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The ideal rectifier element should have zero forward and infinite reverse resistance. In
practise, however, the rectifier is a nonlinier device, indicated by the characteristic curves of
Figure 4.
FIGURE 4. Characteristic curves of a solid-state rectifier
The resistance of the rectifying element changes wit varying temperature, one of the
major drawbacks of rectifier-type ac instruments. The meter accuracy is usually satisfactory
under normal operating conditions at room temperature and is generally on the order of + 5 %
of full-scale reading for sinusoidal waveforms. At very much higher or lower temperatures,
the resistance of the rectifier changes the total resistance of the measuring circuit sufficiently
cause the meter to be gravely in error.
Frequency also affects the operation of the rectifier elements. The rectifier exhibits
capasitive properties and tends to bypass the higher frequencies. Meter readings may be in
error by as much as 0.5 % decrease for every 1-kHz rise in frequency.
General rectifier-type ac voltmeters often use the arrangement shown Figure 5. The
commercial multimeter often uses the same scale markings for both its dc and ac voltage
ranges. Since the dc component of a sine wave for half-wave rectification equals 0.45 times
the rms value, a poblem arises immediately. In order to obtain the same deflection on
coresponding dc and ac voltage ranges, the multiplier for the ac range must be lowered
proportionately. The circuit of Figure 6 illustrates a solution to the problem. Figure 7 shows a
multirange ac voltmeter circuit of the Simpson Model 260 multimeter.
6
FIGURE 5. Typical ac voltmeter section of a commercial multimeter
FIGURE 6. Computation of the multiplier resistor and the ac voltmeter sensitivity
FIGURE 7. Multirange ac voltmeter circuit of the Simpson Model 260 multimeter
(courtesy of the Simpson Electric Cimpany)
5. Thermoinstruments
The historical foreruner of the thermoinstruments is the hot-wire mechanism, shown
schematically in Figure 8.
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FIGURE 8. Schematic representation of the hot-wire ammeter
The current under measurement passes through a fine wire tightly stretched between two
terminals. A second wire is attached to the fine wire at one end and, at the other, to a spring,
which exerts a download pull on the fine wire. This second wire passes over a roller to which
the pointer connected. The current under measurement causes the fine wire to heat and thus
expand approximately in proportion to the heating current squared. The change in wire length
drives the pointer, which indicates the magnitude of the current. Instability due to wire stretch,
sluggishness in response, and lack of ambient temperature compensation have made this
mechanism commercially unsatisfactory.
Figure 9 shows a combination of a thermocouple and a PMMC movement that can be
used to measure both ac and dc. This combination is called a thermocouple instrument, since
its operation is based on the action of the thermocouple element. In Figure 9, CE and DE
represent the two disiimilar metals, joined at point E, and are drawn as a light and a heavy
line, to indicate dissimilarity. The potential difference between C and D depends on the
temperature of the so-called cold junction, E. A rise in temperature causes an increase in the
voltage and this is used to advantage in the termocouple. Heating element AB, hich is in
mechanical contact wit he junction of the two metals at point E, forms part of the circuit in
which the current is to be measured. AEB is called the hot junction. Heat energy generated by
the current in the heating element raises the temperature of the cold junction and causes an
increase in the voltage generated across terminals C and D. The potential difference causes a
dc current is directly proportional to the current squared (I
2
R), and the temperature rise (and
hence the generated voltage) is proportional to the square of the rms current. The deflection of
the indicating instrument will therefore follow a square-law relationship.
8
FIGURE 9. Schematic representation of a basic thermocouple instrument using
thermocouple CDE and a PMMC movement.
FIGURE 10. Compensated thermocouple to measure the thermovoltage prouced by current i
alone. Couple terminals C and D are in thermal contact with heater terminals A
and B, but are electrically insulated from them.
The compensated thermoelement, shown schematically in Figure 10, produces a
thermoelectric voltage in the thermocouple CED, which is directly proportional to the current
through circuit AB. Since the developed couple voltage is a function of the temperature
difference between its hot and cold ends, this temperature difference must be caused only by
the current being measured. Therefore, for accurate measurements, points C and D must be at
the mean temperature of points A and B. This accomplished by attaching couple ends C and D
to the center of separate copper strips, whose ends are in thermal contact with A and B, but
electrically insulated from them.
Self-contained thermoelectric instruments of the compensated type are available in the
0.5-20-A range. Higher current ranges are available, but in this case the heating element is
external to the indicator. Thermoelements used for current ranges over 60 A are gnerally
provided with air cooling fins.
Current measurements in the lower ranges, from approximately 0.1-0.75 A, use a
bridge-type thermoelement, shown schematically in Figure 11. This arrangement does not use
a separate heater: the current to be measured passes directly through the hermoelements and
raises their temperature in portion to I
2
R. The cold junctions (marekd c) are the pins which are
embedded in the insulating frame, and the hot junctions (marked h) are at splices midway
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between the pins. The couples are arranged as shown in Figure 11, and the resultant thermal
voltage generates a dc potential difference across the indicating instruments. Since the bridge
arms have equal resistances, the ac voltage across the meter is 0 V. The use of several
thermocouples in series provides a greater output voltage and deflection than is possible with
a single element, resulting in an instrument with increased sensitivity.
FIGURE 11. Bridge-type thermocouple instrument
Thermocouple voltmeters are available in ranges of up to 500 V and sensitivities of
approximately 100 to 500
V
O
.
A major advantage of a thermocouple instrument is that its accuracy can be as high as 1
%, up to frequencies of approximately 50 MHZ. For this reason, it is classified as an RF
instrument. Above 50 MHZ, the skin effect thends to force the current to the outer surface of
the conductor, increasing the effective resistance of the heating wire and reducing instrument
accuracy.