UNIT - V

SEMESTER - IV

Scheduling Operations
Companies differentiate based on product volume and product variety Differentiation affects how the company organizes its operations Each kind of company operation needs different scheduling techniques Scheduling has specific definitions for routing, bottleneck, due date, slack and queue

Scheduling Definitions
Routing: The operations to be performed, their sequence, the work centers, & the time
standards

Bottleneck: A resource whose capacity is less than the demand placed on it Due date: When the job is supposed to be finished Slack: The time that a job can be delayed & still finish by its due date Queue: A waiting line Characteristics of High-Volume Operations
High-volume aka flow operations, like automobiles, bread, gasoline can be repetitive or continuous High-volume standard items; discrete or continuous with smaller profit margins Designed for high efficiency and high utilization High volume flow operations with fixed routings Bottlenecks are easily identified Commonly use line-balancing to design the process around the required tasks

Low-Volume Operations
Low-volume, job shop operations, are designed for flexibility. Use more general purpose equipment Customized products with higher margins Each product or service may have its own routing (scheduling is much more difficult) Bottlenecks move around depending upon the products being produced at any given time

Gantt Charts - Low-Volume Tool

Developed in the early 1900s by Henry Gantt Load charts illustrate the workload relative to the capacity of a resource Shows todays job schedule by employee

Gantt Chart continued Progress charts:

Illustrate the planned schedule compared to actual performance Brackets show when activity is scheduled to be finished.

Characteristics of GANT Chart:

It is used to represent the Timing of Task required to complete a project. Simple to understand Easy to construct Displaying simple Activities / Events Plotted against Time. Each task takes up one row with date. The expected time for each task is represented by a horizontal bar.

Scheduling Work - Work Loading

Infinite loading:
Ignores capacity constraints, but helps identify bottlenecks in a proposed schedule to enable proactive management

Finite loading:
Allows only as much work to be assigned as can be done with available capacity but doesnt prepare for inevitable slippage

Other Scheduling Techniques

Forward Scheduling starts processing when a job is received Backward Scheduling begin scheduling the jobs last activity so that the job is finished on due date

Monitoring Workflow Input / Output Control

I/O control is a capacity-control technique used to monitor work flow at individual work centers Monitors how well available capacity is used and provides insight into process problems
Period 6 800 780 -20 -40 Period 6 800 780 -20 -70 80

Figure 15-6 Input/output report for work center 101 Input Information (in hours) 4 5 Planned Input 800 750 Actual Input 750 780 Deviation -50 30 Cumulative deviation 0 -50 -20 Output information (in hours) Planned output Actual output Deviation Cumulative deviation Backlog (in hours) 4 800 800 0 0 50 5 800 750 -50 -50 80

7 820 810 -10 -50

8 800 810 10 -40

0 100

7 800 850 50 -20 40

8 800 825 25 5 25

How to Sequence Jobs

Which of several jobs should be scheduled first?
Techniques are available to do short-term planning of jobs based on available capacity & priorities

Priority rules:
Decision rules: to allocate the relative priority of jobs at a work center Local priority rules: determines priority based only on jobs at that workstation Global priority rules: also considers the remaining workstations a job must pass through

Commonly Used Priorities Rules

First come, first served (FCFS) Last come, first served (LCFS) Earliest due date (EDD) Shortest processing time (SPT) Longest processing time (LPT) Critical ratio (CR): (Time until due date)/(processing time) Slack per remaining Operations (S/RO) Slack /(number of remaining operations)

Measuring Performance
Job flow time:
Time a job is completed minus the time the job was first available for processing; avg. flow time measures responsiveness

Average # jobs in system:

Measures amount of work-in-progress; avg. # measures responsiveness and work-in-process inventory

Makespan:
The time it takes to finish a batch of jobs; measure of efficiency

Job lateness:
Whether the job is completed ahead of, on, or before schedule;

Job tardiness:
How long after the due date a job was completed, measures due date performance

Scheduling Performance Calculations

Job A finishes on day 10 Job B finishes Job C finishes Job D ends on day 13 on day 17 on day 20

Calculation mean flow time:

MFT= (sum job flow times)/ # of jobs = (10+13+17+20)/4 = 60/4 = 15 days

Calculating average number of jobs in the system:

Average # Jobs =(sum job flow times)/ # days to complete batch = (60)/20 = 3 job

Makespan is the length of time to complete a batch

Makespan = Completion time for Job D minus start time for Job A = 20 0 = 20 days

Performance Calculations continued

Lateness and Tardiness are both measures related to customer service Average tardiness is a more relevant Customer Service measurement as illustrated below

Example 15-5 Calculating job lateness and job tardiness Completion Date 10 13 17 20

Job A B C D

Due Date 15 15 10 20 Average

Lateness Tardiness -5 0 -2 0 7 7 0 0 0 1.75

Scheduling Bottlenecks
In the 1970s Eli Goldratt introduced optimized production technology (OPT) OPT focused on bottlenecks for scheduling & capacity planning Definitions: Throughput: quantity of finished goods that can be sold Transfer batch: quantity of items moved at the same time from one resource to the next Process batch: quantity produced at a resource before switching to another product

OPT Principles
Balance the process rather than the flow Non-bottleneck usage is driven by some other constraint in the system Usage and activation of a resource are not the same a hour lost at a bottleneck is lost forever, but an hour lost at a non-bottleneck is a mirage Bottleneck determine throughput and inventory in system The transfer batch does not need to be equal to the process batch The process batch should be variable Consider all constraints simultaneously. Lead times are the result of the schedule and are not predetermined.

Theory of Constraints
TOC is an extension of OPT theory is that a systems output is determined by its constraints 1. Identify the bottleneck(s) in the process 2. Exploit (fully utilize) the bottleneck(s) 3. Subordinate all other decisions to Step 2 - Schedule non-bottlenecks to support maximum use of bottleneck activities 4. Elevate the Bottleneck(s) 5. Do not let inertia set in

Scheduling for Service Organizations

Demand management:
Appointments & reservations Posted schedules Delayed services or backlogs (queues) Scheduling Employees:

Staff for peak demand (if cost isnt prohibitive) Floating employees or employees on call Temporary, seasonal, or part-time employees

Developing a Workforce Schedule: Tibrewala, Philippe, and Brown developed a

technique for scheduling a seven day operation giving each employee two consecutive days off. This example shows how a staff of six people can be scheduled.

Step 1 Find out the minimum number of employees needed for each day of the week
(1) Day of the week Number of staff needed M 4 T 5 W Th F 5 3 5 Sa Su 2 3

Step 2 Given the above requirements, calculate the number of employees needed for each pair of consecutive days
(1) Pair of Consecutive Days Total of Staff needed Monday & Tuesday 9 employees Tuesday & Wednesday 10 employees Wednesday & Thursday 8 employees Thursday & Friday 8 employees Friday & Saturday 7 employees Saturday & Sunday 5 employees

Step 3 - Find the pair of days with the lowest total needed

Workforce Scheduling Continued

Step 4 Update the number of employees you still need to schedule for each day
(2) Day of the week Number of staff needed M 3 T 4 W Th F 4 2 4 Sa Su 2 3

Step 5 Using the updated staffing needs, repeat steps 2 through 4 until you have satisfied all needs

(2) Pair of Consecutive Days Total of Staff needed Monday & Tuesday 7 employees Tuesday & Wednesday 8 employees Wednesday & Thursday 6 employees Thursday & Friday 6 employees Friday & Saturday 6 employees Saturday & Sunday 5 employees

Scheduling Continued

(3) Day of the week M T W Th F Sa Su Number of staff needed 2 3 3 1 3 2 3

(3) Pair of Consecutive Days Monday & Tuesday Tuesday & Wednesday Wednesday & Thursday Thursday & Friday Friday & Saturday Saturday & Sunday Total of Staff needed 5 employees 6 employees 4 employees 4 employees 5 employees 5 employees

(4) Day of the week M T W Th F Sa Su Number of staff needed 1 2 3 1 2 1 2

(4) Pair of Consecutive Days Monday & Tuesday Tuesday & Wednesday Wednesday & Thursday Thursday & Friday Friday & Saturday Saturday & Sunday Total of Staff needed 3 employees 5 employees 4 employees 3 employees 3 employees 5 employees

Schedule Continued

(5) Day of the week M T W Th F Sa Su Number of staff needed 0 1 2 0 1 1 2

(5) Pair of Consecutive Days Monday & Tuesday Tuesday & Wednesday Wednesday & Thursday Thursday & Friday Friday & Saturday Saturday & Sunday Total of Staff needed 1 employees 3 employees 2 employees 1 employees 2 employees 3 employees

(6) Day of the week M T W Th F Sa Su Number of staff needed 0 1 1 0 0 0 1

(6) Pair of Consecutive Days Monday & Tuesday Tuesday & Wednesday Wednesday & Thursday Thursday & Friday Friday & Saturday Saturday & Sunday Total of Staff needed 1 employees 2 employees 1 employees 0 employees 0 employees 1 employees

Final Schedule

(7) Day of the week M T W Th F Sa Su Number of staff needed 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Employees M T W Th F 1 x x x x x 2 x x x x x 3 x x off off x 4 x x x x x 5 off off x x x 6 x x x x off Sa off off x off x off Su off off x off x x

This technique gives a work schedule for each employee to satisfy minimum daily staffing requirements Next step is to replace numbers with employee names Manager can give senior employees first choice and proceed until all employees have a schedule

Scheduling Across the Organization

Scheduling executes a companys strategic business plan and affects functional areas throughout the company
Accounting relies on schedule information and completion of customer orders to develop revenue projections Marketing uses schedule effectiveness measurement to determine whether the company is using lead times for competitive advantage Information systems maintains the scheduling database Operations uses the schedule to maintain its priorities and to provide customer service by finishing jobs on time

A system that consists of numerous programmable machine tools connected by an automated material handling system History of FMS
FMS first proposed in England in 1960s
System 24 operates 24 hours a day Automation is main purpose in beginning

How Can Use FMS

To reduce set up and queue times Improve efficiency Reduce time for product completion Utilize human workers better Improve product routing Produce a variety of Items under one roof Improve product quality Serve a variety of vendors simultaneously Produce more product more quickly

Flexible Automation
Flexible automation is used when the product mix requires a combination of different parts and products to be manufactured from the same system.
Ability to adapt to engineering changes in parts Increase in number of similar parts produced on the system Ability to accommodate routing changes Ability to rapidly change production set up

Components of Flexible Manufacturing Systems / Technology

NC - Numerically Controlled Machine NC Machines or numerically controlled machines are controlled by punched tape. CNC - Computer Controlled Machine Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) automatically adjusts and is controlled by an attached computer.

DNC - Direct Numerical Controlled Direct Numerical Controlled Machines (DNC) is controlled by several NC machines that are controlled by a single computer. AGV - Automated Guided Vehicle
ASRS - Automated Storage and Retrieval System Robotics and

Conveyors

Nuts and Bolts of FMS

Progressive Layout:

FMS Layouts

Best for producing a variety of parts Parts can skip stations for flexibility Used for large part sizes Best for long process times

Closed Loop Layout:

Ladder Layout:

Allows two machines to work on product at the same time Parts can be sent to any machine in any sequence Parts not limited to particular part families Enables material to move along the machine centers in any particular order necessary. Most complex FMS layout Includes several support stations

Open Field Layout:

Robots
Can tolerate hostile environments Can work much longer hours than humans Can perform redundant jobs more consistently

Robots: Programmable Manipulators

Common Uses of Robots

Loading and unloading Spray painting Welding Material handling Inspection Machine Assembly

Robots in the beginning were used mainly for spray painting and welding, now they are also being used for investigative purposes. By having robots conduct these often times repetitive tasks we have seen a reduction in job injuries related to these tasks. Robots have made production much quicker and easier on human beings.

Computer Integrated Manufacturing

CIM:
The Integration of the total manufacturing enterprise through the use of integrated systems and data communications coupled with new managerial philosophies that improve organizational and personnel efficiency.

Components of CIM
CAD - Computer Aided Design CAM - Computer Aided Manufacturing
CAE - Computer Aided Engineering

CAD uses computer software to manipulate and change products while in the design stage.

CAM uses computer programs to control the automated manufacturing process. CAE links the functional design to the CAD form design.

Integration of FMS
FMS Manufacturing Technology

CIM

Robotics

By employing the components and concepts from Manufacturing Technology, Computer Aided Manufacturing and Robotics, it is possible to develop a Flexible Manufacturing System that will work well in your organization. These are three main areas making up FMS.

Challenges with FMS

Determining if FMS the best production system for your company (economically and socially) Possible expansion costs associated with implementing FMS Day to day maintenance of FMS operations

What is project management

The application of a collection of tools and techniques to direct the use of diverse resources towards the accomplishment of a unique, complex, one time task within time, cost and quality constraints. Its origins lie in World War II, when the military authorities used the techniques of operational research to plan the optimum use of resources. One of these techniques was the use of networks to represent a system of related activities

Computer Software for Project Management

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Microsoft Project (Microsoft Corp.) MacProject (Claris Corp.) PowerProject (ASTA Development Inc.) Primavera Project Planner (Primavera) Project Scheduler (Scitor Corp.) Project Workbench (ABT Corp.)

Project Management Process

Project team
made up of individuals from various areas and departments within a company

Matrix organization a team structure with members from functional areas, depending on skills required Project Manager most important member of project team Scope statement a document that provides an understanding, justification, and expected result of a project Statement of work written description of objectives of a project Organizational Breakdown Structure a chart that shows which organizational units are responsible for work items Responsibility Assignment Matrix shows who is responsible for work in a project

Project scheduling by PERT-CPM

3. Project Control: Project control refers to comparing the actual progress against the estimated schedule
2. Scheduling: The various steps involved: 1. Estimate the durations of activities. 2. Based on the above time estimates, prepare a time chart showing the start and finish times for each activity. 1. Scheduling: i) Identify various tasks or work elements to be performed in the project. ii) Determine requirement of resources, such as men, materials, and machines, for carrying out activities listed above. iii) Estimate costs and time for various activities. iv) Specify the inter-relationship among various activities. v) Develop a network diagram showing the sequential interrelationships between the various activities

Project Scheduling and Control Techniques

1. Gantt Chart 2. Critical Path Method (CPM) 3. Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

Gantt Chart
Graph or bar chart with a bar for each project activity that shows passage of time

Provides visual display of project schedule

History of CPM/PERT
Critical Path Method (CPM)
E I Du Pont de Nemours & Co. (1957) for construction of new chemical plant and maintenance shut-down Deterministic task times Activity-on-node network construction Repetitive nature of jobs

Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

U S Navy (1958) used for the POLARIS missile program Estimates Multiple task time (probabilistic nature) Activity-on-arrow network construction Non-repetitive jobs (R & D work)

Project Network
Network analysis is the general name given to certain specific techniques which can be used for the planning, management and control of projects

Use of nodes and arrows Arrows An arrow leads from tail to head

directionally Indicate ACTIVITY, a time consuming effort that is required to perform a part of the work. Nodes A node is represented by a circle - Indicate EVENT, a point in time where one or more activities start and/or finish.

Activity
A task or a certain amount of work required in the project Requires time to complete Represented by an arrow

Dummy Activity
Indicates only precedence relationships Does not require any time of effort

Project Network
Event Signals the beginning or ending of an activity Designates a point in time Represented by a circle (node) Network Shows the sequential relationships among activities using nodes and arrows

Activity-on-node (AON) nodes represent activities, and arrows show precedence relationships Activity-on-arrow (AOA) arrows represent activities and nodes are events for points in time

AOA Project Network for House

Lay foundation

3
2
1

Dummy 0 Build house 3

1 1

3 Design house and obtain financing

Order and receive materials

4
Select paint

6
Select carpet

Finish work 1

AON Project Network for House

Lay foundations

Build house

2 2 Start

4 3

Finish work

1 3 3 1
Order and receive materials

7 1

Design house and obtain financing

Select paint

5 1

Select carpet

6 1

Situations in network diagram

A

A must finish before either B or C can start

C

A
C

both A and B must finish before C can start

B A
B A C both A and C must finish before either of B or D can start

D B
Dummy

A must finish before B can start

both A and C must finish before D can start

C D

Concurrent Activities
Lay foundation

3
Lay foundation Dummy 2 1 Order material 0

3
2

Order material

(a) Incorrect precedence relationship

(b) Correct precedence relationship

Critical Path Mapping - By Steven Bonacorsi

Network example
Illustration of network analysis of a minor redesign of a product and its associated packaging.

The key question is: How long will it take to complete this project ?

Network example Continued

For clarity, this list is kept to a minimum by specifying only immediate relationships, that is relationships involving activities that "occur near to each other in time".

Questions to prepare activity network

Is this a Start Activity? Is this a Finish Activity? What Activity Precedes this? What Activity Follows this? What Activity is Concurrent with this?

CPM calculation
Path
A connected sequence of activities leading from the starting event to the ending event

Critical Path
The longest path (time); determines the project duration

Critical Activities
All of the activities that make up the critical path

Determination of floats
Following the determination of the critical path, floats are need to be computed for the non-critical activities. For the critical activities this float is zero. Before showing how floats are determined, it is necessary to define the below Two times: 1. 2. Latest Start (LS) time Earliest Finish (EF) time

Note: Total float = ES = LF- ES Free float = Total float - - Head slack

Forward Pass
Earliest Start Time (ES) earliest time an activity can start ES = maximum EF of immediate predecessors Earliest finish time (EF) earliest time an activity can finish earliest start time plus activity time

EF= ES + t

Backward Pass
Latest Start Time (LS)

Latest time an activity can start without delaying critical path time LS= LF - t
Latest finish time (LF)

latest time an activity can be completed without delaying critical path time LS = minimum LS of immediate predecessors

CPM analysis
Draw the CPM network Analyze the paths through the network Determine the float for each activity

Compute the activitys float float = LS - ES = LF - EF Float is the maximum amount of time that this activity can be delay in its
completion before it becomes a critical activity, i.e., delays completion of the project
Total float = ES = LF- ES Free float = Total float - Head slack

Find the critical path is that the sequence of activities and events where there is no slack i.e.. Zero slack Longest path through a network

Find the project duration is minimum project completion time

CPM Example:
CPM Network
f, 15 g, 17
a, 6 i, 6 h, 9

b, 8 d, 13 c, 5 e, 9 j, 12

CPM Example
ES and EF Times
f, 15

a, 6
0 6

g, 17
i, 6

h, 9

b, 8 0 8 c, 5 0 5 e, 9 d, 13 j, 12

CPM Example
ES and EF Times
a, 6
0 6

f, 15 6 21
h, 9

g, 17 6 23
i, 6 23 29

21 30

b, 8 0 8 c, 5 0 5 d, 13
8 21

j, 12
21 33

e, 9 5 14

Projects EF = 33

CPM Example
LS and LF Times
a, 6
0 6 f, 15 6 21

h, 9 21 30 i, 6 23 29 33 j, 12
21 33

g, 17 6 23

24 33

b, 8 0 8 d, 13 8 c, 5 0 5 e, 9 5 14 21

27

21

33

CPM Example
LS and LF Times
f, 15 6 21

h, 9 21 30 i, 6 23 27 29 33 j, 12
21 33

18 24

a, 6
0 6

g, 17 6 23 10 27

24 33

10 b, 8 0 0 8 8 c, 5 0 7 5 12

d, 13 8 8 e, 9 5 14 21 21

21

33

12 21

CPM Example
Float
3 a, 6
3 0 6 4 f, 15 6 9 21 24 3

h, 9 21 30 24 33 29 33 j, 12
0

g, 17 6 23
4

i, 6 23 27

9 b, 8

10 27

0 0

8 8 c, 5
0

d, 13 8 8 e, 9 7 5 14 21 21

21 21

33 33

0 7

5 12

12 21

CPM Example
Critical Path
f, 15

a, 6

g, 17
i, 6

h, 9

b, 8 d, 13 j, 12

c, 5 e, 9

PERT
PERT is based on the assumption that an activitys duration follows a probability distribution instead of being a single value Three time estimates are required to compute the parameters of an activitys duration distribution: pessimistic time (tp ) - the time the activity would take if things did not go well most likely time (tm ) - the consensus best estimate of the activitys duration optimistic time (to ) - the time the activity would take if things did go well

Mean (expected time):

te =

tp + 4 tm + to
6

Variance: Vt =2 =

tp - to
6

PERT analysis
Draw the network. Analyze the paths through the network and find the critical path. The length of the critical path is the mean of the project duration probability distribution which is assumed to be normal

The standard deviation of the project duration probability distribution is computed by adding the variances of the critical activities (all of the activities that make up the critical path) and taking the square root of that sum

Probability computations can now be made using the normal distribution table.

PERT Example
Immed. Optimistic Most Likely Pessimistic Activity Predec. Time (Hr.) Time (Hr.) Time (Hr.) A -4 6 8 B -1 4.5 5 C A 3 3 3 D A 4 5 6 E A 0.5 1 1.5 F B,C 3 4 5 G B,C 1 1.5 5 H E,F 5 6 7 I E,F 2 5 8 J D,H 2.5 2.75 4.5 K G,I 3 5 7

PERT Example PERT Network

D

C B F G I
K

Benefits of CPM/PERT
Useful at many stages of project management Mathematically simple Give critical path and slack time Provide project documentation Useful in monitoring costs

Limitations to CPM/PERT
Clearly defined, independent and stable activities Specified precedence relationships Over emphasis on critical paths Deterministic CPM model Activity time estimates are subjective and depend on judgment PERT assumes a beta distribution for these time estimates, but the actual distribution may be different PERT consistently underestimates the expected project completion time due to alternate paths becoming critical

World Class Manufacturing

Characteristics
Just In Time(JIT) Kanban Total Quality Management (TQM) Total Productive Maintenance Employee Involvement Simplicity Cellular Manufacturing (GT) PKE YOKE (Fail Proofing) Products of High Quality (Zero Defect) Products Delivered with shorter lead-time and wide variety. Flexibility in fulfilling products demand.

Sources of Non Value Items in the Organization:

Expediting Inspection Over Production (Excess Wip) Excess Paper Work Machine Breakdown Yield Loss Storage (Excess Inventory) Material Movement Setup Time Waiting Excess Defects.