Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:177188 DOI 10.

1007/s12665-010-0682-4

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Biological stabilization of mine dumps: shear strength and numerical simulation approach with special reference to Sisam tree
Rajesh Rai B. K. Shrivastva

Received: 22 June 2009 / Accepted: 11 July 2010 / Published online: 27 July 2010 Springer-Verlag 2010

Abstract The stability of mine waste dump is very important for an economic and safety point of view. The biological method is the most popular and eco-friendly approach to stabilize the mine waste dump in the long term. Trees outclass grasses and shrubs for long term stability as the roots of trees are stronger and penetrate deeper. Their roots bind the dump material and form a composite material having high shear strength. The mechanics of stabilization by tress have yet not been fully understood. Moreover, one always refers to biological stabilization of slope qualitatively rather than quantitatively. A numerical simulation tool has been used in the present paper to assess the increased factor of safety of a vegetated dump slope. The Sisam tree was chosen for the present study as it is commonly available in northern India, needs little care and has high economic value. The increased shear strength of the dump mass having tree roots was calculated by shear box test. The tree roots occupy large space, hence, a large size shear box (1.5 m 9 1.5 m 9 0.75 m) has specically been designed and fabricated for determining the shear strength of dump root matrix. A small size shear box (0.30 m 9 0.30 m 9 0.15 m) has also been designed and fabricated to determine the increased shear strength due to small trees. It was observed that the Sisam tree of even moderate size binds the upper layers of mine dump and improve the factor of safety substantially. It was also observed that the stability of dump slope improves with time (i.e. size of tree).

Keywords Mine waste dump Slope stability Vegetation Tree Numerical modeling

Introduction Large overburden dumps are being formed in and around mining areas with the increasing depth of surface mine. The design and stability of overburden dumps affect the mine economy and production. Very low height and at dumps could be ideal for the stability point of view. However, these would not only occupy large ground space but also prove very expensive. On the other hand, increased height and slope angle leads to instability and increases the probability of substantial failure of such dumps. The stability of any waste dump is very important to the applicants and equipment. Dump failure may lead to temporarily stoppage of work as well as accidents involving either men or machinery or both. The cost of dump failure may be very high depending on the nature of failure. Therefore, sound design and selection of stabilization technique for the overburden dump slope should always be an integral part of the surface mine (Caldwell and Moss 1981; Chaulya et al. 2000; Khandelwal and Mozumdar 1987). Shear strength is the most important parameter in slope stability analysis. The loose broken material usually has low shear strength. However, it gets compacted with time and consequently, its shear strength increases. Therefore, the assessment of shear strength with reasonable accuracy is a pre-requisite for analysis of the stability of dump slopes. Various laboratory techniques have been used by different researchers to determine the shear strength of rock and soil (ASTM 1998; Chakravorty et al. 1996; Escario and Saez 1986; Fredlund et al. 1978 and Gue and Tan 2001). However, shear strength of the dump material is

R. Rai (&) B. K. Shrivastva Department of Mining Engineering, Institute of Technology Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, UP, India e-mail: rajeshkumarrai@rediffmail.com

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considerably different than that of samples tested in the laboratory. The anomaly of the result is due to small sample sizes used in the laboratory. Therefore, in the present study large samples were prepared and tested. Specic instruments were designed and fabricated for testing the above samples. The dump stabilization methods could broadly be classied into two parts. The rst part is mechanical aspect (rock bolting, netting, geosynthetics, etc.) and the second part is biological stabilization (grass, shrubs, trees, etc.). Mechanical methods stabilize slopes immediately and enhance the erosion control in short term. It becomes progressively weaker over the time. Biological stabilization is less effective in the beginning but becomes progressively more effective with time (Menashe 1998 and Sidle 1991). Its strength increases as roots go deeper and spread laterally in the dump material. Vegetation stabilizes dump slopes by providing root fabric that strengthens the dump material and modies saturated soil water regime. Roots can anchor through the dump mass, cross zones of weakness, and provide interlocking with their long brous binders to mine dump mass (Fan and Su 2008; Bischetti et al. 2005; Normaniza and Barakbah 2006; Reubens et al. 2007 and Schmidt et al. 2001). Plants have two major impacts on slope stability i.e. mechanical and hydrological effects. However, the tree mainly contributes to the mechanical effects. The reinforcement by tree roots mainly depends on the type of their roots system and their tensile strength (Abe and Iwamoto 1986; Menashe 1998; Bischetti et al. 2005; Gray 1974 and Gray and Sotir 1996). The root system was classied by many researchers. According to Yen (1987) roots system can be classied into H-type, R-type, V-type, M-type and VH-type. Wilde (1958) has classied the root systems into three types: heart root system, tap root system and plate root system. In the present study, Sisam (Dalbergia Sissoo) tree was selected. It is one of the fast growing species and a nitrogen-xing legumiuous multipurpose tree. This species, due to its fast growth, timber quality, easy propagation and drought resistance has been the most favorable plantation species on the private as well as government level for the last three decades (Sah et al. 2003; and Duke 1983). It has a long taproot and an extensive lateral root system which produce suckers. Suckers are dened as shoots that grow from the underground root or stem of a plant and are often able to produce their own roots and grow into a new plant (Pier 2007). This has many benecial impacts on the environment. Its extensive root system makes it ideally suited for stabilizing and controlling erosion along disturbed areas and near rivers and streams (ICRAF 2007).

Geology of the area The study was conducted at Northern Coalelds Limited (NCL), which is a subsidiary company of Coal India Limited and is located at Singrauli, Dist. Sidhi (M.P.). It is one of the biggest Coal producing companies at about 2,202 km2 area. The area of NCL lies geographically between latitudes of 2400 24120 and longitudes 82300 82450 and comprises Gondwana rocks. The coaleld can be divided into two basins, viz. Moher sub-basin (312 km2) and Singrauli Main basin (1,890 km2) (Yadav 1995). Mine A, is a large mechanized opencast coal mine of Northern Coalelds Limited (NCL). Its coalelds rocks are of Gondwana formation having coal-bearing Barakars within it. It topographically is situated on a high plateau ranging from 300 to 500 m above mean sea level. The Geological setting is of lower Gondwana Barakar formation. Coal seams in the area strike in EW with broad swings and dip in 13 in northerly direction. The major rocks of the area under study are sandstones and shales. The sandstones constitute about 90% of the total overburden. Other rocks are shale and sandy shale, alternate bands of shale and sandstone, carbonaceous shale, carbonaceous sandy shale, clay and alluvium. The studied area falls within the protected forest. The area is surrounded by open mixed jungle and dense jungle from the west, the north and the east and agricultural land on the southern side. The different reserved and protected forests are Chokra protected forest of open mixed vegetation in the west, Muher reserved forest in the north and Merhauli protected forest in the east of dense mixed jungle. The species transplanted during the aforestation period in the opencast project A area are Sesam, eucalyptus, Sabubul and Jamun. In the southern direction, the area is covered by cultivated soil and a number of food grains are produced. The actual scenario in the area is different and the mining block (quarrying and dumping sites) is devoid of any vegetation. Along the road sides, plantation has taken place and is still continuing at various open and vacant sites with saplings of a number of plant varieties (Dube and Nath 2003).

Experiments A new composite material (dump mass and roots of plants) forms when vegetation is grown in the dump material. The shear strength of this composite material is higher than that of the dump material. The behavior of vegetated dump material is different because it consists of root bers of high tensile strength. It adds adhesion in the composite material of dump by roots of plants. Determination of shear strength of vegetated dump mass gets further complicated

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Outer layer of Soil 30 cm Load Cell Sample cut from all side except base Displacement Meter 30 cm 100 cm Plan

as it requires large sample size having sufcient roots in the sample so that true behavior can be determined. Special instruments were designed and fabricated to determine the geotechnical properties of the dump root matrix. The instrument size should be kept sufciently large so that it incorporates the geotechnical properties of dump root mass matrix of a moderate tree size. These special instruments are useful in testing of the large specimen of composite material of dump root matrix. A small in situ shear box instrument (SISBI) for small trees and a large in situ shear box instrument (LISBI) for moderate tree size were designed to determine the increased cohesion due to tree roots. These instruments may be used in the laboratory as well as for in situ conditions. Small in situ shear box test The small in situ shear box instrument (SISBI) was designed and fabricated to determine the increased shear strength of dump mass due to the small tree. The shear box of SISBI has two components: the shear box and measuring devices. The shear box was kept cubical in shape having one parallelepiped size of 0.3 m 9 0.3 m 9 0.15 m. A plate having the size of internal dimensions of shear box was placed on the top of the sample. It was used to apply the normal load on the sample. The box was made of iron sheet of 0.005 m thickness. A hydraulic ram was used to apply a horizontal force and failure load was measured by load cell. A data logger (Micron, 3 Channel Microprocessor based Digital IndicatorDAOS LMP) was also attached to the system for data collection during the testing of shear strength. The advantage of SISBI is that multiple reading could be taken at one location itself. The tests give the effect of roots reinforcement with depth in terms of increased cohesion. The line diagram (plan and elevation) of the small in situ shear box is shown in Fig. 1. The area of 0.3 m 9 0.3 m was marked on the surface. The shear box was put on the ground having small trees. The area around the shear box was dug and muck was removed very carefully with the help of small hand equipments. The shear box slides downward as ground was cut around the sample. With this process, a sample size of 0.3 m 9 0.3 m 9 0.15 m was prepared covered all around with the shear box as shown in Fig. 2. In the nal arrangement, a trench of the size of 0.5 m width, 1.0 m long and 0.15 m deep was prepared. The sample lies in the centre covered with shear box as shown in Fig. 2. At one end the iron plate was placed along the wall of the trench (which supports the ram). The hydraulic ram was tted between the iron plate and one end of shear box. The data logger was connected to the hydraulic jack and displacement meter. Horizontal force was applied by the hydraulic jack and the generated shearing resistance was noted down

Shear Box

Hydraulic Ram

(a)

30 cm 15 cm Sample cut from all side except base

Back Plate

Hydraulic Ram

(b)

elevation

Fig. 1 Small in situ shear box instrument (SISBI)

by the data logger. The debris of sheared sample along with the testing equipment was removed after completion of testing. The trench was made even and at by removing and cutting undulating surface if any. The shear box was put again on the sample surface for preparing a new sample. Care was taken that the new sample to be prepared was just vertically below the one tested above. The area around this rectangular box was dug and muck was removed carefully with the help of small hand equipment as discussed above. The new sample thus prepared was again tested and shear strength was determined. This shear strength represents the shear strength of the second layer below the rst layer tested earlier. Large in situ shear box test The Effect of large trees on dump mass reinforcement cannot be determined precisely by SISBI. Therefore, a large in situ shear box instrument (LISBI) was designed and fabricated to determine the increased shear strength. The instrument consists of a shear box, two hydraulic rams, two girders, a rear plate and hydraulic machine. The line diagram of LISBI is shown in Fig. 3 (plan and elevation). The size of the front plate was kept 1.5 m 9 0.75 m and thickness was 0.012 m. Nine iron angles (0.04 m wide and 0.006 m thickness) were welded on the front plate to strengthen the plate (four around the plate, two diagonal, two horizontal and one vertical). Two rectangular iron plates of 0.30 m 9 0.22 m in size and having a thickness of 0.018 m were xed at the front of the plate to distribute the horizontal load uniformly. The hydraulic ram was attached to clamps and xed on the rectangular plate of the

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Fig. 2 Field setup of small shear box instrument (SISBI) Fig. 3 Large in situ shear box instrument (LISBI)
Side Plate

Clamp

Girders

Hinged Clamp Back plate

1.5 m

Front Plate of Shear box

Rear plate

1.5 m

1.0 m

Nut & bolt

Shoe

(a) Plan
Clamp hydraulic Back Plate Rear Plate

0.75 m
Hinged Clamp

1.5 m

(b) elevation
front plate. The clamps restrict the movement of the plate as well as the hydraulic ram in lateral and vertical directions. The other three plates were of 1.5 m 9 0.75 m in size with a thickness of 0.006 m. They were used to cover the sample from all sides (Fig. 4). The side plates have shoes for movement of the plants on the girders. Two girders were laid on the oor to facilitate the sliding of the shear box. The shoes at the bottom of the side plates were attached with the girders. One plate 1.5 m 9 1.0 m in size with a thickness of 0.006 m was used on the rear side (rear plate) for supporting the hydraulic rams. A hydraulic ram was used for applying horizontal pressure on the shear box. It was hinged with a rear plate and attached with a pin to the front plate. The clamps and hinged structure prevent mobility in lateral and in vertical direction. Movement was only allowed in longitudinal direction. The capacity of the ram is around 20 T each. The diameter of hydraulic ram is 0.15 m and the piston diameter is 0.11 m. The shear strength of ground mass having moderate size trees can only be tested in situ. The area around the moderate size tree were cleared and cleaned to prepare the sample. The area of 1.5 m 9 1.5 m was marked on the surface with the tree approximately in the centre. It was assumed that the block contained most of the root system

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181 Table 1 Cohesion of dump mass due to small tree (by SISBI) at depth of 0.5 m S. no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Age of tree (years) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Cohesion with tree roots (kPa) 21.2 29.6 31.0 42.3 65.3 80.1

Fig. 4 Setup of large in situ shear box instrument (LISBI) including all plates with hydraulic ram supporting by back plates

Table 2 Cohesion of dump material with depth of roots for 4-year tree (by SISBI) S. no. 1 2 3 4 Depth of roots (m) 00.5 0.51.0 1.01.5 1.52.0 Cohesion with tree roots (KPa) 84.9 61.4 55.6 31.2

of a tree. The selected tree was around 8 years old. The trench of the size approximately 1.5 m2 and 0.75 m deep was excavated around a dump block containing tree roots. One side of the trench was excavated deeper (around 1 m) to accommodate the hydraulic rams. The back trench was kept approximately 0.050 m wide to accommodate the expected displacement of the dump sample. The excavated area around the sample was 3 m long and 2 m wide. The length of girders was around 4 m. The girders were laid down in the excavated trench. The excess length of girders was inserted into the ground. This was done with the purpose that the girders should not get lifted during experiment. The assembling of the shear box was a tedious procedure due to heaviness of plates. First of all, the side plates were put on the girders. The shoes in the lower end of plates were clamped to the girders. The front and the back plates were attached to the side plates by nuts and bolts. This assemblage made a shear box of size 1.5 m 9 1.5 m 9 0.75 m having a sample with root system of one tree. The rear plate was put at the rear end at a distance of around 1 m. The hydraulic rams were attached to the rear plate (hinged) and to the front plate (clamped). Figure 4 shows the complete setup of the large in situ shear box instrument (LISBI). The pressure was applied to the piston in the hydraulic ram by a hydraulic pump. The shearing force was applied by two hydraulic rams. The failure load was determined by a dial gauge in the hydraulic machine.

gives the cohesion of Sisam tree with age. The average cohesion of a 1-year-old tree is 30 kPa whereas for a 2-year-old tree it is around 40 kPa. It is very high for a 6-year-old tree. Figure 5 shows the relationship between tree age and the cohesion of dump mass due to Sisam tree. As observed form the graph the rate of the increase in cohesion is increasing with age. A relationship determined for this given condition is given below: Y 30:23X 0:713 1

Experimental results The cohesion and friction angle of dump material without vegetation is 9.4 and 33 respectively. Tables 1 and 2 show the cohesion of dump material with Sisam trees. Different tree ages were selected for the study. It was observed that tree root intercept the shear plane and increase the cohesion by transferring its tensile strength to cohesion. Table 1

where Y is the cohesion and X is the age of tree in years. Table 2 shows the cohesion with depth at an interval of 0.5 m. The average cohesion of 84.9 kPa was calculated for the top layer-1 from 0.0 to 0.5 m of dump root mass matrix. The next layer-2 has an average cohesion value of 61.4 kPa. Similarly for layer 3 (11.5 m depth), the cohesion is 55.6 kPa. For layer 4 (1.52 m) the cohesion is 31.2 kPa. The cohesion decreases with increasing depth of a tree. The dotted line shows the extrapolated value up to the depth of 4 m. The average roots depth of Sisam tree is assumed to be around 4 m. It could be presumed that beyond this depth, the effect of roots is negligible. Therefore, it could be concluded that the value of cohesion below the depth of 4 m is equal to the original one. Figure 6 depicts that there is a relationship between the depth of tree roots and cohesion. The equation is given below: Y 191:1e 0:6205X 2

where Y is the cohesion in kPa and X is the depth of tree root in m

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Fig. 5 Increased cohesion with age of tree roots

Cohesion of dump mass matrix (KPa)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.5

y = 119.1e 2 R = 0.9218

-0.6205x

1.5

2.5

3.5

Depth of tree roots (m)

Fig. 6 Increased cohesion with depth of tree roots

Shear tests for moderate size tree were carried out by LISBI. The shear strength of block of 1.5 m 9 1.5 m 9 0.75 m is of 112 kPa. When compared with shear strength of unvegetated dump mass one can see that the shear strength increases by 12-fold. The addition in apparent cohesion by tree is very high. However, its effect will not be uniform and it may be considered localized around the tree structure. The above relationship is used to calculate shear strength of dump root matrix of various ages and depth of tree roots. Numerical modeling of mine waste dump Introduction Numerical modeling has been developed to analyze the behavior of structures in different loading or environmental conditions over the past three decades. Their popularity has risen due to the increasing trend in computer technology and its availability to engineers. Numerical methods provide a solution for complex conditions and with the help of this method, various solutions can be simulated and the best option can be used in practice (Eberhardt et al. 2004;

Jing and Hudson 2002; Tang et al. 1998). Numerical modeling is more exible than the conventional methods of analysis. It could handle large deformations and their developments. The numerical modeling program simulates the behavior of structures built in soil, rock or other materials that may undergo plastic ow when their yield limits are reached (Eberhardt 2003; Itasca 1997; Jing 2003). In rock mechanics the application of analytical methods is limited to simple cases of geometry and rheology. Daily variation of numerical methods is used for characterization of stress states, stability of excavations and prediction of rock failures. The most commonly used methods include: nite element method (FEM) or nite difference methods, boundary element methods (BEM), mesh free methods, particle codes (distinct element methods) and various other methods including key-block methods and limiting equilibrium methods (LEM). The nite difference method is perhaps the oldest numerical method used for the solution of sets of differential equations, given initial values and/or boundary values (Itasca 1997; Stead et al. 2006). In this method, every derivative in the set of governing equations is replaced directly by an algebraic expression written in terms of the eld variables (e.g., stress or displacement) at discrete points in space. One of the most commercially available software which is used in both soil and rock mechanics is FLAC (Itasca Consulting Group Inc.) in both two- and three-dimensions. The factor of safety (FOS) of a slope is dened in strength reduction technique as the number by which the original shear strength parameters must be divided in order to bring the slope to the point of failure. To perform slope stability analysis with the shear strength technique, simulations are run for a series of increasing trial factor of safety, Ftrial. The actual shear strength properties cohesion (c) and internal friction angle (/) are reduced for each trial according to Eqs. 3 and 4. If the multiple materials are present, the reduction is made simultaneously for all materials. The trial factor of safety is gradually increased until the slope fails. At failure, the safety factor equals the trial safety factor. Therefore, the factor of safety can be dened by Eqs. 3 and 4 C trial /trail 1 C: F trail   1 arctan trial tan / : F 3 4

Simulation processes Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua (FLAC) software based on nite difference method was used for numerical simulation of dump slopes. Mohrcoulomb elastic-

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perfectly plastic failure criterion (built in FLAC) was used to model tree root matrix of dump slope. The model is subdivided into various zones based on uniformity of material properties. Each zone behaves according to a prescribed linear or non-linear stress/strain law in response to the applied forces or boundary conditions. FLAC incorporates the strength reduction technique to determine the factor of safety of slopes. The shear strength reduction technique has two major advantages over the conventional approach. The critical failure surface is found automatically and it is not necessary to specify the shape of the failure surface. Further, numerical methods automatically satisfy translational and rotational equilibrium conditions (Pariseau et al. 1997; Grifths and Lane 1999). Plastic deformation, shear strain rate, displacement, velocity and maximum unbalanced force are some failure indicators commonly used by various authors (Kidger 1994; Itasca 1997; Eberhardt et al. 2004; Sjoberg 1999). The plastic state and shear strain increment was used in the present analysis to understand the mechanics of slope failure. Factor of safety was calculated to quantify the effect of trees of dump slopes. The strength reduction technique (SRT) was used to calculate the factor of safety (Grifths and lane 1999). Figure 7 shows the typical discretization of a dump slope. Quadrilateral zones were used to generate the nite difference mesh. Movement in the horizontal direction was restricted on the vertical boundary AB and CD. The slope surface BC was assumed to be free. The bottom boundary AC was completely constrained in both vertical and horizontal directions. The effect of reinforcement by plants can be determined by calculating the shear strength of dump roots matrix of sample. Soil roots shear strength is directly proportional to roots cohesion (Schmidt et al. 2001 and Jagath et al. 1999). Thus a soil with high roots cohesion has high soil-shear strength. Roots increase the shear strength of the soil-root mass by enhancing the conning stress and resistance to failure (Waldron and Dakessian 1981; Gray and Sotir 1996;
C

Greenway 1987; Wu et al. 1979). Strength of a soil or resistance to failure can be described as a modication to Coulombs law, Eq. 5. sr c0 cr r ltanu0 : 5 where sr is the soil shear strength, c0 is the effective soil cohesion, cr is the apparent cohesion due to roots, r is the effective normal stress due to the weight of the soil and l pore water pressure, u0 is the effective internal friction angle of the soil that is unaltered by the presence of roots (Fan and Su 2008; Hajiali and Normaniza 2008; Ziemer 1981; Wu 1995). Roots produce an apparent cohesion (root cohesion) in dump via root ber reinforcement. Root cohesion varies with types of vegetation, age of plants and types of dump materials. Simulation of mine dump without tree A 10 m dump high with 45 slope angle was numerically simulated to understand the effect of vegetation. Simulation of a dump slope is a rst step, as the result of this simulation will give an idea of improvement of stability in subsequent stages with vegetation. Figure 8 shows plastic deformation and the yielded point on the dump slope. The yield in tension as well as yield in shear were marked on the dump slope face. The toe region has yielded in shear whereas the crest region has yielded in tension. The toe region was having high conning stress because of overburden material. Therefore, likely failure at the toe region was predominantly in shear. Figure 9 shows the shear strain increment. The slip circle starts 1.5 m away from crest and passes above toe of the slope. This is due to relatively high conning stress at the toe and it does not permit failure to go through this part, but pushes the failure surface slightly above the toe. The other cause may be that the properties (shear strength) of the base of slope are high in comparison to the properties of a dump slope. The base is made up of different material

A
Fig. 7 Discritization for simulation of mine dump slope

D
Fig. 8 Plastic deformation and yield point (without vegetation)

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Fig. 9 Shear strain increment (without vegetation)

whereas the slope is made up of mine waste dump. Therefore, the foundation of the dump slope does not allow the slip circle to pass through it as it has high shear strength. The Factor of safety of the dump slope without vegetation was obtained to be 1.25. This indicates that the slope is stable in short term. However, it may fail if the conditions are unfavorable. Simulation of mine dumps with tree root systems The root system of a tree is not only large but complex in nature compared to shrubs and grasses. The cohesion of the dump root matrix is obviously not the same with depths, but it changes with varying depth. The value of cohesion depends on the strength of root, diameter, and spread of roots in vertical as well as lateral direction. Figure 10 shows the apparent cohesion of dump mass beneath a tree structure (Danjon et al. 2008; Fourcaud et al. 2003, 2004). The central portion usually has highest cohesion and the value may be more than 112 kPa (particular for Sisam tree of more than 6 years old). The surrounding mass will have progressively lower cohesion as one goes away from the collar of the tree. Therefore, simulation process of a tree is signicantly different than that of grasses and shrubs. It could be assumed that uniform thickness of layer exists with increased cohesion in case of grasses and shrubs. However, in case of a tree, a denite volume of mass made up of concentric spherical shells of changing cohesion was considered for the simulating tree. Different models were simulated for various tree ages. The increase in the shear strength with the depth was calculated by in situ test. The root system of Sisam tree is a heart type and the possible cohesion of dump root matrix is shown in Fig. 11. It explains how the effect of tree root systems is incorporated. Four models were considered for the simulation of a mine dump with varying tree age. The age of the tree in the rst model is 1 year old. The second model was simulated

Fig. 10 Representation of cohesion layer of Sisam tree

by considering a two and half year old tree. The third model of dump shows a 4-year-old tree. The last model was simulated for a 6-year-old tree. Maximum data were obtained by laboratory and in situ testing. Some data were obtained by experimental and interpolation method. The effect of trees on the reinforcement of dump material is not the same throughout the area covered by roots. The properties of dump material are changing in hemispherical shells around the collar of the tree. The hemispherical shells attached to the collar of the tree assigned the highest cohesion value whereas cohesion was assigned in decreasing order in subsequent shells as one goes away from the collar of tree. Figure 12 shows the plastic deformation and yielded points (in tension and shear) for a 1-year-old tree. This gure is nearly similar to one that was obtained without trees. The crest is in tension mode and the toe region is in shear mode. As the age of tree increases the plastic deformation and points yielded in tension and shear increase (Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15). The point yield in tension/ shear is increasing with the tree age. The toe region is more in tensile mode as the age of tree increase or the shear strength of top layer increases. Through Figs. 16, 17, 18, and 19 show the shear strain increment in dump slope. The slip circle is wider as the age of tree increases. The slip circle also passes from the toe. In the previous case, the contours of shear strain increment do not pass from the toe, but now it passes through the toe of the slope. The slip circle is also wider in comparison to previous models. Comparing the plastic point and shear strain increment, they have nearly similar behavior for all grasses and shrubs for the one and two and a half year old trees (Rai 2007). However, 4- and 6-year-old trees show signicant changes in plastic deformation and shear strain increment. The factor of safety of dump slope was calculated and results are tabulated in Table 3. It shows that the

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Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:177188 Fig. 11 Effect of vegetation (tree roots) on dump slope

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Fig. 12 Plastic deformation and yield point (1-year-old tree)

Fig. 14 Plastic deformation and yield point (4-year-old tree)

Fig. 13 Plastic deformation and yield point (two and half year old tree)

Fig. 15 Plastic deformation and yield point (6-year-old tree)

Conclusion effect of trees on slope stability is signicant. The factor of safety of a 1-year-old tree is 1.26 whereas for a two and half years old tree it is 1.31. The factor of safety increases to 1.46 for a 4-year-old tree. This further increases to 1.58 for a 6-yea-old tree. The trees can be successfully used for long term stabilization of mine waste dumps. It is eco-friendly, cost effective, protects slopes against surcial erosion and shallow mass movement or failure. In situ shear tests were

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Fig. 16 Shear strain increment (1-year-old tree)

Fig. 19 Shear strain increment (6-year-old tree) Table 3 Improvement in factor of safety with different age of tree S. no. 1 2 3 4 5 Age of tree Without vegetation 1 year Two and half year 4 years 6 years Factor of safety 1.25 1.26 1.31 1.46 1.58

Fig. 17 Shear strain increment (two and half year old tree)

Fig. 18 Shear strain increment (4-year-old tree)

conducted to investigate the inuence of the tree root system on dump mass reinforcement and stability of slopes. The results indicate that the roots of Sisam tree reinforced the dump mass signicantly and increased the shear strength of dump mass. The increased cohesion depends on the depth of roots and age of tree. It generally varies from 10 to 80 kPa or more depending on the age of trees. The relation between cohesion of dump mass and depth of tree was determined. The cohesion at various depths could be determined by the equation Y = 191.1e-0.6205X,

where, Y is the cohesion in dump mass in kPa and X is the depth of tree root in m. The relation between the cohesion of dump mass and tree age could be given by the equation Y = 30.23X0.713, where Y is the cohesion of dump mass in kPa and X is the age of tree in year. The fabricated instruments (small and large shear box) are capable of determining the shear strength of dump mass with and without vegetation. The properties of mine dump (with and without vegetation) were used as input in numerical modeling. Numerical modeling was used to simulate the behavior of dump mass and composite material of dump mass having tree roots. It helps in quantifying the possible effects of vegetation on slope stability in terms of the factor of safety. The factor of safety of vegetated dump slope with a 1-year-old Sisam tree (root depth 1.0 m) is 1.26. This factor of safety marginally improves to 1.31 for a two and a half year old Sisam tree. However, for a 4-year-old tree the factor of safety is 1.46, whereas, the factor of safety is 1.58 for a 6-year-old Sisam tree. Therefore, one can conclude that Sisam trees of moderate size bind the upper layer and improve the factor of safety substantially. It could be used with conjunction of natural geosynthetic or geogrids so that benet of both could be taken at the same time. The tree increases the factor of safety signicantly from 1.25 to 1.46 and stabilizes the slope in the long term. However, it takes time to grow in the slopes; meanwhile the geosynthetic could be used for stabilizing the slopes in the early stages. Later the roots of the trees go

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