Feasibility Study: Generating Electricity from Traditional Windmills

Draft Final Report May 2005

Simon Watson and Murray Thomson CREST, Loughborough University

1 Summary
Ten or so near-derelict wind-powered drainage pumps in the Norfolk Broads are being considered for renovation. This study investigates the possibility of generating electricity from these windmills, whilst ensuring that their external appearance is that of a traditional windmill.

2 Introduction
This study provides an outline design and feasibility assessment for the renovation of these windmills and their conversion to generate electricity. The windmills being considered drove wind-powered drainage pumps, and are located on and around the Halvergate Island in the Norfolk Broads, UK. They were mostly built during the 19th century and ceased operation in the 20th, when first steam, then diesel, then electric pumps took over. Today, these windmills are abandoned, typically comprising the original brick tower, with remnants of the machinery, but no cap or sails. Some similar mills in the area have already been renovated to their traditional design. Such renovations are expensive, however, and ongoing operation and maintenance costs considerable. Any pumping they achieve has no commercial value next to todays electric pumps. This study explores the suggestion that the overall finances, and therefore likelihood of further mills being renovated, could be improved by using them to generate electricity and by exploiting modern mechanics and automation techniques. This study focuses on the technical feasibility and economic viability; it does not address whether such conversions are desirable from the conservation viewpoint.

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3 Design objectives
Letters preceding this study and subsequent discussions indicate that the design should respect the following objectives: The external appearance should be that of a traditional windmill. No existing machinery should be removed and the existing structure should not be altered or put at risk. Listed building status should be respected. Nature conservation in the surrounding area should be respected. There should be no detriment to wildlife and construction of any new access routes should be avoided. Generated electricity should be fed it into the local network and sold for profit. All cables should be underground (no overhead lines). The design should allow safe unattended operation. Electrical equipment should be above the possible flood level. Remote monitoring should be provided and a live website for public interest. Parts and labour should be sourced locally, whenever possible.

4 Wind Resource
The strength of the wind throughout the year is a critical factor affecting the size of the required electrical generator and the potential revenue. The main parameter is the mean wind speed, and we estimate that this is 5.3 m/s at 10 m above ground level, across Halvergate Island. The distribution of wind speeds at a site can typically be modelled by a two-parameter Weibull distribution, which aids the assessment of the potential energy yield from a wind generator at that site. The estimated values of these parameters is C = 6.35 and k = 1.91. The basis of our estimates is as follows. Halvergate Island is very flat with few topographical features of any size. The surface cover is also fairly uniform. This makes calculation of the expected resource relatively straightforward. The meteorological station at Hemsby is within 14km and, although it closed in 2001, it does provide long-term data that can be used to assess the resource across the Marshes. The mean wind speed measured at Hemsby between 1983 and 2000 was 5.3 m/s at 10 m above ground level. The Hemsby meteorological mast stands on a very small hill, and based on basic speed-up guideline equations, the increase in wind speed over the hill relative to the flat surrounding terrain is expected to be less than 2 %. The town of Hemsby lies about 1 km to the north and Ormesby St Margaret lies 1 km to the south. These will give some additional roughness effect, but this is also expected to be small at these distances. It is assumed, therefore, that the wind speed at Hemsby is fairly representative of the wind speed across Halvergate Island, though there will be local variations due to trees and buildings etc. The Weibull coefficients were calculated from the same data set.

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More thorough analysis could be conducted using a software simulation package such as WAsP; or alternatively, a mast could be erected to measure wind speeds on the Marshes, and, after a year or so, the data could be analysed using measure-correlate-predict (MCP) techniques to provide yet further accuracy. These approaches are routinely applied to modern windfarm developments but are not considered necessary here, especially since the terrain is so flat. We consider our estimate adequate for the purposes of this project.

5 Power and Energy Output

Our estimates of the electrical power output and annual energy yield from a typical converted windmill are presented in Table 1, together with the data used for the calculations. Parameter Hub height Rotor radius Mean wind speed at 10m Weibull C Weibull k Mean wind speed at hub height Rated wind speed Cp (max) Shaft power at rated wind speed Transmission and electrical losses Rated electrical output power Expected annual energy yield Value 10 m (32.8 ft) 9m 5.3 m/s 6.35 1.91 5.3 m/s (no height correction needed) 10.6 m/s 0.17 31 kW 20 % 25 kW 55 MWh

Table 1: Data and results of calculations to estimate rated power and annual energy yield The remainder of this section outlines the main assumptions made in these calculations. Traditional windmills with four non-aerodynamic sails have a coefficient of performance (Cp) of around 0.17. This means that up to 17 % of the available energy in the wind flowing through the area swept by the sails can be converted to torque on the wind-shaft. Achieving and maintaining this efficiency requires that the rotational speed is matched to the wind speed and varied accordingly: in the case of generating electricity, the generator must be capable of operating at variable speed. The calculations summarised in Table 1 assume that a variable-speed generator is used, which is in keeping with recommendations made later. It should be noted that the windmill tower will have some effect on the wind speed experienced by the rotor. This effect is likely to be a greater effect than for a modern wind turbine with a slender tower. No attempt has been made to adjust for this effect, though it is likely to reduce the electrical output. Modern wind turbines are usually designed to generate rated electrical power out at rated wind speed. At higher wind speeds, the blades are adjusted or designed to regulate the shaft power, so that the electrical output from the

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generator remains constant. The calculations summarised in Table 1 assume that a similar approach is taken for the converted windmill, and that the rated wind speed is twice the mean wind speed, as is typical of modern wind turbines.

6 Expected Revenue
The expected revenue, shown in Table 2, is calculated based on the assumption that the electrical output, Renewable Obligation Certificates (ROCs) and Levy Exemption Certificates (LECs) will be purchased by a supply company or consolidator under the New Electricity Trading Arrangements (NETA) market system. Some embedded benefits have also been assumed due to avoided transmission and distribution costs that a supplier would not need to pay when purchasing electricity from an embedded generator, i.e. a generator connected to the distribution rather than the transmission network. The price for the electricity that the generator is likely to receive is difficult to assess and the purchaser will take some view as to the value of the energy in the wholesale market with regard to its volume and intermittency. The impact of the intermittency will depend on whether or not power is being purchased as part of a wider energy portfolio thus smoothing out the intermittent nature of the power output from an individual wind power generator. Nonetheless, a pessimistic assumption is made here that the generator would receive close to the System Sell Price arising from the Balancing Market averaged over the calendar year of 2004. The ROC value depends very much on the uptake of renewable energy compared with the target under the obligation. The value used is based on that estimated to be that available in the market at present (though this may now be conservative as prices have recently gone above 5 p/kWh). Parameter Average System Sell Price (2004) Average System Buy Price (2004) Expected price for energy LEC value ROC value Embedded benefits Fraction of ROC and LEC value likely to be received by generator Expected total revenue/kWh Expected annual revenue Value 1.76 p/kWh 2.49 p/kWh* 1.8 p/kWh 0.43 p/kWh 4.8 pkWh 10 % of energy price 80 % 6.16 p/kWh 3400

Table 2: Parameters used to calculate revenue and the expected annual revenue
*

This value is given for reference. The wholesale market price is likely to lie somewhere between the SSP and SBP, though a wind generator would probably expect to receive a price near the bottom end of this range due to its small and less predictable output.

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7 Possible generator arrangements

This section discusses various generator arrangements and their suitability for use in the conversion of a traditional windmill. The generator arrangement may include a speed-increasing gearbox or belt-drive and/or a powerelectronic frequency converter. See also the Appendix: Background information on induction generators.

7.1 Fixed-speed induction generator

Many modern wind turbines (especially those manufactured during the 1990s) use a four-pole induction generator, which is directly connected to the grid and therefore runs at an almost constant speed: a little over 1500 rpm. A speed-increasing gearbox is used to couple the aerodynamic rotor to the generator. Thus, the aerodynamic rotor also runs at an almost constant speed, which leads to the term: fixed-speed wind turbine. A very similar arrangement could well be used in the conversion of a traditional windmill. A belt drive could be considered in place of the gearbox, and the required speed ratio could be reduced by use of a six or eight-pole generator, which would run at a little over 1000 rpm or 750 rpm respectively. Lower-speed generators are proportionally larger, heavier and more expensive, but this may be acceptable, if, for example, it enabled use of a single-stage belt-drive. A major consideration with a fixed-speed arrangement is that the drive train has to withstand large and rapid torque fluctuations caused by the turbulence of the wind.

7.2 Variable-speed induction generator

The induction generator described above can be adapted to operate at variable speed by the application of power-electronic frequency converters. Similar converters are widely used in general industry to provide variablespeed drives (usually motors). In wind turbines, variable-speed operation has the big advantage that the inertia of the rotating parts serves to smooth out the torque fluctuations and significantly reduces stresses on the mechanics. The majority of large wind turbines designed since 2000 are variable-speed, primarily for this reason. The need for a variable-speed arrangement in the conversion of a traditional windmill is not clear-cut. One could argue that the sails and wooden and brick components of a traditional windmill are delicate and reducing mechanical stresses is paramount. Alternatively, one might observe that the inertia of the rotating components in a traditional windmill is much greater than a modern turbine of the same diameter, yet the aerodynamic efficiency is considerably lower, and thus the torque fluctuations will be less of a concern. We favour the more cautious variable-speed arrangement. It has the following additional benefits.

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It will allow the maximum speed to be adjusted during commissioning. This may prove valuable since we cannot accurately predict the characteristics of the patent-shutter sails. It will allow the rotational speed to be controlled to match the wind speed and thus keep the coefficient of performance (Cp) close to its maximum. It will facilitate starting and stopping of the windmill in a smooth and controlled fashion.

The simplest way to vary the speed of an induction generator is by use of a variable-frequency power-electronic converter. Such converters are routinely used in industry and could readily be applied in the conversion of a traditional windmill. For application with a standard (squirrel-cage) induction generator, two full converters are required back-to-back, which will be expensive compared to the generator alone. Nonetheless, this is our preferred solution. An alternative way to provide variable-speed operation is the doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG), and this is used in a great many modern wind turbines. The size and therefore the cost of the power-electronic converters is greatly reduced, while the cost of the generator itself is only slightly increased. Unfortunately, doubly-fed induction generators are not readily available at sizes appropriate for traditional windmills and therefore cannot be recommended here.

7.3 Gearless generators

Gearboxes in wind turbines are generally larger, heavier and more expensive than their associated generators. Furthermore, they require more maintenance and are more prone to failure. Several modern wind turbine manufacturers, most notably Enercon, eliminate need of the gearbox by using a low-speed generator. These generators are specially made multi-pole synchronous machines and have a very large diameter compared to a highspeed machine of the same power rating. Such a generator could well be suitable for use in the conversion of a traditional windmill, but it is unlikely that a machine of suitable rating is currently in manufacture. We do not recommend use of custom or unproven design.

7.4 Induction generator dimensions and costs

Returning to our preferred option: the variable-speed induction generator, this section provides an indication of the dimensions and costs of the generator itself. To ensure reliability and replaceability, we suggest that the generator be selected from the standard catalogue of one of the major motor manufacturers. Siemens are our first suggestion, since they offer a very wide choice of machines with excellent energy-efficiency. As a local alternative, Laurence Scott & Electromotors of Norwich could also be considered.

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The shaft power calculated in Table 2 was 31 kW and the next available size up is 37kW, which allows some margin. Number of poles 4 6 8 Rated speed Diameter Length Weight Nett (rpm) (mm) (mm) (kg) price 1520 442 730 290 1,362 1015 505 800 405 2,304 762 555 875 510 3,600 Ref. No. 1LG6 2204AA 2536AA 2808AB

Table 3: Basic data for various 37 kW induction generators (Adapted from Siemens catalogue. Prices from Rotor UK Ltd.) It should be borne in mind that the associated gearbox may well be larger, heavier and more expensive than the generator itself.

7.5 Power-electronic converters

The advantages of variable-speed operation were discussed earlier; Figure 1 illustrates the necessary power-electronic converter hardware, as it could be laid out in a standard steel cabinet 1200 by 1800 mm.

Figure 1: Power-electronic converter arrangement The power-electronic converters shown in Figure 1 would be standard industrial variable-speed drives. Many manufactures offer drives of this type and could be considered. However, we would initially suggest Control Techniques of Newtown, Wales, and in particular their Unidrive SP, which is well suited to this type of application. A single 37 kVA Unidrive SP converter costs around 4000. Two of these, plus the regen inductors, filtering, switchgear and steel cabinet would bring the parts to around 10,000. Engineering and manufacture of the system could bring the total cost towards 20,000. This is a very significant cost in the context and explains why many older (1990s) wind turbines were fixed-speed (built without these converters). Nonetheless, we consider that, for the proposed conversion of traditional windmills, a variable-speed design is appropriate (for the reasons outlined earlier.)

7.6 Gearing or belt drives

The rated speeds of three alternative induction generators were shown earlier in Table 3 as 1520, 1015 and 762 rpm, depending on the number of poles. These are the speeds at rated power and will need to be matched, by way of

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gears or belts, to the rotational speed of the sails at rated power. (The power electronics just described will allow the speed to be varied, but it is the speeds at rated power that must be matched.) We understand that the maximum rotational speed of the sails of a traditional windmill of the size in question is around 20 rpm. Thus the overall speed ratios are 76:1, 51:1 or 38:1, for the 4, 6 and 8-pole generators respectively. The 6 and 8-pole generators are proportionately larger, heavier and more expensive than the 4-pole, but could be worth considering if the reduced speed ratio allowed the gearing or belt drives to be simplified. The Texel windmill conversion (see section 15) employed a 6-pole induction generator directly connected to the grid, which therefore ran at almost constant speed: a little over 1000 rpm. The drive train included a brakewheel/wallower, with a ratio of perhaps 3:1, followed by two belt-drive stages to give the overall ratio of 50:1 or so. Modern wind turbines generally use gearboxes that are specially designed and manufactured for the application. It is unlikely that any such gearbox could be adopted for use in the conversion of a traditional windmill: the powers and speed ratios would not be suitable. Thus, the design for the conversion should employ a standard industrial gearbox and/or belt drives.

8 Possible general arrangements

There are many possible arrangements for accommodating an electrical generator within a traditional windmill. Figure 2 and Figure 3 illustrate two quite different approaches.

8.1 Traditional cap generator in tower

Figure 2 shows an arrangement in which the entire cap is built or renovated in a very traditional fashion, and the generator is connected to the vertical shaft in the tower. This arrangement has the following advantages: 9 The overall design is fairly straightforward, particularly since the design of the cap is already known and proven. 9 Any remaining original machinery could be incorporated. 9 The arrangement may be more agreeable to conservationists and could readily be adapted back to a completely traditional renovation, if so desired at a later date. There are also disadvantages: 8 The cost would include (almost) the full cost of a traditional renovation, plus the cost of the electrical generating equipment. 8 Automation of the traditional cap could be awkward. In particular, a failsafe automated braking mechanism may be difficult to accommodate.

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8.2 Generator in cap

Figure 3 shows a very different arrangement in which the cap is built on a steel chassis and incorporates the generator, obviating the need of the wallower and vertical shaft. The cap would be clad to give an entirely traditional appearance externally. This arrangement has the following advantages: 9 Steel lubricated bearings could be used throughout, which should improve reliability and reduce maintenance requirements. 9 The cost, not including the initial design, could be less than a full traditional renovation. 9 The efficiency and hence electricity output would be slightly higher. The main disadvantage is: 8 The cost of the detailed mechanical design could be considerable, particularly for the first such conversion.

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Figure 2: Tradtional cap generator in tower. Page 10 of 16

Figure 3: Generator in cap. Page 11 of 16

9 Yaw mechanism (facing into the wind)

In a traditional windmill, the rotation of the cap is driven by the fantail, acting through a worm wheel on cogging around the top perimeter of the tower. This approach could be retained in a windmill that was converted to generate electricity. However, there is a risk that, over a long period of time, the cap may make several complete revolutions and any flexible cables going between the cap and tower would be damaged. There is also concern that the traditional fantail mechanism is not entirely reliable and can occasionally lead to a windmill being back-winded, which can cause serious damage. Most modern wind turbines have electric motors to drive the yaw. A wind vane on top of the nacelle provides the control signals via the central controller. This controller also keeps track of how many full revolutions have been made so that it can, if necessary, unwind the flexible cables from the nacelle. An electric yaw drive could certainly be used in a converted windmill. It would solve the cable-winding problem and should be reliable, except if the electrical connection to the grid has been lost. The required electric motor would be small and readily accommodated and the necessary control system straightforward. However, careful consideration is required for the braking or damping mechanism to avoid excessive oscillation. This will also relate to the choice of slewing bearing.

10 Automation of sail shutters

In order that the traditional appearance of the windmill be maintained, we assume that the sails are to be patent sails. The traditional concentric rod mechanism that operates the shutters of patent sails is elegant and should be retained. Indeed, some modern wind turbines use a very similar approach to control the pitch of the blades. Both general arrangements shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3 permit the concentric rod. An electric actuator to drive the rod should be readily available and easily accommodated. The time to open or close the shutters should be in the order of 10 seconds (in keeping with pitch mechanisms of modern wind turbines). An important consideration is that the shutters should open in the event of power failure.

11 Main brake
A highly reliable and effective automatic main brake is a necessity if unattended operation is to be considered. Modern disk brakes that can meet these requirements are readily available, and may readily be accommodated within a design such as that shown in Figure 3. Modern wind turbines often have the brake on the high-speed side of the gearbox, which allows the brake to be very much smaller, but does rely on the gearbox in order to stop the blades. In many turbines, the blade pitching mechanism also serves as a safety brake.

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The brake shown in Figure 3 is on the medium-speed shaft but could be replaced by a larger brake on the low-speed shaft (wind shaft) if that were considered safer. The traditional-cap arrangement of Figure 2 may be more challenging. Automating the traditional wooden blocks on the brake wheel is unlikely to satisfy modern safety requirements, and limited space within the traditional cap may prevent fitting of a modern disk brake to the wind shaft. A brake could more readily be fitted to the vertical main shaft, but would then be relying in the wallower to stop the sails. This is probably not advisable, as indicated by the location of the traditional brake.

12 Anemometer and wind vane

An anemometer and wind vane will be required to provide control signals for the variable-speed generator, the yawing mechanism and the safety system. They are small (~20cm diameter) but will need to be mounted on the cap and will be visible from the ground.

13 Windmill control system

A small but reliable computerised control system will be required to manage the operation of the converted windmill. Its critical tasks will include: Monitoring safety signals, Operating the brake, Starting and stopping of the windmill, Controlling the speed (via the power-electronic converters), Controlling the sail shutters, Controlling the yaw, and Providing status information to a remote operator.

Additionally, it should log performance data and provide on-line data so that a live public website can be established.

14 Grid connection Regulations

Strict regulations apply to all generators that are to be connected to the public electricity network in the UK. Engineering Recommendation G83 sets out straightforward regulations for the connection of small generators: up to 11 kW (16 amps per phase). Unfortunately, the 25 kW shown in Table 1 puts the proposed windmill conversions well above G83 and firmly into the G59 category. This is unfortunate because G59 extends to 5 MW and was written with generators of up to that size in mind; also it was not intended for generators connected through power electronic converters. Guidance is widely available regarding the process of engineering the connection of small generators and meeting the regulations. The main advice

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is that to discuss the proposal with the distribution network operator (DNO) at an early stage.

15 Related experience
The Dutch Windmill by Frederick Stokhuyzen, 1962, (now available on line at: http://webserv.nhl.nl/~smits/windmill.htm) includes a brief chapter on Windmills and Electricity, and mentions two traditional Dutch windmills that were converted to generate electricity during the 1940s and 1950s. It also mentions plans to convert a third windmill: De Traanroeier on the island of Texel. The conversion went ahead and was reported in detail by F. D. Pigeaud and B. Kleinhuis in 1965 (or so). The publication is in Dutch: De Gehell Automatisch Werkende Windmolen De Traanroeier Te Oudeschild (Texel) Uitgerust met Elektriciteitsopwekking, but the general arrangement is clear from the diagrams. A similar publication, Energieopwekking Door Middel Van Enn Oude Windmolen, provides further technical details. A shorter account of the Texel conversion, Power in the Wind, was presented in English by F. D. Pigeaud and Rex Wailes in New Scientist, 13th May 1965. Unfortunately, the experiment was terminated in 1972 (see Linda Kamp and Karel Mulder, Technological promises based on old traditions: the introduction of wind turbines in the Netherlands, available on line at: http://www.csi.ensmp.fr/csi/4S/download_paper/download_paper.php?paper= kamp_mulder.pdf). The details of the Texel conversion provide an interesting background for the study in hand but had a different context: The Texel windmill was being converted, whereas the Norfolk windmills being considered here are near derelict. A variable-speed generator was not a viable option in the 1960s. Likewise, computer-based control systems were not available. The sails of the Texel windmill were aerodynamically improved, employing steel stocks and aluminium shutters. We have assumed that these would not be aesthetically acceptable for the Norfolk windmills.

Extensive internet searching has revealed no other similar windmill conversions elsewhere.

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16 Appendix Background information on induction generators

An induction generator is simply an induction motor with a driving torque applied to the shaft. Textbooks call it an induction machine, because it can be used as either a motor or generator and can freely transfer between the two modes. Industry calls it an induction motor, because it is nearly always used as a motor. The vast majority of industrial motors are induction motors. They are very economic and reliable, and modern designs are very efficient. The majority of modern wind turbines use induction generators, and many of these are simply industrial motors with little or no modification. When directly connected to the electricity grid, an induction machine will run at almost constant speed. In particular, it will run close to its synchronous speed, which is determined by its number of poles, as shown in Table 4. Number of poles 2 4 6 8 Synchronous speed (rpm) 3000 1500 1000 750

Table 4: Synchronous speeds (at 50 Hz). Induction machines are selected with a number of poles, and hence speed, appropriate to the application in hand. In systems already requiring a gear or belt drive, it can be advantageous to select a high-speed induction machine and adjust the gear/pulley ratio accordingly. For a given power, the higherspeed will reduce the torque proportionally, which will reduce the size, weight and cost of the induction machine by a similar proportion. Induction machines are rarely made with more than 8 poles. When operating as a motor, an induction machine will slip a little; that is, it will run a little below its synchronous speed. As a generator it will run a little above synchronous speed: negative slip. For example, a 45 kW four-pole machine will run at 1480 rpm when fully loaded as a motor, or at 1520 rpm as a generator. 17. A concluding comment by Keith Clayton and Martin Scott We have discussed the ideas arising from this study by members of CREST at the University of Loughborough with Vincent Pargeter, currently engaged in the restoration of Polkeys Mill and Cadges Mill. We found ourselves readily agreeing with his suggestion that the development of automatic control of an unmanned mill should wherever feasible seek to reinforce, rather than replace, the existing control mechanisms built into the design of these mills. Thus control of the shutters should be through the existing chain system, with the addition of an electric motor to move the chain as changes in the wind required, rather than simple reliance on a weight which is changed by the operator as conditions require. Similarly, control of the direction in which the

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sails face (the yaw) should remain linked to the fan tail, though with the addition of motors to ensure that the mill cannot be backwinded after a period without wind. These would have the additional advantage that the mill could be rotated out of the wind in severe winds, and following the same philosophy, the brake could be applied through a servo motor and the brakewheel securely locked by the insertion of a suitable device into the cogs of the brakewheel. The advantage of such an approach is that by retaining the traditional control mechanisms of a mill, there is the smallest feasible departure from the original design of the mill machinery, so respecting the conservation aspects of listed and unlisted mills.

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