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SEMESTER - IV
Scheduling Operations
Companies differentiate based on product volume and product variety Differentiation affects how the company organizes its operations Each kind of company operation needs different scheduling techniques Scheduling has specific definitions for routing, bottleneck, due date, slack and queue
Scheduling Definitions
Routing: The operations to be performed, their sequence, the work centers, & the time
standards
Bottleneck: A resource whose capacity is less than the demand placed on it Due date: When the job is supposed to be finished Slack: The time that a job can be delayed & still finish by its due date Queue: A waiting line Characteristics of High-Volume Operations
High-volume aka flow operations, like automobiles, bread, gasoline can be repetitive or continuous High-volume standard items; discrete or continuous with smaller profit margins Designed for high efficiency and high utilization High volume flow operations with fixed routings Bottlenecks are easily identified Commonly use line-balancing to design the process around the required tasks
Low-Volume Operations
Low-volume, job shop operations, are designed for flexibility. Use more general purpose equipment Customized products with higher margins Each product or service may have its own routing (scheduling is much more difficult) Bottlenecks move around depending upon the products being produced at any given time
Finite loading:
Allows only as much work to be assigned as can be done with available capacity but doesnt prepare for inevitable slippage
Figure 15-6 Input/output report for work center 101 Input Information (in hours) 4 5 Planned Input 800 750 Actual Input 750 780 Deviation -50 30 Cumulative deviation 0 -50 -20 Output information (in hours) Planned output Actual output Deviation Cumulative deviation Backlog (in hours) 4 800 800 0 0 50 5 800 750 -50 -50 80
0 100
8 800 825 25 5 25
Priority rules:
Decision rules: to allocate the relative priority of jobs at a work center Local priority rules: determines priority based only on jobs at that workstation Global priority rules: also considers the remaining workstations a job must pass through
Measuring Performance
Job flow time:
Time a job is completed minus the time the job was first available for processing; avg. flow time measures responsiveness
Makespan:
The time it takes to finish a batch of jobs; measure of efficiency
Job lateness:
Whether the job is completed ahead of, on, or before schedule;
Job tardiness:
How long after the due date a job was completed, measures due date performance
Example 15-5 Calculating job lateness and job tardiness Completion Date 10 13 17 20
Job A B C D
Scheduling Bottlenecks
In the 1970s Eli Goldratt introduced optimized production technology (OPT) OPT focused on bottlenecks for scheduling & capacity planning Definitions: Throughput: quantity of finished goods that can be sold Transfer batch: quantity of items moved at the same time from one resource to the next Process batch: quantity produced at a resource before switching to another product
OPT Principles
Balance the process rather than the flow Non-bottleneck usage is driven by some other constraint in the system Usage and activation of a resource are not the same a hour lost at a bottleneck is lost forever, but an hour lost at a non-bottleneck is a mirage Bottleneck determine throughput and inventory in system The transfer batch does not need to be equal to the process batch The process batch should be variable Consider all constraints simultaneously. Lead times are the result of the schedule and are not predetermined.
Theory of Constraints
TOC is an extension of OPT theory is that a systems output is determined by its constraints 1. Identify the bottleneck(s) in the process 2. Exploit (fully utilize) the bottleneck(s) 3. Subordinate all other decisions to Step 2 - Schedule non-bottlenecks to support maximum use of bottleneck activities 4. Elevate the Bottleneck(s) 5. Do not let inertia set in
Staff for peak demand (if cost isnt prohibitive) Floating employees or employees on call Temporary, seasonal, or part-time employees
Step 1 Find out the minimum number of employees needed for each day of the week
(1) Day of the week Number of staff needed M 4 T 5 W Th F 5 3 5 Sa Su 2 3
Step 2 Given the above requirements, calculate the number of employees needed for each pair of consecutive days
(1) Pair of Consecutive Days Total of Staff needed Monday & Tuesday 9 employees Tuesday & Wednesday 10 employees Wednesday & Thursday 8 employees Thursday & Friday 8 employees Friday & Saturday 7 employees Saturday & Sunday 5 employees
Step 3 - Find the pair of days with the lowest total needed
Step 5 Using the updated staffing needs, repeat steps 2 through 4 until you have satisfied all needs
(2) Pair of Consecutive Days Total of Staff needed Monday & Tuesday 7 employees Tuesday & Wednesday 8 employees Wednesday & Thursday 6 employees Thursday & Friday 6 employees Friday & Saturday 6 employees Saturday & Sunday 5 employees
Scheduling Continued
Schedule Continued
Final Schedule
This technique gives a work schedule for each employee to satisfy minimum daily staffing requirements Next step is to replace numbers with employee names Manager can give senior employees first choice and proceed until all employees have a schedule
A system that consists of numerous programmable machine tools connected by an automated material handling system History of FMS
FMS first proposed in England in 1960s
System 24 operates 24 hours a day Automation is main purpose in beginning
To reduce set up and queue times Improve efficiency Reduce time for product completion Utilize human workers better Improve product routing Produce a variety of Items under one roof Improve product quality Serve a variety of vendors simultaneously Produce more product more quickly
Flexible Automation
Flexible automation is used when the product mix requires a combination of different parts and products to be manufactured from the same system.
Ability to adapt to engineering changes in parts Increase in number of similar parts produced on the system Ability to accommodate routing changes Ability to rapidly change production set up
DNC - Direct Numerical Controlled Direct Numerical Controlled Machines (DNC) is controlled by several NC machines that are controlled by a single computer. AGV - Automated Guided Vehicle
ASRS - Automated Storage and Retrieval System Robotics and
Conveyors
Progressive Layout:
FMS Layouts
Best for producing a variety of parts Parts can skip stations for flexibility Used for large part sizes Best for long process times
Ladder Layout:
Allows two machines to work on product at the same time Parts can be sent to any machine in any sequence Parts not limited to particular part families Enables material to move along the machine centers in any particular order necessary. Most complex FMS layout Includes several support stations
Robots
Can tolerate hostile environments Can work much longer hours than humans Can perform redundant jobs more consistently
Loading and unloading Spray painting Welding Material handling Inspection Machine Assembly
Robots in the beginning were used mainly for spray painting and welding, now they are also being used for investigative purposes. By having robots conduct these often times repetitive tasks we have seen a reduction in job injuries related to these tasks. Robots have made production much quicker and easier on human beings.
Components of CIM
CAD - Computer Aided Design CAM - Computer Aided Manufacturing
CAE - Computer Aided Engineering
CAD uses computer software to manipulate and change products while in the design stage.
CAM uses computer programs to control the automated manufacturing process. CAE links the functional design to the CAD form design.
Integration of FMS
FMS Manufacturing Technology
CIM
Robotics
By employing the components and concepts from Manufacturing Technology, Computer Aided Manufacturing and Robotics, it is possible to develop a Flexible Manufacturing System that will work well in your organization. These are three main areas making up FMS.
Determining if FMS the best production system for your company (economically and socially) Possible expansion costs associated with implementing FMS Day to day maintenance of FMS operations
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Microsoft Project (Microsoft Corp.) MacProject (Claris Corp.) PowerProject (ASTA Development Inc.) Primavera Project Planner (Primavera) Project Scheduler (Scitor Corp.) Project Workbench (ABT Corp.)
Matrix organization a team structure with members from functional areas, depending on skills required Project Manager most important member of project team Scope statement a document that provides an understanding, justification, and expected result of a project Statement of work written description of objectives of a project Organizational Breakdown Structure a chart that shows which organizational units are responsible for work items Responsibility Assignment Matrix shows who is responsible for work in a project
Gantt Chart
Graph or bar chart with a bar for each project activity that shows passage of time
History of CPM/PERT
Critical Path Method (CPM)
E I Du Pont de Nemours & Co. (1957) for construction of new chemical plant and maintenance shut-down Deterministic task times Activity-on-node network construction Repetitive nature of jobs
Project Network
Network analysis is the general name given to certain specific techniques which can be used for the planning, management and control of projects
Use of nodes and arrows Arrows An arrow leads from tail to head
directionally Indicate ACTIVITY, a time consuming effort that is required to perform a part of the work. Nodes A node is represented by a circle - Indicate EVENT, a point in time where one or more activities start and/or finish.
Activity
A task or a certain amount of work required in the project Requires time to complete Represented by an arrow
Dummy Activity
Indicates only precedence relationships Does not require any time of effort
Project Network
Event Signals the beginning or ending of an activity Designates a point in time Represented by a circle (node) Network Shows the sequential relationships among activities using nodes and arrows
Activity-on-node (AON) nodes represent activities, and arrows show precedence relationships Activity-on-arrow (AOA) arrows represent activities and nodes are events for points in time
3
2
1
4
Select paint
6
Select carpet
Finish work 1
Build house
2 2 Start
4 3
Finish work
1 3 3 1
Order and receive materials
7 1
Select paint
5 1
Select carpet
6 1
A
C
B A
B A C both A and C must finish before either of B or D can start
D B
Dummy
C D
Concurrent Activities
Lay foundation
3
Lay foundation Dummy 2 1 Order material 0
3
2
Order material
Network example
Illustration of network analysis of a minor redesign of a product and its associated packaging.
The key question is: How long will it take to complete this project ?
For clarity, this list is kept to a minimum by specifying only immediate relationships, that is relationships involving activities that "occur near to each other in time".
CPM calculation
Path
A connected sequence of activities leading from the starting event to the ending event
Critical Path
The longest path (time); determines the project duration
Critical Activities
All of the activities that make up the critical path
Determination of floats
Following the determination of the critical path, floats are need to be computed for the non-critical activities. For the critical activities this float is zero. Before showing how floats are determined, it is necessary to define the below Two times: 1. 2. Latest Start (LS) time Earliest Finish (EF) time
Note: Total float = ES = LF- ES Free float = Total float - - Head slack
Forward Pass
Earliest Start Time (ES) earliest time an activity can start ES = maximum EF of immediate predecessors Earliest finish time (EF) earliest time an activity can finish earliest start time plus activity time
EF= ES + t
Backward Pass
Latest Start Time (LS)
Latest time an activity can start without delaying critical path time LS= LF - t
Latest finish time (LF)
latest time an activity can be completed without delaying critical path time LS = minimum LS of immediate predecessors
CPM analysis
Draw the CPM network Analyze the paths through the network Determine the float for each activity
Compute the activitys float float = LS - ES = LF - EF Float is the maximum amount of time that this activity can be delay in its
completion before it becomes a critical activity, i.e., delays completion of the project
Total float = ES = LF- ES Free float = Total float - Head slack
Find the critical path is that the sequence of activities and events where there is no slack i.e.. Zero slack Longest path through a network
CPM Example:
CPM Network
f, 15 g, 17
a, 6 i, 6 h, 9
b, 8 d, 13 c, 5 e, 9 j, 12
CPM Example
ES and EF Times
f, 15
a, 6
0 6
g, 17
i, 6
h, 9
b, 8 0 8 c, 5 0 5 e, 9 d, 13 j, 12
CPM Example
ES and EF Times
a, 6
0 6
f, 15 6 21
h, 9
g, 17 6 23
i, 6 23 29
21 30
b, 8 0 8 c, 5 0 5 d, 13
8 21
j, 12
21 33
e, 9 5 14
Projects EF = 33
CPM Example
LS and LF Times
a, 6
0 6 f, 15 6 21
h, 9 21 30 i, 6 23 29 33 j, 12
21 33
g, 17 6 23
24 33
b, 8 0 8 d, 13 8 c, 5 0 5 e, 9 5 14 21
27
21
33
CPM Example
LS and LF Times
f, 15 6 21
h, 9 21 30 i, 6 23 27 29 33 j, 12
21 33
18 24
a, 6
0 6
g, 17 6 23 10 27
24 33
10 b, 8 0 0 8 8 c, 5 0 7 5 12
d, 13 8 8 e, 9 5 14 21 21
21
33
12 21
CPM Example
Float
3 a, 6
3 0 6 4 f, 15 6 9 21 24 3
h, 9 21 30 24 33 29 33 j, 12
0
g, 17 6 23
4
i, 6 23 27
9 b, 8
10 27
0 0
8 8 c, 5
0
d, 13 8 8 e, 9 7 5 14 21 21
21 21
33 33
0 7
5 12
12 21
CPM Example
Critical Path
f, 15
a, 6
g, 17
i, 6
h, 9
b, 8 d, 13 j, 12
c, 5 e, 9
PERT
PERT is based on the assumption that an activitys duration follows a probability distribution instead of being a single value Three time estimates are required to compute the parameters of an activitys duration distribution: pessimistic time (tp ) - the time the activity would take if things did not go well most likely time (tm ) - the consensus best estimate of the activitys duration optimistic time (to ) - the time the activity would take if things did go well
te =
tp + 4 tm + to
6
Variance: Vt =2 =
tp - to
6
PERT analysis
Draw the network. Analyze the paths through the network and find the critical path. The length of the critical path is the mean of the project duration probability distribution which is assumed to be normal
The standard deviation of the project duration probability distribution is computed by adding the variances of the critical activities (all of the activities that make up the critical path) and taking the square root of that sum
Probability computations can now be made using the normal distribution table.
PERT Example
Immed. Optimistic Most Likely Pessimistic Activity Predec. Time (Hr.) Time (Hr.) Time (Hr.) A -4 6 8 B -1 4.5 5 C A 3 3 3 D A 4 5 6 E A 0.5 1 1.5 F B,C 3 4 5 G B,C 1 1.5 5 H E,F 5 6 7 I E,F 2 5 8 J D,H 2.5 2.75 4.5 K G,I 3 5 7
C B F G I
K
Benefits of CPM/PERT
Useful at many stages of project management Mathematically simple Give critical path and slack time Provide project documentation Useful in monitoring costs
Limitations to CPM/PERT
Clearly defined, independent and stable activities Specified precedence relationships Over emphasis on critical paths Deterministic CPM model Activity time estimates are subjective and depend on judgment PERT assumes a beta distribution for these time estimates, but the actual distribution may be different PERT consistently underestimates the expected project completion time due to alternate paths becoming critical