorptions as small as 1010 cm1 and have applied this technique to a variety of industrial and environmental problems [15]. In this report, we detail the development and deployment of a miniaturized sensor for quantication of H2 O, CO2 , and CH4 that meets the physical requirements for UAV operation aboard the NASA SIERRA. 2. System design and construction The UAV Greenhouse Gas Analyzer (GGA), schematically shown in Fig. 1, is based upon Los Gatos Researchs Off-Axis ICOS technology [15]. The instrument is fabricated on two 30.5 cm square optical breadboards. The bottom breadboard houses power and gas handling components including the battery, inverter, switching power supply, and 2-head diaphragm pump. The instrument uses a single, rechargeable Lithium-Polymer battery (Powerizer) that measures 185 mm 170 mm 70 mm, weighs 3.5 kg, and provides 560 W h of capacity at 11.1 V (nominal). The instrument requires about 70 W of power, so the battery is capable of continuously operating the unit for 8 h, comparable to the typical SIERRA ight time. A 12 V inverter (PowerBright, Coral Springs, FL) is employed to transform the battery voltage into 110 VAC with > 90% efciency after which a switching power supply (Condor Electronics, Sunnyvale, CA) is used to transform the 110 VAC into all required voltages (e.g. 12 V, +5 V). A small, 2-head diaphragm pump (KNF Neuberger, Trenton, NJ) that measures 129 mm 105 mm 49 mm, weighs 0.9 kg, and provides 500 sccm of ow is used to direct sampled gas through the

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Fig. 2. UAV greenhouse gas analyzer (left) integrated into the SIERRA nosecone ready for ight (right). The instrument measures approximately 30.5 cm 30.5 cm 28 cm.

Off-Axis ICOS cavity. The cavity volume is approximately 400 cc, and the pump rate gives a ow response time at 18.7 kPa of about 9 s. At the standard SIERRA cruise speed of 28 m/s, this response time corresponds to an approximately 250 m horizontal resolution. A small voltage driven switch is included to activate the pump only when the software is operational to save power. The top breadboard houses the Off-Axis ICOS cavity, PC/104 computer, laser driver boards, lasers, and pressure controller. The Off-Axis ICOS subsystem includes the 2 in. (5 cm) diameter cavity, highly reective, multi-layer dielectric mirrors (R = 0.99995 and 0.999925 at 1650 nm and 1603 nm, respectively), laser launch mount, and custom amplied InGaAs detector (3 mm diameter). The laser launch mount is equipped with a custom launch block that enables 2 lasers to be simultaneously coupled into the cell, a 1650 nm laser for CH4 measurements and a 1603 nm laser for simultaneous measurements of CO2 and H2 O. The absorptions due to CO2 and H2 O are well-separated in the spectrum near 1603 nm, permitting simultaneous, separate measurements of the two species. The cavity is insulated to prevent thermal gradients across the measurement. A 10k thermistor (Measurement Specialties, Dayton, OH) and pressure gauge (Honeywell, Morristown, NJ) are inserted into the sample to measure gas temperature and pressure respectively. The entire system is operated by an onboard PC/104 computer. The system includes the processor board, data acquisition card, interfacing board, and solid state hard drive for data storage. The computer provides voltages to drive the lasers, reads the relevant signals (e.g. detector, temperature, and pressure), and stores the measured data to the hard drive for post-ight analysis. An external KVM can be connected to change the control settings or diagnose the analyzers operation. Two custom, miniature laser driver boards are used to control the laser current and temperature. These parameters are used to provide ne and coarse control over the laser operating frequency, respectively. The driver boards are also equipped with a fast laser disable switch (<200 ns) to permit rapid cavity ringdown measurements of effective pathlength. Based on cavity ringdown measurements, the optical path lengths through the cavity are approximately 3000 m at 1603 nm and approximately 4000 m at 1650 nm. The near-infrared distributed feedback diode lasers are housed in a 14-pin buttery package that is directly mounted onto the laser driver board. The laser temperatures are actively controlled via their internal thermo-electric coolers to maintain wavelength stability. The pressure in the cell is controlled at approximately 18.4 kPa via a proportional solenoid valve (Parker Hanifn Pneutronics, Hollis, NH) that feeds back from the pressure gauge. Note that the setpoint pressure is substantially lower than

the ambient pressure for all SIERRA ight altitudes (i.e. 03600 m), and the cell pressure is actively controlled throughout the ight. The fully assembled UAV GGA is shown in Fig. 2a and measures approximately 30.5 cm 30.5 cm 28 cm and weighs 19.5 kg, allowing for it to t within the SIERRA nosecone and displace most of the ballast weight. The instrument contains no moving parts, other than the internal workings of the diaphragm pump, allowing it to tolerate a high degree of mechanical vibration. Nevertheless, the top breadboard is vibrationally isolated from the bottom breadboard using inline vibrational isolators with tension springs (Barry Controls, Hopkinton, MA). The UAV GGA interfaces with the SIERRA nosecone via a baseplate allowing simple drop-in integration with four anchor points. The gas inlet line is routed through the bottom plate and fastened to the bottom of the nosecone such that the inlet gas stream is directed opposite the planes movement. This conguration helps prevent particulates from entering the system and clogging the included lters. Fig. 2b shows the UAV Greenhouse Gas Analyzer fully integrated into the SIERRA nosecone. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Laboratory testing Prior to ight, the UAV Greenhouse Gas Analyzer was laboratory tested to determine its accuracy, precision, linearity, dynamic range, and thermal stability. The instruments performance was tested for CO2 using a NIST-calibrated set of standards that spans from 372 to 944 ppm CO2 /air. The measured data (Fig. 3a) is within the cylinder accuracy of 1 ppm (1 ), even for the highest mole fraction, demonstrating high accuracy (dened as the residual from the best t line) and linearity (R2 = 0.999994) over the atmospheric range. Note that much higher levels of CO2 (e.g. >1%) can be measured using the instrument with appropriate non-linear calibration. The instruments performance on CH4 was determined by using 3 calibrated gas cylinders containing mixtures that span from 1.738 to 5.021 ppm CH4 /air. The results are shown in Fig. 3b and show that the instrument is highly linear (R2 = 0.999998) and accurate to 1.7 ppb (1 ) over the atmospherically relevant range of CH4 concentrations. The instruments performance was tested for water vapor by measuring the output of a dewpoint generator (LICOR LI610). The measured data (Fig. 3c) is within the specied accuracy of the dewpoint generator (0.2 C) and highly linear (R2 = 0.99987) over the entire atmospheric range from 7000 to 20,000 ppm. The instrument precision for CO2 and CH4 was determined by measuring a continuously owing gas sample of constant composition from an air cylinder for approximately 8 h at a 1 Hz

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Fig. 3. (a) Measured carbon dioxide mole fractions versus the actual, certied cylinder value. The instrument is accurate and linear (R2 = 0.999994) to better than the cylinder uncertainty (1 ppm) from 0 to 1000 ppm. (b) Measured methane mole fractions versus the actual, certied cylinder value. The instrument is accurate and linear (R2 = 0.999998) to 1.7 ppb (1 ) from 0 to 5 ppm. (c) Measured water vapor concentrations versus the dewpoint generator value. The instrument is accurate and linear (R2 = 0.99987) to better than the dewpoint generator accuracy (0.2 C) from 7000 to 20,000 ppm.

measurement rate. The resulting Allan deviation plots are shown in Fig. 4. The 1 Hz precision for CO2 is 0.6 ppm (1 ) and improves with averaging time, to a limit of 0.08 ppm (1 ) in 2000 s. The 1 Hz precision for CH4 is 2 ppb (1 ) and the Allan deviation plot shows that better precision can be readily obtained by further averaging, reaching a limit of 0.2 ppb (1 ) in 1000 s. The instrument precision for H2 O was determined by measuring the output of a dewpoint generator for approximately 8 h at a 1 Hz measurement rate. The resulting Allan deviation plot is shown in Fig. 4c; the 1 Hz precision is 35 ppm (1 ) and improves with averaging time to a limit of 5 ppm (1 ) in 100 s. One of the presumed challenges of deploying instrumentation aboard an UAV was the large ambient thermal excursion as the plane changes altitude. For example, prior to ight, the temperature in the SIERRA nosecone can reach 35 C (depending on deployment location) but, as the plane approaches its maximum altitude of 3600 m, the ambient temperature can be as low as 05 C. In order to mimic these conditions, the analyzer was placed in an environmental test chamber and continuously measured a constant gas stream as the ambient temperature was varied. Note that the analyzer is not actively thermally controlled. The temperature was varied over 2.5 days: rst the temperature was ramped over its extremes of 40 C to 5 C. Then, in order to emphasize the expected highest-altitude cruising temperature, the temperature

was held at 5 C and nally brought back to room temperature (see Fig. 5). The instrument readings show slight correlation with external temperature. Since the instrument constantly measures the gas temperature, a linear compensation factor can be readily implemented to account for gas temperature. The compensated dependence of the CO2 and CH4 readings on ambient temperature is shown in Fig. 6; the readings change by less than 0.36% and 0.37% (1 ) respectively over the entire 5 to 40 C range. This type of compensation scheme has been validated for the full atmospheric range of gas concentrations. However, during ight testing (see Section 3.2) it was found that the internal gas temperature varied by a much smaller amount, reducing the temperature-related variation of the concentration readings and eliminating the need for temperature compensation.

3.2. Flight deployments The UAV Greenhouse Gas Analyzer was integrated into the nosecone of the SIERRA as shown in Fig. 2. Two separate deployments demonstrated the airborne performance of the instrument.

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Fig. 5. Environmental chamber testing temperature prole designed to exceed the expected extremes and mimic the highest-altitude cruising temperature in the UAV.

3.2.1. Crows Landing, California Crows Landing is a 1500 acre (607 ha) former NASA facility in Stanislaus County, in a highly agricultural area of the central valley of California (Lat: 37.4 Lon: 121.1). It is used by NASA for ight testing of the SIERRA among other uses. The UAV GGA was own for approximately 40 min around 6 pm local time, 9 June 2009 (01:00 UTC, 10 June) during which time CO2 and H2 O data were collected at a 1 Hz data rate. During ight, internal gas temperature (3035 C) and pressure (18.36 kPa 0.2%) remained in a very narrow range, and based on the ndings of the laboratory measurements shown above, should have a negligible effect on the measurements. Measured dry CO2 mole fraction was relatively constant during the constant altitude portion of the ight. Measured H2 O vapor uctuated with spatial position along the racetrack shaped ight path. The measured H2 O vapor concentration was generally higher in the more southerly regions of the ight path, possibly correlated

Fig. 4. The CO2 (a), CH4 (b), and H2 O (c) Allan deviation plots show a 1 Hz precision of 0.6 ppm (1 ) for CO2 , 2 ppb (1 ) for CH4 , and 35 ppm (1 ) for H2 O and demonstrate that the measurement uncertainty decreases with averaging time to a limit of 0.08 ppm (1 ) in 2000 s for CO2 , 0.2 ppb (1 ) in 1000 s for CH4 , and 5 ppm (1 ) in 100 s for H2 O. The dashed lines represent perfect averaging.

Fig. 6. Linearly compensated CO2 (a) and CH4 (b) concentrations from the analyzer, which is not temperature stabilized, as a function of gas temperature. Note that the readings change less than 0.36% and 0.37% (1 ), respectively over the entire 5 to 40 C range.

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Fig. 7. Aerial photo taken a few days prior to the test ight showing the locations of the airstrip, glacier, and glacial runoff collection area.

with agricultural activity such as increased irrigation. CH4 was not measured during this ight. 3.2.2. Svalbard, Norway The Svalbard archipelago is located midway between mainland Norway and the North Pole and primarily consists of arctic wilderness. The area of the Svalbard deployment near Ny lesund (Lat: 78.9 Lon: 11.9) is shown in an aerial photograph in Fig. 7 taken a few days prior to the test ight. In the photograph one can see the shoreline, airstrip, and Vestre Broggerbreen glacier. The area to the south of the runway is a collection area for glacial runoff. The UAV GGA was integrated into SIERRA prior to the NASA Characterization of Arctic Sea Ice Experiment (CASIE) and operated for approximately 45 min on the ground while the plane was prepared and taxied, around 06:00 UTC, 11 July 2009. The SIERRA was then own for approximately 25 min in a racetrack shaped ight path traversed 8 times during which the analyzer measured CO2 , CH4 , and H2 O mole fractions at 1 Hz. The internal gas temperature (21.822.5 C) and pressure (18.36 kPa 0.2%) again remained in a very narrow range during ight, and should have a negligible effect on the measurements. The measured CH4 mole fraction is relatively stable throughout the short ight and consistent with NOAA and Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) measurements (Fig. 8). NOAA scientists collect ask samples approximately weekly at Zeppelin Station (475 m ASL) near Ny lesund, Norway and measure greenhouse gasses from these asks, including CH4
Fig. 9. Measured CO2 mole fraction (dry) shows large spikes due to sampling of engine exhaust prior to takeoff. During the ight in Svalbard, Norway (inset) CO2 mole fraction is relatively stable and is consistent with levels measured by NOAA scientists from ask samples taken at the Zeppelin station the day after the ight (dashed line) [17] and hourly samples taken by researchers from Stockholm University (marker) [data courtesy of Stockholm University].

Fig. 10. Water vapor mole fraction measured with the UAV GGA uctuates with spatial position along the racetrack shaped ight path (4 traversals) as seen superimposed on a satellite map of the Svalbard ight area. The areas of high water concentration correspond to low-lying areas which collect runoff from the nearby Vestre Broggerbreen glacier. Satellite images GoogleMaps, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, Norwegian Polar Institute. Map produced by GPS Visualizer.

Fig. 8. Measured CH4 mole fraction is relatively stable during the ight in Svalbard, Norway and is consistent with levels measured by NOAA scientists from ask samples taken at the Zeppelin station the day after the ight (dashed line) [18] and measurements taken by the Norwegian Institute for Air Research (marker) [data courtesy of NILU].

and CO2 , at the NOAA laboratories in Boulder, Colorado [17,18]. The NOAA measured CH4 mole fraction the day after the ight is shown by the dashed line in Fig. 8 [18]. In the two weeks immediately surrounding the ight, the CH4 levels at the site are relatively constant, changing by a maximum of 8 ppb [18]. The Norwegian Institute for Air Research measures CH4 on an hourly basis using an automated GC at the Zeppelin Station; the CH4 mole fraction measured at the ight time is shown by the marker in Fig. 8 [data courtesy of NILU]. The measured CO2 (dry mole fraction) shows large spikes prior to takeoff due to sampling of engine exhaust (Fig. 9). During ight, mole fractions are relatively stable at expected ambient levels and consistent with the NOAA measurement taken the day after the ight (dashed line) [17] and hourly data taken by researchers from the Department of Applied Environmental Science, Stockholm

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University, Sweden (marker) (Fig. 9, inset). NOAA data shows a decreasing trend in CO2 levels over the two weeks immediately surrounding the ight, with an overall change in that time period of 7 ppm [17]. Stockholm University measures CO2 hourly using a differential, non-dispersive, infrared gas analyzer (LiCOR LI-7000). Both NOAA and Stockholm University data were taken at the Zeppelin Station. Fig. 10 shows the water vapor mole fraction measured by the UAV GGA during 4 constant altitude traversals of the racetrack shaped ight path overlaid on a satellite map of the Svalbard ight area. The correlation of water vapor mole fraction with spatial position is obvious, with areas of high water concentration corresponding to low-lying areas which collect runoff from the nearby Vestre Broggerbreen glacier.

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4. Conclusions A compact, lightweight atmospheric analyzer has been integrated into the NASA Sensor Integrated Environmental Remote Research Aircraft (SIERRA) unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and deployed to make highly accurate, 1 Hz measurements of methane, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. The integrated analyzer was used to monitor gas concentrations in ight, providing atmospheric measurements at altitudes as low as 10 m in a remote location. The rst ights were conducted at Crows Landing, CA, an agricultural site, with H2 O concentrations showing distinct structure and sharp features that were well outside of the measurement noise. The instrument was then deployed in Svalbard, Norway where minimal variation in the CO2 and CH4 concentrations were observed during ight, but the water concentration changed dramatically, oscillating as the aircraft moved repeatedly through its racetrack shaped ight pattern. Importantly, it was demonstrated that measurements can be correlated with environmental features, as the regions of high water concentration corresponded to low-lying areas which collect runoff from the nearby Vestre Broggerbreen glacier. This novel, integrated instrument-aircraft system will allow more numerous and efcient measurements of carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor concentrations at low-altitudes and in remote or dangerous locations. Specic application targets include deployment in forest re plumes to measure greenhouse gas generation and additional deployments in remote areas such as those undertaken in Norway. Future work will consist of multiple tracks of continued instrument development. A smaller and lighter instrument for measuring CO2 , H2 O, and CH4 is under development to allow deployment aboard smaller UAV platforms. In addition, a faster analyzer (20 Hz) will allow airborne eddy ux covariance measurements, effectively turning the SIERRA into a mobile ux tower. Finally, we are designing additional instruments which will be capable of measuring other important greenhouse gasses, including N2 O and CO, aboard UAVs. Future instruments will also be equipped with on-board calibration cylinders for real time, in ight calibration of the instrument.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank all the members of the NASA CASIE team, especially Lesli Monforton, Brad Lobitz, Mark Sumich, Mike Gaunce, Randy Berthold, and Don Herlth. The authors would also like to thank the researchers at the Norwegian Institute for Air Research, especially Ove Hermansen, and researchers at the Department of Applied Environmental Science, Stockholm University, especially Birgitta Noone, for their assistance and the use of their data. This work was supported by NASA SBIR Grant #NNX09CC17P. Biographies
Elena S.F. Berman is a senior scientist and principal investigator at Los Gatos Research, a leader in the development of innovative, laser-based measurement strategies for non-destructive analyses of gases, liquids, and solids. Her current research interests include airborne and terrestrial measurements of greenhouse gasses and medical diagnostic and hydrological applications of water isotope measurements. Prior to joining LGR, Dr. Berman received her PhD in Physical Chemistry from Stanford University and was a postdoctoral associate at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.

Please cite this article in press as: E.S.F. Berman, et al., Greenhouse gas analyzer for measurements of carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor aboard an unmanned aerial vehicle, Sens. Actuators B: Chem. (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2012.04.036

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E.S.F. Berman et al. / Sensors and Actuators B xxx (2012) xxxxxx Richard Kolyer is a payload integration specialist with NASA Ames Research Center. He has extensive experience in the elds of in situ and remote sensing instrument design & payload integration on both manned and unmanned aircraft. He is currently the SIERRA UAV avionics lead and payload integration manager. His current interests center on developing medium class unmanned aircraft for use in remote and dangerous environments. Manish Gupta is the Vice-President of R&D at LGR and a pioneer in the development and application of cavity-enhanced optical absorption techniques to gas, liquid, and ber sensing. He has over 18 years of experience in laser spectroscopy and has served as PI on over 20 projects funded by EPA, DoD, NASA, NSF, and DOE. Dr. Gupta has helped developed a suite of Off-Axis ICOS instrumentation for environmental, industrial, medical, and military applications. Prior to joining LGR, Dr. Gupta received his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Harvard University and a postdoctoral fellowship from Stanford University.

Matthew Fladeland is a research scientist at NASA Ames Research Center serving as the Airborne Science Manager within the Earth Science Division. He is the project manager for the SIERRA UAV ight project and is interested in the use of unmanned aircraft as platforms to support and complement NASA satellite observations and measurements. Mr. Fladeland received his Masters degree from the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies and served as a Presidential Management Fellow at NASA Headquarters prior to taking a position at Ames Research Center. Jimmy Soeseno Liem is a mechanical design engineer who has over 20 years of experience in product development and manufacturing. His experience includes designing automation for assembly lines, developing test/measurement products involving ultra-precise mechanical and optical designs, and managing technical operations of multi-discipline and cross-department projects. Presently, he serves as Vice President of Operations at Los Gatos Research. He received a Masters Degree in Mechanical Engineering from University of Wisconsin in 1990.

Please cite this article in press as: E.S.F. Berman, et al., Greenhouse gas analyzer for measurements of carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor aboard an unmanned aerial vehicle, Sens. Actuators B: Chem. (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2012.04.036