AJIS Journal March (90 Copie)

MCSER
- Mediterranean Center
of Social and Educational Research
Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies

ISSN 2281-4612 (online) ISSN 2281-3993 (print) Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013
Rome, Italy 2013

Editor in Chief Dr. Giuseppe Motta
Executive Director, MCSER Prof. Antonello Biagini Editing Dr. Lisa Licata Editorial Assistant Dr. Maria Nouges Scientific Coordinator Prof. Giovanna Motta Graphic Design Dr. Antonello Battaglia Editorial Managing Dr. Alessandro Pistecchia
Copyright 2013 MCSER Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research CEMAS - Sapienza University of Rome ISSN 2281-4612 (online) ISSN 2281-3993 (print) Circulation 200 copies Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 Doi:10.5901/ajis.2012.v2n1 Publisher MCSER Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research CEMAS - Sapienza University of Rome Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Cap. 00183, Rome, Italy Tel/Fax: 039/0692913868 E-mail: ajis@mcser.org Web: http://www.mcser.org
This Journal is printed by Gruppo Atena.net Srl Via del Lavoro, 22, 36040, Grisignano VI, Italy Tel: 0039/0444613696 Web: http://www.atena.net

Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 ISSN 2281-4612 (online) ISSN 2281-3993 (print)
About the Journal

Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies is an international peer-reviewed journal published three times a year by Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research and Sapienza University in Rome, Italy. AJIS seeks a reassessment of all the human and social sciences. The need for interdisciplinary approaches as a key to reinvigorating and integrating both teaching and learning is increasingly recognized in the academy. It is becoming increasingly clear that research is interdisciplinary. Our Journal is interested to promote interdisciplinary research in the world, to promote the exchange of idea, and to bring together researchers and academics from all the countries. Some of the areas of interest of AJIS are: Anthropology, Architectural Theory, Art History and Art Theory, Communication, Cultural Studies, Digital Humanities, Economics, Education, Environmental Studies, Legal Studies, Literature and Poetry, Linguistics, Sociology, Geography, etc. However all papers in the fields of human and social sciences are wellcome in AJIS. AJIS is open for the academic world and research institutes, academic and departmental libraries, graduate students and PhD candidates, academic and non-academic researchers and research teams. Our goal is to provide original, relevant, and timely information from diverse sources; to write and publish with absolute integrity; and to serve as effectively as possible the needs of those involved in all social and human areas. If your research will help us achieve these goals, we would like to hear from you. AJIS provides immediate open access to its content on the principle that making research freely available to the public supporting a greater global exchange of knowledge. All manuscripts are subject to a double blind peer review by the members of the editorial board who are noted experts in the appropriate subject area.
Editor in Chief, Giuseppe Motta Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
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Editor in chief Giuseppe Motta Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
International Editorial Board

Adriana Vizental University Aurel Vlaicu, Romania Sokol Pacukaj Aleksander Moisiu University, Albania Florica Bodistean University Aurel Vlaicu, Romania Bassey Ubong Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku-Nigeria Peter M. Miller University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Femi Quadri Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku-Nigeria Abraham I. Oba Niger Delta Development Commission, Nigeria Tutku Akter Girne American University, Northern Cyprus Fouzia Naeem Khan Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology, Pakistan Marcel Pikhart University Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic Sodienye A. Abere Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria Luiela-Magdalena Csorba University Aurel Vlaicu, Romania Eddie Blass Swinburne University of Technology, Australia Hanna David Tel Aviv University, Jerusalem-Israel Raphael C. Njoku University of Louisville, USA Ali Simek Anadolu University, Turkey Austin N. Nosike The Granada Management Institute, Spain Gerhard Berchtold Universidad Azteca, Mexico Samir Mohamed Alredaisy University of Khartoum, Sudan Lawrence Ogbo Ugwuanyi University of Abuja, Abuja-Nigeria Oby C. Okonkwor Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka-Nigeria Ridvan Peshkopia American Unievrsity of Tirana, Albania Murthy CSHN Tezpur University Napaam Assam India George Aspridis Technological Educational Institute (T.E.I.) of Larissa, Greece Jani Sota Aleksander Moisiu University, Albania Talat Islam University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan A. C. Nwokocha Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike-Umuahia, Nigeria Timm Albers University of Education Karlsruhe, Germany Nerissa Albon Monash University, Australia Pigga Keskitalo Saami University College Kautokeino, Norway
Paul Joseph Pace University of Malta, Msida, Malta / Centre for Environmental Education and Research Sandro Caruana University of Malta, Malta William J. Hunter University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Canada Alba Dumi Ismail Qemali University, Albania Ornsiri Wimontham Nakhon Ratchasima Rajabhat University (NRRU), Thailand
Peter Mayo University of Malta, Malta B.V. Toshev University of Sofia, Bulgaria Robertson Khan Tengeh Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa Milad Elharathi Bengazi University, Libya Basant Kumar Utkal University, India Wycliffe Amukowa Economic Policy and Education Research Centre (ECO-PERC), New Jersey, USA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Articles
What Do EFL Students Think and Feel About Concordancing?.......................................................... 11
Jonathan Aliponga
A Sociosemiotic Approach of experienced and Desired Leisure. Young People Express Themselves Through Images ... 21
Anastasia Christodoulou, Eleni Kartsaka, Argyris Kyridis
Applying Critical Discourse Analysis in Translation of Political Speeches and Interviews .. 35
Mehdi Mahdiyan, Muhammad Rahbar, Seyed Mohammad Hosseini-Maasoum Adetunji Musilimu Adeyinka.
Assessment of the Quality of Urban Transport Services in Nigeria .. 49 Leadership in the Cross-Cultural ContextAnalyze of Rational Theories and Aspects of Leader Role in Long Term Characterized. The Observation of Behavior Effects in Albania ... 59
Alba Robert Dumi, Zamira Sinaj
Socio-Economic Determinants of Rural Migrants in Urban Setting: A Study Conducted at City Sargodha, Pakistan .. 71
Faisal Imran, Yasir Nawaz, Muhammad Asim, Arshad H. Hashmi Paul Dela Ahiatrogah, Moses Bedwei Madjoub, Brandford Bervell Antonello Battaglia
Effect of Computer Assisted Instruction on the Achievement of Basic School Students in Pre-Technical Skills 77 Italian Risorgimento and the European Volunteers 87 Improving Science, Technology and Mathematics Students Achievement: Imperatives for Teacher Preparation in the Caribbean Colleges and Universities ... 97
Babalola J. Ogunkola Stephen Ntim
Differential Effects of Analogy Types on Retrievability and Inferential Induction in Text Comprehension .. 109 Gender Analysis Using the Empowerment Framework: Implications for Alleviating Womens Poverty in Nigeria .. 123
Hussainatu Abdullahi, Yahya Zakari Abdullahi Batjar Halili
Impact of External Appearance on Positive Social Perception .... 131 Wuz Up Wit Dat?: Exploring the Colonizing Properties of the Standard English Language and its Implications for the Denudation and Denigration of Black Survivalist and Stylistic Language, Syntax and Phonology 135
Buster C. Ogbuagu
Etnicit e Sviluppo Economico in Europa Centro-Orientale .............................................................. 155
Giuseppe Motta
Cost Management in Translation .... 161
Seyed Mohammad Hosseini-Maasoum, Mostafa Ghazanfari
An Evaluation of Students Perspectives on the Teaching and Learning of Property Investment Valuation in a Nigerian University ... 169
Namnso Bassey Udoekanem, David Odegwu Adoga, Shien Stephen Kuma
An Examination of Causes and Consequences of Conflict Between Legislature and Executive in Cross River State, Nigeria ... 179
Bassey, Antigha Okon, Raphael Pius Abia, Omono, Cletus Ekok, Bassey, Umo Antigha Ismail Zejneli, Alba Robert Dumi Ziyn Engdasew Woldab
Economic Criminality in Transition Countries- Aspects of the Legal and Economic Analysis 189 Constructivist Didactics in Teaching Economics: A Shift in Paradigm to be Exemplary Teacher . 197 Economic Impact of HIV/AIDS and Stigmatization on Women in Nigeria: Challenges for the Actualization of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGS) . 205
Yahya Zakari Abdullahi, Hussainatu Abdullahi Michael Baffoe
Beyond Refuge: Post Acceptance Challenges in New Identity Constructions of African Refugee Claimants in Canada .. 215 Pakistan: Considering a Failed State .. 227
Md. Kamal Uddin, Md. Matiul Hoque Masud Mavis Dako-Gyeke, Razak Oduro
Effects of Household Size on Cash Transfer Utilization for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Rural Ghana ... 239 Impact of Albanian folklore in literature .. 253
Ermelinda Kashahu, Edlira Dhima
The Impact of Contraceptive use on Women Health: A Study of District Rawalpindi, Pakistan 257
Asma Zafar, Muhammad Asim, Irum Gillani, Nazia Malik Eda Bezhani
The Ecomomic Impact of Agricultural Products in the Albanian Exports ... 263 The 21st Century Educated African Person and the Loss of Africans Educational Identity: Towards an Afro Education Model ... 269
Wycliffe Amukowa, Caroline Vihenda Ayuya Babalola J. Ogunkola, Catherine Clifford Gentiana Kraja
Instructional Assessment Practices of Science Teachers in Barbados: Pattern, Techniques and Challenges 313 Managing Human Resources in Albanian Public Administration ....331
The Formative Values of 9-Year School Pupils in the subject "My Birthplace" (Fieri Schools Case) ... 341
Jani Sota
Ethno-Religious Conflict and Peace Building in Nigeria: The Case of Jos, Plateau State 349
Idahosa Osaretin, Emmanuel Akov Alba Robert Dumi, Lorena Alikaj
Accounting and Theories of Management, One Important Support of Albanian Reality to Distinguishing Financially Business Development in EU Countries 361 Socio-Culture Factors Responsible for Crimes Committed by Females of Adiala Jail, Rawalpindi, Pakistan . 373
Asma Zafar, Muhammad Asim, Nazia Malik, Muhammad Iqbal Zafar Azeta Tartaraj, Ervin Myftaraj
The Importance of the Price Factor in the Development of E-Commerce. Case Study B2C in Albania 379 Translation Shifts in the Persian Translation of a Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens ... 391
Seyed Mohammad Hosseini-Maasoum, Azadeh Shahbaiki Suzana Samarxhiu Gjata, Anisa Koci
A General Overview on the Nominal Predicate in English and Albanian Languages 399 Assessing the Pedagogical Competences of Teacher Educators in the Teacher Education Institution of Pakistan . 403
Tariq Mahmood, Mukhtar Ahmed, Muhammad Tanvir Iqbal Olajide S. E., Alabi, O. Titilayo, Onakoya, B. O. Ogbebor Godwin Gideon
Wealth Creation Through Real Estate Investment in Ekiti State ... 417 Effecting Community Efforts in Drug Abuse Control: A Study of Delta State Nigeria ... 429 Assessing the Quality of Examination System; Aseessment Techniques Employed at Higher Education Level in Pakistan 447
Mukhtar Ahmed, Tariq Mahmood, Muhammad Amin Ghuman, Khalil Ur Rehman Wain Ajao, Mayowa G. , Igbekoyi, Olushola E.
The Determinants of Real Exchange Rate Volatility in Nigeria..459
E-ISSN 2281-4612 ISSN 2281-3993

Published by MCSER-CEMAS-Sapienza University of Rome
Vol 2 No 1 March 2013
What do EFL Students Think and Feel About Concordancing?

Jonathan Aliponga
Kansai University of International Studies, Hyogo, Japan E-mail: alipongaj@kuins.ac.jp
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v1n2p11
Abstract: Using high-speed computers, it is now possible to use concordancers, which are recognized by educators as a potentially useful tool, as a means to develop vocabulary and understand language structures in real language context. In this study, three concordancers as well as two concordancing related tasks were introduced to high proficient EFL students. Using a 20-item survey questionnaire, students perceptions of and attitudes toward the use of concordancers and the concordancing related tasks (e.g., vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks) were determined. In addition, implications of the findings for teaching and learning in EFL contexts were discussed. Keywords: concordance; concordancer; concordancing; vocabulary learning; grammar; technology
1. Introduction I have been a firm believer in the power of information technology to make teaching and learning successful. That is why a few years ago, I decided to utilize WebCT to develop course materials for my doctorate dissertation. I designed the interactive on-line materials and used them to find out if these could develop ESL students proficiency in verb tenses and discourse competence. Results revealed that the interactive on-line materials were effective in developing students proficiency in verb tenses and discourse competence. Currently I am utilizing concordancer in my EFL classroom. Concordancing is a technique in which a large body of text (called a corpus) is analyzed by a computer program to discover the regular patterns and lexical sets that are associated with a specific word or phrase (Hadley, 2001). Language corpora can be either collections of written or spoken texts; for example, collections of written texts can be extract from newspapers, business letters, popular fictions, books, or magazines, published or unpublished school essays and etc. (Hasselgrd, 2001). If planned carefully, the use of corpora can bring many benefits to students and teachers. One benefit is that it provides high speed searching tool (Chen, 2004). Unlike relying heavily on dictionaries as the main source to look up word definitions and examples which is often too laborious and timeconsuming, by using the concordance tool of corpora to search for word contexts, learners are involved in a more speedy and efficient language learning experience (Cobb, 2003). Another advantage of using corpora is that it accelerates lexical growth while promoting the noticing of word grammar as an integral part of vocabulary study (Cambrensis & Gillway, 2006). The rationale is based on the premise that students learn to use words best by encountering multiple examples of a word used in novel contexts and being guided to notice how that word is used. Willis and Willis (1996) refer to notice how that word is used as consciousness-raising. By providing learners with consciousness-raising activities, they are encouraged to think about samples of language and to draw their own conclusions about how the language works. Speaking of vocabulary, Freebody and Anderson (1981) emphasize that word knowledge is the
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key ingredient in successful reading in both the L1 and L2 (Cooper, 1984) contributing more to L2 academic reading success than other kinds of linguistic knowledge including syntax (Saville-Troike, 1984). As Wilkins stated as far back as 1972, Without grammar very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. Lexical knowledge is important to a language, but lexical items also have grammar. As Lewis (1993) stated, Language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar. KWIC or concordance output helps to reveal not only the collocations (words that co-occur regularly), but also the colligations (grammatical patterns that co-occur regularly) of a lexical item. As Lewis recommended in TESOL Arabia Conference in 2003, we should teach words with the useful grammar included, not take things apart, presenting words out of their grammatical context. In the present study, I introduced to students the on-line concordance websites which they utilized to unlock the lexical items from the academic listening passages. Although the main skill focus of the course was listening, I integrated into the course the vocabulary that students have learned from their academic reading course. This provided students the opportunity to put into meaningful practice what they have acquired. Although there have been a number of studies showing the benefits of using concordance in vocabulary learning mentioned in the above studies, there is a limited research on examining students perceptions of and attitude toward the use of concordancer, especially in EFL contexts like Japan. Marzano (1992) points out one important dimension of learning, that is positive attitudes and perceptions about learning. Furthermore, he emphasizes that without positive attitudes and perceptions, students have little chance of learning proficiently, if at all. The goal of the present study was to determine how college students perceived the use of concordancer in the classroom and how they felt about it after using it. The specific questions this study sought to answer are: 1. What are students perceptions of the use of concordancer in the classroom? 2. What are students attitudes toward the use of concordancer in the classroom? 3. What are the implications of the results for teaching and learning? 2. Research Methodology
2.1 Participants
Participants involved in this study were ten second year college students at a private university in Hyogo, Japan. These students, who major in English language education, belonged to the high level group based on their TOEFL ITP scores. Based on the proficiency identified by the American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages (1985), the speaking ability of this group is advanced which is characterized by the speaker's ability to converse in a clearly participatory fashion. These students could initiate, sustain, and bring to closure a wide variety of communicative tasks, including those that require an increased ability to convey meaning with diverse language strategies due to a complication or an unforeseen turn of events.They also could satisfy the requirements of school and work situations, and narrate and describe with paragraph-length connected discourse.
2.2 Instrument
The instrument utilized in this study is a 20-item survey questionnaire. The questionnaire is divided into two parts. Part 1 has 10 items about students perceptions of the use of concordancer. The variables reflected in the statements in the questionnaire were adopted from the results of previous studies on the effects of concordancing: on vocabulary building and determining collocations (Barlow, 1996a; Cobb,
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1999; Lin, 2003); on identifying useful phrases and grammatical patterns, and making generalizations about the meaning and grammatical patterns of a word (St. John, 2001; Todd, 2001; Wang, 2001); and on providing students with high speed vocabulary searching tool (Chen, 2004). The other two statements, one is about the usefulness of the worksheet or vocabulary diary for learning the general and academic vocabulary, and the other is about the usefulness of the gap-filling task for learning collocations, were adopted from Chens (2004) study. Statements 1 and 7 are about the perception of concordancer for learning vocabulary in general. Statements 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 pertain to the perception of the use of concordancer for identifying useful phrases; determining collocations; identifying grammatical patterns; making generalizations about the meaning of a word; making generalizations about the grammatical patterns of a word; and providing students with high speed vocabulary searching tool, respectively. While statement 9 pertains to the perception of the use of worksheet or vocabulary diary as being useful for learning the general and academic vocabulary, statement 10 relates to the perception of the use of gap-filling task as being useful for learning collocations. Part 2 also has 10 statements about students attitudes toward the use of concordancer. The focus of each statement in this part is the same as the one in Part 1. For example, statements 1 and 7 relate to the students attitude toward the use of concordance for learning vocabulary in general. The use of the term like to measure students attitude was adopted from the questionnaire utilized by Savignon and Wang (2003) in their study of students perceptions of and attitudes toward communicative language teaching. Responses were scored on a 5-point scale from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5). Accuracy of each statement was checked by an independent group of professors of English language. The questionnaire was piloted with a different group of similar participants to determine if there were any ambiguous or confusing items.
2.3 Procedure
This study was part of my Academic Listening I course which I taught for one semester for 15 weeks. The main goal of this course was to develop students ability to understand spoken English from North America and other English-speaking countries. To function successfully in academic environments, students need to acquire the listening skills, especially listening to lectures and conversations (www.ets.org/toefl ). Specifically, students should have the ability to listen for basic comprehension and pragmatic understanding, and they should be able to connect and synthesize information. In order to achieve these goals, students should have enough vocabulary. As mentioned earlier in this study, lexical items have grammar and lexical knowledge is important to a language (Lewis, 1993). As far as teaching is concerned, Lewis recommended that we should teach words with the useful grammar included, not take things apart, presenting words out of their grammatical context. Concordancer is useful for this purpose because it reveals not only the collocations (words that co-occur regularly), but also the colligations (grammatical patterns that co-occur regularly) of a lexical item. Taking into account Lewis recommendation, I utilized the vocabulary from the listening and reading passages in the TOEFL iBT textbook. I introduced to students three concordance websites, and concordancing related tasks such as the vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks. It took about six class meetings (1 class was 90 minutes and held twice a week) to train students how to use the concordance websites, what and how to write in the vocabulary diary, and how to construct the gap-fill tasks. One concordance website utilized in this study is the one conceptualized by Chris Greaves of Hong Kong Polytechnic and coded in PERL by Tom Cobb of UQAM Montreal, Canada (http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/). This concordance is one of the language projects presented by the Virtual
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Language Centre in Hong Kong. Users can search for language samples from various corpora such as students' academic writings, Time Magazines, the Bible, business and economy, etc. The other concordance website is the British National Corpus (BNC) (http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/). It is one of the most famous corpora consisting of 100 million collections of written and spoken language samples. Finally is the Corpus of Contemporary American English (http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/) which contains 425 million words from various sources such as magazines, newspapers, fiction, television shows, etc. The concordance diary (see Appendix B), which is referred to as concordance sheet by Chen (2004), is where students kept at least two examples of the vocabulary contexts from the concordance websites. Students chose several examples that were meaningful and comprehensible to them and kept those examples in their vocabulary diary. Regarding the gap-fill task (see Appendix C), which was also conceptualized by Chen (2004), students used the authentic contexts searched from corpora to compose a gap-fill sheet for them to work on. For example, the target word from the listening or reading passage was 'pass'. Students in pairs searched using the concordancer several collocations such as pass on, pass to, pass by, pass away, pass along, etc. Based on the contexts, they discussed the meaning of the collocations. Student volunteers wrote the collocations on the board. Then I asked them to clarify the collocations they did not understand. To maximize student participation, I asked those who understood the meaning to give situations using that collocation which other students found difficult. As a homework, students had to individually construct a multiple choice gap-fill task for each collocation (see Appendix C) using the concordance websites. In the next class, they exchanged with each other and answered the gap-fill task.To make sure students understood all the collocations in the homework, I had to conduct whole class processing for those collocations students missed to answer correctly. Students used their laptop computer to write their vocabulary diary and construct the gap-fill tasks. They saved them in the on-line share folder on the university website. 3. Results Table 1. Perceptions of and Attitudes Toward Concordancing Tool for Vocabulary Learning
Perception Attitude n 10 10 mean 3.50 3.42 SD .22 t 1.23 p 0.25
p<0.05 The mean (3.50) for perceptions shows that students had positive perceptions of the use of concordancer in the listening course. This means that students thought that concordancer was useful for vocabulary learning, identifying useful phrases, identifying collocations, identifying grammatical patterns, and for challenging them to actively make generalizations about the meaning of a word and the grammatical patterns of a word. Students also perceived that concordancer provided them with high speed vocabulary searching tool. As far as vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks were concerned, students thought they were useful for learning the general andacademic vocabulary, and for learning collocations, respectively. As for students attitudes, the mean (3.42) reveals that students also had positive attitudes toward the use of concordancer in the listening course. Specifically, students had positive attitudes toward the use of concordancer for vocabulary learning, identifying useful phrases, identifying collocations,
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identifying grammatical patterns, and for challenging them to actively make generalizations about the meaning of a word and the grammatical patterns of a word. Students also had positive attitudes toward the use of concordancer in providing them with high speed vocabulary searching tool. As far as vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks were concerned, students had positive attitudes toward their usefulness for learning the general and academic vocabulary, and for learning collocations, respectively. The t-test (t=1.23) shows that there is no significant difference between perceptions and attitudes. This means that students who had positive perceptions of the use of concordancer also had positive attitudes toward the use of concordancer. Pearson correlation (p=+0.25) reveals no significant correlation between perceptions and attitudes because of the small sample size (n = 10). 4. Discussion and Conclusion The results of the study show that high level EFL college students had positive perceptions of and attitudes toward the use of concordancer and concordancing related tasks (e.g., vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks) in the classroom particularly in vocabulary learning, identifying useful phrases, identifying collocations, identifying grammatical patterns, and for challenging them to actively make generalizations about the meaning of a word and the grammatical patterns of a word.The findings of this study support the results of the study of Chujo, Miura and Uchiyama (2006) whose goal was to use the corpus and CALL listening material and vocabulary learning material to improve students communicative proficiency. The findings of this study also find support in the study of Cambrensis and Gillway (2006) which found concordancer to accelerate lexical growth while promoting the noticing of word grammar as an integral part of vocabulary study. Concordancer was also efficient in that it presented multiple examples of a word at one time, and effective in drawing multiple examples of a word together in one place that highlighted certain patterns. Students in this study also had positive perceptions of and attitudes toward concordancers capability to provide them with high speed vocabulary searching tool. By using the concordance tool of corpora to search for word contexts, learners were involved in a more speedy and efficient language learning experience (Cobb, 2003). As far as vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks were concerned, students thought that the vocabulary diary was useful for learning the general and academic vocabulary, and gap-fill tasks were useful for learning collocations. Students also had positive attitudes toward the use of vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks for the above purposes. By utilizing vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks, this study has demonstrated how to create more traditional vocabulary activities (e.g., fill-in-the-blank or matching exercises) that have the added advantage of being based on authentic texts and also exposing learners to multiple, novel contexts at one time (Stevens, 1991; Thurstun & Candlin, 1998). For example, Stevens (1991) found that concordance-based vocabulary exercises can be more easily solved by learners than traditional gap-filler exercises like the gap-fill tasks in this study, suggesting they should be used if the purpose of the exercise is to reinforce the vocabulary, as opposed to testing, and if the proclivity of the teacher is to engender a sense of confidence and well-being in the students (p. 55). Although students had positive perceptions of and attitudes toward the use of concordance, vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks, the ratings were not highly positive. It took about six 90 minutes to train students to use the concordance websites as well as the vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks. This low rating might be due to the fact that students found using the concordance websites difficult. While checking students doing the concordance activities, I received feedback from many saying that finding easy-to-comprehend contexts where the vocabulary was used was difficult and time consuming. The results of this study corroborate the findings of studies on DDL activities which low proficient students found them complicated or difficult to complete (Hadley, 2002). The findings are also consistent with
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the results of the studies of Tono(2003) and Umesaki (2004) which found English concordance examples retrieved to be difficult for beginning level learners to understand . To conclude, the results of the study reveal that, despite the difficulty of using concordancer in finding comprehensible word contexts, the students had positive perceptions and attitudes toward the use of concordancer, vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks for vocabulary building, determining collocations, identifying useful phrases and grammatical patterns, making generalizations about the meaning and grammatical patterns of a word, and providing students with high speed vocabulary searching tool. An understanding of learner attitudes and their perceptions of the pedagogical benefits of concordancer and the tasks related to it will enable teachers to best utilize concordancer in the classroom in order to achieve those pedagogical benefits. 5. Limitations The ten respondents utilized in this study were all students registered in the academic listening course. Due to the small sample size, the positive perceptions and attitudes expressed for the use of concordancer and the concordancing related tasks (e.g., vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks) in order to achieve benefits (e.g. identifying collocations) cannot represent the views of students in the department in the university where the study was conducted. In addition, the respondents were high proficient and they cannot represent the views of low and average proficient students. 6. Implications Despite the difficulty students encountered, the findings suggest that the use of concordancer and the performance of the tasks such as the vocabulary diary and gap-fill tasks are useful for vocabulary building, determining collocations, identifying useful phrases and grammatical patterns, making generalizations about the meaning and grammatical patterns of a word, and providing students with high speed vocabulary searching tool. Learners have to fully comprehend that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages.The results also tell us that there is a need to provide students with enough practice how to use the concordance websites and do the concordance related tasks until they become familiar with and successful using them. As far as language proficiency is concerned, the findings suggest that the contexts or corpora in the concordancers might be too difficult for low proficient or beginning level students which may demotivate them to accomplish the concordancing related tasks. References
American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages (1985). ACTFL proficiencyguidelines. Retrieved from http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/otherresources/actfl proficiencyguidelines/contents.htm . Barlow, M. (1996b). Corpora for theory and practice. International Journal of CorpusLinguistics, 1(1), 1-37. Cambrensis, J. and Gillway, M. (2006).The study of selected vocabulary in context using technology to motivate learners. UGRU Journal, 3. Retrieved from http://www.ugruenglish.uaeu.ac.ae/ ugrujournal/ugrujournal_files/sr3/vocabcontext.pdf Chen, Y.H. (2004). The use of corpora in the vocabulary classroom. The Internet TESL Journal, X, (9). Retrieved from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Chen-Corpora.html Chujo, K., Miura, S., and Uchiyama, M. (2006). Using A Japanese-English parallel corpus for teaching English vocabulary to beginning-level students. EnglishCorpus Studies, (13), 53-172. Cobb, T. (1999). Breadth and depth of lexical acquisition with hands-on concordancing. CALL Journal, 12(4), pp. 345-360. Cobb, T. (2003). Do corpus-based electronic dictionaries replace concordancers? In Morrison, B., Green,
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G.&Motteram, G. (Eds.),Directions in CALL: Experience, Experiments, Evaluation. Polytechnic University:Hong Kong. Cooper, M. (1984). Linguistic competence of practised and unpractised non-nativespeakers of English. In J.A. Alderson & A.H. Urquhart (Eds.), Reading in aforeign language (pp. 122-138). London: Longman. Freebody, P. & Anderson, R.C. (1981). Effects of vocabulary difficulty, text cohesion, and schema availability on reading comprehension. Technical Report No. 225. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Center for the Study of Reading. Hadley, G..(2001). Concordancing in Japanese TEFL: Unlocking the power of data-driven learning. Retrieved from http://www.nuis.ac.jp/%7Ehadley/publication/jlearner/jlearner.htm> Hasselgrd, H. (2001). Corpora and their use in research and teaching. Retrievedfrom http://folk.uio.no/hhasselg/UV-corpus.htm Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach. The state of ELT and the way forward. LTP Teacher Training. Lin, C. C. (2003). Learning collocations in a bilingual corpus. The Proceedings of 2003International Conference and Workshop on TEFL & Applied Linguistics (pp. 250256). Taipei: Crane. Marzano R. J., (1992).A different kind of classroom : Teaching with Dimensions of Learning Alexandria Va.: Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment. Saville-Troike, M. (1984). What really matters in second language learning for academic achievement? TESOL Quarterly 18, 199-219. Savignon, S and Wang, C. (2003). Communicative language teaching in EFL contexts:Learner attitudes and perceptions. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 41(3), 223-249. Stevens, V. (1991). Classroom concordancing: Vocabulary materials derived from relevant, authentic text. English for Specific Purposes,10, 35-46. St. John, E. (2001). A case for using a parallel corpus and concordancer for beginners of a foreign language. Language Learning & Technology, 5, 185203. Thurstun, J., &Candlin, C. N. (1998). Concordancing and the teaching of the vocabularyof academic English. English for Specific Purposes, 17(3), 267-280. Todd, R. W. (2001). Induction from self-selected concordances and self-correction.System, 29(1), 91102. Tono, Y. (2003) Corpus woEigoKyoikuniIkasu [What corpora can do for language teaching]. English Corpus Studies, 10: 249264. Umesaki, A. (2004) EigoGakushuu no TamenoDaikibo Corpus no Riyou [Using a large-scale corpus in the classroom]. Paper Presented at the 24th Japan Association for English Corpus Studies (JAECS) Conference, Tokyo, Japan. Wang, L. (2001). Exploring parallel concordancing in English and Chinese. Language learning &technology, 5, 174184. Wilkins, D. A. (1972). Linguistics in Language Teaching. Edward Arnold. Willis, J. and Willis, D. 1996. Consciousness-raising activities. In Willis, J. andWillis, D. (Eds.), (pp. 63-76). Appendix A Questionnaire for students
I. Perceptions of concordancing tool for vocabulary learning

1. The information provided in concordance lists was useful for vocabulary learning. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 2. Concordance lists helped me to identify useful phrases. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 3. Concordance lists helped me to identify collocations.
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Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 4. Concordance lists helped me to identify grammatical patterns. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 5. The use of concordance lists challenged me to actively make generalizations about the meaning of a word. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 6. The use of concordance lists challenged me to actively make generalizations about the grammatical patterns of a word. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 7. Concordance was useful for building vocabulary knowledge. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 8. Concordance provided me with high speed vocabulary searching tool. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 9. The worksheet or vocabulary diary was useful for learning the general and academic vocabulary. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 10. The gap-filling task was useful for learning collocations. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree
II. My attitude toward the concordancing tool for vocabulary learning

1. I liked the information provided in concordance lists because it was useful for vocabulary instruction. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 2. I liked the concordance lists because they helped me to identify useful phrases. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 3. I liked the concordance lists because they helped me to identify collocations. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 4. I liked the concordance lists because they helped me to identify grammatical patterns. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 5. I liked the use of concordance lists because they challenged me to actively make generalizations about the meaning of a word. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 6. I liked the use of concordance lists because they challenged me to actively make generalizations about the grammatical patterns of a word. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 7. I liked concordancer because it was useful for building my vocabulary knowledge.
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Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 8. I liked concordancer because it provided me with high speed vocabulary searching tool. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 9. I liked the use of the worksheet or vocabulary diary because it was useful for learning the general and academic vocabulary. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree 10. I liked the use of the gap-filling tasks because it was useful for learning collocations. Strongly Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 agree Appendix B Sample vocabulary diary (So) The President's second sentence of his State of the Union speech last year said we all know that the primary question is jobs and the economy. So they spent a year on health care. (Can look like) If Clark suffocated, why is the blanket that was wrapped around the victim's head so bloody? The B composition fluid canlooklike blood. (Sort of) It's the First Lady Michelle Obama's birthday but her husband is not gonna consider the new ABC News /Washington Post poll any sortof gift. (Look like) I have seen a picture of the baby. I have no idea. It doesn't looklike my children. (Found) We bought a house in Orlando, Florida, in January 2007, and currently owe more than what it's worth. My husband was laid off from his job, and after nine months he found new employment in New Jersey. (Kind of) They are influencing the process. They hire lobbyists. They hire public affairs firm. They contribute to candidates. They do all that kindof stuff. (Shiny) I actually disagree with Senator Baker. I agree that he is no JFK in terms of charisma and his suit is a little too shinnies and he has scared people in his little photo opportunity with the Children a few days ago. (Different shape from) I had no idea you could partly pull out an animal's insides like this. A sheep's womb is a differentshapefrom a human womb, says the surgeon." Appendix C Sample gap-fill task
Fill in the blank with the correct word. Below are the choices
Take Have See Give Measure Think Enjoy 1. My boyfriend and I both have roommates, so when my parents went out of town
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for a long weekend, we decided to ____ advantageof the empty house. 2. It is both humbling and horrifying to know that a 5-year-old with three weeks' worth of lessons under her belt is more capable than I am. But I _____ one advantage: Unlike children, who are usually forced into activities, I genuinely want to play this thing. I am looking for the joy -- yes, joy -- that comes from making music. 3. _____ of the advantageyou've got. You'll be learning all sorts of stuff for the rest of us. 4. The other five men in the room all stared at him. These were his best friends. All men of means, aside from Ryan Crawford, whose father had cut him off years before. And all were men of appetites. They _____ every advantage their names and wealth afforded them. Especially ones that involved women.
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A Sociosemiotic Approach of experienced and Desired Leisure. Young People Express Themselves Through Images.
Anastasia Christodoulou
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki E-mail: nata@itl.auth.gr
Eleni Kartsaka
Art Historian
Argyris Kyridis
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki E-mail: akiridis@uowm.gr
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p21
Abstract Young people are societys driving force. They build the future and ensure its cultural, historical and biological continuity. Given the important role they play, their ability to manage their own leisure time is especially significant as regards its impact on society. A persons leisure is a concept whose dimensions and boundaries are constantly in flux. It is part of everyday life, a form of personal expression and selffulfillment, and its use may have a positive or negative impact on a person and their environment (Ghikopoulos & Christodoulou, 2007; Myrizakis, 1997). The aim of this research is to explore the manner in which adolescents perceive the experienced and desired limits to their own leisure time. More specifically, the study focused on the artistic (paintings and drawings) and verbal (accompanying written texts) codes that young people use to describe the limits of two living conditions, the leisure that they experience and the leisure that they desire. The artistic code was chosen in addition to the verbal code because these days, particularly where young people are concerned, images prevail (Willinsky, 1990). Socio-semiotics is chosen as the tool of analysis, since artistic creation, as an interpretation of the concept image, is a metalanguage, a dynamic channel that young people use to convey leisure time messages (Danesi, 2000; Halliday, 1978; Randviir & Cobley 2010). This two-pronged research project was based on the semiotic study and analysis of data (Lagopoulos & Boklund-Lagopoulou, 1992; Christodoulou, 2003) obtained from the artistic and verbal texts of adolescents between twelve and fifteen years of age. To begin with, the adolescents depicted aspects of their daily leisure artistically and attempted to accompany their artwork with a brief verbal description. They then chose photographs somehow depicting their ideal leisure time from a chart of preselected pictures whose subjects were obtained from the literature (thematic caterogies). The researchers had preselected these pictures as a means of exploring the concept of desired leisure. The study was completed in three stages: (a) a theoretical framework of free time and its analysis, (b) data analysis and (c) conclusions about the meanings that leisure (experienced and desired) has for young people. Keywords: experienced leisure, desired leisure, Greece, young people, images
1. Theoretical introduction of the study When looking at the available literature on leisure, one realizes that there is no shortage of views and
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stances on the subject, as it has to do not only with the culture of everyday life but with a lot of axes of the definition of culture (Danesi & Perron, 1999). This research has explored leisure in terms of its definition, analysis and significance of young peoples relationship with it. In the literature, then, leisure is defined based on a number of parameters. For example, leisure is the time that a person devotes to various activities when not at work (Triantafyllidis, 1998). Freedom of choice during leisure seems to be the dominant theme in the above definition (Kelly, 1981). It is unclear whether a persons activities during that time are carefree (Kouthouris, 2006) and non-obligatory (Byrne, Nixon, Mayock, & Whyte, 2006). According to Silbereisen (2004), leisure can be divided into two categories: (a) inactive leisure, which does not make a person socially active, for example watching television or listening to music, and (b) active leisure, which enhances socialisation, such as hobbies and sports. Structural recreation, as Coatsworth et al. (2005) and Hendry et al. (1993 and 2003) defined it, seems to fall within Silbereisens second category, since it refers to activities that emphasise skill development. A different categorisation divides leisure into rest and relaxation, entertainment, information, education, participation in social events, creativity, and freedom from family, professional and social obligations (Krasanakis, 1984). Leisure is often indirectly associated with consumer practices, such as shows and entertainment, which leads to the need to find new sources of income linked to mass culture and the search for enjoyment (Riesman, in Koronaiou, 1996). The above observation does not seem to apply to the younger age group, since young people do not associate free time with particular activities, but rather with hanging around (Byrne et al., 2006). Of course, there are dangers inherent in perceiving leisure as time to hang around dangers associated with the improper management of free time and especially with idleness and inactivity. Research has shown that 90% of delinquent behaviour occurs during free time, which is an argument in favour of its value and proper management (Koronaiou, 1996; Trainor et. al., 2010; Larson and Verma, in Byrne et al., 2006). Research conducted by Shaw et al. (1996) on how fifteen year olds in Canada spend their free time showed that they mainly hang around, wasting time. Similar evidence was obtained by George and Chaskin (2004) in their research on fourteen year olds in Chicago, only one quarter of which spend their leisure doing structured activities. The other three quarters prefer carefree and unstructured leisure. Theoretically, leisure activities are a springboard for young peoples participation in society and foster the conditions needed for adolescents to shape their own identities (Caldwell & Darling, in Trainor et al., 2010; Chtouris, Zissi, Papanis, & Rontos, 2006). There are activities that educate (visits to museums and monuments) and activities that entertain (holidays, games, sports) (Christodoulou, 2003:67). Interestingly, research conducted by Mahoney and Cairns (1997) showed that pupils who took part in leisure activities at their school were less likely to quit school. However, in practice and for a variety of reasons, todays youth living in Greece does not often get the chance to take part in leisure activities that entertain. One major reason is that they devote their time to gaining skills that will make them more employable in the future. Moreover, the paper presented by Eccles et al. (2003) on extracurricular activities showed that such activities aid personal development. It appears that leisure activities are often also dependent on basic social factors such as sex and social class, although, admittedly, there has not been much research on the subject (Roberts and Parsells, 1994; endry et al., 2003; Hochschild, 1997: 215; Robinson & Godbey, 1997). Thus, young people do not have time to take part in activities that educate (visits to archaeological sites and monuments) unless they are part of a schools cultural programme. Moreover, interpersonal communication (active communication) has become weaker and is being replaced by Internet communication (passive communication), with very little time devoted to sports and activities outside the home (United Nations World Youth Report 2005).
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A survey conducted in 2003, via questionnaire, on young people between fifteen and twenty-nine years of age living in urban and semi-urban areas in Greece revealed that their main leisure activities include spending time with family and friends, listening to music and watching television. There was little interest in hobbies and physical exercise, with volunteering and participation in youth clubs least popular of all (Chtouris et al., 2006) data which is also evident in this research. The same conclusions have been drawn from a survey of children and adolescents from low-income families in England, who said that they spend their time watching television out of necessity and not because they are ultimately interested in it (Ridge, in Byrne et al., 2006). 2. Method of analysis This study aims to (a) have adolescents illustrate their leisure time, (b) determine the limits to leisure during adolescence and (c) determine the extent to which adolescents (boys and girls) experienced leisure converges towards or strays from their desired leisure. The meaning system chosen for the purposes of this study was the artistic text, with the verbal text serving a supplementary role. We focused more on the iconic rather than the verbal system because most sociological survey results are drawn from written questionnaires. Our novel approach was adopted as a result of our observation that the emerging and dominant form of communication between young people today increasingly involves images (MMS, SMS, and internet). As a result, we expected that they would find conveying meanings and ideas using images a familiar concept. The survey, which took place from March to May 2010, was based on the study and semiotic analysis of artistic and verbal texts and involved one hundred adolescents (fifty boys and fifty girls) from western Thessaloniki. More specifically, the survey focused on two aspects: (a) experienced leisure and (b) desired leisure. The experienced leisure aspect focused on the analysis of one hundred artistic creations and their accompanying texts, through which the adolescents conveyed and described how they perceive the free time they experience (see two of the childrens artwork, figures 1 and 2). The adolescents were instructed to depict moments in their experienced leisure time using any materials and techniques they chose. They were not given any further guidance so that their creations would be spontaneous.
Fig. 1. How I spend my free time (girl)
Fig. 2. How I spend my free time (boy)
The second aspect, desired leisure, focused on the selection of pictures from a preselected chart. There were forty-one options, namely thirty-nine photographs representing categorised leisure activities
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that young people would ideally choose, as well as two additional options, something else and nothing. The photographs portray leisure categories obtained from the general literature (Christodoulou, 2003, Lagopoulos & Bolkund-Lagopoulou 1992). They are related to official culture, the arts, language and literature, sports, education and entertainment. More specifically, the categories examined are listed below in the order in which they appear in the preselected chart (Figure 3): (1) theatre, (2) skateboarding or another sport, (3) museums or other art and cultural centres, (4) Internet cafs, (5) computers, (6) graffiti, (7) volunteer groups, (8) family, (9) funfair, (10) cinema, (11) shopping centres, (12) excursions, (13) basketball or other sports, (14) television, (15) football matches, (16) books, poems, prose, (17) chess or other intellectual games, (18) foreign languages, (19) friends and interpersonal relationships, (20) scouts, (21) concerts, festivals or other events, (22) shopping, (23) water sports, (24) painting or other hobbies, (25) church, Sunday school, religious events, (26) rest and relaxation, (27) cycling, (28) hanging out with friends, (29) electronic games, PlayStation, (30) parties, (31) coffee shops and restaurants, (32) playing in the neighbourhood with friends, (33) chatting with friends on the telephone, (34) taking care of animals, (35) playing musical instruments, (36) taking care of my appearance, (37) going to the gym, (38) going for walks on my own, (39) dancing, (40) nothing, (41) something else. An analysis of the two aspects, experienced leisure and desired leisure, and the data obtained from the survey are presented below. 3. Data and analysis The research and analysis of leisure have an important role to play in cultural growth. In modern sociological thought, leisure is a paradigmatic field for the study of social structures, meanings and lifestyles, since it records and analyses todays dominant social time. Having and utilizing free time leads to social growth and improved quality of life, creating well rounded young people and a well rounded society in general. It is true that this study has focused on leisure as young people perceive it (primary source), rather than on the way it is manifested in the social sphere (secondary source). The research results are presented below, with the scope of the subject in mind and having taken into consideration the research objective and goals and the method of analysis applied. The analysis of the data obtained from the iconic communication system resulted in an overall table (Table 1), which presents the selected categories of experienced (EL) and desired leisure (DL) for all the individuals (boys and girls) as percentages. The codes in the table below are grouped in the order in which they appear in the preselected chart of photographs (see Figure 3). The leisure activities were grouped in broader categories based on the key principles of thematic content analysis, with the theme being the unit of analysis (Bardin, 1977; Curley, 1990; Weber, 1990, Veron, 1981; Lasswell et al. 1965; Mucchieli, 1998; Grawitz, 1981). Table 1. Overall table of experienced and desired leisure
Boys EL Leisure Activities Entertainment % 20.4 DL % 163.9 EL % 23.2 Girls DL % 180.8
1. Theatre
0.0
4.9
0.0
14.9
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3. Museums, other art and cultural centres 10. Cinema 15. Football matches 21.Concerts, festivals or other events
Sports
0.0 5.6 14.8 0.0

92.6
0.0 65.6 57.4 36.1

201.6
0.0 17.9 3.6 1.8

30.4
8.5 59.6 36.2 61.7

166.0
2. Skateboarding or another sport 13. Basketball or other sports 23. Water sports 37. Gym 39. Dance or gymnastics 27. Cycling
Computers
5.6 59.3 5.6 5.6 1.9 14.8

79.6
32.8 52.5 37.7 37.7 3.3 37.7

68.9
7.1 14.3 1.8 0.0 5.4 1.8

82.2
23.4 29.8 25.5 38.3 25.5 23.4

44.7
4. Internet cafs 5. Time on the computer

Creative Activities
5.6 74.1
42.6
29.5 39.3
39.3
5.4 76.8
60.7
10.6 34.0
63.8
6. Graffiti 16. Reading books or writing poems or prose 24. Painting or other hobbies
Playing
0.0 37.0 5.6

3.7
23.0 3.3 13.1

65.6
1.8 48.2 10.7

12.5
21.3 19.2 23.4

63.8
32. Playing in the neighbourhood with friends 17. Playing chess or other intellectual games 9. Funfair
Television
0.0 3.7 0.0

61.1
16.4 8.2 41.0

18.0
5.4 5.4 1.8

55.4
10.6 4.3 48.9

14.9
14. Television
Electronic games
61.1
16.7
18.0
50.8
55.4
3.6
14.9
17.0
29. PlayStation or other electronic games

Friends and family
16.7
38.9
50.8
86.9
3.6
62.5
17.0
168.1
8. Time with family 19. Friends and interpersonal relationships 28. Hanging out with friends 33. Telephone
Personal Time
5.6 0.0 29.6 3.7

27.7
18.0 16.4 47.5 4.9

57.4
7.1 1.8 30.4 23.2

33.9
23.4 48.9 63.8 31.9

110.6
26. I would like rest and relaxation 38. Going for walks or spending time on my own
Recreation
24.1 3.7
70.4
39.3 18.0
103.3
16.1 17.9
83.9
59.6 51.1
178.7
30. Parties
0.0
31.2
0.0
59.6
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31. Coffee shops and restaurants 35. Music 36. Taking care of my appearance
Group Activities
22.2 48.2 0.0

3.7
31.2 39.3 1.6

95.1
14.3 66.1 3.6

3.6
38.3 31.9 48.9

106.4
7. Volunteer groups 12. Trips and excursions 20. Scouts 25. Church, Sunday school, religious events
Shopping
0.0 3.7 0.0 0.0

1.9
21.3 57.4 6.6 9.8

22.9
0.0 3.6 0.0 0.0

25.0
19.2 78.7 6.4 2.1

127.7
11. Hanging out at shopping centres 22. Shopping

Supplementary Education
0.0 1.9
0.0
16.4 6.6
4.9
0.0 25.0
0.0
57.5 70.2
6.4
18. Learning foreign languages

Taking Care of Animals
0.0
0.0
4.9
19.7
0.0
0.0
6.4
25.5
34. Animals
Something Else
0.0
20.4
19.7
6.6
0.0
10.7
25.5
4.3
From the analysis of the above table, we observe that there are three types of relationship as regards experienced leisure and desired leisure for boys and girls, as shown in detail below. Reflective learners learn more effectively when they have time to consider options before responding whereas impulsive learners are able to respond immediately and take risks.
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(a) Categories with zero or low rates of experienced leisure and high rates of desired leisure (EL < DL)
For boys, EL is zero in 34% of the codes (Table 2). Table 2. Categories with zero rates of experienced leisure (boys)
Categories (Boys) Funfair Concerts, festivals or other events Parties Graffiti Volunteer groups Animals Hanging out at shopping centres Friends and interpersonal relationships Playing in the neighbourhood with friends Church, Sunday school, religious events Scouts Theatre Learning foreign languages Taking care of appearance EL % 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 DL % 40.98 36.07 31.15 22.95 21.31 19.67 16.39 16.39 16.39 9.84 6.56 4.92 4.92 1.64
We note from this table that boys would very much like to have fun, go to festivals and parties, take part in volunteer groups and do graffiti (40.98% 21.31%). They would like to take care of animals, go to shopping centres, make friends and play in the neighbourhood to a lesser degree (19.00% 10.00%), and reveal little willingness to go to church, the theatre, learn foreign languages or spend time on their appearance (9.00% 1.00%). As regards experienced leisure, Table 3 indicates that boys experience their desired leisure activities at much lower rates. Table 3. Categories with low rates of experienced leisure (boys).
Categories (Boys) Cinema Trips and excursions Football matches PlayStation or other electronic games Hanging out with friends Rest and relaxation Water sports Gym Cycling Skateboarding or another sport EL % 5.56 3.70 14.81 16.67 29.63 24.07 5.56 5.56 14.81 5.56 DL % 65.57 57.38 57.38 50.82 47.54 39.34 37.70 37.70 37.70 32.79
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Coffee shops and restaurants Internet cafs Going for a walk or spending time on my own Time with family Painting or other hobbies Playing chess or other intellectual games Shopping Telephone Dance or gymnastics
22.22 5.56 3.70 5.56 5.56 3.70 1.85 3.70 1.85
31.15 29.51 18.03 18.03 13.11 8.20 6.56 4.92 3.28
Based on the above table, boys experience categories that they would like to experience more at low rates (1% 30%). More specifically, they would very much like to go to the cinema, on trips and excursions, to football matches, play games and play with friends (65% 40%). They would like rest and relaxation, going to the gym, cycling or other sports and going to coffee shops and Internet cafs to a lesser extent (39% 20% ), and are less likely to want to spend time with family, paint, go shopping, dance or do gymnastics (19% 3%). Where girls are concerned, they do not experience some categories at all (twenty-four of the total number of categories), but would like to experience them (Table 4). Table 4. Categories with zero rates of experienced leisure (girls)
Categories (Girls) Parties Hanging out at shopping centres Gym Animals Volunteer Groups Theatre Museums, other art and cultural centres Learning foreign languages Scouts Church, Sunday school, religious events EL % 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 DL % 59.57 57.45 38.30 25.53 19.15 14.89 8.51 6.38 6.38 2.13
From the above table, we observe that girls would really like to go to parties, hang out at shopping centres, go to gym and take care of animals (40% 20%). They are less interested in volunteering and going to the theatre and museums (19% 10%), and show little willingness to learn foreign languages, join the scouts or go to church (9% 1%). We also note from Table 5 that girls experience categories that they would like to experience more at low rates (5% 31%). More specifically, they would really like to go on trips and excursions, go shopping, take care of their appearance, hang out with friends, and go to concerts, the cinema, the funfair and coffee shops (78% 38%). They are less interested in rest and relaxation, going to football matches, chatting on the phone, playing basketball or other sports, dancing or doing gymnastics, spending time with family, painting and doing graffiti (36% 21%), and show little interest in PlayStation and other electronic games, internet cafs and playing in the neighbourhood (21% 10%).
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Table 5. Categories with low rates of experienced leisure (girls)

Categories (Girls) Trips and excursions Shopping Hanging out with friends Concerts, festivals or other events Rest and relaxation Cinema Going for a walk or spending time on my own Funfair Friends and interpersonal relationships Taking care of my appearance Coffee shops and restaurants Football matches Telephone Basketball or other sports Water sports Dance or gymnastics Cycling Skateboarding or other sports Time with family Painting or other hobbies Graffiti PlayStation or other electronic games Internet Cafs Playing in the neighbourhood EL % 3.57 25.00 30.36 1.79 16.07 17.86 17.86 1.79 1.79 3.57 14.29 3.57 23.21 14.29 1.79 5.36 1.79 7.14 7.14 10.71 1.79 3.57 5.36 5.36 DL % 78.72 70.21 63.83 61.70 59.57 59.57 51.06 48.94 48.94 48.94 38.30 36.17 31.91 29.79 25.53 25.53 23.40 23.40 23.40 23.40 21.28 17.02 10.64 10.64
(b) Categories with high rates of experienced leisure and low rates of desired leisure (EL > DL)
For boys, experienced leisure activity rates are higher than the rates of desired leisure activities in 15% of the codes (six codes) (Table 6). Table 6.
Categories (Boys) Time on the computer Television Basketball or other sports Music Reading books or writing poems or prose Something else EL % 74.07 61.11 59.26 48.15 37.04 20.37 DL % 39.34 18.03 52.46 39.34 3.28 6.56
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We observe from the above table that boys spend a lot of time on the computer, watching television, playing basketball and listening to music (74% 48%), less time on reading books (37%), or choose to do something else. As far as girls are concerned, experienced leisure activity rates are higher than desired leisure activity rates in 10% of the codes (four codes) (Table 7). Table 7.
Categories (Girls) Time on the computer Music Television Reading books or writing poems or prose EL % 76.79 66.07 55.36 48.21 DL % 34.04 31.91 14.89 19.15
From the above table we can see that girls spend a lot of time on the computer, listening to music and watching television (77% 55%), and less time reading books (48%).
(c) Categories with equal rates of experienced leisure and desired leisure (EL = DL)
The categories for which rates of experienced and desired leisure are equal for boys (0%) are museums and other art and culture centres and nothing, which represent 5% of the total number of categories, while for girls equal rates were obtained for the category nothing, which represents 2.5% of the total number of categories. Based on the above information regarding the inequalities (<, >) and equalities (=) between experienced and desired leisure for boys and girls, we observe (in Table 8) that: (a) EL < DL is very common for both boys and girls, representing 80% and 74% of the total number of categories respectively, which indicates that young people do not experience the activities they would like to develop, such as education, fun, sports and socialisation; (b) EL > DL is very uncommon for both boys and girls, representing 15% and 10% of the total number of categories respectively, the main choices being primarily passive activities, while (c) EL = DL mainly for visiting museums and monuments, which has a zero rate. Table 8. Percentage of total number of categories
Relationship EL < DL EL > DL EL = DL Boys 80 15 5 100 Girls 74 10 2.5
4. Observations The pupils depicted their views of daily leisure using art as a medium. They arranged their compositions in two different ways. The first way focused on rendering moments of their leisure time with a human figure present in the picture and playing an important role, whereas the second way focused on
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artistically rendering leisure using objects that symbolize particular concepts. The young people described their artwork using poor vocabulary, with a strong tendency towards sarcasm and self-derision, and expressing bitterness, disappointment and a need for help. As far as the studys goals are concerned, the deduction made was that irrespective of their sex, at least in the manner in which their views were rendered in their artwork, young people divide most of their available leisure time between the computer, listening to music, watching television and reading, with no rest and relaxation, the only difference between the sexes being that boys also play basketball. In a similar study, Fitzgerald et al. (1995) showed that there is a distinct difference in the leisure time preferences of boys and girls living in Dublins poor neighbourhoods. Girls prefer going to clubs with friends, while boys prefer sports, watching television and playing video games. There is a large divergence between experienced and desired leisure. The childrens daily schedule and especially their academic obligations limit opportunities for other activities, thus making experienced leisure very restrictive, as also indicated by the young peoples verbal message that there is not enough time for activities other than schoolwork. Adolescent life seems to be full of restrictions, without many opportunities for sports, cultural education, shopping, hobbies, or to spend time with family or go on trips. De Riste and Dinneen (2005) confirm this observation, having recognized that boys and girls mainly prefer activities such as watching television and going out with their peers. They recognized basic obstacles that boys and girls in Ireland were faced with and which as a rule were overcome by people from the lower classes. The young people in the sample mainly illustrated passive activities (Internet, listening to music) and to a lesser extent active pursuits (sports, hobbies, going out with friends, coffee, drinks, watching films). This observation could indicate a lack of desire, time or social conditions for doing things with people and becoming involved in creative pursuits. It also indicates a tendency to avoid activities that broaden ones intellectual horizons and create opportunities for exposure to new people and situations. While young peoples desire to take part in activities that involve socializing is encouraging, their indication that time is the main obstacle preventing them from becoming involved in such activities reveals their inability to evaluate their available free time and to use it efficiently, and also their tendency to use lack of time as an alibi. Perhaps it is not that they do not have enough time, but that they do not know how or do not want to actively manage it. It must, however, be noted that social class may significantly influence young peoples choices in terms of how they manage their leisure. Matthews et al. (2000), Morrow (2001), Valentine et al. (1998) and Wyn and White, (1997) showed that for children from the lower classes, free time is associated with spending time on the streets, hence the term street-based leisure. Most often, children and adolescents from the lower classes do not have the money to take part in structured leisure activities (Zeijl et al. 2001). Thus, while the scientific exploration of young peoples leisure spans a wide range of scientific fields and research personnel, the fact remains that the way that young people spend their free time is basically a social factor rather than a matter of personal choice, determined by each individuals needs. In other words, an adolescents free time is burdened with specific, mainly passive, activities dictated by the social environment (school environment, family). Leisure is also prescribed by the lack of infrastructure (recreation areas at schools and universities, cultural centres, sports fields and courts, museums). It is important to note that young people do not experience in any way, and do not particularly wish to experience, religious, cultural or educational institutions such as going to church, religious events and the theatre, visiting museums and galleries and learning languages. The adolescents artwork gives rise to the speculation that their ideas and values are centred around school, without many opportunities to escape or choose whatever they want. Where the communication code is concerned, the adolescents depicted it in terms of objects, such as computers,
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the Internet, mobile or other phones and television. In other words, the concept of communication is associated with technology. On the other hand, as far is interpersonal communication is concerned, the boys and girls depicted it by drawing other people in areas such as parks, coffee shops, the gym and football fields; communication with family was depicted as taking place in the kitchen with one parent present. Lastly, the enjoyment code was drawn as occurring in places such as the cinema, in their own bedroom, at gym and in coffee shops (most of which were empty). In other words, enjoyment is associated with empty spaces and solitude. Thus, if we were to draw a profile of an adolescent as deduced from this study, we could say that young people reveal a certain sense of solitude, with one parent present with them at home; they mainly communicate and have fun using technology and consuming Internet products (music, communication), and rarely take part in group activities that entertain, exercise the body and educate. Moreover, we know that leisure activities may have a positive (mainly) or negative impact on young children and adolescents (Larson and Verma, 1999). References
Bardin, L. (1977). L' analyse de contenu. Paris: PUF. Byrne, T., Nixon, E., Mayock, P., & Whyte, J. (2006). Free time and leisure needs of young people living in disadvantaged communities. Combat Poverty Agency. Curley, K. (1990). Content Analysis. In: E. Asher, The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Edinburgh: Pergamon Press. Christodoulou, A. (2003). Semiotic and culture. Thessaloniki: University Studio Press. Chtouris, S., Zissi, A., Papanis, E., & Rontos, K. (2006). The state of youth in contemporary Greece. 14 (4), 309. Coatsworth, J.D., Hiley Sharp, E., Palen, L.A., Darling, N., Cumsille, P. and Marta, E. (2005). Exploring Adolescent Self-Defining Leisure Activities and Identity Experiences Across Three Countries, International Journal of Behavioural Development, 29(5), 361-70. Danesi, M. (2000). Semiotics in Language education, Berlin New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Danesi, M. & Perron, P. (1999). Analysing cultures. An introduction and Handbook. Indiana University Press De Riste, A. and Dinneen, J. (2005). Young Peoples Views about Opportunities, Barriers and Supports to Recreation and Leisure, Dublin: National Childrens Office. Eccles, J. S., Barber, B. L., Stone, M. and Hunt, J. (2003). Extracurricular Activities and Adolescent Development. Journal of Social Issues, 59, 865-889. George, R. M. and Chaskin, R. J. (2004). What Ninth Grade Students in the Chicago Public Schools do in their Out of School Time. Chicago: Chapin Hall Ghikopoulos, F., Christodoulou, A. (2007). Leasure in young people in Greece. A research. In: Panepistimioupoli. Thessaloniki: AUTH, vol. 25 (in greek). Grawitz, M. (1981). Methods des sciences socials. Paris : Dalloz. Fitzgerald, M., Joseph, A. P., Hayes, M. and ORegan, M. (1995). Leisure Activities of Adolescent Children, Journal of Adolescence, 18: 349-58. Halliday, M.A.K. (1978) Language as social semiotic: The interpretation of language and meaning. London: Edward Arnold. Hendry, L. B., Shucksmith, J., Love, J. G. and Glendinning, A. (1993). Young Peoples Leisure and Lifestyles. London: Routledge. Hendry, L. B. and Kloep, M. (2003). Young People, Unprotected Time, and Overprotected Contexts: Resources, Challenges and Risks?. In Colozzi, I. and Giovannini, G. (eds), Young People in Europe: Risk, Autonomy and Responsibilities. Italy: Franco Angeli s.r.l. Hochschild, A. R. (1997). The Time Bind: When work becomes home and home becomes work. New York: etropolitan Books. Jewitt, C. and Oyama, R. (2001) Visual Meaning: a Social Semiotic Approach. In Van Leeuwen, T. and Jewitt, C. (eds), Handbook of Visual Analysis, London, Sage, pp. 183-206.
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Kelly, J. R. (1981). Leisure interaction and the social dialectic. Social Forces, 60 (2), 304-322. Koronaiou, A., (1996). Sociology of Leisure. Athens, Nissos. Kouthouris, H. (2006). Leisure, Recreation and Sports: Conceptual correlation of terms. In: Inquiries in Physical Education & Sport, 4 (1), 68-77. (in greek). Krasanaki, G., (1984). Socio pedagogical leisure. Athens. Lagopoulos, A.Ph, K. Boklund-Lagopoulou (1992) Meaning and Geography, Social Conception of the Region in Northern Greece. Berlin New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Larson, R.W. and Verma, S. (1999). How Children and Adolescents Spend Time Across the World: Work, Play and Developmental Opportunities. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 701-36. Lasswell, H., D. & Leites, W. (1965). The Language of Politics: Studies in Quantitative Semantics. New York: MIT Press. Mahoney, J. L. and Cairns, R. B. (1997). Do Curricular Activities Protect Against Early School Dropout?. Developmental Psychology, 33, 241-53. Matthews, H., Limb, M. and Taylor, M. (2000). The Street as a Third Space in Childrens Geographies: Playing, Living, Learning. London: Routledge. Morrow, V. (2001). Networks and Neighbourhoods: Childrens and Young Peoples Perspective. n Social Capital for Health Services. London: HAD. Mucchieli, R. (1998). L analyse de contenu des documents et des communications. Paris: Les Editions ESF. Myzirakis, G., (1997). Leisure of young people. Recreational and sports activities. Athens, National Centre for Social Research. (in greek). Randviir A. & Cobley P. (2010). Sociosemiotics. In Cobley P. (ed). Semiotics. Roberts, K. and Parsells, G. (1994). Youth Cultures in Britain: Middle Class Take-Over. Leisure Studies, 13, 3348. Robinson, J. P. & G. Godbey (1997). Time for life: The Surprising Ways Americans Use Their Time. 2nd ed. Pennsylvania State University Press. Rose, G. (2007). Visual Methodologies An introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Materials, London, Sage. Roth, W., Pozzer-Ardhenghi, L, & Han, J. (2005). Critical graphicacy: Understanding visual representation practices in school science. Dordrecht, Springer. Silbereisen, R. K. (2004). Adolescents: leisure-time activities. In International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (pp. 122-125). Shaw, S. M., Caldwell, L.L. and Kleiber, D. A. (1996). Boredom, Stress and Social Control in the Daily Activities of Adolescents. Journal of Leisure, 28, 274 293. Trainor, S., Delfabbro, P., Anderson, S., & Winefield, A. (2010). Leisure activities and adolescent psychological well-being. Journal of Adolescence , 33 (1), 173-186. Triantafyllidis, M. (1998). Dictionary of Modern Greek Language. Manolis Triantafyllidis Foundation. (in greek). United Nations World Youth Report 2005. (2005). Downloaded April 1, 2010, from Youth and the United Nations: World program of action for youth: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin /wpayleisure.htm#WYR2005. Unsworth L, (2008) (ed) Multimodal Semiotics: Functional Analysis in Contexts of Education. London, Continuum. Valentine, G., Skelton, T. and Chambers, D. (1998). Cool Places: an introduction to youth and youth culture. n: T. Skelton, and G. Valentine (eds) Cool Places: Geographies of Youth Culture. London: Routledge. Veron E. (1981). La construction des vnements. Paris: PUF. Willinsky, J. (1990) The new literacy: Redefining reading and writing in the schools,. New York: Routledge Weber, R. (1990). Basic Content Analysis. Newbury Park: Sage. Wyn, J. and White, R. (1997). Rethinking Youth. London: Sage Publications Zeijl, E., DuBois-Reymond, M. and Te Poel, Y. (2001), Young adolescents leisure patterns. Society and Leisure, 2, 379 402.
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Applying Critical Discourse Analysis in Translation of Political Speeches and Interviews

Mehdi Mahdiyan
Department of English, Quchan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Quchan, Iran
Muhammad Rahbar
Dr. Seyed Mohammad Hosseini-Maasoum

Department of Linguistics & Foreign Languages, Payame Noor University, I.R. Iran Email: hosseinimasum@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p35
Abstract From the ancient times, language has been using as an ingenious device for transmission of ideology and for manipulation of the audience minds by those who have been in power. As Kress in Van Dijk (1985: 29) states, "Ideologies find their clearest articulation in language. Hence, a powerful way of examining ideological structure is through the examination of language". Adopting Critical Discourse Analysis with particular emphasis on the framework of Fairclough (1989) and utilizing the notions of SFL by Holliday (1985), the present investigation is an attempt to shed light on the relationship between language and ideology involved in translation in general, and more specifically, to uncover the underlying ideological assumptions invisible in the texts, both source text (ST) and target text (TT), and consequently ascertain whether or not translators ideologies are imposed in their translations. The corpus consisted of President Bush speeches during the years 2005 till 2008 about the nuclear program of Iran. The data consist of ST (in English) in the form of a political interviews and TTs in the form of 8 translations in Persian. The obtained results proved the fact that the application of CDA for the analysis of the ST and TT helps the translator to become aware of the genre conventions, social and situational context of the ST and TT, and outlines the formation of power and ideological relations on the text-linguistic level. Key words: CDA, Translation Studies, power relations, ideology.
1. Introduction The issue of genre and text type has been the topic of hot debates in the field of translation. Every genre has its own conventions and approach, which distinguishes it from the other text types; therefore, only the matter of word choice and structure cannot be determining factors in the act of translation. Various text types require different techniques and strategies for translation in order to be efficient in conveying the intended message of the source text into the target text. Another important matter is the inter relatedness of the texts and the social circumstance in which they are produced. Every text will be organized according to some concepts, beliefs and ideologies of a group, community, party or a nation.
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This issue makes the translation from a source to a target trickier because the selected words, their arrangement, the structure in which they appear are not chosen haphazardly and there would be some dominant thought according to which these texts are written. Amongst different genres, political texts may appear more challenging for translation. At first, they may seem as like the other text types but the ideas behind the word choice; structure and message of these texts are complicated and subtle. Ideologies, attitudes, and feelings are expressed through language (written or spoken) and by analyzing speeches we can figure out the speaker's thoughts and emotions about or towards an event or phenomenon. The investigation into politicians' remarks and comments becomes more essential when we find out that their ideologies and intentions are not always stated clearly and explicitly. As Van Dijk (1993:29) contends, the text (written or spoken) is like "an iceberg of information," and it is only the "tip" which is really expressed in words and sentences. Therefore, he concludes that the analysis of the implicitness is very helpful in the study of the underlying ideologies. Here a fairly new branch of linguistics, which is called Critical Discourse Analysis, comes in handy to level the problem of ignoring the hidden ideologies behind a text and tries to disclose them and show the certain features away from the canon of laypeople. Because of the complexity of the discourse in terms of both structure and meanings, the understanding of text does not just come from the analysis of vocabulary, grammatical features or cohesive devices. For gaining a thorough understanding, the worldview that the author and the receptor bring to the text and both situational and inter-textual must be considered. CDA provides this opportunity to adopt a social perspective and critical thinking into investigation. Therefore, this is the main objective of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to discover and shed light on the hidden part of discourse. In political discourse, words are at the service of transferring the power or ideologies of one group or nation to the other. As a consequence of globalization, political texts may be required to be translated to the other languages. Here, the task of the translator is not just rendering the linguistics features of the source text, but s/he should be aware of the underlying theories and ideologies which scaffold a political text and in some cases try to add, delete of clarify the text in order to make it comprehensible for the target text audience. Translation, although often invisible in the field of politics, is actually an integral part of political activity. (Bassnett&schaffner, 2010:22). Translation is in fact part of the development of discourse, and a bridge between various discourses. It is through translation that information is made available to addressees beyond national borders; and it is very frequently the case that reactions in one country to statements that were made in another country are actually reactions to the information as it was provided in translation (schaffner, 2004:118). The advent of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) has influenced not only the branch of applied linguistics, but it has also affected Translation Studies and found its way in it. CDA sees language in a dialectic relationship with social reality, i.e. a communicative act (act of translation or interpretation) is affected by social reality and is used to sustain or change the social reality. In some cases, the orator wants to conceal a reality, in some other s/he may want to magnify it and in some others wants to show it reversely. According to CDA, the usage of text-linguistic elements reflects the text producers aims and affiliation to a special ideology, which, in its turn, may establish unequal power relations (class struggle, ideological struggle) between the participants of the communicative event. Hence, the salient aim of CDA within TS is to reveal the underlying and often implicit ideological and power relations in spoken and written discourse. Because CDA is brand new approach, it cannot be considered as a fixed theory but rather a cluster of approaches that have been started by the earlier research in functionalist and discourse analysis theories within TS. The mixture of CDA into TS has made to look at the concept of translation from a different angle. While the source text is produced in some specific socio-cultural situation in accordance with the norms and values of that society or organization, the translators socio-cultural background, linguistic
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background and experience with other texts and discourses directly affect the final product of the act of translation in target text. This may result in the fact that either translator embeds their own worldviews and ideologies in translations unconsciously or deliberately according to their own assumptions or the requirements stated in the translation brief. 2. The Nature of Translation and Text Analysis The term translation can be misleading by nature. Discrepancies can be obviously seen in viewpoints aired by different scholars regarding the definition of this key term. Munday (2001:4) argues that the concept of translation may refer to several things. First of all, it can refer to the field of translation in general, it can refer to the product, i.e. a translation of a text, and it can refer to the process of translating. The process of translating involves a translator who changes the language of an original ST into another language of a TT, i.e. changing the language code. From a different viewpoint, Schjoldager (2008: 18) regards a text as a translation involves basing it on these three postulates which the third one is as follows: there is the relationship postulate: It is assumed that the source and target texts share certain features that can be ascertained in a comparison between the two. This claim maybe generally true, but regarding translation of political discourse, it can be somehow simplistic. It does not take into consideration the ideological, social, political, and economical differences between the society in which a text was produced by a writer and the one a translator takes the text and translates it. Translation Studies, which is by definition a multilingual research field, has developed from a profession and a craft into an interdisciplinary field influenced by various branches of linguistics, comparative literature, communication studies, philosophy and a range of types of cultural studies, including post colonialism and postmodernism, as well as sociology and historiography (Munday 2008). Researchers from different theoretical backgrounds contributed to the development of the field with approaches that tended to shape the study of translation according to those diverse backgrounds. Through its long history in different parts of the world, translation practice and study have been dominated by the debate over the degree of translation's equivalence, and degree of faithfulness. Dichotomies, such as word-for-word versus sense-for-sense or literal versus free translations have surfaced in many professional and academic circles (for a review, see Munday 2008: 19-22). Such debates concerning translation theory have traditionally focused mainly on the comparison of source text (ST) and target text (TT), taking the concept of fidelity as the basic criterion. Translation Studies today is no longer concerned with examining whether a translation has been faithful to a source text. Instead, the focus is on social, cultural, and communicative practices, on the cultural and ideological significance of translating and of translations, on the external politics of translation, on the relationship between translation behavior and socio-cultural factors. In other words, there is a general recognition of the complexity of the phenomenon of translation, an increased concentration on social causation and human agency, and a focus on effects rather than on internal structures. As cited in Bassnett&schaffner( 2010:12). 3. Translation Studies and Critical Discourse Analysis The integration of discourse analysis in translation studies (TS) was initiated in the functionalist theories of translation (Munday 2001:73) which, including text analysis of the ST, aimed at the analysis of text type, language function, the effect of the translation and the participants of the translation event. The discourse analysis approach to TS applied Michael Hallidays register analysis model, which was mainly used to analyze the pragmatic functions of linguistic elements in both ST and TT, e.g. the first theoretical frameworks were proposed by Mona Baker and Julian House (ibid. 90). Halliday considers
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language use as a communicative event and describes three strands of functional meaning as ideational, interpersonal and textual meaning. Interpersonal meaning refers to use of language in order to establish a relationship between text producer and text receiver. Power is one of the rudimentary types of relationship in the analysis of interpersonal meaning. The schemes of choices made by translator from the array of the lexico-grammatical resources of language can establish the interpersonal meaning. Then notions like context, functions, culture, textuality, style, genre, and discourse which are studied in pragmatics, discourse analysis, cultural studies, and communication studies had an effect on Translation Studies. CDA is mainly used to analyze the text linguistic factors of one language and one culture. However, in translation studies this approach should be applied to both primary ST and secondary TT. CDA sees translation as a social, cultural, and political act and tries to combine these three factors to analyze both ST and TT. Most of the research which has been done within TS using CDA focuses on translation as a social action, answering questions such as: who is translating for whom, what is being translated, when is it being translated and what are the effects on the receiving culture (Chilton cited in Schffner 2002:60). According to Valden, In translation studies, CDA has an optional role and is mainly used as an auxiliary tool to the existing methodological approaches to provide a comprehensive reflection on language and culture (2007:100). CDA may become a useful means in the decision making of the translation strategy, the ST, and the TT context, cultural and social differences between source and target language communities. It also helps to know the cognitive process of translation and the contribution of the translator in the interpretation (understanding) of the source text meaning which has not been clearly described in TS. Christina Schffner (2004:136) states that it is the human communicative activity in the sociocultural settings which is common in both CDA and TS, and that texts and discourses are the product of this activity. Therefore, here the translator is not just a kind of mediator who renders one language into another, but, on the contrary, s/he produces new discourse in the TL. Unlike discourse analysts, translators create a new act of communication on a previously existing one in a new target language environment by using their own background knowledge (linguistic, social and cultural) and negotiating the meaning between the ST producer and the TT reader (Hatim& Mason 1990:2). Translations are perceived as target texts in a new socio-cultural context, which are based on a source text which functioned in its original socio-cultural context (Schffner 2004:138). Accordingly, the CDA applied to TS revolves around the role of translator in translation process on the basis of translation strategy taken by the translator and the design of target audience. Christina Schffner (2004:17) focuses on both the purpose of the translation and audience design from two angles, i.e. target audience with more or less the same knowledge of the ST subject and target audience which lacks knowledge about the ST issues. Hence, it is possible to state two main purposes in the translation: a) the translator must convey information with certain changes in the TT (According to Valdon (2007: 102) omissions, additions, permutations and substitutions may be included in the vocabulary of CDA as well, since they are connected to the editing and production processes of STs and TTs) (Dynamic approach). b) the translator conveys information in the TT with no significant changes according to wordfor-word translation strategy (static approach). To put it in a nutshell, in TS, CDA is applied to both the ST and the TT, which are taken as the products of text production, i.e. the ST producers motivated choices in the ST language and culture and the translators motivated choices for the production of a new TT in a new language and culture. There are two probable translation strategies on the basis of the text type and purpose of the translation: dynamic or static translation strategy.
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4. Translation and Political Discourse The objective of a political discourse analysis, which adopts critical goals, is to denaturalize ideologies. Denaturalization involves showing how social structures determine properties of discourse and how discourse determines social structures (Fairclough, 1995). According to Fairclough (1989), CDA aims at systematically exploring how these non-transparent relationships are factors in securing power and hegemony and it draws attention to power imbalances, social inequities, non-democratic practices, and other injustices in hopes of spurring people to correction actions. A critical discourse analyst should be able to differentiate ideology from knowledge so the concept of discourse is essential for a scientific understanding of discourse (Van Dijk, 2001). Discourses always involve power and ideologies, and because translators have different backgrounds, knowledge, and power positions, they can be interpreted differently by them. Therefore, we do not have the right interpretation whereas a more or less plausible or adequate interpretation is likely (Fairclough, 2002; Wodak & Ludwig, 1999) (cited in Nahrkhalaji, 2006:6). As translation studies can be considered as a brand new field of study, the relationship between it and political discourse has not been scrutinized. Some researches have been done to analyze this relationship applying different approaches such as textual analysis of Anna Trosborg (1997;2002) and more frequently political discourse analysis or critical discourse analysis whose leading features can be Christina Schaffner and Hatim and Mason (Christina Schffner 1997; 2002; 2003; 2004; Hatim and Mason 1990; 1997). A factor which received most of emphasis was considering this fact that when analyzing political discourse, the surrounding societal and ideological context in which the text is produced should be taken into consideration (Schffner 1997:119). The recent researches have considered the role of translators as mediators who on the basis of the knowledge they have from the source text and socio-cultural and political situations interpret the texts and try to adjust them with the norms, beliefs and ideological considerations of the target society. The translator interprets the ST according to his/her cultural, social and political background which may be ideologically shaped. Hence, the analysis of the ST and the TT often deals with foregrounding the connections between linguistic, translational, and ideological components in political texts (Valden 2007:100). Political discourse is often of relevance not only for the specific culture of the text producer, but may be intended for a wider audience as well (Schffner 2004:117). Due to globalization, politics have become internationalized, and it is through translation information is made available to addressees beyond national borders (ibid. 120). Currently translation studies is an essential developing factor of political discourse. Among the translation studies scholars, Christina Schffner has done valuable researches to show the relatedness of translation and political discourse (1997; 2002, 2003; 2004). She has tried to concentrate on cultural, social and political aspects of translation and text production in the source and target cultures and apply discourse analysis to translation. It can be said that her research deals principally with translation strategies, which are used to transfer a culture-bound source text into another target language community with a limited knowledge to the foreign culture. According to Schffner (ibid. 127), political texts usually reflect culture-specific conditions of their production. Their translations inform a target audience about a communicative act that had already been fulfilled in the ST community. In this condition, the ST can both be addressed to a single or multiple TT communities. On the basis of this fact that translation is a mediating intercultural activity, lots of factors may affect the translation into TT such as the audience, situation, function of the text in TL community and text type which are not of equal importance in ST. The functions of the ST and TT in their respective cultures determine the translation strategies, e.g. if the function of the ST was to persuade the source language (SL) audience, then the function of the target text in the TL culture will have only an informative function (ibid. 128). This point of view states that the TL audience does not have the same
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knowledge as the SL audience and therefore the obligatory alternations have to be made in the TT by the translator. In other words, this perspective sees the ST as not having the same force and effect on the TT audience in comparison to ST audience. 5. Translation, Ideology, and Power Moving away from those debates that focused on translation equivalence at the sentence level, or even sometimes at the word level, a new approach looked at translation using a larger textual approach, i.e. discourse and register analysis approaches, influenced by and benefiting from the growth of discourse analysis in applied linguistics. Building on Halliday's systemic functional grammar (Munday 2008: 90), these approaches study translation as a process and product, focusing on register and discourse level (see, for instance, Hatim and Mason 1990, Mason 2009). However, earlier studies in this branch of research focused mainly on the formal definition of discourse. There was little attention paid to the wider effects of discourse that go beyond the linguistic content to consider the social, political and economic implications of discourse in translation. Acknowledging that ideology has always functioned as an invisible hand in translation practice, and the fact there are factors which influence translation, not only of a linguistic nature, but also representing the transmission of ideology between different nations and countries, a cultural and ideological movement flourished in the field of translation studies that was represented in the approach towards the analysis of translation from a cultural studies angle (Munday 2008: 125). According to van Dijk (1997, 2001), ideology is articulated in discourse. Therefore, translation can also articulate, that is produce and reproduce, ideology. Ideologies are individual convictions, and as a result, different translators sharing diverse ideologies can translate political texts differently. It is possible that translators who support opposing political parties will translate political discourse differently and will exhibit different attitudes to the ideologies expressed by the source text. Therefore, different translations can reflect differences in ideologies, which can potentially surface as differences in superstructure. Translators as members of a society do not live in a vacuum. They are inevitably affected by the rules, values, and beliefs of their native country. Consequently, translating a text, they comprehend it, try to filter it, adjust the text to the accepted norms of their society and then produce a new form of the ST which would have higher degree of acceptability from the perspective of readers. In international context, translation may play a prominent role in and be a vital vehicle and means of communication in publishing and publicizing political agendas as well as in maintaining political power (Banhegy, 2009:5). In this respect, translation itself may easily become a political tool. Translation therefore can serve purpose of gaining, maintaining, and even abusing political power in the interests of certain political groups. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so (Lefevere, 1992:20). Similarly Munday commented on the role of ideology and power in translation: A key question is what kind of link there is between the lexical/syntactic choices and the ideological context. For Halliday (1978), as for critical discourse analysts such as Fairclough (e.g. 2001), it is the sociocultural context or location of power which to a large extent determines the lexicogrammatical choices (2008:3). 6. Theoretical Framework of the study The approach to CDA chosen for this study is that of Norman Fairclough (1995, 2000, 2003). For Fairclough, in contrast to the social psychological approach of Wetherell and Potter (1992), the socialcognitive model of van Dijk (1993, 1998, 2001) and the discourse-historic method of the Vienna
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School (Reisigl and Wodak, 2001; Wodak, 1996,2002; Wodak et al., 1999), CDA means the analysis of relationships between concrete language use and the wider social cultural structures. [... ] He attributes three dimensions to every discursive event. It is simultaneously text, discursive practice - which also includes the production and interpretation of texts - and social practice. The analysis is conducted according to these three dimensions. (Titscher et al., 2000: 149-150) Besides, Hallidayan model meets the goals of the present study. Therefore, this study is conducted within this framework as well as Faircloughs one. At first, the researcher begins analyzing U.S. President's linguistic choices in his comments on Iranian nuclear program. The analysis is carried out within the three functions or meanings of Hallidayan model of language (ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning). Active and passive voices Nominalization Modality Thematization Emotive language (emotive lexical choices) Then, following the Faircloughs model, interpretation and explanation of the discourse come next. 7. Materials and Procedure In order to conduct this analysis, a wide array of Bushs comments regarding Irans nuclear issue is collected. These remarks and comments are taken from Bushs addresses and press conferences. The relevant data have been downloaded from the White House website at www.whitehouse.org. To make the investigation feasible, the researcher has to base this analysis on a sample of comments. Thus, he has decided to focus on 20 excerpts of Bush's comments randomly selected from 20 of his political speeches and press conferences concerning Iran's nuclear program from 2005 to 2008. Having analyzed the selected parts according to the mentioned factors, the social and situational context of the speeches will also be analyzed. The next step is the analysis of translation of those parts in Persian produced by a group of eight translators all having M.A. in translation studies on the basis of the same factors applied to the source text . The data will be shown comparatively and the areas of similarity and difference between the ST and TTs will be identified to understand in which categories the translator deviated from the dominant ideology of the ST. Therefore, the researcher selected mixed method design for this study. The qualitative part includes the analysis of ST and TT and the quantitative part comprises the data analysis, categorization of analyzing factors, and finally showing their percentage. 8. Results
8.1. The Analysis of Active and Passive Voice in ST and TTs

The comparison of passive and active voices in the source and the eight target texts did not provide considerable results from ideological point of view. As discussed in the analysis of the ST, the speaker intentionally used either active or passive voice to attribute good deeds and actions to the U.S. and its allies and to condemn Iran to threatening actions against the world. However, in the translations obtained from the translators, there is not a big change in this area and they mostly preferred to pursuit
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the same ideology as that of the speaker. Here some examples are displayed the areas the TT deviates from the ST:
Passive Active
ST: So I think there's universal agreement that we don't want them to have a weapon. And there is agreement that they should not be allowed to learn how to make a weapon. And beyond that, I think that's all I'm going to say. (December 19, 2005) .[ .........]:TT1 [ .........]:TT6 . ST: You see, a non-transparent society that is the world's premier state sponsor of terror cannot be allowed to possess the world's most dangerous weapons. So, as we confront Iran's nuclear weapons ambitions, we're also reaching out to the Iranian people to support their desire to be free; to build a free, democratic, and transparent society. [ ........]:TT3 . [ ........]:TT8 . In English and Persian linguistic structures, the choices about the representation of actions, actors and events have to do with the distinction between active and passive voices. Example (1) shows the possible ways in which a Negative action can be syntactically expressed in different ways. In TT6 the responsible agent of the action not allowing has been made explicit while in TT1 it has been left unclear and unknown as it was in ST. As mentioned there was not a significant change from passive to active voice, here some examples show the reverse form, which is from active to passive voice:
Active Passive
ST: And secondly, We will continue to stay engaged in helping reformers, in working to advance liberty, to defeat an ideology that doesn't believe in freedom. (August 21, 2006) :TT2 . ST: The first goal of any dialogue with a partner with whom we're trying to create peace is to have a common objective, a stated goal. :TT7 .
8.3. Nominalization
The second item to be discussed is nominalization. As stated earlier, nominalization is used to delete information from a sentence. Through this process, features of the sentence such as action, participants, indication of time and modality may be deleted.
Nominalization verb
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ST: It reminds the nations of the world that there is an ongoing diplomatic effort to convince the Iranians to give up their nuclear weapons ambitions. :TT5 . ST: So I think there's universal agreement that we don't want them to have a weapon. . :TT6 . :TT1 Syntactically, verbs tend to convey concrete notions, actions or processes rather than less effective abstract concepts. Although there is only a tendency, but it is quite enough to change readers first interpretation out of the same issue. These examples are one type of nominalization, which is altered into a verbal version of the action in TT1 to change readers vision towards a more narrowed and specific event. On the other hand, in TT2, the ST sentence was translated in such a way that, nobody can ever make any guess about the actual involvement of an actor.
8.4. Modalization
As explained earlier, modality refers to a speakers attitude towards, or opinion about the truth of a proposition expressed by a clause. It also extends to his/her attitude towards the situation or event described by a clause (Halliday, 1985). Modality has to do with the judgment of the speaker of the probability, casualty, obligation, or inclination involved in what he is saying. It represents the speakers angle, either on the validity of the assertion or on the rights and wrongs of the proposal. ST: the world is united and concerned about their desire to have not only a nuclear weapon, but the capacity to make a nuclear weapon or the knowledge to make a nuclear weapon, In this extract from the president Bush speech, non-modalized language used to show Iran is definitely after producing nuclear weapons, however, it had some different rendering in Persian: .. :TT5 . ... :TT8 . ... In both translations into Persian, the translators added a probability sense ( ) to the presidents speech to show their country is not desirable to have nuclear weapons and it can be his inference and it is not a definite fact. ST: My message to the Iranian people is you can do better than to have somebody try to rewrite history. And you can do better than having somebody who's trying to develop a nuclear weapon that like the previous example, here Bush used a non-modalized language to show his certainty about the acts of Iranian president for developing nuclear weapons that has different renditions in Persian in which degrees of uncertainty and inference are included. . :TT1 .. . :TT6 . ...... In TT1, the translator by adding a modal ( ) tried to lessen the negative load of the bush speech, which directly addresses the president of Iran and tried to state that Bushs speech just can be a possibility. In TT6, the other translator by changing the tense of the sentence to future () , attempted to prove that this can be a guess about the future and it may not realize as stated by Bush. ST: that for the sake of world peace they should abandon their nuclear weapons ambitions.
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. :TT5 . .... :TT2 As it is clear from the ST, the speaker intentionally used a modal of obligation (should) to show Iran is forced to stop its nuclear program for making nuclear weapons. However, in TT5, the translator changed one function of should which is obligation with the other one which is for expectation ( ) to alleviate the forceful load of the ST. In TT2 on the other hand, the translator replaced the forceful power of should and added a sense of possibility and advisability () .
8.5. Thematization
Placement of information within a sentence and their order, i.e. which one comes first and which last can directly change the message of the sentence and affects the listener or the reader comprehension or as mentioned before, What the speaker or writer puts first will influence the interpretation of everything that follows. In this part some examples from the ST are chosen in which the translators deviated from the original form and changed the order of information in the sentence. ST: By supporting democratic change in Iran, we will hasten the day when the people of Iran can determine their own future and be free to choose :TT7 . In the above extract, by supporting democratic change in Iran is suggesting this view that Iran's internal affairs are in a state of chaos and the Iranian nation is not enjoying enough freedom and on the whole, the country and the people are in urgent need of others' help. The listeners may also have this sense that U.S. is concerned about the democracy and freedom in Iran. This linguistic manipulation diverts the people's attention from the real motives of America in this standoff. However, in the translation submitted, the translator changed the place of the theme whether intentionally or accidentally and thereby the idea which induced in source text reader may not be transferred to the target text reader. ST: The path chosen by Iran's new leaders -- threats, concealment, and breaking international agreements and IAEA seals -- will not succeed and will not be tolerated by the international community. :TT2 . In the above extract, to convince the public opinion that Iran's actions are not in compliance with international agreements and describe Iran as the violator of universal regulations, George W. Bush has placed such issues like: The path chosen by Iran's new leaders -- threats, concealment, and breaking international agreements and IAEA seals , and so forth as the themes of his remarks and this topicalization helps the listeners to view the issue from this perspective that Iran has no respect for international agreements and regulations and this makes the public mind point the finger of blame at Iran. As it can be seen from the Persian rendition of this part, the translator changed the place of international community to the beginning of the sentence and this may lead to another interpretation.
8.6. Emotive Language or Lexicalization

The vocabulary type chosen by a speaker or writer affects the minds and the attitudes of the readers and the listeners differently. The types of words that a writer uses can activate particular presuppositions, reveal speaker's attitudes, require reader agreement for interpretation, and so forth. ST: The Iranian regime sponsors terrorists and is actively working to expand its influence in the region. . :TT8
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. :TT7 As pointed in the analysis of the source text of this part, name-calling is a prevalent strategy used by politicians applying derogatory terms that dehumanize the enemy. Simply put it, they use terms that evoke fear, anger and hatred; and it distances the audience, making it easier to accept a course of action towards the enemy. Bush has used the word 'regime' 30 times in comparison to the positive synonym 'government' whose number is 3. This is going to show that Iran's government and their authorities are not legal as the word regime suggests such a meaning into the public mind. On the contrary, two translators preferred not to use this offensive term and replace it with other words meaning government ( -). In the table below, the overall percentages of different categories according to which the analysis of ST and eight TTs was done is displayed. It can clearly show the translators may or may not follow the ideology and strategy of the ST speaker and they changed it both intentionally or according to their own ideology and haphazardly or unintentionally. Although it is noteworthy in some items such as thematization and active/passive structures, the choices of translators were approximately the same as those of the ST speaker. Table 1: the overall percentages of different discursive structure in ST and TTs No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Discursive structure Passive sentences Active sentences Modalization Thematization Nominalization Lexicalization ST 22.3 41.7 4.7 25.3 29 27.61 TT1 24.1 40.5 5 25.4 27.7 25.6 TT2 23.4 41.9 4.2 24.7 30.2 25.9 TT3 22.9 41.1 5.4 25.9 28.4 26.3 TT4 21.3 43 3.9 25.6 28.7 27.1 TT5 21.8 42.9 5.1 23 29.3 28.4 TT6 22 42.5 4.8 24.4 30.6 28.7 TT7 22.2 41.4 4.4 26 29 27.3 TT8 23.1 41.2 5.3 23.9 28.2 27.7
The aforementioned TT analysis exposed a number of complications related to the translation of political texts. Even though the text type required a dynamic translation, most of the translators have used the static strategy to translation and have applied a very literal approach. Hence, most of the translations reflect the SL structure, which delays the level of perception of the TT. It may be related to the phenomenon of foreignizing, i.e. the usage of borrowing from the English language and grammatical structures, but may also be related to the lack of time and accurateness during the contentment of the translation task. There are a great number of linguistic and grammatical inaccuracies in the translations, which denote the fact that the translators have not been able to get fully acquainted with the translation brief and the situational and social contexts of the ST and TTs. Thus, the trustworthiness of the translation suffers. According to Hatim and Mason (1997:176), the texture and structure are at risk when the context is misinterpreted. It seems that most of the translators have been able to understand the ideological and power struggle between the two participants, but have not been able to determine what textual means are used to create the respective power struggle in the ST and have not been able to transfer the same effect in the TL. There are, however, a number of very good solutions where translators have applied translation strategies to explain or substitute a SL term with a more natural equivalent term in the TL in order to make the TT more accessible to the target reader. Both the ST and TT analysis offers a very short insight into the problems and solutions present in the TTs, but it is a good basis for further research in the particular field of the CDA framework within TS. The translation quality has hurt not only due to the fact that the translations were done on a
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voluntary basis, but also to the fact that the translators did not have a ready-made framework at hand, which would provide them with tools for the analysis of the ST and definite guidelines which are necessary in the translation of culture-bound political texts. Most of the translators failed to pay attention to the situational and social contexts, background information, linguistic choices, semantic and pragmatic relations in the text and thus created literal translations causing some misunderstandings in the TL. These findings demonstrate the fact that the translation brief alone is not enough to provide the translators with the valuable information regarding the underlying power and ideological struggles in political texts and thus leads to the conclusion that CDA framework may become a useful tool, which would help the translators to perform a critical analysis of the ST at the initial stage of the translation process. Additionally, the application of the CDA framework in translator training would provide the future translators with an analytic tool which helps them to found a step-by-step procedure for the analysis of the ST and the production of the TT, which would advance their awareness of the importance of the role of language in the socio-cultural context as well as the impact of their own textual choices in the translation process. 9. Conclusion The main aim of this thesis was to prove the hypothesis that CDA is a helpful implement in the translation process of political texts. The CDA integration in translation is a very new field within TS and has not been researched comprehensively. The existing research contains a variety of approaches and reflections and does not offer an applicable model for translation-oriented analysis of both STs and TTs within political discourse. Thus, this thesis deals with the integration of Norman Faircloughs CDA model mixed to Michael Hallidys SFL into the translation process of political texts, i.e. in this thesis the materials for the analysis were both some political interviews and some political speeches. The integration of the CDA model in the translation process was based on the earlier considerations within TS by such CDA/TS scholars as Basil Hatim and Ian Mason (1990; 1997), Christina Schffner (1997; 2002; 2003; 2004), Robert S. Valden (2007), etc. The framework created in this thesis may be considered as an optional supplementary tool or a set of guidelines for the ST and TT analysis during the process of translation of highly culture-bound political texts which display significant power and ideological struggle between the interlocutors of the communicative act. This comparative analysis located within Translation studies from a CDA viewpoint can provide a broader analytical angle for translation students helping them to recognize texts in connection with all kinds of textual and extra textual constrains such as ideology, power relations, and cultural and historical backgrounds. Indeed, this enquiry was an attempt to emphasize that the underlying ideological filter, most often as an invisible hand, makes every text unbiased or innocent let alone texts having politicized language. Therefore, translators, as any other language users who actively participate in the process of creating meaning, need to be very aware of and conscious about every discursive strategy or choice, ranging from deletion and addition to syntactic and lexical variations, they might adopt during the process of producing the target text on the basis of the source text. In this view, the findings of the present paper and/or other CDA based research aim to contribute to a better understanding of politically slanted texts whose contents are more or less transparent, and accordingly to give translators a deeper insight towards subtle persuasive strategies which place readers in specific ideological positions. References
Banhegyi, M. (2009). The translator's ideology and reproduction of superstructure. WoPaLP, vol.3, 28-56. Bassnett, S.; Lefevere A. (1990) Translation, History and Culture. Casell, London.
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Bassnet,S. ; Schaffner,C. (eds). (2010). Political Discourse, Media and Translation. Cambridge Scholars Publishing: Newcastle upon Tyne. Chilton, P.; Schffner, C. (2002) Politics as Text and Talk. John Benjamins. Fairclough, N. (1989) Language and Power. Longman, UK. Fairclough, N. (1999) Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. United Kingdom: Longman. Fairclough, N. (2001) New Labor, New Language? Routledge, London and New York. Fairclough, N. (2003) Analysing Discourse. Textual analysis for social research. Routledge, London and New York. Fairclough, N. (2006) Semiosis, ideology and mediation. In Lassen, I.; Strunck J.; Vestergaard T. Mediating Ideology in Text and Image. Ten Critical Studies, 19-37. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia. Halliday, M.A.K. (1978) Language as social semiotic. The social interpretation of language and meaning. Eward Arnold Publishers, London. Halliday, M. A. K. & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman. Halliday, M. A. K. (1985/1994). An introduction to functional grammar. London: Edward Arnold. Hatim, B.; Mason, I. (1997) The Translator as Communicator. Routledge, London and New York. Hodge, B., and Kress, G. (2nd ed.) (1993). Language as ideology. Routledge : London and New York. Lefever,A (ed.). (2002). Translation, history, culture. London : Routledge. Munday, J. (2007a) Translation Studies. Theories and Applications. Routledge, London and New York. Munday, J. (2007b) Translation and Ideology. A Textual Approach, 195-219. In Munday, J.; Cunico, S. Special Issue. The Translator. Translation and Ideology. Encounters and Clashes. Volume 13, Number 2. St. Jerome Publishing, Manchester, UK. Nahrkhalaji,S. (2006). Translation: Ideology and power in political discourse. Retrieved from:http://www.ils.uw.edu.pl/PL2007/pliki/1181989324Saeedeh%20Shafiee%20Nahrkhalaji.pdf Schffner, C. (1997) Strategies of Translating Political Texts, 119-145. In Trosborg, A. (ed.) Text Typology and Translation. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia. Schffner, C. (2002) The Role of Discourse Analysis for Translation and in Translation Training. Multilingual Matters Ltd., UK. Schffner, C. (2003) Third Ways and New Centres. Ideological Unity or Difference? In Prez C. M. Apropos Ideology. Translation Studies on Ideology Ideologies in Translation Studies, 23-43. St. Jerome Publishing, Manchester, UK and Northampton, MA. Schffner, C. (2004) Political Discourse Analysis from the point of view of Translation Studies, 117-150. In Journal of Language and Politics 3:1. John Benjamins Publishing Company, UK. Schjoldager, Anne. 2008. Understanding Translation. Academica, rhus. Trosborg, A. (ed.) (1997) Text Typology and Translation. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia. Tymocko, M. (2003) Ideology and the Position of the Translator. In What Sense is a Translator In Between? In Prez C. M. Apropos Ideology. Translation Studies on Ideology Ideologies in Translation Studies, 181203. St. Jerome Publishing, Manchester, UK and Northampton, MA. Valdeon, A., R. (2007) Ideological Independence or Negative Mediation: BBC Mundo and CNN en Espaols Reporting of Madrids Terrorist Attacks. In Carr, S.M. Translating and Interpreting Conflict, 99-119. Rodopi, Amsterdam/New York. Van Dijk, A.T. (1997a) Discourse as Structure and Process. Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction. Volume I. SAGE Publications, London. Van Dijk, T. (1997b) Political Discourse and Racism, in Riggins, H., S. (ed.), The Language and Politics of Exclusion. USA: SAGE Publications. Van Dijk, T. (2001) Multidisciplinary CDA. In Wodak, R.; Meyer, M. Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. SAGE Publications, Great Britain. Wodak, R. (ed.) (1989) Language, Power and Ideology. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia. Wodak, R.; Meyer, M. (2001): Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. Great Britain: SAGE Publications.
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Assessment of the Quality of Urban Transport Services in Nigeria

Adetunji Musilimu Adeyinka. (Ph. D)
Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences Federal University Lokoja, Kogi State, Nigeria Phone +2348066245425 Email: maadetunji@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p49
Abstract Transport services are inadequate in quality and qualitative terms in most developing countries such as Nigeria which, relies on the importation of fairly used vehicles to meet the travel demands. The poor service delivery of transport system had created impediment towards the smooth movement of people, goods and services in some of urban centres in Nigeria. This study is designed to investigate the quality of transport services in Ibadan metropolis. The study area covered the eleven local government areas that make up Ibadan metropolis. Stratified sampling technique was used to select two political wards from each of the local government areas identified in the city. The twenty two political wards sampled were re-grouped into three geographical areas based on land use characteristics and population density. These are high, medium and low density. In each of the three geographical areas identified in the city, a systematic random sampling procedure was employed to select one in every twenty buildings along the major streets. In each of the buildings sampled, only one household is randomly selected for interview. An average of one hundred copies of the questionnaire was administered in each of the density area. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. The findings revealed that some of the urban residents who are less accessible to transport services in their neighborhood commute on foot to meet their travel demands. Many of the urban residents expressed their dissatisfaction with the transport services available in the city. Further analysis showed that households income is highly correlated with modal choice in the city. The result of the analysis further revealed that some of the intra-transport services are poorly maintained. The study concluded that there is need to revitalize the transport services in urban centres in Nigeria so as to improve the accessibility characteristics of urban residents and promote sustainable transport development. Key Word: Urban, Households, Transport Services, And Plannig.
1. Introduction Urban transport services in Nigeria is inadequate both in quality and quantitative terms considering the rate of population growth and the economic condition of an average Nigerian on the affordability of transport services to meet his or her travel demands over the past four decades. The structural adjustment programme of the middle 80s had made the importation of new automobile vehicles relatively expensive to purchase for urban mobility in the country. Similarly, the price of motor spare parts had risen astronomically and many Nigerians could hardly maintain their old vehicles which invariably compounded the mobility crises in Nigerian towns and cities. Incidentally most of urban trips in Nigeria are made by road, rail and water based mode and these accounted for about 95%, and the remaining 5% were mainly by walking (Oyesiku ,2001). It is pertinent to note that of all the trips made by vehicles, 70% were by public transport, which is dominated by private sector operators. According to Oyesiku (2002), more than 95% of all urban public transport journeys in Nigeria were provided by private operators using mainly taxis and
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paratransit buses. It is interesting to note that many of the urban residents are less accessible to these transport services. Besides, the service delivery of public transport operators is less satisfactory to the urban commuters in Nigeria. Most of the research works carried out on the mode of operation of public transport services in Nigeria do not consider the quality of transport services in relation to comfort, affordability, safety and income level, which are all of paramount importance to mobility pattern of urban residents in any country of the world. The focus of this research therefore is to assess the quality of transport services in Ibadan metropolis with the view to improving the mobility characteristics of urban residents and promoting sustainable transport development in the study areas and many other cities in Nigeria. 2. Theoretical Frame Work and Review of Literature Modal choice represents an important households travel characteristics in transportation research. There are many theories available in the literature to explain transportation planning. These include travel demand model, gravity model, residential location model, traffic assignment model and modal split model. The theory that we consider very appropriate to explain transport services in this context is the modal split model. According to the model, different modes of urban transport are available to urban commuters; these include cars, buses, walking, motorcycles, taxis, ships or trains. The choice of a particular mode would depend on such factors as the trip type, trip purpose, the level of satisfaction of transport services, transport fare / cost associated with the available modes, comfort and income of the commuters (Adetunji, 2010; Ogunsanya, 1986; Okonko, 2000). In a study of urban mobility patterns in Ilesa in South western Nigeria, Adetunji (2010) reported that the households income affects the modal choice of urban resident. According to him, high income earners travel by their personal cars to different activity patterns while the low income earners commute by foot for short distances and rely on public transport services for which exorbitant fares are charged. This is contrary to what exists in some other countries of the world, particularly in China where the train is the principal mode of transport for all categories of trips by urban residents while the local trips are made by public transport services (buses and taxis) which are cleaner and more comfortable. The buses are extremely cheap and commuters pay the same amount of transport fare irrespective of the distance travel (http://www.chinese-culture.net/html/china_public_transport.html, 2012) In a study of public transport in Nigeria, the World Bank (1990) and Adeniji (2000) reported that taxis (and private vehicles carrying fare paying passengers) represent about 53% of the public transport trips, while 30% made use of motorcycles. In many cities in developing countries, motorcycles account for about 90% of feeder trips to taxi and minibus terminal. Similarly, in a study of the supply of transport infrastructure in Lagos metropolis, Ogunsanya (2004) found that most urban road networks are not only poorly developed with feeder street grossly inadequate, but also these inadequacies more often than not forced vehicles to concentrate on the primary roads with serious implications on commuters modern choice and mobility patterns especially along the same urban transport corridor. World Bank 1993; World Bank 1997 and Adesanya et al 2002 affirmed that urban poor in Nigeria pay a very high proportion of their income for transport services and spent long periods of time travelling and waiting for infrequent and unreliable bus services. They also reported that due to inadequate access to infrastructure and services, the urban poor also have limited access to educational institutions and social services. However, many of the works done on the public transport in Nigeria do not have critical assessments of the quality of the service delivery of transport operators in some of the cities studied. It is on this premise that this study is designed to examine the quality of transport services
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in Ibadan metropolis in Nigeria with a view to improving and sustaining transport infrastructure in Urban centres in Nigeria and similar other cities in Africa. 3. The Study area Ibadan is a typical city in Nigeria which has experienced high rate of urbanization over the past four decades. The study area comprises eleven contiguous local government areas. These are Ibadan North, Ibadan North West, Ibadan South West, Ibadan South East, Ibadan North East, Egbeda, Akinyele, Moniya, Ona ara, and few others. The traditional occupation of Ibadan people are farming and trading in varieties of goods. The favourable climatic conditions and good soil types have encouraged the production of both food and cash crops in Ibadan region. The major food crops grown include yam, cassava, maize, tomatoes and many others. Similarly, the cash crops cultivated include cocoa, palm oil, and little coffee. The abundant food supply and peacefully co-existence in the city had encouraged many people to settle in Ibadan to earn their livelihood. Like many other urban centres in Nigeria, Ibadan grew organically without any form of master planning (Ipingbemi, 2009). The high density area is mainly occupied by the indigenous Ibadan people. These areas include Mapo, Atipe, Labiran, Bere and Oja Oba. Many of the intra-city roads in this area are too narrow to accommodate vehicular traffic which invariably makes mobility temporarily difficult during the rainy season. The situation at low density areas of the city is different from the high density areas because the areas are well planned and occupied mostly by the high income earners and top civil servants. Some of the roads in this part of the city are well tarred with bitumen and are motorable in most parts of the year. The land use arrangement in Ibadan metropolis is greatly affected by movement patterns of urban residents in the city. For instance, many of the employment generating organizations i.e Government Secretariats, public land uses such as schools, hospitals and commercial centres like Gbagi, Dugbe, Sasa and Ogunpa markets generate more trips than areas of the city that are mainly for residential purpose. The daily commuting to different activity centres in this traditional city requires more automobiles thus culminating in more complex traffic problems such as noise pollution and emission of toxic substances that are inimical to human health in the urban environment. It is interesting to note that transport infrastructure in Nigeria are poorly developed. Many of the intra city routes in Ibadan are poorly designed and rarely maintained, this compounds the mobility crises in the city. Different modes of transport services are available in the city to enhance the movement patterns of urban residents. These include motorcycles, taxis/ cabs and paratransit modes. However, taxis and buses operate on the major roads while tricycles and motorcycles ply different categories of roads in the city. The stringent policy imposed on the importation of new vehicles and high costs of spare parts have made it difficult to have better transport services for urban commuters. However, many of the city inhabitants are generally low income earners who cannot afford to buy new automobiles to enhance their daily commuting. The resultant effect of this is that many of the urban residents in the city depend on poorly maintained public transport services to meet their day to day transactions. It is on this background that this study assesses the quality of transport services in Ibadan one the very large cities in Nigeria.
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4. Methodology and Materials Used for the Research. The study area covers the eleven local governments areas that make up Ibadan metropolis. A stratified sampling technique was used to select two political wards from each of the local government areas identified in the city. These twenty two political wards sampled were re-grouped into three geographical areas based on land use characteristics and population density. These are high, medium and low density.
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In each of the three geographical area identified in the city, a systematic random sampling procedure was employed to select one in every twenty buildings along the major street. In each of the buildings sampled, only one household is randomly selected for interview. An average of one hundred copies of the questionnaires was administered in each of the density areas. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. 5. Results and Discussion of Findings The findings revealed that different modes of transport are available to urban commuters in Ibadan metropolis. These include trekking, tricycles, motorcycles, cabs/ taxi, buses and cars. Table 1 reveals that 21% of the urban residents who are less accessible to motorized modes of transport in their neighborhoods indicated that they patronize motorcycles more frequently for their day to day transactions. 32.7% claimed that they travel mostly by their personal cars. An approximately 29.3% and 17% of the sampled populations depend on paratransit buses and taxis for their intra city movement. This is an indication of inadequate public transport services in Ibadan metropolis and similar other cities in Nigeria. However, in some of the advanced countries, buses of different categories are designed to convey large number of passengers from one place to another. Table 1: Most Accessible Mode of Transport
Frequency 63 98 88 51 300 Percent 21.0 32.7 29.3 17.0 100.0 Valid Percent 21.0 32.7 29.3 17.0 100.0 Cumulative Percent 21.0 53.7 83.0 100.0
Valid
Motorcycle Car Bus cab/taxi Total
Source: Authors Computation, 2012

The income of the commuters determines the modal choice in the city. For instance, table 2 revealed that 54.5% of high income earners who own personal means of transport indicated that they travel by their cars. 18.2% depend on each of motorcycle and taxi. Further analysis indicates that 68.2% of the urban poor rely on the public transport (motorcycle= 25.6%, buses 23.1% and taxis 17.6%). An approximately 27.2% of low income earner claimed that they rely on car pool for their intra- city movement. Table 2: Household Modal Choice among Different Income Earners in the Study Area.
Income Low Medium High Ground Total in Percentage Trekking 5.1% 4.8% 0.0% 4.7% Tricycle 1.0% 8.4% 9.1% 3.7% Motorcycle 25.6% 19.3% 18.2% 23.3% Car 27.2% 43.4% 54.5% 33.3% Bus 23.1% 7.2% 0.0% 17.0% Taxi/ Cab 17.9% 16.9% 18.2% 17.7%
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Further analysis revealed that the age of the respondents, possession of personal means of transport, distance travel, average time taken and modal choice consideration vary significantly across the three density areas identified in the city; Possession of means of transport, F = 7.005 < .00 ; Distance travel, F = 3.213 < .04; Time taken, F= 7.244 < .00 and Modal choice , F= 3.689 < .03) Table 3: Modal choice Across the Density Areas Identified in Ibadan metropolis.
ANOVA
Possession of personal means of transport Average distance travelled per day Mode of transport embark upon mostly Household Income per Month Average times taken for trips Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 3.377 71.593 74.970 4.043 186.873 190.917 12.149 489.087 501.237 1.713 115.523 117.237 7.804 159.966 167.770 .294 226.852 227.147 Df 2 297 299 2 297 299 2 297 299 2 297 299 2 297 299 2 297 299 3.902 .539 .147 .764 7.244 .001 .857 .389 2.203 .112 6.075 1.647 3.689 .026 2.022 .629 3.213 .042 Mean Square 1.688 .241 F 7.005 Sig. .001
Mode of transport preferred in terms of safety
.193
.825

Table 4 revealed that the distance travel in Ibadan metropolis has a low positive correlation between the average times taken to reach activity travel patterns in the city. The correlation coefficient is r = 0.47 and it is significant at 0.01%.
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Table 4: Relationship between distances travelled and average time taken to reach activity travel patterns in Ibadan.
Correlations
Average times taken for such trip
Average distance travelled per day
Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N
Average times taken for such trip 1 300 .465(**) .000 300
Average distance travel per day .465(**) .000 300 1 300
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Source: Authors Computation, 2012
There is no route schedule for public transport services in urban centres in Nigeria. On several occasions, public transport operators pick up their passengers along the road sides and alight at will without consideration for other road users and time constraints of their passengers. Table 5 indicates that 62.3% of the commuters indicated that they experienced stop over during their trips. The remaining 37.7% claimed that they do not experience stop over either when loading or off loading passengers. Table 5: Experience of stop overs on your trips
Frequency 187 113 300 Percent 62.3 37.7 100.0 Valid Percent 62.3 37.7 100.0 Cumulative Percent 62.3 100.0
Valid
Yes No Total

The general assessment of the quality of transport services by the urban residents in the study area shows that many of the commuters are not comfortable with the service delivery. Table 6 shows that 42% of the commuters expressed their dissatisfaction about the maintenance culture of public transport services in the city. While the remaining 58% of the commuters claimed that they are satisfied with transport services, they see the probable inadequacies in their services as a reflection of the global economic recession which affects every aspect of the economy. Table 6: The maintenance of Public transport services in Ibadan
Frequency 174 126 300 Percent 58.0 42.0 100.0 Valid Percent 58.0 42.0 100.0 Cumulative Percent 58.0 100.0
Valid
Yes No Total
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It is highly disheartening that many of the public transport vehicles in Ibadan and similar other cities in Nigeria do not have rear lights, brake, spare tyre and good furniture to mention just a few. Table 7 indicates that 45% of public transport services have good seat cover, 40.3% have fairly covered seat cover. 14.7% of the respondents interacted with indicated that the seat covers of the public transport vehicles are bad. Table 7: Physical appearance of public transport services in the study area. Cumulative Percent 45.0 85.3 100.0
Valid
Good Fairly good Bad Total
Frequency 135 121 44 300
Percent 45.0 40.3 14.7 100.0
Valid Percent 45.0 40.3 14.7 100.0

To worsen the situation, the behavior of the public transport operators to the passengers is a serious concern to the transport planners and many urban stakeholders in Nigeria. It is a usually the practice for public transport operators in Nigeria to assault their passengers irrespective of their status. On many occasions public transport operators have been found fighting with their passengers over insignificant matters which can be settled amicably. Table 8 indicates that 64.7% of the commuters claimed that they are not satisfied with the behavior of the public transport operators in the city. Only 35.3% of the respondent claimed that they are comfortable with the behavior of the public transport operators in the city. Many of the commuters struggle to board buses for instance. This is owing to acute shortage of transport services in the city especially early in the morning when commuters are commuting to work places and later in the evening when returning home. Sometimes, it is extremely difficult to differentiate between freight vehicles from passenger vehicles in the city. Many market women carry their luggage on their laps in the vehicle during their intra city movement. It is usual practice to see the passengers carrying their children on their laps in the vehicle because of the shortage of transport services and as a means of reducing the cost of fare. Table 8: Public transport operators behavior in the study area
Cumulative Percent 35.3 100.0
Valid
Yes No Total
Frequency 106 194 300
Percent 35.3 64.7 100.0
Valid Percent 35.3 64.7 100.0

In an attempt to minimize the cost of transport fare, many of the urban commuters patronize the cheapest means of transport. Table 9 indicates that 43.7% of sampled populations claimed that the para transit bus is the cheapest means of transportation they patronize for their day to day transactions in Ibadan metropolis. Another 25.7% of the respondents who are mostly from the high income group
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(50%) claimed that they rely mostly on their personal cars. This category of people has comfortable economic status to maintain their personal vehicles. Further analysis revealed that 24.7% and 6% of the commuters rely on taxis and motorcycles respectively for their intra city transport in the study area. When modal choice is disaggregate at different income level, more than 80% of the urban commuters who patronize motorcycles are from the low income earners. Table 9: Modal choice preferred in terms of cost ( in Percentage %)
Count
In terms of cost which mode of transport do you prefer Household Income per Month Total Low Income Medium Income High Income Motorcycle 8.2% 2.4% 0.0% 6.0% car 20% 32.5% 50.0% 25.7% Bus 46.7% 42.2% 22.7% 43.7% cab/taxi 25.1% 22.9% 27.3% 24.7% Total motorcycle 100% 100% 100% 100%

In the consideration of modal choice by the urban commuters, safety is the most important factor. Table 10 shows that the use of personal means of transport particularly cars in Ibadan was ranked highest in term of safety and this accounted for about 48.7%. The use of paratransit buses was ranked second (25.3%). This is closely followed by taxi 20.7%. Motorcycle was ranked lowest by the urban commuters. Table 10: Mode of transport preferred in terms of safety
Frequency 16 146 76 62 300 Percent 5.3 48.7 25.3 20.7 100.0 Valid Percent 5.3 48.7 25.3 20.7 100.0 Cumulative Percent 5.3 54.0 79.3 100.0
Valid
motorcycle Car Bus cab/taxi Total

5. Planning Implications Access to effective and functioning transport services is one of the key factors for sustainable transport and economic growth in any country of the world. In some of the cities in African countries, transport infrastructure is poorly developed and has adverse effect on the free movement of people and goods. Many of the urban residents spend valuable number of their hours waiting and commuting to different activity patterns on daily basis. The use of mass transits and light rail should be introduced for intra city movements in Ibadan, Lagos, Port Harcourt and many other similar cities in African countries, which has a population of over four millions.
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6. Conclusions and Recommendation The study observed that transport services in Ibadan metropolis are grossly inadequate and poorly maintained. Many urban residents express their dissatisfactions with the services delivery of public transport operators in the city. The use of mass transit should be reintroduced so as to enhance the movement of large number of passengers to their various desired destinations. Also, the governments should participate in the provision of public transport services for the urban commuters at a subsidized rate. Such programmes have been introduced recently by the Ondo State government of Nigeria for both primary and secondary school pupils for their educational trips. Besides, the use of light rail should be encouraged for intra city movement in large metropolitan cities in Nigeria. References
Adeniji, .K. (2000): Transport Challenges In Nigeria in the next Two Decades Monograph Ibadan. Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER), Transport Studies Units. Adesanya, A.; Adeniji, K and Daramola A.Y. (2002): Transport Perspective of poverty in Nigeria A Multi dimensional perspective. Edited by Ajakaiye, D.O. and A.S. Olomola, A.S Pp. 235-283. Adetunji, M. A (2010): Spatial Analysis of Urban Mobility Pattern in Ilesa, Osun State. A PhD thesis submitted to the. Department of Geography of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife Ipingbemi, O (2009): Travel characteristics and mobility constraints of elderly in Ibadan. Journal of Transport Geography. Elsevier. Available online 25 June, 2009. Olanrewaju, S.A. Fadare, S.O.; Akinlo, A.E and Alawode A.A. (1995): Urban Passenger Transport in Lagos, Nigeria. A Research Monograph. Idrc Urban Transport Project Department of Economics, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife Nigeria Pp.1-55. Oyesiku, O.K. (2001): City poverty and emerging mobility crisis: The Use of Motorcycle as Public Transport in Nigeria cities. Paper presented at 9th world congress of transport research Seoul, South Korea, 22nd 27th, July. Ogunsanya, A.A; Vandu-Chikolo I. and Sumaila, A.G. (2004): (eds) Perspectives on Urban Transportation in Nigeria Nigerian Institute of Transport Technology (NITT), Zarai. M.O.D press, Kaduna PP 1-26. World Bank (1990): Nigeria Urban transports in Crisis, Lagos-West Africa. World Bank Department Infrastructure Division. World Bank (1993): Poverty Reduction Handbook, World Bank, Washington DC. World Bank (1997): Taking Action to Reduce Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa, World Bank, Washington, DC. (http://www.chinese-culture.net/html/china_public_transport.html) China News Headlines-HOT! | Facts About China Thursday, August 23,2012
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Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context Analyze of Rational Theories and Aspects of Leader Role in Long Term Characterized. The Observation of Behavior Effects in Albania
Prof Ass Dr. Alba Robert Dumi1 Ma Zamira Sinaj2
Prof. As. Dr. Dean of Graduated SchoolIsmail Qemali Vlora University Albania, Management Department Management Department, Economy Faculty, Tirana University Email:besi.alba@yahoo.com 2 Mangement Department, Vlora University Albania, Email:zsinaj@yahoo.com
1
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2012.v2n1p59
Abstract This paper research overview of the leader behavior literature highlighted the fact that there are inconsistent relationships between the behaviors that leaders engage in and the effects of these behaviors on member attitudes, behavior, and group effectiveness. While these inconsistent observations can be frustrating they underscore two very important facts. The behaviors are important as witnessed by their occasionally significant relationship with follower attitudes and behavior. Second, the observation that these behaviors do not always produce significant and positive effects suggests that something else is transpiring such that in one situation the particular leader behavior produces significant effects and in another situation that behavior is relatively unimportant. The question that these observations raise is. What effects do situational differences produce in the leader-follower relationship? Many decades ago Ralph S (1948) stated that the qualities characteristics, and skills required in a leader are determined to a large extent by the demands of the situation in which he [she] is to function as a leader chapter 8 provides an understanding of situational differences in the leadership process. If team members know for example, exactly what needs to be done, when, who and why, it is unlikely that initiating structure will prove to be needed or be effective if use. In contrast, when team members are operating under conditions of high levels of uncertainty-not knowing what, when or how to execute the task-a leader who is capable of initiating some structure will make a meaningful contribution. In this paper we are focus in leader role and in the influences of rationality behavior. The simple theme of this paper is might well be different strokes for different folks and/or different strokes for the same folks at different points in time. Put more directly, as conditions change, so do the leadership needs that are created and the leader behaviors that will prove effective. We are trying to analyze the effects of using different hypotheses in some definitions of leadership theories, the implementation of effects of leader behavior in organizations. Key words: Influence of leader, values, ideals, aspirations, emotions, rational theories.
1. Hypotheses and rationale influences theory Hypotheses about the use and effectiveness of each tactic for influencing target task commitment are presented next, along with a rationale for each of fourth hypotheses, that in this paper research are in our focus study and in based on our preliminary model and on prior research. Formal hypotheses were not made for ratings of a managers overall effectiveness because this criterion can be affected by many
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things besides a managers use of influence tactics. Rational persuasion involves the use of logical arguments and factual information to convince a target that the agents request or proposal is feasible and consistent with shared objectives (Eagly & Chaiken 1984). This is a flexible tactic that can be used for influence attempts in any direction. Nevertheless, rational persuasion is likely to be used more in an upward direction that in other directions, because in an upward direction a manager is limited by a weaker power base and role expectations that discourage the use of some tactics (see discussion of other hypotheses). 1.1 Introduction Inspirational appeals use the targets values, ideals, aspirations, and emotions as a basis for gaining commitment to a request or proposal (Yukl 1990). Inspirational appeals appear feasible for influence attempts made in any direction, but this tactic is especially appropriate for gaining the commitment of someone to work on a new task or project. Influence attempts and involving task assignments occur most often in a downward direction and least often in an upward direction (Erez1986, Kipnis1980, Yukl & Falbe, 1990) Thus managers have more opportunity to use inspirational appeals with subordinates than with peers or superiors. In the only prior study to examine directional differences for inspirational appeals, (Yukl and Falbe (1990) found that inspirational appeals were used more in downward influence attempts than in lateral or upward influence attempts. 2. Literature Review and Hypotheses Agents reported greater use of this tactic in upward influence attempts, but directional differences were not found for targets. Results for the consequences of using rational persuasion have been inconsistent also. In the questionnaire study by Kipnis and Sshmidt (1988) managers who received the highest performance ratings had a profile in which rational persuasion was the dominant tactic for upward influence attempts. However rational persuasion was not related to successful upward influence in the questionnaire study by Mowday (1978). Likewise tactics involving aspects of rational persuasion were not related to outcome success in the four critical incident studies described. Graph 1. The cycle of rationality developments of hypotheses,
Source: Mowday theory concepts 1978 lateral direction.
Hypothesis1a. Rational persuasion is used more in an upward direction than in a downward or
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When people gain a sense of ownership of a project, strategy, or change after participating in planning how to implement it, they are likely to be more committed to making the project, strategy or change successful (Yukl 1989). This influence tactic can be used in any direction, but it appears especially appropriate in the situation in which an agent has the authority to plan a task or project but relies on the target to help implement the plans. Because authority to assign work and make changes in work procedures is mostly downward a manager probably has more opportunity to use consultation to influence subordinates than to influence peers or superiors (Yukl & Falbe, 1990.
Hypothesis1b. Rational persuasion increases task commitment in all three directions.
2.1 The variety of hypotheses and limited results.

Only one study examined directional differences in frequency of use for consultation (Yukl & Fable, 1990) and results were mixed. Agents reported greater use of consultation in a downward direction, but directional differences were not significant for target reports. Evidence on the likely effectiveness of consultation as an influence tactic is limited and inconsistent. Locke (1982) found that a consultation tactic (using the target as a platform to present ideas) was likely to be effective in upward incidents reported by targets, but the results were not significant for upward incidents reported by agents in that study Locke (1988).
2.2. The significant indicators of this paper research study.

In the study by Vroom (1988) of downward incidents reported by agents, results for consultation tactics (listening, soliciting ideas) were not significant. Indirect evidence comes from research on leadership, which finds that consultation with individual subordinates is effective for increasing decision acceptance in some situations but not in others (Vroom & Jetton, 1988) Hypothesis2a. Inspirational appeals are used more in a downward direction than in a lateral or upward direction. Hypothesis2b. Inspirational appeals increase task commitment in all three directions. 3. Leadership and situational differences impacts. This paper research addresses the situation in the leadership process. The evolving leadership model from the earlier theories we suggests that the situation in part defines the leadership process and that it influences the leader and the interact role of leader with the leaders attempts to influence his or her followers. The importance of the situation has already been alluded to on numerous occasions through the first several theories. Murphy 91941), for example noted that situations in which people find themselves create needs, and it is the nature of these needs that defines the type of leadership that best serves the group.
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Graph 2 The different defines of leadership theories,
Source; IJERM Journal Nr 3, year 2012 Accordingly, Murphy theory and findings, saw leadership is a working relationship-one in which different contexts create one unique set of group needs, and a groups emerging leader is that individual who is capable of making meaningful contributions to the group. We are focus in Hypothesis 3a and 3b to overview in indicate of their effects. These hypotheses, helps us created the leaders modeling according Webber theory. Hypothesis3a. Consultation is used more in a downward direction that in a lateral or upward direction. Hypothesis3b. Consultation increases task commitment in all three directions. Three keys questions that will be addressed are: Does the situation in which the leader and follower are embedded make a difference? What leader behavior works and when? What is the process through which the situation produces its effects
3.1 Strategic leadership models and critical leadership situations

In Salancik and Pfeffers (1977) strategic contingencies model of leadership, the leader is a person who brings scarce resources to assist a group of individuals in overcoming a critical problem that they face. As the problems facing a group change, their leader may also change because of his or her access to critical and scarce resources. Thus, Salancik and Pfeffers work also serves to highlight the importance of the situation in defining leadership and the leadership process. Tab 2 shows the influences of situational leadership theory.
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Graph 3 Influences of situational propositions of leadership context with different authors theories,
Source: Leadership process, year 2008, USA Influenced by Stogidills (1948, 1974) reviews of the leader behaviors literature and the emerging recognition of the importance of the leadership context , Steven Kerr, Charles Murphy and Ralph Stogidill (1974), advanced a number of situational propositions linking leader of structure and consideration to a leader effectiveness. They note that accumulated evidence suggests that leader effectiveness is not always associated with those who behave in highly considerate and structuring manner. Among some of the situational factors that influence the effectiveness of leader consideration and initiating structure behavior are, for example, time urgency, amount of physical danger presence of external stress, degree of autonomy, degree of job, scope, importance, and meaningfulness of work. 4. Methodology and Research Goal Design The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) was distributed to employees of a public security organization in Albania, asking them to evaluate their supervisor's style of leadership. Employees were also asked to report their perceptions of organizational politics using the scale developed by the leaders in Albania Region. In addition, supervisors provided objective evaluations of the levels of their employees' in-role performance and OCB. The intra-structure of the leadership variable was examined by exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with structural equation modeling. Two alternative models were examined: first, a model of mediation and second, a direct model with no mediation.
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Findings The research resulted in mixed findings that only partially support the mediating effect of organizational politics on the relationship between leadership, in-role performance and OCB. A direct relationship between leadership and performance (in-role and OCB) was also found. This study empirically examines the impact of debt management policies on borrowing costs incurred by state governments when issuing debt in the municipal bond market. Based on positive political theory and the benefit principle of taxation, it is proposed that states that adhere to best practice debt management policies transmit signals to the credit ratings, investment community and taxpayers that the government should meet its obligations in a timely manner, resulting in lower debt costs. 1 The donors concurred with this assessment. IDA, starting with the 1998 CAS, considered governance and institution building as one of the central planks of its intervention and identified the need to adopt and implement reforms to build an accountable and transparent state as the most important challenge facing the Government of Albania. Hypothesis4a. Ingratiation is used more in a downward and lateral direction than in an upward direction. Hypothesis4b. Ingratiation has a stronger positive effect on task commitment in a downward and lateral direction that in an upward direction. Robert House (1971) contends that leader effectiveness is most appropriately examined in terms of the leaders impact upon the performance of his or her followers. In the first reading in this chapter, House and Terence Mitchell (1974) assert that a leaders behavior will be motivational and subsequently have an impact upon the attitudes and performance behavior of the follower to the extent that it makes the satisfaction of a subordinates needs contingent upon his or her performance.
4.1 Foreign experiences of organizational behavior

The vast majority of the contemporary scholarship directed toward leaders and the leadership process has been conducted in North America and Western Europe.Observing the volume of theory and research that has emerged around the concept of leadership over the past several decades Meindl A and his colleagues to suggest that we may have developed a highly romanticized, heroic view of leadership. Leaders have come to occupy center stage in organizational life. We use leaders in our attempts to make sense of organizational behavior. They are seen as the key to organizational success and profitability they are credited for organizational competitiveness, and they are the focus of blame in the face of organizational failure. A driving question in this stream of inquiry asks whether or not the effectiveness of leadership (leader behavior) is culture-specific. This larger-than-life role ascribed to leaders and the Western romanticized affair with successful leaders raises questions as to how representative our understanding of leadership is across other cultures. That is, do leadership theory and research results generalize from one culture to the next? Research into culture has generally addressed two questions. First there has been an interest in whether or not there are significant leadership differences across cultures. Thus, it might be asked whether culture gives rise to leadership differences. The second questions treats culture, as a key contextual variable.
4.2 Hofstede theory and five value dimensions of cultural differences in leader identification.
Geert and Hofstedes (1993, 1980) work provides a useful framework for the identification and
Donors and government investments, IDA
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classification of cultural differences. Hofstedes work spans 18 years, involving more than 150000 people and cutting across 60 countries. He identified five value dimensions that can be employed to explain differences in leadership (leader traits and behaviors) that might cut across cultures. These value frameworks consist of: Individualism-collectivism Individualism as a mental set in which people see themselves first as individuals and believe their own interests and values take priority (Canada, Great Britain, and the United States). Collectivism reflects the feeling that the group or society should receive priority (Hong Kong, Greece, Japan and Mexico). The self-assessment appearing at the end of this chapter opener provides you with the opportunity to profile yourself in terms of your individualistic /collectivistic values (general guiding principles for behaviors). Power Distance Power distance reflects the extent to which members of a social system accept the notion that members have different levels of power. High power distance suggests that leaders make decisions simply because they are the leader (France, Japan, Spain and Mexico). Low power distance suggests that social system members do not automatically acknowledge the power of a hierarchy (Germany, Israel, Ireland, and the United States). Uncertainty Avoidance Low uncertainty avoidance is reflected by people who accept the unknown and tolerate risk and unconventional behavior (Australia, Canada, and the United States). High uncertainty avoidance is characterized by people who want predictable and certain futures (Argentina, Israel, Japan and Italy). Masculinity-Femininity Masculinity refers to an emphasis that gets placed on assertiveness and the acquisition of money and material objects, coupled with a de-emphasis on caring for others (Italy and Japan). Femininity places an emphasis upon personal relationships, a concern for others and a high quality of life (Denmark and Sweden). Time orientation Tab 4 Long term characterized and short term perspectives.
Source: Dumi A, MJSS, Vol 3 Nr 3 2012
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Long-term orientation is characterized by a long-range perspective coupled with a concern for thrift and weak expectations for quick returns on investments (Pacific Rim countries). Short-term orientation is characterized by a long-range perspective coupled with a concern for thrift and weak expectations for quick returns on investments (Pacific Rim countries).
4.3 The strategic planning of e-learning in the Albania

E-Learning is gaining significant interest in distance education, including university and other. It also get a special importance in terms of exchanges of experiences between different institutions within and outside the country. Despite the distance people already have the opportunity to learn from others, or used in any other time and place that they are. These advantages are powered by technological developments, developments that require a generation as qualified to be adopted in time with the rapid technologic evolutions.The advantages of using e-learning are related to the degree of qualification of the generation which live in an era of rapid technological change. Despite the rapid technological development in many countries there are benefits from the use of e-learning or there are benefits that are not at levels as its required. 5. SWOT Analysis and E-learning considerations E-learning will be consider as one of the new business that requires the implementation of a modern infrastructure for the needs of customers .In determination of the needs customers there is always a question, which is necessary by enterprises in the e-learning to identify the application, create and determine its size. Above it is explained that the concept of e-learning is very broad, there is only about distance learning, but we have included this concept, different meanings, referring to the electronics companies in all markets. We identify the opportunities and threats, strengths and weaknesses, and their impact on the choice of strategic alternatives are summarized SWOT analysis below. Table 1: SWOT analysis by powers, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for the study of internal and external context were identified four strategies
Internal factors The external factors Opportunity: 1. The increase of Internet users market 2. The increase of sustained prosperity 3.Fulfillments of legal and political vacuum 4. Demographic structure (domination by young people) Strengths 1. qualified human resources. 2. Internal logistics Strategies: 1.The entry strategy and market growth Weeknesses 1.Experiences 2. Provision of necessary financial funds. 3. Marketing Strategies: 2.The strategy of strategic alliances. (To provide the necessary funds and organization of marketing campaigns for the presentation of products and services to be offered on the market)
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Threats: 1. The rapid technological changes 2.Adaptation with the new technological changes
3.Outsourcing strategy (some services)
4. Strategy and strategic alliances of "outsourcing" (Some services)
5.1 The strategic alternatives of this study

In the SWOT analysis by powers, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for the study of internal and external context were identified four strategies are: strategy of market entry and growth strategy strategic alliances strategy of the outsourcing of some services. strategy and alliances of "outsourcing" of some services
5.2 The choice of strategic alternatives

The strategies described above were the results of the SWOT analysis. But among the strategies mentioned above as the best strategy taking into account the environmental opportunities and threats external and internal potential and highlighted during the analysis it is estimated: The entry strategy and market growth. Normally the choice of alternatives can not be considered easy, because if he makes reference to the SWOT analysis, note that for each alternative is found threats and weaknesses. But in choosing this alternative strategy is thought achievement of the mission, the external environment and is adapted activity cycle of e-learning, in which they have considered the business cycle of preparing to enter the business of e-learning, and thinking about market growth. Another reason for the choice of entry and growth strategy in the market compared to others strategies, which calls for the alliance without getting into a market is not an easy process. Once that others can look to slice alliances entered into a new and unfamiliar business. While outsourcing observed is more acceptable and more accessible, such as through outsourcing organization creates the possibility of using the services, which can not perform better than others or could not be performed 6. Findings The first reading in this paper was written by Hofstede. In this reading Hofstede discusses differences in management as they exist around the globe. His writings provide us with insight into cross-cultural leadership differences as they relate to his value profile. In the second reading in this paper Peter W. and his colleagues John P, Hibino, Jin Lee, and A Bautista (1977) look at commonalities and differences in effective leadership processes across a set of Western and Asian countries. Dorfman A find that three leader behaviors (supportive, contingent reward and charismatic) appear across different cultural settings, while three behaviors (directive, participative and contingent punishment ) appears to be culturally specific in terms of their linkage with leader effectiveness. 7. Conclusions and Recommendations The effects of contingent punishment are unique in that this behavior has a desirable effect in only one of the Western countries (the United States) and in neither of the two Asian countries studied. Leaders who demonstrate supportive kindness and concern for followers are valued and effective in each of the
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countries studied.Leaders contingent behavior is highly effective in the more collectivism Asian culturesas it often is in Western countries. The readings in this and the preceding chapter sensitize us to the contextual factors with which leaders need to contend. Specifically Hofstede (1993) and Dorfman (1997) alert us to the fact that not all followers will have the some belief and value orientation. These differences clearly have leader and leadership implications. Our earlier reading by Murphy (1941) suggested that leadership function of an interaction between the leader, the situation and the follower. In this paper we will focus on the follower in the leadership process. We will want to carry into those readings and understanding of the individual differences that are produced by cultures and differential belief/value systems. References
Ashby, W.R desing for a brain. New York : wiley, 1952. Bagozzi, R.P & Yi, Y.Y. on the evalution of structural equation models. Journal of the academy of marketing science, 1988, 16(1), 74-94. Bass, B.M. stogdills handbook of leadership: a survery of theory in research. New York : free press, 1981. Bass, B.M. bass and stogdills handbook of leadership. Theory, research and managerial application (3rd ed.). New York : Free Press, 1990. Blake, R.R & Mounton, J.S. the managerial grid. Houston, TX: Gulf, 1964. Bowers, D.G & Seashore, S.E. predicting organizational effectiveness with a four-factor theory of leadership. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1966, 11, 138-263. Carmines, E.G & Maciver, J.P. analyzing models with unobserved variables: Analysis of covariance structures. In G.W. Bohrsted and E.F. Borgatta. Social measurement: current issues. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1981. Conger, J.A. the dark side of leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 1993, 21, 46-58. Dansereau, FGraen, G & Haga, W.J. A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations: a longitudinal investigation of the function-making process. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 1975, 13(1), 46-78. Dobbins, G.H & Platz, S.J. sex differences in leadership: How real are they? Academy of Management Review, 1986, 11(1), 118-127. Denison, D.R. Hooijberg, R & Quinn, R.E.Paradox and performance: a theory of behavioral complexity in managerial leadership. Organization Science. 6(5), 524-540. Dumi A., Kiser I., and Karakushi A., (2012) Oriental Policies and Investment Prospects Increasing the Economic Development Capacity in Republic of Kosovo, in Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 No 3 September 2012, doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v2n3p95 Falbe, C.M & Yukl, G.Consequences for managers of using single influence tactics and combinations of tactics. Academy of Management Journal, 1992, 35(3), 638-652. Fiedler, F.E. a theory of leadership effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. Gillespie, H.R. An investigation of current management/leadership styles of manufacturing executives in American industry. Dissertation Abstracts International, 19801, 41(7a), 3177. Harris, T.G. the post-capitalist executive: an interview with Peter F.Drucker. Harvard business review, 1993, 71, 114-122. Hart, S.L & Quinn, R.E. Roles executives play: CEOs, behavioral complexity, and firm performance. Human Relations, 1993, 46(5), 543-574. Hersey, P & Blanchart, K.H. Management of organizational behavior: utilizing human resource (4th, ed). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982. Hooijberg, R,& Quinn, R.E. Behavioral complexity and the development of effective managers. In R.L. Phillips and J.G.Hunt (eds), strategic management: A multi organizational levels perspective. New York: Quorum, 1992. House, R.J. A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1971, 16, 321-338. House, R.J & Mitchell, T.R. Path goal theory of leadership. Contemporary Business, 1974, 3(Fall), 81-98. Howell, J.M & Higgins, C.A. Champions of technology. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1990, 35, 317-341.
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Joreskog, K.G & Sorbom, D. Liserel 7:Users reference guide. Mooresville, IN:Scientific Software, 1989. Kanter, R.M. the new managerial work. Harvard Business Review, 1989 (November-December). Katz, D.A & Zaccaro, S.J. An estimate of variance due to traits in leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1983, 68(4), 678-685. Kester, F & Wollenberg, A.L. van den. Modulair system methodenleer Quasi experimenteel design. Vakgroep Mathematische Psychologie, Psychologisch Laboratorium, Nijmegen, 1986. Kipnis, D & Schmidt, S.Upward influence styles: Relationship with performance evolution, salary, and stress. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1988, 33, 528-402. Kotter, J.P. the general managers. New York: Free Press, 1982. Lieberman, S. the effects of changes in roles on the attitudes of role occupants. Human Relations, 1956, 9, 385402. Luthans, F & Lockwood, D.L. Toward an observation system for measuring leader behavior in natural settings. In J.G. Hunt, D. Hosking, C.A> Schriesheim, and R.Steward (eds), Leaders and managers: international perspectives on managerial behavior and leadership. New York : Pergamon Press, 1984. Mintzberg, H. The nature of managerial work. New York: Harper and row, 1973 Morse, J.J & Wagner, F.R. Measuring the process of managerial effectiveness. Academy of Management Journal, 1978, 21, 23-35. Park, R.E. behind our masks. Survey, 1926, 56, 135-139. Pinder, C, Pinto, P.R & England, G.w. Behavioral Style and Personal Characteristics of Managers. Technical report, University of Minnesota, Center for the study of organizational performance and human effectiveness, Mineapolis, 1973. Quinn, R.E. Beyond rational management. Mastering the paradoxes and competing demands of high performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988. Quinn, R.E. Spreitzer, G.M & Hart, S.Challenging the assumptions of bipolarity: interpenetration and managerial effectiveness. In S.Srivastva and R. Fry (eds). Executive continuity. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1991. Schlenker, B.R. Impression management: the self-concept, social identity and interpersonal relations.Monterey,CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1980. Staw, B.M & Ross, J. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1980, 65(3), 249-260. Stogdill, R.M. personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature. Journal of psychology, 1948/, 25, 35-71. Van Fleet, D.D & Yukl, G.A. military leadership: an organizational behavior perspective. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1986. Vroom, V.H & Yetton, E.W. Leadership and decision making. Pittsburgh University Press, 1973. Wheaton, B. Assesment of fit in overidentified models with latent variables. In J.s. Long (ed), Common problems/propers solutions: Avoiding error in quantitative research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1988. Yukl, G.A. A New Taxonomy for Intergrating Diverse Perspectives On Managerial Behavior. Paper presented at the American Psychological Association meeting, New York, 1987. Yukl, G.A. leadership in organization. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989. (a)
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Socio-Economic Determinants of Rural Migrants in Urban Setting: A Study Conducted at City Sargodha, Pakistan
Faisal Imran
Department of Sociology, University of Sargodha, Pakistan
Yasir Nawaz
Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, University of Sargodha Pakistan E. mail: yasir.manj@uos.edu.pk
Muhammad Asim
M. Phil Scholar Department of Sociology G.C. University Faisalabad, Pakistan E. mail: masim202@gmail.com
Arshad H. Hashmi
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p71
University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
Abstract Migration is universal phenomena and people move from rural areas to urban areas, from developing countries to developed countries and from societies with stagnant economic conditions to societies with better off economic conditions to address their economic and social needs. The present study was designed to explore the socio-economic determinants of rural migrants in urban settings in Sargodha city. For the purpose of the study existing literature on the topics was thoroughly reviewed. A sample of 120 respondents was taken equally (40 from each colony) three randomly selected localities i.e. Satellite Town, Farooq Colony and Old Civil Line. Descriptive analysis demonstrates that insufficient, inappropriate educational, health, recreational facilities, poor infrastructure and stagnant and limited economic opportunities in rural areas were the prime factors which motivate the individuals and families to migrate to the urban areas. With increasing migration from rural to urban areas, the multi-dimensional problems such sanitation, environmental pollution, overcrowded housing, congested traffic, overpopulation, road accidents and crimes are increasing. Government should have provide better economic opportunities, better sanitation facilities, better health facilities better educational facilities, better infrastructure, better transportation, promotion of cottage industry, and establishment of small industry near the villages to divert the major flow of people from rural areas to urban areas. Key words: Migration, Socio- economic determinants, Push and pull factors and Rural and Urban areas
1. Introduction Migration is defined as the crossing of the boundary of a pre defined spatial unit by persons involved in a change of residence (Henderson, 2002). Economic development leads to structural transformation and as a result, the share of agriculture sector declines while that of industrial sector increases in the
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countrys Gross Domestic Product (GDP). As the industrial output increases, employment opportunities at the urban centers also increases and people begin moving from the rural subsistence agriculture sector to the urban areas in search of better employment opportunities and better living conditions (Sadaf et al, 2010). This phenomenon increase in the urban population as a consequence of the mass movement of people to urban centers is commonly referred to as urbanization. However, movement of people from the rural subsistence agricultural sector is not the only cause of urbanization, the higher population growth rate especially in the developing world is also a major reason of the growing trend of urbanization. The process of urbanization on the one hand, provides opportunities of better standard of living, while it is also having certain negative effects such as congestion, environmental pollution, and an increase in crimes and so on. Urbanization is of many developing countries and Pakistan is no exception. During the last 63 years, the total population of Pakistan in general and of Pakistani cities in particular increased manifolds (Izhar et al, 2010). The overall population increased by more than 52.5% during 1951 and 2010. In 1951, 82.26% of the total Population lived in rural areas whereas this figure dropped down to only 66% in 2008. The current estimated Population growth rate of Pakistan is 1.513% while the population growth rate of cities is 3% which clearly points out that rural-urban migration is nearly 2% annually (Anonymous, 2011). Pakistan is country with 180 million and population growth is also high as compared to many developing countries. More than 68 percent population lives in rural areas in extreme poor socioeconomic conditions. As different studies indicate that more than one third of rural population is below the poverty line along with further division of land into the growing families. People find no way other than migration to urban areas to address their socio-economic and health needs. In Pakistan migration has always been an important phenomenon. After independence in 1947, a population exchange between India and Pakistan took on a scale never before recorded in human history, involving more than 14 million people (Arif and Hamid, 2009). People tend to move from one area whether rural or urban, developing country or developed country keeping in view multi-dimensional aspects, motives or causes. The decision to move is based on certain felt deprivations, stress, constraints, aspirations, motivation at the place of origin. Deprivations are felt by collectively or individuals when the immediate needs are not fulfilled by the existing conditions within a community (Haq, 1974). There are many economic, social and political and environmental factors which caused by migration, and they can usually be classified into push and pull factors. Push factors are those associated with the area of origin, while pull factors are those that are associated with the area of destination ( Riley, 2011).
Pull and Push Factors

Variables Socio-cultural Push Social discrimination, family expansion, Crime, religious restrictions and social Injustice Political instability, ethnic conflict, Propaganda Poverty, unemployment, slow economic growth low wages, land tenure issues, landlessness, mechanization of agriculture, depleting resources, lack of infrastructure Environmental degradation, natural disasters, food security, disease, climate change and water scarcity Pull Family reunion, family or Community Commitments, education and cultural Opportunities, health services Access services To public Employment and business opportunities, higher wages, potential better standard of living Lack of or high number of people space, environmental quality
Political Economic
Environmental
Source: ( Riley, 2011).
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2. Methodology Methodology describes the methodological approaches employed to test research hypotheses; the discussion is mainly focused on various aspects such as study design, selection criteria for respondents, study sites, sampling procedures, and sample size, construction of measuring instruments, pilot study or pre-testing and measures adopted during development of questionnaire and during field survey to collect reliable responses. The present study was planned to investigate the socio economic determinant of rural migration in urban setting in city Sargodha. Three most populous localities namely Satellite Town, Farooq Colony and Old Civil Line were selected randomly. 40 respondents in each locality were interviewed through purposive sampling technique constituting a total sample of 120 respondents. The interviewing schedule was prepared in the English but questions were asked in Urdu and Punjabi language according to the situation. The pre-testing was done on twenty male heads in order to ensure the validity and accuracy of interviewing schedule. After pre-testing and finalizing the interviewing schedule and field research activities were started for data collection. 3. Results and Discussion Table 1 shows that a majority 62.5 percent of the respondents were males and 37.5 percent of them were females. Data regarding the age majority of the respondents 64.2 percent of them had 27-35 years of age. It shows that majority of the migrated families belong to the young age group. Data exhibited that 13.3 percent of the respondents were illiterate, while 19.2 percent of them had up to ten years school education, and a large majority 67.5 percent of them had ten year and above school education. These statics shows that majority of the respondents had better education. Data regarding income level more than one-third i.e. 38.3 percent of the respondents had less than 15000 rupees monthly family income, while 15.8 percent of them had Rs. 15000-30000 monthly family income and than one-fifth i.e. 21.7 percent of the respondents had Above 40000 rupees monthly family income. According to the given table majority of the respondents belonged to mediocre class. Table 1: socio economic and demographic characteristics of the respondents
Gender Male Female Age (in years) 18-21 22-26 27-35 Above 35 Education Illiterate Up to ten year school education Ten year and above Family monthly income Less than 15000 15000-30000 31000-40000 Above 40000 16 23 81 46 19 29 26 13.3 19.2 67.5 38.3 15.8 24.2 21.7 Frequency 75 45 5 23 77 15 Percentage 62.5 37.5 4.2 19.2 64.2 12.5
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Table 2 shows that a large majority i.e. 70.0 percent of the respondents reported that they were migrated from rural to urban because of the availability of basic facilities i.e. job, education and good living standard were not available in villages, whereas 30.0 percent of them were replied negatively. This shows that a large majority of the respondents migrate rural to urban areas for the fulfillment of their basic needs. Data indicated that large majorities i.e. 77.5 percent of the respondents were satisfied with their present residence and 22.5 percent of them did not satisfied with their present residence in cities. Data regarding work condition of the respondents shows that little less than a half i.e. 49.2 percent of the respondents reported that they have continued the same work in urban setting, while slightly more than a half i.e. 50.8 percent of them never to have continued the same work in urban settings. Similar finding found by Farah (2001) found that the socio-economic factors age, income and education were found as the main factors shaping the migration attitude of the respondents. The majority of the respondents were young adults, not highly educated and professionals and having large-sized families. As far as their economic condition is concerned most of them fell in the low-income group. Most of them migrated for making higher income, getting better education, and achieving a better standard of life. Table 2: Distribution of the respondents with regard to their response after migration
Attitudinal statements n = 120 Migrate due to facilities were not properly available in rural areas Satisfaction with their residence after migration Have continued the same work after migration Thinking that confidence level increased after migration Financial position changed after migration Success to achieve the purpose/cause of migration Yes F 84 93 59 102 73 88 % 70.0 77.5 49.2 85.0 60.8 73.3 F 36 27 61 18 47 32 No % 30.0 22.5 50.8 15.0 39.2 26.7
Data demonstrates that majority of the respondents 60.8 percent were in opinion that their financial position had improved due to migrate in cities and 39.2 percent of the respondents were in the opinion that their financial condition were same as previous as rural. When the researchers asked the respondents about the accomplish the purpose or cause of migration almost one third of the respondents 73.3 percent gave the positive response regarding this statement and 26.7 percent respondents were not satisfied about their migrated design regarding their achievement in various aspects of life. Table 23 presents the socio-economic determinants of rural to urban migration. About one-third i.e. 32.5 percent of the respondents were strongly agreed, 33.3 percent of them were agreed that they migrated rural to urban areas for their child education. 31.7 percent of respondents were not in the opinion that they migrate for their child education. Similar result found by Farooq et al., (2005) they examined the determinants of internal migration in Faisalabad, Pakistan. 50% of the respondents migrated due to economic reasons, 80% and 13% of the respondents were pushed out of their place of origin due to poor economic and educational opportunities, respectively. Landlessness was yet another significant push factor. Data show that majority of the respondents moved toward urban areas for their childrens better education. Health is another important indicator a large majority of the respondents 78.4 percent agreed that due to poor health facilities they migrate and 19.2 percent respondents were not in the favor that due to health batter health facilities they migrate. A mainstream population 45.8
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percent also mentioned that they were faced transpiration problem in rural areas, to attain the better transpiration facilities they did migrate in urban settings. Table 3: Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about the socio-economic determinants of rural migration in urban setting.
Socio-economic determinants n = 120 Migrate due to your childrens education Migrate for better health facilities Migrate in city due to transports problems in villages Migrate rural to urban for better job opportunities Migrate because of families issues in villages Migrate due to high rate of crimes in village Feel more comfortable in city Feel oddness in the culture of urban areas Have better relations with the neighbors of urban areas Satisfied with your residence in city Get fair wage in urban areas? feel more esteem and confidence before migration Strongly agree f. % 39 32.5 38 31 29 19 11 42 22 32 19 41 34 31.7 25.8 24.2 15.8 9.2 35.0 18.3 26.7 15.8 34.2 28.3 Agree f. 40 56 24 85 2 8 44 32 52 46 46 40 % 33.3 46.7 20.0 70.8 1.7 6.7 36.7 26.7 43.3 38.3 38.3 33.3 Neutral f. 1 3 34 6 12 21 7 14 3 25 6 24 % 0.8 2.5 28.3 5.0 10.0 17.5 5.8 11.7 2.5 20.8 5.0 20.0 Disagree f. 38 21 23 0 50 46 19 40 30 16 22 22 % 31.7 17.5 19.2 0.0 41.7 38.3 15.8 33.3 25.0 13.3 18.3 18.3 Strongly disagree f. % 2 1.7 2 8 0 37 34 8 12 3 14 5 0 1.7 6.7 0.0 30.8 28.3 6.7 10.0 2.5 11.7 4.2 0.0
It is noted here that a huge majority 95 percent respondents did migrate rural to urban areas for search out better job opportunities, while 5 percent of the respondents were neutral for their purpose to migrate. Similar results were also found by Sattar (2009) that educated people preferred to migrate in the cities because they migrate rural to urban areas due to the better job opportunities and secure their future. Majority of the respondents 72.5 percent were not agreed that they migrate due to the different types of families issues in their villages. When the researcher asked to the respondents crime rate in villages had any impact on their migrate decision. 66.6% of the respondents were not agreed with this statement. This data shows that families issues and crime rate in villages had no major impact to the people perception to do migrate. A large majority 77.7 percent of the respondents feel pleasure and comfortable in their urban residence in lieu of rural, while 22.5 percent of the respondents were not feel combatable in urban settings. About 18.3 percent of the respondents were strongly agreed and 26.7 percent of them were agreed that they felt oddness in the culture of urban areas, 11.7 percent of the respondents were neutral, 33.3 percent of them were disagreed and 10.0 percent of them strongly disagreed with this opinion. More than one-fourth i.e. 26.7 percent of the respondents were strongly agreed and a major proportion i.e. 43.3 percent of them were agreed that they have better relations with the neighbor of urban areas while 25.0 percent of them were disagreed and 2.5 percent of them strongly disagreed with this opinion. It shows that, migrants had also better relations with the neighbors of urban areas. Only 15.8 percent of the respondents were strongly agreed and 38.3 percent of them were agreed that they were satisfied with their residence in city regarding better facilities and other allied facilities,
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20.8 percent of the respondents were neutral, 13.3 percent of them were disagreed and 11.7 percent of them strongly disagreed with this opinion. About one-third i.e. 34.2 percent of the respondents were strongly agreed and 38.0 percent of them were agreed that they get fair wage in urban areas of their labors, 5.0 percent of the respondents were neutral, 18.3 percent of them were disagreed and 4.2 percent of them strongly disagreed with this opinion. Data exhibited that more than one-fourth i.e. 28.3 percent of the respondents were strongly agreed and 33.3 percent of them were agreed that they felt more esteem and confidence as compare to before migration, 20.0 percent of the respondents were neutral, 18.3 percent of them were disagreed with this opinion. 4. Conclusion Descriptive analysis demonstrates that insufficient, inappropriate educational, health, recreational facilities, poor infrastructure and stagnant and limited economic opportunities in rural areas were the prime factors which motivate the individuals and families to migrate to the urban areas. With increasing migration from rural to urban areas, the multi-dimensional problems such sanitation, environmental pollution, overcrowded housing, congested traffic, overpopulation, road accidents and crimes are increasing. Government should have provide better economic opportunities, better sanitation facilities, better health facilities better educational facilities, better infrastructure, better transportation, promotion of cottage industry, and establishment of small industry near the villages to divert the major flow of people from rural areas to urban areas. References
Anonymous. 2011. Punjab Development Statistics. Bureau of Statics Government of Punjab, Lahore. Arif, G. M. and S. Hamid. 2009. Urbanization, City Growth and Quality of Life in Pakistan. European Journal of Social Sciences. (10) 2. Farah, N. 2001. Socio-economic & cultural factors affecting migration behavior (A case study of Faisalabad [Pakistan]. Unpublished Thesis M.Sc., Rural Sociology, Univ. of Agri., Faisalabad, Pakistan. Farooq, M., A. Mateen and M.A. Cheema. 2005. Determinants of Migration in Punjab, Pakistan: A Case Study of Faisalabad Metropolitan. J. Agri. Soc. Sci., 1(3): 280-282. Haq, A., 1974. Theoretical consideration for studying socio-psychological factors in migration. The Pakistan Rev., XIII: 35360 Henderson, V. 2002. Urbanization in Developing Countries. World Bank Research Observer, 17(1): 89-112. Oxford University Press Khan, I. A., S. Mahmood, G. Yasin and B. Shahbaz. 2010. Impact of international migration on social protection of migrants families left behind in agrarian communities of district Toba Tek Signh, Punjab, Pakistan. Pak. J. Agri. Sci., Vol. 47(4), 425-428 Riley, C. 2011. Push and Pull Factors behind Migration. Retrieved Date 22/11/2012. http://www.tutor2u.net/blog/index.php/geography/comments/study-note-push-and-pull-factors-behindmigration Sadaf, M., I. A. Khan, A.A. Khan., B. Shahbaz and S. Akhtar. 2010. Role of international migration in agricultural development and farmers livelihoods: a case study of an agrarian community. Pak. J. Agri. Sci. 47(3):297301. Sattar, H. 2009. International migration and its impact on socio-economic development in rural households in T.T. Singh. M.Sc. Unpublished thesis, Dept. of Rural Sociology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
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Effect of Computer Assisted Instruction on the Achievement of Basic School Students in Pre-Technical Skills
Paul Dela Ahiatrogah
Centre for Continuing Education, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. pauldela57@yahoo.com
Moses Bedwei Madjoub

Agogo College of Education, Agogo, Ghana ekowbedwei@gmail.com
Brandford Bervell
Centre for Continuing Education, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. b_brandford@yahoo.co.uk
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p77
Abstract The study compared the effects of Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) on the achievement of Junior High School (J.H.S) students in Pre-Technical skills after exposing them to CAI and the traditional methods of instruction. The theoretical framework for the study is that people learn most things better through construction of computer games or multimedia composition rather than through traditional methods of directly teaching content. The study involved 59 students from two schools in Kumasi Metropolis. Twenty eight of the students formed the CAI group while 31formed the traditional group. Quasi-experimental design was used for the study. Structured pre-test and post-test achievement test with a reliability coefficient = 0.74 and 0.75 respectively were used to collect data. The data was analyzed using Predictive Analysis Software (PASW) version 18. The study revealed that the CAI group performed better than the traditional method of instruction group. However, there was no statistically significant difference between the achievements levels of the two groups. It was recommended that CAI should be introduced in the teaching of Pre-Technical skills throughout the country. Key words: Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI), Achievement, Intellectual capabilities, Computer laboratory
1. Introduction
In this present digital era, development in various aspects of computer technology has reached a stage beyond our imagination and expectations. Even though the computer has a lot of applications in various fields, one should not forget its applications in the field of education. It is very useful and helpful in the teaching and learning process, therefore computer literacy is very much needed for teachers as well as learners. The computer has created a revolution in education and the nature of learning process. It has great effect upon our educational system as such teachers should be in terms with the physical reality of
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the computers and learn how to take actual advantage of the computers educational potential (Bennett 1999). Computer knowledge can be stated as knowing about the various fundamental aspects of computers and the basic skills involved in the operations of computers. It also includes the applications of computer in teaching and learning processes (Timothy 2007). It is, therefore, heart-warming that Ghana has formally adopted the teaching and learning of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in its pre-tertiary educational system. In this direction, students are expected to develop interest and use ICT for learning other subjects among other things (Curriculum Research and Development Division [CRDD] 2007). Moreover, teachers are also expected to teach with computers. One mode through which computers can be used in the teaching and learning processes is the Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) technology (Traynor 2003). Even though Salomon (as cited by Kankaanranta, 2005) has stated that the use of computer serves as a trigger for transformations and technology-enriched instructional innovations, which involve profound changes that affect the very nature of entire learning environments, research on the use and effectiveness of CAI vary (Cotton 1991; Ornstein and Levine 1995). Ornstein and Levine (1995) indicated that some researchers have revealed that CAI has been effective for short-term achievement gains such as quizzes, but not for long-term gains such as retention. Moreover, because the acquisition of computer hardware and educational software programs involves a considerable monetary investment, it is worthwhile that such statements are made based on empirical evidence (Cotton 1991). Pre-Technical Skills was introduced in the curriculum of the then Junior Secondary School (J.S.S) in 1987 as a result of the new educational reform. As a compulsory subject, every J.S.S student was required to write an examination on it in the Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE). Currently, with the introduction of the Junior High School (J.H.S) system, a new syllabus covering PreTechnical Skills, Home Economics and Visual Art has been introduced. This syllabus required students to select any one of the subjects for the BECE. Evidence from a study by Adamtey (2009) indicated that the reputation of Technical and Vocational Education has been low among Ghanaians because the youth believe that Technical and Vocational Education is for the academically limited students and people with physical disabilities. Furthermore, the practical nature of the Pre-Technical Skills subject accompanied with the abstract way in which it is taught in class instead of the workshop, has contributed to most Junior High School students showing little interest in the subject compared to interest shown in other subjects. Most government schools do not have workshops and tools to facilitate the teaching and learning of the Pre-Technical Skills subject. Our position in this paper is that the introduction of CAI can enhance the practicality of PreTechnical Skills. The procedural method involved can be incorporated in the computer program to enable easy understanding of the subject and also make it interesting. It is assuring to note that a reasonable number of Ghanaian children of this 21st century, particularly those in the urban areas, are attracted to the use of computers and are thus acquiring various computer skills than before. Therefore, the development of Pre-Technical Skills software will not only enhance childrens computer skills but also assist them to acquire technical knowledge to enhance their performance.
1.1 Theoretical and Conceptual frame work

Constructivism provides an appropriate framework for educational technology. Based on the research of Seymour Papert (Co-founder of MITs Artificial Intelligence and Media Labs, professor of Media Technology at MIT, and one of the worlds foremost experts on the impact of computers on learning) and others, we are learning that computers are an appropriate medium to support active, interactive, and self-directed learning. Technology can allow students to work out their own learning strategies, develop
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different learning styles, express themselves and not only demonstrate, but also use their new knowledge in many different ways. Computers and the Internet facilitate constructivist practices by providing a medium for discovery and exploring larger worlds and giving students autonomy in using knowledge. Learning in a computational environment provides a context for learning in which there is an empowering sense of a students own ability to learn anything he or she wants to know, with the gusto we only use to see when they played video games. The potential exists to bring back an enthusiasm for learning by shaping education to fit each students approach to learning (Papert and Harel, 1991). Papert believes that the fundamental fact about learning is that anything is easy if you can assimilate it to your collection of models. The understanding of learning must be genetic, it is internal; it comes from a personal, passionate interest. The laws of learning must be about how intellectual structures grow out of one another and about how, in the process, they acquire both logical and emotional form. Purpose is the key here. A computers essence is its universality; its power to simulate because it can take on a thousand forms and can serve a thousand functions, it can appeal to a thousand tastes. Computers, as a medium, are flexible enough so that people, especially young people can each create for themselves something that is emotionally and intellectually stimulating (Papert 1980). The Internet, as a code word for connectivity, is a radical transformation. Creating collaborative learning communities with students in ones own class and students from around the country and around the world can have a qualitative difference in their development. (Papert, 1996)
1.2 Statement of the Problem

As Ghana incorporates the use of computers in its pre-tertiary educational system (CRDD 2007), it is very necessary and important that the effects of the variety of computer usage are explored. This will help the nation to know and be assured that whatever technology they are bringing will have a positive effect on both teachers and students. It is therefore very necessary, that a study is conducted to examine the effectiveness of CAI, as against the traditional approach of teaching. CAI is new to our present educational system, in view of that little has been done to introduce it in technical educational programs. This is because most of the technical teachers are themselves new to the computer or used to the traditional method of teaching. In most Junior High Schools (JHS) in Ghana, Pre-Technical Skills is one of the subjects that students dislike because of its practical nature (Adamtey 2009). The situation is even made worse since very little is being done in the development of Pre-Technical Skills software that will minimize or eliminate the abstract ways in which some teachers teach the subject due to lack of workshops. The purpose of this research therefore was to examine the relation between the achievement levels of Junior High School students who are taught with CAI and those who are taught with the normal traditional method of teaching Pre-Technical Skills. 2. Methods
2.1 Research Design

The research design used for this study was the quasi experimental design with a focus on Nonequivalent Groups Pre-test and Post-test since the study required the manipulation of the experimental variables. Also, because random assignment of subjects was not possible, already established intact groups were used. This design was chosen because it is very prevalent and useful in education. It provides reasonable control over most of the variables affecting internal and external validity. Furthermore, the groups involved may be different prior to the study (Mertens 1998).
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The threats to the internal validity with this design are mortality and history. This did not prove to be a threat in this study, since the group sizes remained constant throughout, and the study was relatively short in duration. Furthermore, no event other than that of the experimental treatment occurred during the time between Pretest and the Posttest observation. This design is represented diagrammatically in Figure 1. Figure1. Non-equivalent Groups Pre-test and Post-test Design
Figure 1 illustrates the Non-equivalent Groups of Pretest-Posttest. Two comparable groups were used in the order of A and B respectively. The two groups were initially given a Pretest (01), afterwards, two different treatments (X+) and (X_ ) were administered to group A and B. Finally, Posttest (01) was conducted. The duration from the Pretest treatment to the Posttest of the experiment happened within a specified time.
2.2 Population and Sample

The population for the study comprised all JHS both private and public in Kumasi Metro, totaling 386 schools. However, the accessible population was 10 schools where computers were available and accessible for students use (Education coordinators report Kumasi Metropolitan, 2009), as well as those who have chosen from other options to study Pre-Technical Skills at JHS 2 in their various schools. Two schools Vicande and Shalom JHS were purposively selected out of the schools in Kumasi. This is because they are similar in academic rating and both had well equipped computer laboratories where each student had access to a computer. Intact JHS 2 Pre-Technical Skills classes from the two schools were used for this research. Since it was morally wrong to withdraw some students from the class, all students in the classes concerned were involved. Shalom JHS 2 Pre-Technical Skills students were 28 in number out of which 13 were females and 15 were males. Vicande JHS 2 Pre-Technical Skills students were made up of 15 females and 16 males totaling 31 students. The total number of males involved in this research was 31 and that of females was 28. The sample size for the study therefore was 59. Vicande Junior High School was assigned the group where the traditional method of teaching was introduced (Traditional group). Whilst Shalom Junior High School was assigned to the group where CAI was introduced (CAI group).
2.3 Instruments
The instruments for the study were teacher made achievement test for the Pre-test and Post-test. The test items were based on Aggregates, Adhesives and Finishes which are the three major topics in Unit 2, Unit 3 and Unit 4 of the JHS Pre-Technical Skills syllabus. These topics have not been treated in the two schools prior to the study. The instrument had 30 multiple choice items with 10 items from each topic. To ensure the content validity of the test items, the tests were given to two experienced graduate Pre-Technical Skills teachers at the University of Education Winneba Kumasi and New Aboabo M/A
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JHS to critically review the content. Pilot testing of the instrument was conducted at Nigrition International School at Dechemso in Kumasi. The school was selected because it had a computer laboratory and also can be found in the first 10 schools in the Kumasi metro analysis of basic education certificate examination result 2009. Furthermore, to find the reliability of the instruments, scores obtained from the pilot testing of the test instrument were analyzed. The reliability coefficients alpha was computed using split half estimates Spearman-Brown prophecy formula. The pilot Pre-test and Post-test of the 30 test items revealed a reliability coefficient of 0.74, and 0.75 respectively. The CAI was developed using Microsoft office power point 2007. The Pre-Technical Skills software contains three major topics, with two sub topics each. The major topics were aggregates, adhesives and finishes. The lessons were made to last for 35 minutes to 70 minutes a section in other to fit into the JHS timetable. In developing the technical software, provision was made for introduction of the program, learner control, presentation of information, and ending the program. To make sure that the CAI is free from problem before it is implemented, it was pilot tested in other to correct any unforeseen error before the start of the study. Pilot testing of the CAI was conducted at Saviour International School at Tanoso in Kumasi. The school was selected because it had a computer laboratory and also can be found in the first 10 schools in the Kumasi metro analysis of basic education certificate examination result 2009.
2.4 Data Collection Procedure

2.4.1 Treatment Plan The study was carried out in 3 phases, phase 1 pre-treatment assessment, phase 2 treatment package and phase 3 post-treatment assessments. Phase 1: Pre-treatment assessment: The pre- treatment assessment instrument made up of 30 test items on the selected Pre-Technical Skills topics was administered to the two groups, at their various schools to obtain a pre-test or a baseline data. The pre-treatment assessment lasted for 1 day. Phase 2: Treatment package: Different methods of teaching were adopted in the 2 schools. The treatment for CAI group involved the use of CAI in teaching the selected Pre-Technical Skills topics namely Aggregate, Adhesives and Finishes. Traditional group benefited from the Traditional method of teaching the same topics listed, which one of the researchers personally delivered. Participants were exposed to 70 minutes of teaching the selected Pre-Technical Skills topics two times in a week for five weeks. Phase 3: Post-treatment assessment: At the end of the treatment, the researchers re-administered the assessment instrument on the selected Pre-Technical Skills topics to the schools in one day. This was done to ascertain the effects of the two treatments on the participants. Scores obtained from the two schools provided the final post-test data
2.5 Data Analysis

The Pre-test and Post-test were scored objectively and data obtained was entered into SPSS program, which helped to prepare tables for interpretation. The entire hypothesis was tested with Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). This procedure was used since the Pre-test scores obtained from the CAI and Traditional groups were not the same, therefore, there was the need to adjust the Post-test scores based on the initial differences (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001). Furthermore, since random assignment of subjects was not
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possible, these groups may differ on a number of attributes (Mertens 1998). The use of ANCOVA reduced some of these differences and the scores on the Pre-test are treated as covariate to control for pre-existing differences between the groups (Pallant 2005). The achievements of the groups were also compared based on the mean deviation of the test scores of the CAI and Traditional groups. Finally, all the significant differences were compared to a significant level of 0.05. 3. Results and Discussion
Hypothesis 1
H0 There is no statistically significant difference between the academic achievements of students taught by Computer-assisted instructions and those taught with the Traditional method of teaching. Table 1: One-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) on Differences in Performance Between the Traditional and CAI Methods of Teaching Pre-Technical Skills
Source Corrected Model Pretest Group Error Total Type III sum of squares 379.95a 367.95 43.14 96.76 25333.00 df 2 1 1 56 59 Mean Square 189.98 367.95 43.14 1.73 F 109.95 212.95 24.97 Sig. .00 .00 .00
Significant at .05 level; df =1 & 56; critical P .05 The data presented in Table 1 shows that a calculated F-value of 24.97 resulted in the difference in performances between the Traditional method of teaching and the CAI. This calculated F-value of 24.97 is statistically significant since the significant level of .00 is less than .05 of alpha significance level, at 1 and 56 degree of freedom. This implies that there is a significant difference between the Traditional and CAI methods of teaching Pre-Technical Skills. Hence the null hypothesis H0 stating There is no statistically significant difference between the academic achievements of students taught by Computer-assisted instructions and those taught with the Traditional method of teaching was rejected. This finding supports the constructivist perspective which emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding, and making sense of information presented to him (Roblyer and Edwards 2000; Hsu Chen and Hung, 2000; Good and Brophy, 1990). This is so because the students taught by the CAI, through knowledge discovery and interaction with the CAI showed a significant difference in their academic achievement. Furthermore, previous studies done by Morse (1991); Kuchler (1998) and others, which explored the effectiveness of CAI in teaching Science and Mathematics, found that students who received instructions through CAI achieved more than those who studied in a conventional environment. It can therefore be concluded that students achievement in Pre-technical skill, did significantly improved due to the use of the CAI.
Hypothesis 2
H0: There is no significant difference between the CAI and Traditional groups on their achievement in Aggregates, a topic in Pre-Technical Skills.
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Table 2: One-Way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) on differences in Performance on Aggregates between the Traditional and CAI Groups
Source Corrected Model Pretest Group Error Total Type III sum Of squares 9.36a 6.41 3.63 252.30 2933.00 df 2 1 1 56 59 Mean Square 4.68 6.41 3.63 4.51 F 1.04 1.42 .806 Sig. .361 .24 .37
Significant at .05 level; df = 1 & 56; Critical P .05 The data presented in Table 2 summarizes the outcome of the ANCOVA analysis on the differences in performance on Aggregates between the Traditional and CAI groups. It compared the Pre-test and Post-test aggregate scores obtained by the CAI group and the Traditional groups. The data shows that a calculated F-value of .806 resulted in statistically no significant difference in performance between the Traditional group and the CAI group. This calculated F-value of .806 is statistically not significant since, the significant level of .37 is greater than the alpha significant level of .05, given 1 and 56 degrees of freedom. This implies that there is no significant difference between the academic achievements on aggregates, between the CAI group and the Traditional group. Hence, the null hypothesis H0 stating There is no significant difference between the CAI and Traditional groups on their achievement on aggregates, a topic in Pre-Technical Skills. was retained. The findings from Table 2 in one way or the other confirms the constructivists believe since it can be concluded that the students in the CAI group who interacted with only the Pre-Technical Skills software on the computer, obtained the needed academic information on Aggregates required to place them at pair, with the Traditional group who were taught by a teacher. It also supports Bennett (1999) statement that, if schools were wealthy enough to afford hardware for each pupil, finding and retaining qualified teachers would be impossible. Another aspect is that computers, offer personal advantage of attention and instruction for each student (p 105). In this instant, Bennett (1999) in his time, will have preferred computers to teachers had it not been the cost of computers. In some cases they can produce the same output, as that of paid teachers.
Hypothesis 3
H0: There is no significant difference between the CAI and Traditional groups on their achievement in Adhesives, a topic in Pre-Technical Skills Table 3: One-Way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) on differences in Performance on Adhesives between the Traditional group and CAI group
Source Corrected Model Pretest Group Error Total Type III sum of Squares 17.63a 17.18 1.00 247.22 3198.00 df 2 1 1 56 59 Mean Square 8.81 17.18 1.00 4.42 F 2.00 3.89 .23 Sig. .145 .053 .64
Significant at .05 level; df =1 & 56; Critical P .05
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The data presented in Table 3 summarizes the outcome of the ANCOVA analysis on the differences in performance on Adhesives between the Traditional and CAI groups. It compared the Pretest and Post-test Adhesives scores obtained by the CAI group and the Traditional groups. The data shows that a calculated F-value of .23 resulted in statistically no significant difference in performance between the Traditional group and the CAI group. This calculated F-value of .23 is statistically not significant since, the significant level of .64 is greater than the alpha significant level of .05, given 1 and 56 degrees of freedom. This implies that there is no significant difference on the academic achievements in adhesives, between the CAI group and the Traditional group. Hence, the null hypothesis H0 stating There is no significant difference between the CAI and Traditional groups on their achievement in Adhesives, a topic in Pre-Technical Skills, was retained. Daramola and Asuquo (2006) conducted a similar research on Effect of Computer Assisted Instructional Package on Secondary School Students Performance in Nigeria. They concluded by not finding any significant difference in the performance of students who were exposed to individualized CAI and those that were taught using conventional method of instruction. The findings of Table 3 can be concluded that the CAI method of instruction can produce similar results as the Traditional method instruction in some subjects, of which Adhesives in Pre-Technical Skills is no exception.
Hypothesis 4
H0: There is no significant difference between the CAI and Traditional groups on their achievement in Finishes, a topic in Pre-Technical Skills. Table 4: One-Way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) on differences in Performance on Finishes between the Traditional group and CAI group
Source Corrected Model Pretest Group Error Total Type III sum of squares 15.77a 14.62 2.09 275.41 2976.00 df 2 1 1 56 59 Mean Square 7.87 14.62 2.09 4.92 F 1.60 2.97 .43 Sig. .21 .09 .52
Significant at .05 level; df =1 & 56; Critical P .05 The data presented in Table 4 shows that a calculated F-value of .43 resulted in statistically no significant difference in performance between the Traditional group and the CAI group. This calculated F-value of .43 is statistically not significant since the significant level of .52 is greater than .05 of alpha significance level, given 1 and 56 degree of freedom. This implies that there is no significant difference on the academic achievements in finishes, between the CAI group and the Traditional group. Hence, the null hypothesis H0 stating There is no significant difference between the CAI and Traditional groups on their achievement in Finishes, a topic in Pre-Technical Skills, was retained. The finding of Table 4 agrees with Mclean (1996) opinion that CAI provides student with an alternative to classroom settings. Since in this case, it can be concluded that a CAI meant to teach finishes will produce the same impact as a teacher using the usual Traditional method to teach. 5. Conclusion The results of this study demonstrated that CAI was also an effective mode for teaching Pre-Technical
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Skills. The results were also in consonance with results of many studies demonstrating the effectiveness of CAI for better students achievement, in science and mathematics as done by Brophy (1999); Carter (2004) and Bayrakter (2000). It can therefore be concluded that a relationship exists between the uses of a computer Assisted Instruction and achievement of students in Pre-Technical Skills. Furthermore, CAI can be used as an alternative to the Traditional method of teaching the various topics in PreTechnical Skills It can be concluded that this study has provided strong evidence of the usefulness of CAI in teaching and learning of Pre-Technical Skills, it will therefore be very helpful if attention is paid to this study. By using CAI, procedural, methodical and abstract things can be brought home to the understanding of the Pre-technical students and more so make learning very interesting and easy. 6. Recommendations In the light of the findings revealed, the following recommendations were made:
6.1 Recommendations for Government

1. 2. 3. Computer Assisted Instruction centres should be built in all communities, and equipped with learning softwares. This will occupy students free times anytime they are outside the school. Modernize basic school classrooms by equipping every classroom with a computer and a projector to facilitate active learning. Take steps to help reduce the prices of computers by either reducing taxes or offering incentives to computer and educational software importers.
6.2 Recommendations for Ghana Education Service

1. 2. 3. Should select experts of Computer Assisted Instruction from Ghana and send them to countries where this mode of instruction is utilized. This will enable them upgrade their knowledge and make meaningful impact on their return. Computer Assisted Instruction should be introduce in the curriculum of Colleges of Education. This will enable the teacher- trainees to prepare their own software to teach various subjects. The basic school curriculum should be designed such that it will allow students to construct their learning activities based on their own interpretation of what is needed.
6.3 Recommendations for Teachers

1. 2. They should always be around to supervise students when they are using computers to learn. This is because most students will in turn do something else with the computer rather than learning. They should avail themselves to new technologies such as Computer Assisted Instruction in other to be upgrade with time.
7. Suggestions for further research 1. Having attested to the efficacy of computer Assisted Instruction on academic achievements of senior high students, more of this and varied kinds must be researched into advanced levels of
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our education in all subjects especially mathematics, science , vocational and technical programmes. References
Adamtey, K. S. (2009). Vocational / Technical Education in Ghana: Problems and Remedies. International Journal of home Economic Research, 20(1), 189-197. Bayraktar, S. (2000). A Meta-analysis on the Effectiveness of Computer-Assisted Instruction In Science Education. Doctoral Dissertation Ohio University. [Online] Available: http:// www. Ocle.com (April 5, 2010) Bennett, F. (Ed.). (1999). Computers as Tutors Solving the Crisis in Education. Sorasota: Feben Inc. Brophy, A. K. (1999). Is Computer Assisted Instruction Effective in the Science Classroom? Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, California State University, Dominguez Hill. Carter, M. B. (2004). An Analysis and Comparism of the Effects of Computer. Assisted Instruction Versus Traditional Lecture Instruction, Students attitudes and achievement in a college remedial Mathematics Course. Ph.D. Thesis, Temple University Philadelphia. [Online] Available : http://www.templeuniversityphiladephia/the/pub/329y7 (May 20, 2010) Cotton, K. (1991). Computer-Assisted Instruction. School Improvement Series: U. Can Use. [Online] Available : www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/5/ cu10.html (May 20, 2008) Curriculum Research and Development Division. (CRDD) (2007) Teaching Syllabus for Information and Communication Technology. (Senior High School) Accra: Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, [Online] Available : http:// ejite .isu. edu/ volume1 No2/ Lunts.htm.pii (January 8, 2010) Daramola, F. O., & Asuquo, E. N. (2006). Effect of Computer Assisted Instructional Package on Secondary School Students Performance In Introductory Technology. In Ilorin, Nigeria, The Nigeria Journal of Educational Media and Technology. 12(1), pp. 20-26. Education Coordinators Report (2009). Computers in basic schools in Kumasi Metropolis. Kumasi : Hampton Press. Good, T. L. & Brophy, J. E. (1990). Educational psychology: A realistic approach. (4th ed.).White Plains, NY: Longman. Hsu, J. J. F., Chen, D., & Hung, D. (2000). Learning Theories and IT: The Computer as a Tutor. In Williams, M. D. (Ed.) (2000) Integrating Technology into Teaching and Learning Concepts and Applications, (2nd ed.) Singapore : Prenice Hall Inc. Kankaanranta, M. (2005). International Perspectives on the Pedagogically Innovative Uses of Technology. Human Technology, 1, (2), 111-116. Kuchler, J. M. (1998) The Effectiveness of Using Computers to Teach Secondary School (Grades 6 -12) Mathematics: A Meta-Analysis. (On-line) Ph.D Dissertation, University of Lowell. [Online] Available : http://www.OCLC.com ( May 20, 2010) Mertens, D. M. (1998). Research Methods in Education and Psychology. London : SAGE Publications. Morse, R. H.(1991). Computer use in Secondary Education. ERIC Clearing House on Information Resources. ED331489 Pallant, J. (2005) SPSS Survival Manual Second Edition (Electronic Version).[Online] Available : www.openup.co.uk/spss p. 269 (January 20, 2010) Roblyer, M. D. (1988). The Effectiveness of Micro-Computers in Education: A Review of the Research from 1980-1987. Technological Horizons in Education Journal, 12, 85-89. Roblyer. M. D. (1989). The Impact of Micro-Computer Based Instruction on Teaching and learning: A Review of Recent Research. ERIC Clearing house on Information resources. ED315063 Roblyer, M. D., & Edwards J. (2000). Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching. (2rd ed.). Upper Saddle River : Prentice Hall Inc. Timothy T. (2007). Assessing the computer attitudes of students: An Asian perspective. Computer in Human Behaviour. [Online) Available : http://www.compu.edu./aa.fac/cc. html. (April 12, 2010)
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Italian Risorgimento and the European Volunteers

Antonello Battaglia
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p87
Abstract The Risorgimento was a complex phenomenon, not only an Italian one, that had broad resonance throughout Europe since the "rise of non-historical nations" spread particularly in central and eastern part of the continent. In 1815 the Congress of Vienna worked to restore the status quo in order to set aside the Napoleonic experience. The anachronism of the measures was already highlighted just five years later when many uprisings erupted in Europe, and especially with the national revolutions of 1848-1849, when Poles, Hungarians, Croats, Serbs, Czechs, Italians, Bulgarians shared the principles of freedom and joined the slogan: "For your freedom and ours" was the slogan that brawny European volunteers in the continental Risorgimento confirming an irreversible crisis of the multinational empires. Key Words: Volunteers, Insurrections, Risorgimento, Garibaldini, History of Europe.
Il Risorgimento, complesso e variegato, non fu soltanto un fenomeno italiano ma ebbe vasta risonanza nello scacchiere continentale che vide il risveglio delle nazionalit non storiche diffondersi in particolare nellEuropa centro-orientale. Il Congresso di Vienna aveva ripristinato lo status quo antecedente le guerre napoleoniche e la diplomazia europea aveva condotto una restaurazione geopolitica sul solco delle tradizioni settecentesche. Lanacronismo dei provvedimenti venne messo in luce gi appena cinque anni dopo, quando i primi moti scoppiati in Spagna nel 1820-1821 rivelarono il diffuso malcontento soffocato prontamente sul nascere anche a Napoli e in Sicilia. Dieci anni pi tardi le trois glorieuses rovesciarono nuovamente i Borbone in Francia e inaugurarono la breve parentesi di Luigi Filippo dOrleans mentre Belgio e Grecia raggiungevano lagognata indipendenza rispettivamente da Olanda e Impero Ottomano e a Varsavia e Modena fallivano i moti. La crisi del 1848 ebbe maggiore risonanza e inedita forza durto che travolsero lintero continente rilevando definitivamente lobsolescenza dellordine geopolitico e la necessit di costituirne uno nuovo (Biagini 2011). La cosiddetta primavera dei popoli - che quindi non fu meramente confinata alla penisola italiana - si diffuse per osmosi in molte aree. Il Risorgimento accomunava cos gli italiani ai polacchi che dal 1795 - anno della terza spartizione - si opponevano alle potenze partitrici; ai croati, animati dallIllirismo di Gaj; ai magiari la cui causa era perorata dallattivit insonne degli esuli politici; ai romeni in questo frangente aspiranti allautonomia; ai serbi, sempre pi coscienti del progetto di divenire il popolo guida degli slavi meridionali; ai greci, gi protagonisti della propria indipendenza nel 1830 ma decisi a scalzare definitivamente il controllo ottomano e infine anche i bulgari agli albori dello sviluppo della propria coscienza nazionale (Tamborra 1983). I grandi imperi multinazionali, asburgico e ottomano, da secoli
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garanti della stabilit geopolitica in Europa centro-orientale vennero messi seriamente in crisi dalle forze centrifughe. I volontari costituirono la fondamentale forza propulsiva del movimento rivoluzionario e non sarebbe corretto pensare al Risorgimento senza valutare adeguatamente il loro determinante contributo nella difesa degli ideali di libert e unit nazionali. Dopo le lotte armate in Uruguay contro lesercito di Rosas, governatore generale della provincia di Buenos Aires, Garibaldi torn sulla scena europea sbarcando a Nizza il 21 giugno 1848 con sessantatr uomini (fra cui Medici, Sacchi e Anzani).
LAmerica che nel 1836 aveva raccolto un oscuro marinaio e un disertore proscritto restituiva allItalia un ammiraglio provetto, un capitano invitto, un eroe glorioso.(Guerzoni 1982).
Come scrive Tamborra In Europa - e soprattutto in Italia - le ripercussioni delle sue gesta e la sua ascesa nella scala dei valori e politici, sono tali che gi negli ambienti sotterranei dei cospiratori - vi una attesa per quello che un simile uomo potr compiere a favore della sua Patria e, quindi, anche di altre patrie (Tamborra 1983). In occasione della Prima Guerra dIndipendenza, il patriota polacco Adam Mickievicz, il 3 maggio 1848, chiese al Governo provvisorio di Lombardia la creazione di una Legione polacca in cui avrebbero dovuto arruolarsi cechi, croati e serbi disertori dellesercito austriaco oltre a emigrati polacchi. Le compagnie costituite furono due, entrambe sotto il comando di Kamieski e furono impegnate nei combattimenti ai confini del Tirolo, una alle dipendenze delle truppe comandate dal generale Durando e laltra, sotto legida di Siodkowicz, partecip alla difesa di Milano. Dopo i primi scontri le legioni vennero spostate in Piemonte e una parte di volontari, le cui fila vennero rimpinguate da ulteriori rinforzi provenienti dalla Sicilia e guidati da Chodzko, giunsero a Livorno dove combatterono valorosamente. Il 10 ottobre 1848, Chodzko concluse con il Governo provvisorio toscano di Guerrazzi e Montanelli un accordo secondo il quale metteva per due anni a disposizione dei repubblicani 800 volontari, liberi di tornate in Polonia qualora fosse scoppiata una rivoluzione nazionale. Mickiewicz contestualmente riusc a riunire un gruppo di 150 volontari polacchi che part sotto il comando del capitano Alessandro Fijalkowski per Genova e prese parte attiva alla sommossa della citt. Successivamente imbarcata per Livorno e Firenze, ormai in mano alla repressione, la legione raggiunse il litorale laziale e si mise a disposizione della Repubblica Romana. Il triumvirato costituito da Mazzini, Saffi e Armellini, riconobbe ufficialmente la legione con decreto datato 29 maggio 1849. In questa occasione venne aggiunto il nastro tricolore allo stendardo e ancora una volta venne ribadito il diritto di ritornare in patria in caso di insurrezione. Per la vostra libert e la nostra era il vessillo polacco innalzato e sventolato dalla legione del colonnello Milbitz che combatt il 3 giugno a Villa Pamphili e il 15 giugno a Ponte Milvio contro le truppe francesi. Dopo la caduta della Repubblica, i polacchi si arresero al generale Oudinot che decise di imbarcali e confinarli a Corf. Oltre che a Roma, gli artiglieri polacchi si distinsero a Venezia, nella difesa della Repubblica e a Morazzone dove il capitano Pawel Bielski e 13 compagni si batterono nella
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battaglia coadiuvando Garibaldi contro gli austriaci1. Nel 1849 al generale Chrzanowski venne affidato il comando dellesercito sardo contro le forze di Radetzki che avevano ripreso il controllo dellarea lombarda. Al sud, in Sicilia, le forze rivoluzionarie vennero poste sotto legida del generale Mierosawski, appena reduce dalla sfortunata insurrezione della Posnania. La crisi del 1848-49 rappresent dunque il primo punto di contatto e di convergenza fra la nazionalit italiana e quelle dellEuropa centro-orientale, il Piemonte era strettamente vicino ai destini dei popoli e il fallimento dei moti rivoluzionari non annichil tuttavia tale legame. Il regno di Sardegna - sotto il neo sovrano Vittorio Emanuele II e labile attivit politica del primo ministro Cavour divenne il baricentro delle aspirazioni dei popoli in via di definizione (Salvatorelli 1957). Lintervento piemontese nella crisi dOriente del 1853-56 fu loccasione sfruttata da Cavour per proiettare e inserire il proprio paese nello scacchiere diplomatico internazionale. Per la prima volta, infatti, al congresso di Parigi venne sollevato il problema italiano. Lintesa del Regno di Sardegna con il Secondo Impero di Napoleone III che con il suo messianesimo si ergeva a nuovo liberatore dei popoli - venne salutata dalle popolazioni centro-orientali come una concreta possibilit di indebolimento del potere austriaco e auspicio per una rivoluzione generalizzata. I contatti di Garibaldi, Mazzini e Cavour con i movimenti rivoluzionari clandestini ne sono la testimonianza. Come noto, gli accordi di Plombires, siglati il 21 luglio 1858, portarono alla Seconda guerra dIndipendenza e alle reali possibilit di una conquista del Lombardo-Veneto, mentre gli insorti polacchi, di cui molti emigrati da una Polonia di fatto spartita e inesistente, e ungheresi guidati rispettivamente da Czartoryski e Kossuth speravano in una distrazione militare austriaca che potesse permettere di insorgere e ottenere agevolmente lindipendenza. Larmistizio di Villafranca, siglato l11 luglio 1859, fu una grande delusione non solo per Cavour, che per protesta si dimise, ma per tutte le nazionalit insorgenti che videro sfumare nuovamente la possibilit di un aiuto proveniente da una delle grandi potenze continentali. Come rileva Biagini (2011), si tratt di un momento di disillusione e costernazione in cui i popoli dellEuropa centro-orientale pensarono di essere stati definitivamente abbandonati al potere dei grandi Imperi multinazionali (Tamborra 1958). Appena un anno dopo, il successo dellimpresa dei Mille e la proclamazione dellUnit italiana risvegliarono il fervore nazionale. Il 5 maggio 1860, come noto, Garibaldi con i due piroscafi Lombardo e Piemonte salp dallo scoglio di Quarto e giunse a Marsala giorno 11. Dopo il sanguinoso scontro di Calatafimi e lentrata in Palermo, si fece appello ai volontari europei che accorsero in Sicilia. I nuovi garibaldini affluirono a Genova, vennero inquadrati nelle divisioni Medici e Cosenz in attesa di imbarcarsi per la Sicilia a bordo dei piroscafi Washington, Oregon e Franklin. Numerosi furono i triestini, gli istriani e i dalmati appartenenti alle ultime propaggini della nazione italiana, ad una italianit marginale posta cio agli estremi limiti della espansione territoriale della italianit, l dove viene a contatto e contrasto con altre stirpi e altre lingue e illanguidisce, e muore (Sestan 1947) La loro rinnovata presenza tra le truppe garibaldine aveva un significato profondo: attestazione di volont nazionale, coscienza di un legame,
Il generale nizzardo ne parla nelle sue Memorie.
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esistenza di una spinta interiore che li rendeva partecipi della vicenda unitaria della patria comune. In particolar modo i garibaldini dalmati si erano gi distinti nella difesa di Venezia. Gli zaratini Giuseppe Zmaich 2, Giovanni Maggiorato, Carlo Tivaroni, Giacomo de Zanchi, Costantino Venturini, Doimo de Hoebert, Spiridione Galateo, Enrico Matcovich di Stretto, De Giovannizio di Spalato; Lorenzo Girotto di Spalato, Eugenio Popovich, il colonnello Cossovich, i due fratelli Millanovich, Spirione Sirovich, Lisovich di Budua, Luigi e Federico Seismit Doda, alcuni di loro avrebbero combattuto a fianco di Garibaldi in Trentino nel 1866, a Mentana nel 1867 e in Francia nel 1870-71 (Cace 1861). Altri triestini e istriani si erano gi distinti nella difesa di Roma: Giacomo Venezian era stato ucciso a Porta S. Pancrazio, erano stati feriti anche Zucchi e Zambeccari, mentre Zamboni, Bruffel erano stati colpiti a Porta Cavalleggeri dove avevano combattuto anche Sansoine Levi, Salvi, Marocchino, Hoenigmann, Sanzin, Mitis di Cherso, Baccalari di Dignano dIstria, promosso maggiore proprio durante la difesa della Repubblica Romana. Nel 1859 le fila dei Cacciatori delle Alpi erano state rafforzate proprio da istriani e dalmati e soprattutto limpresa dei Mille e le successive spedizioni videro un afflusso notevole di volontari anche triestini e giuliani. Due dei Mille sono conosciuti: Cesare Michieli di Campolongo che combatt a Calatafimi, a Palermo, a Milazzo e sul Volturno. Marziano Giotti di Grandisca, della compagnia di Cairoli, decorato al valor militare. Inoltre il capitano mercantile Enrico Maffei, triestino, Giovanni Bertossi, decorato al valore sul Volturno, Gustavo Bchel, Gioacchino Sibel, Daniele Wertheimer, Arminio Wurmbrand, Federico Cuder di Capodistria; tre di Rovigno si distinsero in modo particolare: Luigi Dasarsa, Giorgio Moscarda, Baldassarre Manzoni, Enrico Appel (Sticotti 1932). Tra i Mille si sono da annoverare anche vari ebrei tra cui Ciro Finzi, Cesare de Enrico Guastalla, i fratelli Alessandro, Isacco, Israele Levi, il tedesco Adolph Moses, Antonio Alpromi, Antonio Godberg, Riccardo Luzzatti, Eugenio Rava, Guido Rovighi, Davide ed Enrico Uziel e Giovanni Acerbi3. Va segnalata inoltre, tra le fila dei garibaldini nella stagione 1860-61, la presenza di numerosi italo-albanesi. Il passaggio di Garibaldi in Calabria e il proclama del generale al vigore dei discendenti di Skanderbeg favorirono la costituzione di un reggimento italo-albanese al comando del colonnello Domenico Damis di Lungro tra cui un gruppo di giovani scappati dal collegio di SantAdriano (Pacukaj 2011). Tra i volontari che si batterono ai ponti della Valle e al Volturno i pi noti furono Raffaele e Domenico Mauro di San Demetrio Corone, Giuseppe Pace di Castrovillari, il maggiore Gennaro Placco di Civita, gi compagno di Luigi Settembrini nel penitenziario di Procida, Gennaro Mortati di Spezzano Albanese (Groppa 1912). Gli albanesi sono eroi che si sono distinti in tutte le lotte contro la tirannide afferm il 2 ottobre Garibaldi mentre donava 12000 ducati al collegio di S. Adriano a S. Demetrio Corone (Lorecchio 1904). Notevole lafflusso dei volontari francesi, soprattutto emigrati che protestavano delusi dalla politica di Napoleone III. Difficile definirne il numero preciso e lorientamento politico.
Archivio di Stato, Mantova, Carte Acerbi (cit. da Tamborra). G. De Angelis, Garibaldi romanziere de I mille e gli ebrei in La Rassegna mensile di Israele, vol. XXV, n.11, pp. 453 e sgg. I fratelli Uziel sono ricordati da Garibaldi ne I Mille, vol.II, pp.88, 91, 345.
2 3
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Dagli studi di Ferdinand Boyer si individuano 59 garibaldini francesi, mentre tenendo in considerazione ulteriori scaglioni partiti successivamente per il meridione italiano, Tamborra sostiene che il numero si aggirasse tra i 300 e i 500. Tra la fine di giugno o i primi di luglio, a Parigi venne costituita la Mission Sicilienne, di cui fece parte anche il medico Leullier, anchegli inviato successivamente nellIsola. Il gruppo pi importante di volontari transalpini fu la Legione comandata dal visconte Paul de Flotte, esule dopo il colpo di Stato napoleonico del 2 dicembre 1851. Fu il garibaldino francese di maggior rilievo che con la sua unit - circa 250 effettivi inquadrati nella 15ma divisione Trr - combatt a Solano e mor in battaglia il 22 agosto 1860, durante lo sbarco in Calabria (Motta 2011). In suo onore Garibaldi diede il nome Compagnia La Flotte4 allunit dei francesi. Unaltra figura di rilievo fu quella di Philippe Toussaint Joseph Bourdon, comunemente conosciuto come Bordone. Ricevette da Garibaldi lincarico di dirigere la fonderia di cannoni in bronzo di Palermo. Da Milazzo in poi divenne membro dello Stato Maggiore di Garibaldi, distinguendosi per le sue qualit di sovrintendente ai materiali dartiglieria. Nella battaglia del Volturno schier nuove batterie, costru un ponte che permise a numerosi volontari di passare sullaltra sponda. Nella guerra franco-prussiana avrebbe seguito Garibaldi nellArmata dei Vosgi (Boyer 1971) Di grande importanza fu anche la figura di Maxime du Camp, scrittore gi noto, che giunse in Sicilia come ufficiale di Stato Maggiore della divisione Trr e accompagn Garibaldi fino a Napoli. I suoi ricordi, affidati alla autorevole Revue de deux mondes, furono riuniti in un volume dal titolo Expedition de deux Siciles (Parigi, 1881) e da lui ripubblicate nei suoi Souvenirs Littraires da cui si cita:
Pendant quatre mois passs ltat-major du gnral Turr o les lments italiens, anglais, hongrois et francais taient mls dans dingales proportions, je nai pas assist une seule dispute; je nai pas intendu un mot plus vif quil naurait convenu (Camp 1861).
Altro personaggio francese rilevante fu lo scrittore Alexandre Dumas (padre) che part con la propria goletta in crociera per il Mediterraneo e non appena ricevette la notizia delle sommosse siciliane, fece rotta per lIsola. Rimasto sulla sua nave ancorata nel porto di Palermo, fece visita a Carlo Pellion di Persano, (1869) comandante della squadra navale sarda, a cui confid di voler finanziare i volontari garibaldini. Pochi giorni dopo acquist a Marsala 550 carabine e 10.000 cartucce. Dopo il passaggio dello Stretto da parte di Garibaldi, lo scrittore transalpino si rec con la sua goletta Emma a Salerno per preparare e avviare una massiccia propaganda anti-borbonica. Grazie ai propri informatori, entr in contatto con il ministro dellInterno e di Polizia del governo costituzionale, Liborio Romano e con lo zio di Francesco II, il conte di Siracusa, uomo liberale, contribuendo in maniera trionfale allingresso di Garibaldi a Napoli a cui non assistette perch, venuto a conoscenza dellimminente insurrezione ad Avellino, decise di dirigersi verso sud, a Messina dove imbarc nuove armi per
4 F. Boyer, Les volontaires franais avec Garibaldi en 1860, in Revue dHistoire moderne et contemporaine, aprile-giugno 1860, pp. 126-127. A. Colocci, Paul de Flotte, Bocca, Torino 1912. C. Pecorini Manzoni, Storia 15ma Turr nella campagna del 1860 in Sicilia e Napoli, Gazzetta dItalia, Firenze 1876, pp. XI, 135, 290.
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trasportarle in Campania. Lincontro con il generale nizzardo avvenne poche settimane dopo e in questoccasione i due, salutandosi, si abbracciano e Dumas cos scrisse:
Ah! Te voil, scriait-t-il en me voyant. Dieu merci, tu trs fait assez attendre! Ctait la premire fois que le gnral me tutoyait. Je me jetai dans ses bras en pleurant de joie (Boyer 1960)
Sulla scia di Dumas, si mossero anche altri illustri scrittori come Victor Hugo, George Sand, Edgar Quinet etc. I francesi provenivano da molti strati sociali: politici, intellettuali, nobili, popolani, professionisti, contadini, ex soldati e operai di diverse zone: Parigi, Provenza, Bretagna, Corsica, Nizza e Savoia. Per quanto riguarda gli inglesi, limpresa dei Mille ebbe vasta risonanza presso lopinione pubblica e lafflusso di volontari fu immediato e alquanto cospicuo5. La legione inglese infatti era costituita da 456 unit di cui 24 ufficiali al comando maggiore Carlo S. Smeld. Anche il brigadiere Giovanni Dunne si imbarc per la Sicilia e arruol nel suo reggimento - con lappoggio del tenente colonnello Percy Wyndhan e dei connazionali Patterson e Dowling, molti siciliani che costituirono una nuova unit. John Whitehead Peard e Hugh Forbes, chiamati the Garibaldis english men, vennero inquadrati nella II compagnia Pavia costituita quasi esclusivamente da studenti che avevano in dotazione revolver rifles6, nuova arma inviata dallinglese Colt ai garibaldini. I due, distintisi entrambi in battaglia, si divisero a Milazzo dove Hugh, con enorme rammarico di Garibaldi, lasci la formazione accettando la carica di governatore della citt mentre il collega, alla guida di 1000 volontari britannici, segu il generale fino alla battaglia del Volturno. Altro importante contributo fu quello delle testate giornalistiche come lIndependent di Jersey e il London Trades Council che promossero la sottoscrizione per linvio di volontari in Sicilia (Valiani 1960). Tra i garibaldini stranieri inquadrati nella 15ma divisione Trr, (Fornaro 1996) brigata Eber, si ricordano anche gli elvetici Luigi de Niederhausern, maggiore, Carlo d'Almen, capitano (Camp 1881) e il prussiano Wihlelm Rstow, colonnello e successivamente capo di Stato Maggiore della stessa divisione. Notevole, dunque, fu la presenza di volontari provenienti dallEuropa occidentale ma ancora pi massiccio fu lafflusso di uomini dalle propaggini centro-orientali del continente. Oltre ai polacchi, ai quali ho gi accennato in precedenza, furono gli ungheresi i pi numerosi. Primo fra tutti, il generale Stefano Trr, a capo della 15ma divisione e molti magiari nella divisione Medici. Dopo la presa di Palermo, venne costituita una legione ungherese che raggiunse il numero di 440 unit a cui si aggiunsero gli ussari magiari gi in servizio nellesercito borbonico. Tra loro si ricordano i comandanti: F. Eber, K. Eberhardt e F. Pulszky,
AA. VV., Scritti e discorsi politici e militari, Vol. I, Cappelli, Bologna, 1934, pp. 274-275,337, Risposta di Garibaldi a un indirizzo giuntogli da Sheffield, Palermo, 13 luglio 1860; analog. al Comitato di Glasgow, Caprera, 30 novembre 1860. 6 Archivio del Risorgimento, Roma, Busta 45, fasc.27. Traduzione dellepoca del Rapporto del Colonnello Forbes intorno agli affari della legione inglese venuti sotto la sua immediata attenzione, inviato a Napoli al Comitato di Londra il 28 novembre 1860.
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i comandanti di brigata Gustavo Frigyesy e Szakmary, i tenenti colonnelli R. Magyordy che si distinse al Volturno e F. Figylmesy, M. Kiss, A. Teleki e infine L. Winkler, comandante del 4 reggimento, brigata Sacchi, della 15ma divisione Trr (Trr 1928). Da non dimenticare anche Lajos Tkry che partecip alla battaglia di Palermo come comandante dellavanguardia che super per prima le linee nemiche. Proprio durante lo scontro del 27 maggio venne ferito a una gamba che si infett e, nonostante venisse amputata, lo port alla morte. In suo onore Garibaldi ribattezz lex corvetta a ruote partenopea Monarca, proprio Tkry (Colombo 1932).
Nellinsieme, una partecipazione massiccia, questa degli ungheresi che dallItalia guardano come meta allUngheria, ben consapevoli di poter contare sulle parole dette da Garibaldi il 16 ottobre 1860: Ad essi non solo dobbiamo gratitudine, ma nostro dovere aiutare la loro causa e farla nostraLa libert dItalia strettamente legata allindipendenza e alla libert dUngheria (Kastner 1960).
Anche i boemi parteciparono intensamente allattivit rivoluzionarie. A seguito della loro attivit molti furono costretti a diventare esuli: Josef Vclav Fri, Eduard Rffer, Jindich Podlipsk, Karel Vma di Letohrad, Rudolf Gasparovsk di Pardubice, Jan Mache, Jan Steinbachk. I greci, testimoni di un antico legame con la penisola italiana - per i molti volontari italiani che avevano parte allinsurrezione greca del 1821 - accorsero numerosi agli ordini di Garibaldi: primo fra tutti Santorre di Santarosa e altri ancora, Stamatis Tipaldos, Dionisos Mavropulos e Sotirou Zisis. Elias Stecoulis salp con i Mille da Quarto e segu Zambianchi nella diversione sulla costa maremmana, partecip allo scontro di Grotte di Castro contro i soldati pontifici dove venne catturato e in seguito rilasciato insieme ad altri connazionali (Kerofilas 1919). Quanto ai bulgari, si distinsero Vasil Levski, Georgi Sava Rakovski, lo scrittore e poeta Ljuben Karavelov, Marko Balabanov, Hristo Botev. Per tutti il binomio Mazzini-Garibaldi entra a far parte del patrimonio comune dellintellighenzia rivoluzionaria bulgara. Il primo garibaldino bulgaro fu Dmitar Pehlivanov, pittore, giunto a Roma per perfezionare gli studi e in seguito arruolatosi nelle fila dei volontari garibaldini alla difesa della Repubblica Romana con il compatriota Georgi Kapev; Gjuro Naev fece invece parte dei Cacciatori delle Alpi e nel 1866 torn in Italia con gli amici Neno Marinov e Ivan Hagidimitrov, detto garibaldito (Petkanov 1966). Un importante volontario romeno-bulgaro fu Stefan Dunjov, che si batt insieme alla legione ungherese e venne ferito nel 1860 durante la battaglia del Volturno per la quale, tra laltro, venne insignito di medaglia dargento al valor militare 7 . Anche i volontari russi accorsero numerosi alla chiamata di Garibaldi. I figli di un non ben identificato Bernov scapparono di casa per raggiungere il generale a Roma. Lo scrittore G. Korolenko racconta di un garibaldino ucraino, un certo Massimo, originario della Volinia, arruolatosi tra i volontari per il suo odio
La grave ferita comport lamputazione di una gamba per la quale il Governo italiano corrispose una pensione di guerra.
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nei confronti dellAustria e tornato in Russia, dopo molti anni, come invalido garibaldino; non manc una donna russa, originaria di Mosca, moglie di un garibaldino. Altra famosa figura storica fu quella della contessa Nesselrode, pi nota con lo pseudonimo principessa Drousckoy, che arruol i garibaldini e a Firenze si prodig per la propaganda rivolta ad attrarre nuovi giovani. Uno dei pi noti fu Lev Ili Menikov di Pietroburgo, che pass da Milano a Venezia ma non riusc a raggiungere in tempo Quarto per riunirsi ai Mille. Entr comunque a far parte della formazione comandata dal colonnello Giuseppe Nicotera, sbarc a Napoli il 7 settembre 1860 contestualmente allarrivo di Garibaldi dal sud. Non giunse invece in tempo lanziano colonnello Ditmar che arriv dopo la conclusione della campagna garibaldina (Venturi 1960). Complessivamente, il numero di volontari stranieri fu rilevante, ammont a circa 2500 combattenti che, insieme agli italiani, coadiuvarono Garibaldi soprattutto nellimpresa meridionale. Il garibaldino divenne lesempio da emulare per tutti i popoli e Garibaldi leroe internazionale in grado di dare aiuto, con le sue milizie, ai risorgimenti dellest. Dopo le delusioni del 1849, lUnit italiana fu vista dalle popolazioni dellEuropa centro-orientali come il primo grande successo di una rivoluzione. Nellimmaginario comune la camicia rossa (Motta 2011) divenne la divisa che univa uomini di varia origine, di diversa estrazione nazionale uniti a Garibaldi per un ideale comune, quello della libert e dellindipendenza nazionale. Cesare Balbo in Speranze dItalia (1844) - inseguendo unidea che sembrava utopistica nel ritenere che lUnificazione italiana infiammasse tutti i popoli da riscattare - fu forse il primo a mettere in relazione il Risorgimento italiano con larea centro-orientale europea (Becherelli 2011). Nel 1861, dopo circa un ventennio, lidea divenne plausibile e concreta agli occhi delle diplomazie europee. La questione italiana si era ormai legata indissolubilmente a quella delle nazionalit e contribuiva a favorire le spinte nazionali degli altri risorgimenti forzando gli schemi di unEuropa che doveva cambiare. La partecipazione corale di ungheresi, polacchi, russi, albanesi, greci, romeni, dalmati, istriani, francesi e inglesi, mostra che il Risorgimento non fu solo un fenomeno italiano, ma si espanse e coinvolse tutti gli europei che si riconobbero in un progetto comune di libert e democrazia in sintonia con unidea condivisa di identit europea (Biagini & Carteny 2010). Bibliografia
M. Cace, (1861), I patrioti dalmati e lunit dItalia, in Il Messaggero Veneto, 16 marzo 1861; C. Pellion di Persano, (1869), Diario privato-politico-militare nella campagna navale 1860 e 1861, Civelli, Firenze. C. Pecorini Manzoni, (1876), Storia 15ma Trr nella campagna del 1860 in Sicilia e Napoli, Gazzetta dItalia, Firenze. M. du Camp, 1881), Expdition des Deux Siciles, Calmann Levy, Parigi 1881; A. Colocci, Paul de Flotte, Bocca, Torino 1912; S. Groppa, Glitalo-albanesi nelle lotte dellindipendenza, Lella e Casini, Bari 1912; C. Kerofilas, La Grecia e litalia nel Risorgimento italiano, Libreria della Voce, Firenze 1919; S. Trr, Lopera di Stefano Trr nel Risorgimento italiano, Tipografia Fascista, Firenze 1928; A. Lewak, Corrispondenza polacca di G. Garibaldi, Cracovia, 1932; P. Sticotti, La Regione Giulia nelle guerre per lindipendenza, Societ editrice mutilati e combattenti, Trieste 1932;
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A. Colombo, Il generale de Milbitz nel Risorgimento italiano, in Atti del Congresso storico internazionale di Varsavia, 1933; AA. VV., Scritti e discorsi politici e militari, Vol. I; Cappelli, Bologna, 1934; E. Sestan, Venezia Giulia. Lineamenti di Storia etnica e culturale, Edizioni Italiane, Roma 1947; L. Salvatorelli, La politica estera, in LItalia dal 1861 al 1870, Atti del X Convegno Storico Toscano, Cortona, 2528 aprile 1957, in Rassegna storia toscana, anno III, fasc. III-IV, luglio-dicembre 1957; A. Tamborra, Cavour e i Balcani, Ilte, Torino, 1958; F. Boyer, Les Garibaldiens dAlexandre Dumas: roman ou choses vue, in Studi Francesi, n.10, Torino, 1960; F. Boyer, Les volontaires franais avec Garibaldi en 1860, in Revue dHistoire moderne et contemporaine, aprilegiugno 1960; K. Kastner, Kossut-emigrci olaszorszgban, (Lemigrazione di Kossuth in Italia), Budapest 1960; L. Valiani in Atti del XIII Convegno Storico Toscano. Porto Santo Stefano 29 maggio-1giugno 1960, pubbl. in Rassegna Storica Toscana, fasc. IV, 1960; F. Venturi, Limmagine di Garibaldi In Russia allepoca della liberazione dei servi, in Rassegna storia toscana, ottobre-dicembre 1960; G. Falzone, Lettere di Garibaldi a Elia Stekuli, in Il Risorgimento, Milano 1965; I. Petkanov, Riflessi del Riflessi del Risorgimento in Bulgaria, in Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 1966; F. Boyer, Un garibaldien franais: le gnral Bordone in Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 1971; G. Guerzoni, Garibaldi, Firenze 1982; A. Tamborra, Garibaldi e lEuropa. Impegno militare e prospettive politiche, Fusa, Roma 1983; P. Fornaro, Risorgimento italiano e questione ungherese (1849-1847), Rubbettino, Soveria Mannelli, 1996; P. J. Proudhon, Contro lUnit dItalia, Miraggi, Torino, (2010), a cura di A. Biagini, A. Carteny; G. Motta, Baroni in camicia rossa, Firenze , Passigli 2011; S. Pacukaj (2011) Il risorgimento italiano e gli arberesh in Ripensare il Risorgimento a cura di G. Motta, Nuova Cultura, Roma. G. Motta (a cura di), Ripensare il Risorgimento, Nuova Cultura, Roma, 2011.
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Improving Science, Technology and Mathematics Students Achievement: Imperatives for Teacher Preparation in the Caribbean Colleges and Universities
Babalola J. Ogunkola PhD
School of Education, Faculty of Humanities and Education, The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus, Barbados Email: drbeejay@hotmail.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p97
Abstract The concerns of this article are the unacceptable status of Science, Technology and Mathematics (STM) Education in the Caribbean and how to improve the students achievement in the subjects involved through the instrumentality of better preparation of teachers by the Colleges and University faculties training teachers in the region. The index for measuring development among nations of the world is the level of scientific and technological advancement because the factors that influence development are based on human ability to explore, invest and utilize the natural endowments available in the nation. In other words, no nation can attain any reasonable level of development without meeting the vital demands of development particularly in the areas of science, technology and mathematics. Therefore, the article begins with the presentation of the importance and the status of STM education using the mirror of science students achievement at global level. Moreover, it is established that the Caribbean education also has some challenges to deal with in the areas of science, technology and mathematics education. The tertiary institutions, particularly the colleges training teachers and the universities are then challenged with suggestions of what they can or should do in teacher preparation that may have direct impact on improving the science students achievement in the Caribbean Keywords: Achievement; Caribbean; Education; Science, Environment
1. Introduction One of the most important goals of education is for it to be functional and utilitarian preparing the individual for life in the community and reforming the society for relevance, adequacy and competitiveness in the world. Education is known to hold the key to the economic, political, sociological and human resources development and well-being of any society. Obviously, Science and Technology are an integral part of a modern society whether or not all groups of the society perceive or understand it as that. It is not surprising, therefore that under the United Nations Human Rights Charter, access to basic education continues to be a well argued and well deserved human right and increasingly Science, Technology and Mathematics (STM) have become an essential part of this basic education. This is against the background that STM education can enable people provide those essential requirements that make life comfortable and worth living. According to Oriafo (2002), the bottom line of STM education is to put man on the highways towards accomplishing some of these basic tasks that keep the society healthy, productive and progressive. Moreover, in the development of nations, STM education plays a vital role. Ukeje (1997) observed that without STM education, there is no modern technology and without modern technology,
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there is no modern society. Therefore, if any nation must develop, the study of science, technology and mathematics should be given adequate attention at the various levels of her education. Today, factors that influence development are based on human ability to explore, invest and utilize the natural endowments available in the nation. In other words, no nation can attain any reasonable level of development without the vital demands of development particularly in the areas of science, technology and mathematics. Presently, in the developed world, according to Godek (2004), science and technology are growing very quickly because they know that scientific and technological development requires the development of science education. While industrialized countries are giving emphasis to science education, some non-industrialized countries are not able to succeed because of their deficiencies in many aspects of science education. That science and technology impact greatly on the society is no longer debatable. For example, STM exerts positively on many aspects of human life such as agriculture, health and medicine, law, transportation, communication, comfort, entertainment and welfare, automation, building and construction, to mention a few. Specifically in agriculture, in many nations of the world, scientific and technological efforts have resulted in increased food production, mechanization of operations and emergence of disease-resistant and high quality plant and animal species. Also, mans scientific and technological know-how has brought great improvements in medicine, nutrition and overall health-care delivery. Medical sciences, according to Aniodoh (2001), have reduced death rate of human beings through the discovery of the cure for various diseases such as malaria, diarrhea, dysentery, poliomyelitis, whooping cough and various sexually transmitted diseases. Moreover, through the knowledge of science and technology, man has been able to evolve safer and faster means of transportation such as motor, rail and air transportation systems which have fostered interactions within international communities. In the area of communications, the entire world has been turned into a global village through the emergence of new postal services, radio, television, telephone, internet and other electronic devices which have made communication easier, faster and more efficient. In spite of these positive impacts of STM on the society, it is not encouraging to observe that the present status of STM education is some how worrisome because of the low science achievement of the students that are supposed to be future scientists, technologists, engineers and mathematicians. Internationally, the trend suggests that students achievement in science is generally low. For example, the results of the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) in 1995, 1999 and 2003 indicated that between 1999 and 2003, there were significant increase in students achievement in science in only nine (9) out of the twenty-nine (29) countries that participated (See Table 1). Even in America, policy makers and analysts are said (Lips and McNeill, 2009) to be concerned about American students low achievement in STM fields, the percentage of American college students earning degrees in STM fields and the population of the workforce prepared for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics profession. Table 1: Differences in Average Science Scale Scores of Eight-Grade Students, by country: 1995, 1999 and 2003
Country Singapore Chinese Taipei Korea, Republic of Hong Kong SAR2,3 Japan 1995 580 546 510 554 1999 568 569 549 530 550 2003 578 571 558 556 552 Difference1 (20031995) (2003-1999) -3 10 2 13 10 46 27 -2 3
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Hungary 537 552 543 6 -10 (Netherlands)2 541 545 536 -6 -9 (United States) 513 515 527 15 12 (Australia)4 514 527 13 Sweden 553 524 -28 (Slovenia)4 514 520 7 New Zealand 511 510 520 9 10 (Lithuania)5 464 488 519 56 31 Slovak Republic 532 535 517 -15 -18 Belgium Flemish 533 535 516 -17 -19 Russian Federation 523 529 514 -9 -16 (Latvia-LSS)6 476 503 513 11 37 (Scotland)2 501 512 10 Malaysia 492 510 18 Norway 514 494 -21 Italy7 493 491 -2 (Israel)7 468 488 20 (Bulgaria) 545 518 479 -66 -39 Jordan 450 475 25 Moldova, Republic of 459 472 13 (Romania) 471 472 470 -1 -2 Iran, Islamic Republic of 463 448 453 5 -9 (Macedonia, Republic of) 458 449 -9 Cyprus 452 460 441 -11 -19 Indonesia5 435 420 -15 Chile 420 413 -8 Tunisia 430 404 -26 Philippines 345 377 32 South Africa8 243 244 1 -Not available Not applicable P < .05, denotes a significant increase P < .05, denotes a significant decrease 1 Difference calculated by subtracting 1995 or 1999 from 2003 estimate using unrounded numbers
Note: Countries are sorted by 2003 average scores Source: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (2004).
It is against the backdrop of low level of achievement in science, technology and mathematics globally and in the Caribbean in particular that the need for this study is established. In other words it has become crucial, therefore, to investigate, based on existing literature, what the causes of low achievement in science, technology and mathematics are, what the challenges are and ultimately how to ameliorate the problems through teacher preparation in colleges and universities. 2. Causes of low achievement in science Oriaifo (2002) and Iheonumekwu (2006) documented reasons for students low achievement in the sciences in many nations as:
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(a) (b)
(c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)
Great plans, wonderful policies but excessive haste, unsatisfactory implementation leading to defective outcomes. Curriculum of STM was geared in content and procedures towards acquisition of certificates and diplomas. Consequently the STM education becomes extremely examination conscious, rendering the entire education system highly academic and theoretical and far removed from the local environment and local needs. Stereotyped and ineffective methodology of teaching the STM subjects. Teaching and learning resources are grossly inadequate for communicating STM education in schools. Lack of incentives to STM teachers is a very serious barrier to effective science teaching and learning. Inadequate teacher preparation and the problem of relating science teaching to the sociocultural environment of learners are barriers to effective communication of science. Failure to turn the abstract nature of science to hands-on activities in the classrooms and field environment. Low supply of science teachers to schools e.g. the ratio of teacher to students could be as high as 1:80 or even more in many nations of the world.
Also, Ogunniyi (1996) documented causes of low achievement in the sciences especially in Africa as presented on Table 2 below. Table 2: Causes of Low Science Achievement
Government-Related Causes *Poor policies and/or action plans *Poor funding *Poor institutional set-up *Quality of political leadership *Mismanagement of funds of STM *Poor or lack of mechanism for the training, retraining and upgrading of STM teachers. Society-Related Causes *Social class differences *Tribal conflicts and nepotism *Anti-intellectual values and practices *Level of STM literacy *Job opportunities for STM *Status of STM teacher in the community Teacher-Related Causes *Poor preparation of STM teachers *Low morale of STM teachers *Poor salaries & allowances *Lack of adequate knowledge of STM*Lack of critical skills*Overloaded classroom/laboratory *Lack of opportunities for selfimprovement. *Frequent transfers of STMteachers*Inadequacy in the quantity and quality of STM teachers at various levels *STM teachers professional qualification and experience Family-Related Causes School-Related Causes *Poor physical environment *Poor equipped laboratories/workshops *Poor quality of teaching *Over crowded classroom *Leadership & level of discipline *Lack of career counselors *Inadequate instructional materials viz: texts, teachers guide, A/V materials *Poor library facilities *Peer influence Student-Related Causes
Nature of Subject Matter
Examination Related Causes
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*Over congested curriculum *Language of STM textbooks *Abstract nature of STM concept, symbols and generalizations *Conflicting learning theories about STM *Nature of STM world-view e.g. mechanism
*Overloaded examination syllabuses*Emphasis on the cognitive domain*Unfavourable mode of setting question schemes*Mechanical marking schemes*Mismatch between students cognitive level and examination questions
*Family relationship *Nature of cognitive pool *Availability of financial resources*Unavailability of STM related materials *Value placed on formal education*Level of parentseducation*Preferences for certain careers other than STM*The language of STM
*Poor attitude towards STM*Physical and health factors *Difficulty encountered in learning STM symbols *Consistently poor performance in STM *Weakness in computational ability *Level of motivation *Truancy*Difficulty with learning
Source: Ogunniyi (1996)
Contributing to what the causes of low student achievement in STM are, Shaikh (2000) submitted that the perception of STM as an irrelevant and often elite, Eurocentric, laboratory-based subject area demanding higher levels of intelligence and skills, puts many learner groups off from taking the subject or pursuing it further. These include girls and often the less privileged within the learning groups. Also, Soyibo (1986) identified the causes of students persistent failure or underachievement in STM as being due to the abstract nature of science, quality and quantity of science teachers, teachers attitude to science teaching and teaching style, inadequacy and lack of science textbooks. Furthermore, Okebukola (1995) added that inappropriate funding, poor teacher training/welfare, shortage of instructional materials, diminishing regard for the value of education, social decadence and political instability, among others are barriers to good quality STM education. On the other hand, Jegede and Okebukola (1998) named authoritarianism, goal structure, the African worldview, social expectations and sacredness of science as socio-cultural factors militating against drift towards science and technology in secondary schools. Other factors as given by other authors (Olarewaju, 1991; Busari, 1991; Ogunkola, 2005; Ogunkola and Olatoye, 2008) include language of instruction, lack of interest in science on the part of the students and quantitative nature of some science subjects. Interestingly, Oriafo (2000) presented a model for identifying factors influencing quality of STM education in Nigeria, which is applicable in any part of the world. He stressed some major aspects of STM education as critical to high quality and as such very crucial determining factors of the level of its success (Fig. 1)
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Fig. 1: A Model of Factors Influencing Quality of STM Education
Source: Oriafo (2000)

3. Challenges of STM Education in the Caribbean The nature of the Caribbean region is such that it is highly heterogeneous and is characterized by a mosaic of cultures, creeds, races, and religions- a diversity which makes any analysis of the region a very complex enterprise. Therefore what is presented here is the general perspective, rather than an exhaustive analysis of the Islands. However, the issue of low achievement in science, technology and mathematics is a general problem in the Caribbean. This assertion is supported by Sweeny (2003: 8) who stated that Of particular concern is the relatively low extent of science education, as suggested by the number of students who successfully pass secondary level science examinations. He further states that a cursory review of Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) results in biology, chemistry, physics and integrated science for the past ten years indicates that pass rates have, for the most part, fallen below 50% in these science subjects. In his writing titled A panorama of Science Education in the Latin America and the Caribbean, Macedo (2000:11) pointed out that although science and technology education acquires great importance at the middle school level in the region, there are certain major obstacles such as: Developing student-adapted and relevant curricula based on life-long science for citizenship. Developing curricula that transcend the discipline oriented logic which has resulted in overloaded study programmes full of conceptual contents. Transfer to lower levels of higher level curricular matter due to simplification processes starting at the higher and descending to lower levels. Lack of global vision on the part of teachers of what is taught, generally leading to the teaching of concepts, skills and aptitudes in an isolated manner deprived of their meaning and purpose. Excessive discipline-oriented vision even at secondary school level which accounts for a fractionated and compactmentalised presentation of scientific knowledge. Each discipline being taught by a separate teacher has led to limited coordination and in many cases
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prevented the students from having a global view of the physical and natural phenomena that they study. Difficulty to include technology education in general secondary education and scant relationship between science education and technology education at this level. Lack of region-specific educational resource materials related to the needs and concerns of students and the educational community which makes links between school science and daily life difficult. All these, according to Macedo (2000) led to a science education that is not accessible to all and attractive for only a few pupils. The majority of the students finds it boring and difficult and so loses interest. He further reiterates that the feeling of uselessness that pupils feel in science classes, the feeling of failure experienced by science teachers due to lack of interest /motivation of pupils added to the conviction that science literacy is a necessity for every citizen has pushed teachers, directors and educational authorities of the region to look for new curricular propositions for science education. Cehelsky (2003) of the InterAmerican Development Bank stated that although education in the region (Latin America and the Caribbean) has been undergoing not just growth , but reform as well, moving toward improved quality and greater equity, curricular reform, and also the recognition of the importance of training in science and technology and teacher preparation has emerged as a priority and innovative approaches include incorporation of information technology and distance education, the needs and deficits in the region remain large. He explains that as UNESCOs World Science Report indicates, the region lags in terms of the development of science and does not provide a solid foundation in primary and secondary schools; few countries in the region achieve universal net enrolment at the primary level. With the regional average at 75%, the level of failures and dropouts is high and of those proceeding to the secondary school, only 50% complete their schooling and in rural areas the percentage drops to 10. Cehelsky (2003) also stated that in the region, teachers are poorly trained and compensated; schools lack the resources for quality equipment- and even basic facilities. Some countries, according to him, have experienced a decrease in enrolment in science and engineering, reflecting the quality of science and mathematics education at primary and secondary levels. Unfortunately, few Latin America and the Caribbean countries have participated in international testing through TIMSS or PISA and those that have, place at the bottom of the rankings (Cehelsky, 2003). Against the backdrop of the challenges provided so far, the science, technology and mathematics workers produced enter the labour force ill prepared for the global economy. 4. Imperatives for Teacher Preparation in the Caribbean Colleges and Universities There is a growing international consensus that good teachers are key to the delivery of high quality education and to the reform of education to meeting the new demands of society. The National Commission on Teaching and the Americas Future, cited by Miller (2009: 6) in a paper titled Teacher Developments in the Caribbean, put forward a three pronged argument with respect to the central role of teachers to good education: What teachers know and can do is one of the most important influences on what students learn. Recruiting, preparing and retaining good teachers are the central strategies for improving schools. School reform can not succeed unless it focuses on creating conditions in which teachers can teach and teach well.
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Evidence from literature (e.g. Ferguson and Ladd, 1996, Ogunkola, 2008) also suggests that teachers abilities, teachers knowledge of subject matter and teaching methods and teaching experience along with small class sizes and the positive influences of small schools, are critical elements in successful student learning. However, Cehelsky (2003), pointed out that given the importance of human capacity building for competitiveness and quality of life, the deficits in science, technology and mathematics in the region are particularly worrisome because teachers are largely unprepared to teach their subject matter and access to quality content, to information technology and to innovative approaches, including inquiry based education is limited. This therefore calls for a deliberate effort on the part of the tertiary institutions in the region to rise up to the challenge of raising the standard and quality of science, technology and mathematics teachers. It is expected that this effort will in turn transform the STM education in the Caribbean. At this juncture, it may be necessary to state that sociologically, teachers in the Caribbean are not a unitary category. Using the social criteria of ethnicity, gender, social class and occupational prestige, Miller (2009) identified five teaching occupations within the region: University teaching that is comprised predominantly of males of the middle and upper classes and among whom the minority ethnic groups are over-represented. University teaching enjoys the highest prestige among the teaching occupations. High school and college teaching which is comprised of a minority of females and significant minority of males of middle class backgrounds and recent recruits to the middle strata from the lower strata through educational achievement. Private preparatory and kindergarten school teaching which is predominantly comprised of females of the same ethnic and social background as the clientele that patronize their schools. Public primary school teaching, which is comprised predominantly of females of lower social strata and of the same ethnic groups as the mass of the student population, served by the schools in which they teach. Community based pre-school teaching comprised almost totally of poorly qualified females of the lower social strata. The present composition of the different teaching occupations in social terms, Miller warns, must not be regarded as either a static representation of history or a terminus in the social evolution of Caribbean society or of the teaching occupations. Rather, the social composition of the teaching occupations is reflective of both historical patterns as well as transformation in Caribbean social structure which are continuing. Having presented the above categories of teaching occupations in the Caribbean today, the following imperatives are suggested for colleges and universities training teachers in order to raise the quality of teachers and ultimately improve students achievement in science, technology and mathematics.
(a)
Evolve a unique model of STM teacher education
Miller (2009: 10) highlighted the salient features of Caribbean education with implications for teacher development as follows: Caribbean education has been part of Western education for over 350 years and readily adopts and adapts major developments in leading Western school systems. Both within and between countries, it is possible to find a wide array of educational reforms being implemented simultaneously.
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Because most reforms are adoptions from the West, there is not a strong indigenous capacity to initiate original approaches derived from the first principles applied to Caribbean imperatives. Moreover, innovations and developments in pre-service teacher training in the 1990s are also listed but summarized thus: Upgrading the academic and professional standing of the pre-service programmes. Colleges training teachers were upgraded to offer pre-service training through degree programmes. Changing pedagogical practices in the training of teachers. Expanding the modalities used in the delivery of teacher training to include distance education and school based approaches. Using information technology to modernize instruction and management in colleges training teachers. It is good to know that in America and England, various institutions that produce teachers have evolved their unique model of teacher education. See the example of the University of Columbia Model for Teacher Training (Table 2). Table 2: University of Columbia Teacher Training Model
PHASE 1 2 FOCUS/TYPE Experience the school Small group and tutorial teaching by master teachers in a candidates subject area of specialization. The student has a teaching subject and takes courses in them like those majoring in them. Skill in the use of the inquiry teaching strategy. Each class group experiments teaching under varying conditions but each of which emphasized inquiry approach. Each candidate teaches five or more times using inquiry. Curriculum practicum. Gaining practical experience in curriculum development and usin a curriculum to teach peers. Simulation of a school and develop an educational programme for the school. Internship PURPOSE OF TRAINING A 4 - 8 week apprenticeship to a public school to acquire some practical school experience; No teaching involved. To expose students to 10 20 weeks of experimenting with teaching strategies under laboratory condition To drill students in the use of the inquiry instructional approach. Episodes of each inquiry teaching are played back, analysed and refined by the group. To provide students with opportunities for an observation participation experience in curriculum processes and in a variety of ways of teaching. To give inquiry groups/course mates the opportunity to carry out activities designed to ensure that the school is well run. To provide a unique opportunity for graduating students to function as trained teachers already in service with co-curricular activities. Salary and other remunerations are paid. Candidates go in teams and use inquiry strategy for teaching
3.
4.
5. 6
Source: Eze (1996)
Such model is particularly useful during processes of education stocktaking, curriculum planning, and
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curriculum development. In the Caribbean, it is now very important for tertiary institutions training teachers to evolve teacher education model that is unique, adequate and relevant to the needs, goals and aspirations of the Caribbean community.
(b) Integrate technology into STM teacher preparation programmes

If technology is to be integrated into the classroom and play a significant role in educational reform, teachers need to be prepared to use emerging technological devices in ways that will facilitate teaching and learning. Granston (2007) in agreement with this suggestion declares that teacher preparation programmes in tertiary institutions need to play a more proactive role in preparing new teachers to teach in technology-rich classrooms, or at the very least, classrooms where teachers and students have access to computers. In other words, the issue of professional development of science teachers has become more necessary than ever because of the introduction of the use of computers and other modern instructional materials in teaching and learning processes in science classrooms, which demand new skills of science teachers in handling modern instructional materials and equipment which are aimed at enhancing quality in science education. This posits a new set of requirements on the teachers. According to Hostmark (2007), in future, teachers will have an even more important role as they increasingly function as learning facilitators, helping students to grasp and select among all information available. The general standard for all teachers therefore has to do with the competency of developing the knowledge and skills in learning technologies to be able to appropriately and responsibly use the tools, resources, processes and systems and to be able to retrieve, assess and evaluate information from various media. The competent science teacher will use that knowledge along with the necessary skills and information to assist learners in solving problems, communicating clearly, making informal decisions and in constructing new knowledge, products or systems in diverse learning environments (Kadijevich, 2002). However, in his meta-analysis of the factors that are instrumental to promoting the use of computer aided learning, Griffin (1998) found that teacher attitudes towards computer is an important factor related to the teachers role towards the effective use of computers in education. It is then instructive to advise tertiary institutions in the Caribbean to make provisions for training of their students how to select the materials for teaching based on relevance, adequacy, comprehensiveness etc, and how to handle the equipment in the classrooms or laboratories as the case may be. And this has to be done in a way that will attract the interest of the prospective teachers. By doing this, they are disposed to using the computer and other materials enthusiastically resulting in better understanding and application of concepts on the part of students and ultimately leading to high science achievement.
(c)
Introduce research oriented activities into STM teacher training programmes
STM teachers ought to be well grounded in research oriented activities in both classroom and laboratory settings. Student-teachers should be exposed to frequent and continuous drills in the use of Inquiry method of teaching and learning. They should also be developed to become action researchers through which they can discover needs of learners and be able to offer relevant solutions.
(d) Ensure thorough academic preparation

The Universities and Colleges training teachers must equip the pre-service teachers with adequate academic competence and understanding of the relevance of STM education they require and transmit. If the teacher is to be regarded as professional, he/she must acquire adequate knowledge of the subject
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he teaches. This is crucial because today, an average Caribbean science, technology and mathematics teacher is below the minimum in the knowledge required for his or her discipline. Most of the older teachers do not make efforts to update their knowledge and competence and most of the younger teachers are ill prepared.
(e)
Organize short time programmes for practising STM teachers.
Many practising STM teachers were not exposed to computer-aided learning during their time in school, neither were they taught this during their training in colleges or universities and yet they must teach students using various gargets or devices. Therefore they need help from the tertiary institutions to put them abreast of the situation. In this way it is imperative for these institutions to rise up to the challenge. 5. Conclusion It is no longer debatable that the world in which we live today is a discovery and knowledge-driven one. Obviously, over the last half century, science and technology have come to occupy a central place as sources of economic growth and social well-being. Discoveries through scientific activities have led to dramatic increases in agricultural productivity, the establishment of new industries with new materials and processes, a revolution in communication and information technology, and improvements in health and quality of life. Therefore, the status of STM education particularly the science achievement of students in schools in the Caribbean should be raised to an acceptable level if the region must achieve the goal of using the STM education as an instrument par excellence for national development. It is in the light of the above that it is recommended in this chapter that the colleges and universities in the Caribbean take the lead in ensuring that students achievement in science, technology and mathematics at various levels of education improves. This can be done by developing a unique model for teacher training which can be used in monitoring and evaluating teacher preparation at every stage. The tertiary institutions should also ensure ways of integrating technology into STM teacher preparation. The truth is that many teachers that are expected to teach science students using computers and other devices can not handle the gargets, neither do they understand the operations of such devices. For the existing teachers who were not exposed to Information and Communication Technology in their days and yet are expected to use ICT to teach, should be exposed to short time courses, workshops and seminars along this line. The value of academic competency of teachers, especially in STM can not be overemphasized. The colleges training teachers should ensure that the teachers they are producing are not only masters of the subject matter of the subjects they are to teach, but must also be sound in pedagogy. Action research at classroom level by teachers should, henceforth be encouraged by the colleges training teachers during preparation of student teachers. References
Aniodoh, H.C. (2001). Modern Aspects of Integrated Science Education. Enugu, Hacofam Educational Books. 177 195. Cehelsky, M. (2003). Building Human Capacity for Economic Growth. Paper Presented: Segunda Conferentia International: La Ciencia En La Educacion Basica. Fundacion Mexico-Estados Unidos para la Ciencia, 11 de Mayo de 2003. Eze, T. (1996). Analysis and Criticisms of Models of Teacher Education: Implications for Vocational and Technical Teacher Education. In P.N. Lassa; C.,M. Anikweze; and A.A. Maiyanga. (Eds). Teacher Education: An Imperative for National Development.
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Godek, Y. (2004). The Development of Science Education in Developing Countries. G.U. KirsehirEgitini FakultesiDergisi, Cilt 5, Sayi 1. 1 - 9 Granston, C.N. (2007). Are Jamaicas Preservice Teachers Prepared to Teach in the 21st Century Classroom?. In M. Peart and H. Morris: EduVision: Enhancing Governance and Leadership in Education and Training Through Technology Innovations. 27 43. Griffin, J. (1998). CAL Innovation as Viwed by Purchasers of Computer Software in Secondary Schools. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 4 (1), 34 43. IEA. (2004). Trends in International Mathematics and Sciences (TIMSS) Wasington, USA Department of Education. Iheonumekwu, S. (2006). Innovations and Best Practices in Education. A Paper Presented at the 4th Annual Conference of Faculty of Education, Abia State University, Uturu. Jegede, O.J. and Okebukola, P.A.O. (1998). Some Socio-cultural Factors Militating Against Drift Towards Science and Technology in Schools. Research in Science and Technology Education, 7(2), 141 151. Kadijevick, D.J. (2002). Four Critical Issues of Applyong Educational Technology: Standards to Professional Development of Mathematics Teachers. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on the Teaching of Mathematics at the Undergraduate Level, University of Crete. Lips, D & Mcneil, B.J. (2009). A New Approach to Improving Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Education. Available at: http://www.heritage.org/research/education/bg2259.cfm Macedo, B. (2000). A Panorama of Science Education in the Latin America and Caribbean region. Connect Vol. xxv, No. 3- 4, 10 12. Miller, E. (2009). Teacher Development in the Caribbean. Available at: http://people.stfx.ca/ibertsch/ GrenadaReadings/Miller.pdf Ogunkola, B. J. (2005). Science knowledge of Junior Secondary School Graduates: Influence of Gender and Location. Journal of Educational Focus, 6, 53 61. Ogunkola, B. J. (2008). Computer Attitude, Ownership and Use as Predictors of Computer Literacy of Science Teachers in Ogun State,Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 3(2), 53 57, Turkey Ogunkola, B. J. and Olatoye, R. A. (2008).Gender Differentials in Science and Mathematics Achievement among Senior Secondary School Students in Ogun State, Nigeria. Review of Higher Education and SelfLearning (RHESL) 1(2), 9 13. USA Ogunniyi, M.B. (1996). Two Decades of Science Education in Africa. International Science Education 70(2). 111 122. Okebukola, P.A.O. (1995). Barriers to Good Quality Science, Technology and Mathematics Education. STAN Newsletter (2)1. Oriaifo S. O. (2000). Factors Militating Against Effective Science, Technology and Mathematics Education in Nigeria. A Monograph. Shaikh, K. (2000). Science, Technology and Mathematics Education: A Global Perspective. Connect. Vol. xxv, No. 3 4, 1 3. Soyibo, L.O. (1986). Causes of Students Underachievement in Science. 27th Annual Conference Proceedings of STAN. 95 99. Sweeny, A.E. (2003). Science Education in the Caribbean: Analysis of Trends. In T. Bastick and A. Ezenne (Eds.): Researching Change in Caribbean Education. Jamaica, Department of Educational Studies, University of the West Indies, Kingston. Ukeje, B.O. (1997). The Challenges of Mathematics in Nigerias Economic Goals of Vision 2010: Implications for Secondary School Mathematics. Paper Presented at the 34th Annual National Conference of the Mathematical Association of Nigeria (MAN)
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Differential Effects of Analogy Types on Retrievability and Inferential Induction in Text Comprehension
Stephen Ntim, PhD; M.Phil; B.Ed; M. A
Faculty of Education, Catholic University of Ghana P.O. BOX 363, Fiapre-Sunyani, B/A Ghana, W/Africa Email: stephenntim58@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p109
Abstract In the experiments presented in this study, the researcher examined the possibility and found evidence suggesting the different uses of analogy in structuring, reminding and understanding novel information. Specifically, when given series of written passages that either shared structural similarity, literal similarity, surface attributes or first order relations, individuals were likely to make interpretations that paralleled structural information from a previously read analogous scenario. In contrast with the great majority of existing research, as well as with some common conceptions about analogy use, this interpreting was done in the absence of direct didactical intervention other than text comprehension. Strikingly participants were able to draw inferences. Findings from the experiments seem to suggest that surface attribute and literal similarity were quite influential in remindings and access whereas structural similarity appeared to be more sensitive to inference-drawing. The data were taking as supporting the evidence that a) different types of similarity affect analogies differently; b) that inference-drawing and elaboration can take place automatically in text comprehension. Key Words: Analogy; surface similarity; literal similarity; recall; inference, text comprehension
1. Introduction Reasoning by analogy is a fundamental component in human cognition. Analogy provides a tool for thought and explanation. Its role has been critical in scientific discoveries and creative thinking. It is precisely because of this that its fundamental role in reasoning has been the focus of attention in cognitive psychology. It is through analogy that many classic scientific discoveries were made. A well known example is that of Archimedes in the 3rd century B.C. When asked to determine whether a base metal had been substituted for gold in an intricately designed crown, although the weight per volume of pure gold was known, the crown was so ornate that its volume was impossible to measure. He was unable to solve this solution until he went home and stepped into his bath: he saw an analogy between the volume of water displaced by his body as he got into his bath, and the volume of water that would be displaced by the crown. The problem was solved. Another classic example of analogy in science is Keplers analogy between religion and the relationship between the motion of the planets and their distance from the sun. It was concerned primarily with three problems, namely, the number, size and motion of the planets and the analogy between the stationary objects, namely, the sun, the fixed stars, and the space between them, with God the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost. The analogy mapped out as follows: The sun in the middle of the moving stars, himself at rest and yet the source of motion carries the image of God the Father and the Creator. He distributes his motive force through a medium which contains moving bodies, even as
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the Father creates through the Holy Ghost. Thus analogy eventually led Keppler to an operational theory of celestial mechanics that resulted in the notion of gravity. Thus analogies are important in learning, problem solving and discovery. The paradox however is that developmental psychology, for example, has not given central role to analogy. Goswani (1992) has offered the explanation that this neglect was partly historical: namely, the over-emphasis on Piagetian theory which asserts that reasoning by analogy was a late-developing skill around 11-12 years of age. This traditional view was supported by research in psychometrics. Psychometrics research had shown that many children, even at 11-12 years of age, were unable to complete simple analogies like pig: boar:: dog:? (wolf). When given these analogies, younger children typically produced responses, like pig:boar :: dog : cat (Goswani,1992, p. 4). Much of human experience however is essentially analogical. Analogy entails mapping the problem representation (target) into a structurally similar schema (base), which has been learnt through experience. Two sources of difficulty are foreseen in analogical reasoning: mapping problems to inappropriate schemas, and processing loads imposed by mapping; the more complex the mapping, the greater the load. Gentner, (1983) for example, defines analogies as mapping from a base to a target. In the simple proportional analogy, human is to baby as horse is to foal is the target. Elements in the base are mapped into the target. In this case, all mappings are bi-directional, unless indicated otherwise, so it does not matter whether they are described from base to target or the reverse. In the thinking of Halford (1992) when human is mapped into horse and baby into foal, the relation of parent of in the base there corresponds to the same relation in the target. In other words, the corresponding relation in the base and the target need not be identical (Halford, 1992, p. 194). For example, not all attributes of base and target elements are mapped such as the human attribute walks on two legs is not mapped to horse. The implication here is that relations are mapped selectively. It is these relations that enter into coherent structure that are more likely to be mapped. In the thinking of Gentner (1983) this is referred to as the principle of systematicity. Thus according to this view, the important thing in analogy is to establish that the base and the target are in structural correspondence. Thus, the one most important issue that underscores all the research work on the different models of analogy, whether, it is from the point of view of pragmatic reasoning (Holyoak), componential reasoning (Sternberg) or the structural model (Gentner) is the important role of similarity. Analogical inference (and transfer for that matter) can take place to the effect that the subject can see salient features or similarity between the base or ones knowledge and the target or the transferred task. 2. Statement of Problem Research findings corroborate the hypothesis that there is a correlation between analogy types and retrievability and inference-making. Ross (1989) in a study of transfer in problem solving measured not only the proportion of correct solution, but also the proportion of remindings, as measured by whether subject wrote out a prior formula. This allows a contrast to be made between solution rate (a measure which presumably includes mapping, adaptation, evaluation and drawing of inferences and reminding rate) which was relatively strongly affected by surface similarity. Novick (1988) gave both novice and expert mathematicians problems to solve that included both surface similarity distractors and remote analogies, followed by later target problem. Initially both novices and experts retrieved surface similarities, but experts were quicker to reject initially incorrect retrievals, suggesting stronger effects of domain knowledge in mapping and evaluation than in retrieval. Gick and Holyoak (1983, 1987) demonstrated that a literally similar prior story was retrieved more often than on mapping and use. It is
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within this context of subjects attending more to surface similarity rather than structural that has made other scholars in cognitive psychology and education deny that transfer is spontaneous.
Transfer is rare, and the likelihood of its occurrence is related to the similarity between two situations (Detterman & Sternberg, 1993, p. 15).
and
There is no good evidence that people produce significant amounts of transfer or that they can be taught to do so. There is on the other hand, substantial evidence and an emerging Zeitgeist that favours the idea that what people learn are specific examples... I subscribe to the principle that you should teach people exactly what you want them to learn in a situation as close as possible to the one in which the learning will be applied. I dont count on transfer and I dont try to promote it (Detterman & Sternberg, 1993, pp. 17).
Notwithstanding the above claim, other research as mentioned above do claim that there is not only transfer, but that there are indeed different types of analogies that exert differential effects on retrievability and inference-making (Gentner, Ratterman & Forbus 1993). Thus, if these studies that make such claims are anything to go by, then one can reasonably imply that some types of analogies can enhance spontaneous transfer especially in the area of making inferences in text comprehension. As these and countless other examples demonstrate, analogy provides a useful tool for reasoning about poorly understood situations, solving difficult problems, and making plausible inferences about unknown properties, behaviors, and characteristics (Gentner & Markman, 1997; Holyoak & Thagard, 1995; Hummel & Holyoak, 1997). This research examines more closely the roles of similarity in transfer; specifically how the different types of analogies (surface similarity) and structural analogy (structural similarity) affects retrieval access and inference-making with reference to text comprehension. However, most research works on analogy with the exception of few have arrived at evidence with some form of instructional intervention and training from a previously read scenario in problem solving. In this study however, while assessing the differential effects of analogy types on retrievability and inferential induction in text comprehension, it also seeks to investigate whether or not there is spontaneous evidence of inferential transfer in text comprehension without didactic intervention. In short, whereas many researchers arrive at conclusion through an exposure of experimental groups to didactic intervention, this study seeks evidence non-intentionally (Day & Gentner, 2007). 3. Research Questions In the light of this defined problem, this research attempted to respond to three fundamental questions: 1)How is accuracy of recall of text dependent on the degree of surface similarities? (surface match)?; 2)Do people fail to infer structurally appropriate analogies in text comprehension? 3)Why is transfer likely to occur to the extent in which base and target share surface similarity? 4. Hypothesis The fundamental hypothesis of this research is this: a) Individuals are more likely to recall passages that shared surface similarity more than those with structural similarities;
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b) With respect to inference-making, individuals, who made use of structural similarities, are more likely to make better inferences. c) Analogical transfer is likely to occur to the extent in which base and target share surface similarity? Thus, the ability to transfer from a prior (base) knowledge to a target knowledge for fluent text comprehension is a function of two types of analogy each of which has differential impact in text comprehension: These two types of analogies are: a) remote analogy and b) within-analogy. Each has different cognitive function. Whereas remote analogy is crucial to inference-making and text elaboration, within-analogy aids access to retrieving surface contextual features. Each of the two types of analogy is differentially crucial for retrievability and inference. 5- Method of testing the hypothesis This hypothesis was tested experimentally by exposing Second Year Education students in the Catholic University of Ghana to written passages in a text in which some of the passages were superficially very similar, while others were on the surface very dissimilar and yet shared structural similarity. Other facts in some of the passages were left unstated or ambiguous. Subjects: 30 Second Year Education students in Psychology Class, Catholic University of Ghana.
5.1 Design and Materials

Similarity types were varied within the subjects. In all, subjects read a total of 24 short stories in groups of three that is each group of 10 students read 8 stories. The first and the last stories were filler stories in addition to the main 6 stories in each group. Measurement was on the dimension of students recall along the following scales: ratings of their recall, proportion of recall rated above criterion, and proportion of recall of significant key word in each story. The stories were short ones of about two or three paragraphs. Each of the main 18 stories contained the following: an original story, three matching cue stories which differed in amount and level of similarity that they share with the original. All cues shared identical or nearly identical first order relations (e.g. events and actions) with the original story. They differed in other level of shared similarity. There were three sets of cues: a) analogy cues, b) surface similarity match cues, and c) first order match cues. Analogy cues consisted of common higher order relational structure added to the first order relational matches; surface similarity match cues (SS) object matches were added to the first order relations matches. The higher order relational structure (which had to do with causal relations or plot structure differed; first order match (FOR) cues consisted only of the first order relation match. Each subject received only one matching cue story for each of the 18 main stories. All subject received the same memory set with differences only in the type of story used in the cue set. Comparability was ensured by making the cue stories as similar as possible. The use of identical words was avoided in order to ensure avoidance of lexical meanings in cueing. Reminding task: subjects were tested in groups of three consisting of 10 students in each group in two separate sessions. In session one, students read a booklet containing the 18 original stories plus the 6 filler stories. All subjects read the same 24 stories in different semi-random orders with the order to read the stories carefully so that they would be able to remember them carefully. They took 35 minutes for this task. The second session took place later the same day without any didactic intervention. Students received booklet that contained the 18 stories they read earlier. Each workbook consisted of six surface similarity cues (SS), six analogy (AN) cues and six first order rules (FOR) cues. They were told that for each cue they were to write any original story for which they reminded. If they were reminded of
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more than one, they should write the one that best matched the current story: they were asked to include as many details as possible that they could remember. Inference-drawing task: After completing the reminding task, students were asked to draw inference in the second session. The task was this: they were given the same stories as in the first session and were asked to rate six surface similarity (SM), six analogy(AN) and six first order rule (FOR) matches in the same order as in the reminding task. They were asked to rate each pair for the inference of the match explaining inference as the situation in which the essential aspect of the stories match for one to draw conclusions about the second story from the first. Scoring: was done using 0-5 mean scale as follows: 5= All important elements of the original and many details; 4= all important elements of the original and some details; 3= all important elements of the original but very few or no details; 2= some important elements of the original; others missing or wrong; 1= some elements from the original but not enough to be certain that the subjects genuinely recalled the original; 0= no recall or different story. In the third research question, subjects were the same as in questions 1 and 2 with the same materials except that only AN matches and two kinds of surface matches were used. Each subject was given seven analogy matches (AN) and seven superficial matches. For half of the subjects the superficial matches shared only object descriptions and not first order event nor causal structure. The other half received SS matches of the same kind used in the previous experiments which shared first order relations as well as objects. Each subject in addition received six LS matches (the same six across all subjects. Procedure was also the same as in questions 1 and 2 except that this time round the keyword scoring was dropped. First session: subjects read twenty original stories and 12 filler stories. Second session: Later they were given 20 matching stories in the reminding task. 6. Clarification of terms and acronyms As used in this study, the term literal similarity means that both relational predicates and object attributes share some similarities; whereas surface similarity is mere appearance matches in which only object-attributes and low order relations are shared. Analogy is used in this study to mean structural similarity as opposed to surface similarity or literal similarity. The same term is also used synonymously as across-domain analogy or remote analogy which appears to be sensitive inference-making and elaboration in text comprehension in contradistinction to within-domain analogy which is also used synonymously as surface similarity. Thus within-domain analogy or surface similarity seems to be compatible with recall. The acronyms used in the experiments are: AN= Analogy; SS= Surface similarity; LS= Literal similarity; FOR= First order rules 7. Theoretical framework Similarity is universally acknowledged to be central in transfer. Research suggests that its role is complex. People solve problems better if they have solved prior similar problems. This applies to both children and adults. One of the most enduring findings in the field is that transfer promotes reminding. The most fundamental ideal required to understand transfer is that two tasks may differ and yet share some common components. This shared components provide the basis for inter task transfer. This notion of common components also sometimes referred to as the theory of identical elements was first articulated by Thorndike in 1903. It is called salient features or overlapping rules in cognitive literature. Theorists explain that the continuous notion of similarity can be reduced to a function of discreet components: two situations are similar in so far as they share many common components. To a first
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approximation, more common components will constitute greater similarity and therefore lead to greater transfer (Gick & Holyoak, 1987, p. 16). To be able to predict the overall magnitude of transfer and its direction (positive or negative), a more refined analysis of similarity is required. These distinctive aspects of transfer can be related to the impact of different types of similarity on the retrieval verses application of previously acquired knowledge. Specifically, what Gick and Holyoak are proposing here is that perceived similarity is a function of any salient similarity of two situations. This perceived similarity will in turn affect retrieval of the representation of the training situation during transfer task: the greater the perceived similarity of the two situations, the more likely it is that transfer will be attempted. If transfer in fact is attempted, the direction of the transfer will be determined by the similarity of the two situations with respect to features causally relevant to the goal or required response in the transfer task. It is crucial to understand the distinctions between the pragmatic approach to analogy in problem solving and that of the structural approach. The former is talking about features causally relevant to the goal that will constrain the perceived similarity whereas the latter is emphasising the principle of systematicity. Components of a situation that are causally or functionally related in outcomes or goal attainment is referred to by Holyoak et al. (1987) as structural and those not so related will be termed surface (Holyoak, 1985). These authors argue within the context of problem solving analogies that salient common components of either a surface or a structural nature will increase the likelihood that a problem solver will relate the two situations to each other. In other words, salient surface or structural components will affect perceived similarity. Conditional on transfer being attempted at all, shared structural components will tend to yield positive transfer, as the solution of the initial problem is transferred in an appropriate way to the transfer task. The claim that analogy involves a mapping of information is a general assumption that is shared by most theories of analogy. The only difference however is that the factors that influence the mapping differ across theories. One of the most influential theories of how people use analogous solutions is the structure-mapping theory proposed by Gentner in 1983. The theory was primarily developed to account for mapping knowledge from a base domain onto a target domain that consisted of different objects, such as comparing an atom to a solar system. Because the objects differed, Gentner argued that it is the relations among the objects rather than the attributes of the objects that determined the mapping. Thus, cognitive processing of analogies has been a fertile and productive area for research over the last two decades. There is substantial consensus on the fundamental processes involved (Gentner, 2003; Gentner, Holyoak, & Kokinov, 2001; Gentner & Markman, 1997; Holyoak & Thagard, 1989; Hummel & Holyoak, 1997; Kokinov & French, 2003). A key characteristic of analogical theories is the emphasis on structured representations that specify the relations between elements. For example, in structuremapping theory (Forbus, Gentner, & Law, 1995; Gentner, 1983, 2003; Gentner & Markman, 1997), the comparison processes act to achieve a maxima structurally consistent alignment between two representations. Structural consistency entails that the correspondences between the elements and relations in two representations must satisfy one-to-one correspondence (an element in one representation may be mapped to at most one element in another) and parallel connectivity (if two predicates correspond, their arguments must also correspond). Once a structural alignment has been established, candidate inferences are projected. These are additional elements that are connected to the common system in the base (or source) structure but are not yet present in the target (Clement & Gentner, 1991; Markman, 1997). Importantly, in structure-mapping, such inferences arise automatically via a structural pattern completion process (Day & Gentner, 2007). Gentner, Ratterman and Forbus (1993) in a similar study examined the roles of similarity and how different types of analogies or similarities affect retrieval access and what they call inferential soundness. They attempted to isolate and compare the determinants of similarity-based access to
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memory and the determinants of the subjective soundness and similarity match. Based on structuremapping theory, they predicted that subjective soundness would depend on the degree of shared relational structure, particularly high-order structure such as causal bindings. In contrast, they also predicted that memory retrieval would be highly sensitive to surface similarities such as common object attributes. To assess retrievability, they expose subjects to read a large set of stories and were later given a set of probe stories that resembled the original stories in systematically different ways, for example, purely relational analogies, surface-similarity matches or literal similarity matches. Research since the mid 80s confirms the venerable tradition that similarity increases the probability of transfer (Anderson, Farrell & Sauer, 1984; Holyoak & Koh, 1987; Novick 1988; Pirroli, 1985; Reed 1987; Ross, 1987; 1989; Simon & Hayes, 1976). At the same time research findings indicate that the roles of similarity in transfer are complex: 1) First, that accuracy of transfer depends critically on the degree of structural match, that match causal structures (Schumacher & Gentner, 1988a, b; Holyoake & Koh, 1987) 2) Second, people do not often succeed in accessing structurally appropriate materials, even when they are in the long term memory. (Gick & Hoyoak,1980, 1983); 3) Third, similarity-based reminding is often based on superficial commonalties and /or instead of structural commonalities (Gentner, Ratterman & Forbus, 1993: 526). Such findings suggest that there is more than one type of analogy and therefore there is the possibility of other types of analogies that seem to influence cognitive processes in transferring knowledge from a base towards a target, as for example, in comprehending a text. Genter et al (1993) distinguish between three types of analogy: literal similarity, analogy and surface similarity (mere appearances). In literal similarity both relational predicates and object attributes are shared. In analogy (also called structural similarity) high order, structural relations are mapped and inferences are drawn. In surface similarity or (mere appearance matches), only object-attributes and low order relation are shared. There is a general consensus that in similarity-based transfer there are certain core cognitive processes that are involved: 1) accessing a potential analogy, 2) matching the base analogue with the target, 3) mapping further inferences from the base to the target, 5) evaluating the soundness of the analogy and 6) extracting the common structure for later use (J. Clement, 1986; Gentner, 1988a. It is on account of this that similarity based transfer is considered to involve four to six sub-processes:
accessing, matching, evaluating, drawing inferences (with some adaptation of the analogy) and abstracting from the analogy (Genter, Ratterman & Forbus, 1993: 527).
This brings us to the core claims of this paper: the suggestion that different kinds of similarity use different cognitive sub-processes. In so doing, they exert different effects on accessing and abstracting or drawing of inferences. Specifically this paper makes the submission that individuals are more likely to access and remember surface features in a text comprehension more than they would in respect of texts that may be structurally similar but have different surface features and context. Similarly even though accessing structurally similar text may be initially difficult, yet when they succeed in doing so it is more consolidated. 8. Results and Discussion
Research Question 1: How is accuracy of recall of text dependent on the degree of surface similarities?
In this question, even though our interest was first and foremost to assess the degree of surface similarity in retrieving information from text, we also evaluated the link between inference-drawing and surface similarity.
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On Inference-drawing: As predicted, students were able to make more inferences with respect to those stories that shared higher-order relational structures (the analogy matches) than those pairs of stories that did not (the FOR matches and surface matches). Comparing the three variables in terms of mean scores, Analogy matches received 4 point mean rating; surface similarity 2.8 and first order rule 2.6 rating. These findings were interpreted to mean that the three types of similarity matches have differential effects on inference. Analogy especially across-domain analogy is critical when it comes to higher level abstraction when one has to map higher orders from a base knowledge to target knowledge. This finding contradicts that of Holyoak (1983, 1987) that spontaneous transfer in problem solving without some form of instructional manipulation is very rare. Indeed in an unpublished doctoral dissertation of this author in 1998, the findings corresponded and corroborated with that of Holyoak (ibid). Out of a total of 240 Senior High School students that took part in the experiment to solve the radiation problem and other isomorphic problems only about 30% were able to solve the problem fully. However, when later exposed to didactical intervention on how to use analogy in problem solving, many of the students (57%) were able to solve similar problems after the instructional event. This notwithstanding, this same finding which contradicts that of Holyoak (ibid) also corroborates other study, such as Day and Gentner (2007) study of non-intentional text comprehension. How do we explain this apparent inconsistency? The inconsistency seems to suggest that analogical mapping though often viewed as an explicit deliberative process can sometimes operate without intent or even awareness: and this is especially so in text comprehension. For example, when given a text such as: the robbers crossed the river and robbed the bank. Most readers can readily make the relevant mapping in this context, that the bank being referred to here is not the bank of a river, (even though river is mentioned) but where money is saved because of the context of the subject robbers. Thus the inference made of the bank (in which money is kept and not that of a river) in this instance is made on the basis of sound inference by an analogy that is not based on surface similarity per se. Thus if this finding in this first experiment is anything to go by, it does seem to suggest some plausible answer to our first research question: How is accuracy of recall of text dependent on the degree of surface similarity? The answer that this finding seems to suggest is this: even though analogy matches were not well recalled compared to surface matches, they were nonetheless rated as inferential. Reminding
The scores on this dimension (measured on a score of 2 or better) show a different pattern: on all three measures, Analogy (AN):0.5; surface similarity (SS) 0.8 and first order reminding (FOR) 0.3. On all three measures on reminding, the AN matches were less effective than the SS. Thus, whereas surface similarity was more effective in recall, analogy and first analogy order matches received fewer score. What the result seems suggest is that surface similarity is quite crucial in recall as opposed to making sound inferences. They produced greater proportion of remindings followed by AN and then by FOR matches supporting surface similarly superiority in retrieval. This shows a remarkable difference in the case of inference. In the case of inference-drawing as predicted by structure-mapping theory, common higher-order relational structure is a crucial determinant of the subjective goodness of an analogy. Subjects rated AN matches as more sound than FOR matches whilst rating SS matches as no better than FOR matches. Thus, the result suggest that inference-drawing is not determined by the number of common features but seem to suggest that common higher-order relational structure is more crucial. Even though analogy matches were not well recalled, they were rated as inferential. The opposite was true for surface matches. This corroborates with the findings of Gentner et al (1993), Day and Gentner (2007), Reed (1987), Novick (1988).
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Research Question 2: Do people fail to infer structurally appropriate analogies in text comprehension?
The purpose of this second research question among others was to ensure that the subjective inference that were made by subjects in research question one (1) was not the result of extraneous factors such as cueing (that is students being biased by the experimenter to look out for higher order inferences ) as they read the texts in the first experiment. One of the main criticisms against the evidence for transfer is that subjects are subtly manipulated either through direct instruction or other form of cuing. Hence, this second question was to cross check gauging and biasing students. It was to test why subjects often fail to access structurally appropriate analogies as compared to surface similarity analogies without any direct hint. They were given the materials in the first experiment and were asked to make inference. Students were measured along the following dimensions: Inference: They were given the instruction: humans have intuitions about resemblances that seem weak or irrelevant. In this second question of the experiment, use your intuitions about when two situations match well enough to make a strong argument... Sound match: one in which essential aspects of the stories match: that is strong enough that one can infer or predict things about the second story from the first. Similarity: subjects read stories and rated them on 1-5 point rating scale with 5= extremely similar and 1=extremely dissimilar. Reminding: the procedure was as in Research Question 1. Inference: As predicted, in terms of mean rating, subjects scored a mean point of 5.4 on literal similarity that had common attributes and 5 point score on analogy with no common attributes on the YES, while there were low score for surface similarity of 2.3 on common attributes and 2.0 on first order relations with no common attributes on the NO for 67% the participating students. On literal similarity, there was a score of 5.2, AN= 4.8, SS= 3. 4 and FOR = 2.8 students. Similarity: Here the two groups of students ratings appeared to have shown some level of sensitivity to two types of commonalities: relational and object-attribute (see figure below). Literal similarity matches had score of (M= 4.60) over AN matches of (M= 4.10), of AN matches of over SS (M=3.45), and of SS matches over FOR matches (M=2.93). The comparison between similarity and inference (soundness) is quite revealing: similarity like inference is sensitive to the presence of higher order relational structure.
a)
Mean soundness (inference rating) for four similarity types in Research Question 2
INFERENCE LS= (M=5.4) AN=(M= 5) SS= (M=2.3) FOR= (M=2.0)
b)
Mean similarity ratings for four similarity types in Research Question 2
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LS= (M=4.60) AN=(M= 4.10) SS= (M=3.45) FOR= (M=2.93)
c) Mean Reminding ratings for four similarity types in ResearchQuestion 2

LS= (M= .52) AN=(M= .8) SS= (M=.49) FOR= (M=.05)
Reminding: this pattern was different from that of inference and similarity. Object commonalities strongly contributed to memory access and higher order relational had little effect. The scores were as follows: LS (M=.52) and SS (M=.49) matches than AN (M=.8) and FOR (M=.05). Thus the answer to the second research question of this study: Do people fail to infer structurally appropriate analogies in text comprehension? The findings here seem to suggest that in text comprehension, people infer structurally appropriate analogies through the differential effects of different types of similarities, such as literal similarity matches which often are greater than analogy matches, just as the latter is greater than surface similarity and surface similarity takes precedence over first order relations. All these types of similarities may be sensitive to both relational and object-attribute commonalities. The plausible answer to this second research question seems to be this: No, in text comprehension, people may infer structural analogy through a hierarchy of cognitive sub-processes of the different analogy types. In terms of reminding, higher order relations had negligible effect as compared to object commonalities which had a strong influence on memory access. Research Question 3: Why is transfer likely to occur to the extent in which base and target share surface similarity? Inference (soundness): Consistent with prediction, the rate of inference reflected the degree of relational
overlap. The AN matches (M=3.80) were rated as significantly more sound than the SS matches (M= 2.28). The soundness advantage of analogy over superficial similarity was greater for objects-only matches than for SS matches.
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Similarity: AN matches (M=4.04) were rated as more similar than SS matches (M= 3.24) and OO matches (M= 2.33) (within-group t (10) =6.53 and t(10)=2.99 respectively. SS matches were rated more similar than OO matches t(18)= 3.52. Also for soundness, the difference between AN and OO matches was greater than the difference between AN and SS matches t(20)= 2.81 Reminding: Again in this experiment as in the previous one, the pattern of the reminding differs from that of inference (soundness) and similarity. Both SS matches (M=.50) and OO matches (M=.14) were better retrieved than AN matches (M=.05) within-subject t (20) =6.60 and t (20)=2.76. SS matches were better retrieved than OO matches t(50)=4.58. The anchoring LS were highly retrievable as expected (M=.60). The pattern of the quality of recall was similar. The mean quality of recall was significantly higher for SS matches (M= 1.42) than for OO matches (M=.44), t (20). Quality of recall was higher for both SS matches and OO matches than for AN matches (M=.19), t(20). As expected, LS matches received higher rating (M=1.76). The difference between the AN and the SS matches was greater than the difference between the AN and OO matches (t (20) =4.61).
9. Constraints on these Effects The results of the findings indicate that analogical processes are capable of influencing text comprehension without cueing subjects. However, it must be pointed out that these findings are based on a relatively small set of experimental materials that were designed to test for such effects. Much research work remains to be done to isolate the scope of these kinds of processes. In fact, the present findings are quite surprising (as mentioned earlier on), when one takes cognizance of the fact that quite a number of studies have shown little or no spontaneous transfer from single instances (Gick& Holyoak, 1980, 1983; Holyoak & Koh, 1987; Keane,1988; Ross, 1987, 1989). Additionally, many studies have shown that comparison of two or more instances can produce impressive transfer when isolated instances cannot (Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Gentner, Loewenstein, & Thompson, 2003; Gick & Holyoak, 1983). This appears to indicate that this kind of effect may often require abstracted schemas rather than concrete instance representations. We can look to differences between the experiments presented in this study and previous research for clues about possible constraints on our effects. One potentially critical factor is the degree and kind of similarity between the base and target passages. Previous research such as (Gentner& Landers, 1985; Gentner et al., 1993; Holyoak & Koh, 1987), have established the importance of surface similarity in explicit analogical reminding giving indication of a dissociation between the kind of similarity that supports alignment and inferencing (i.e., structural similarity) and the kind that supports memory access to prior instances (i.e., surface similaritysimilar characters, objects, and settings). In the present study, the story pairs were high in both structural and surface similarity. Thus, it could be the case that spontaneous inferencing requires a high degree of surface similarity. However, there is some evidence (Catrambone, 2002; Gentner et al., 1993; Wharton, Holyoak, & Lange, 1996) that purely structural similarity also contributes to analogical reminding. This raises the question that possibly spontaneous transfer might occur even without surface similarity. These findings are therefore not absolute. One significant way in which the present study differs from past research is in the kind of inferences involved (Day & Genter, 2007). 10. Conclusion This study began with the fundamental claim that analogy is central to human cognition. Our hypothesis was that there are different types of analogies that influence the processes of transfer,
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inference drawing and memory access. This implies that the account of the effect of analogies requires making fine distinctions in analogies in transfer and text comprehension. This study specifically found that there is dissociation between the matches that people get from memory and those matches they want. Memory accessibility was found to be strongly influenced by surface commonalities but weakly influenced by structural commonalties. The contrast was that inferencedrawing was strongly influenced by structural commonalties and not in any way influenced by surface commonalities. The implication of this finding is that in text comprehension, readers are more likely to access surface commonalities most of the time, yet in making inference and text elaboration, it is more likely that readers would attend to higher order relations and not surface similarities non -intentionally without realising that they are doing so. Inference-making: The findings of this study suggest the structure-mapping theory prediction which posits that subjective soundness of a similarity match is determined by the degree of relational structure overlap. The three experiments of the study bear this out. First when common relations are added as in the first experiment, it increases the perceived soundness of a match. In every case where a precise comparison is possible the probability of inference-making is increased with the relational commonalities. For example, in both cases of research Question 1 and 2, when higher relations were added, analogies were judged more sound than first order matches. Similarly in research question 2, literal similarity matches were judged more sound than surface matches. In research question 3, surface matches were judged more sound than objects only matches. The second finding is this: adding higher-order commonalities to a first-order relational match increases inference-drawing (soundness) more than adding object commonalties. The three experiments bear out that the inference of analogical matches is substantially higher than that of surface matches. The third evidence that this study seems to underscores is also this: the addition of objectattribute commonalities fails to increase (inference-making) soundness. There is compatibility of these findings with other study such as Gentner et al (1993), Gentner and Clement (1988). Resonance Models of Activation: Our results seem to be compatible with those studies that have examined the role of general memory processes in the generation of inferences and maintenance of coherence in text, largely focusing on resonance models of memory activation (e.g., Gillund & Shiffrin, 1984; Hintzman, 1986; Ratcliff, 1978; Day & Gentner, 2007). Resonance models make the claim that there is selective parallel activation from the long term memory. This selective activation is contingent upon common overlap with concurrent working memory. According to Day and Gentner (2007), these approaches have been successfully used in the explanation of anaphor resolution and reactivation of distant, but relevant, information from earlier in a text (cf. OBrien, 1995). Based on such data, it does not seem unreasonable to hypothesize that these kinds of processes could play a role in the effects found in the present experiments. The high degree of similarity between the source and target passages could have allowed resonance-type activation of the base passage as a whole, or even have supported more localized element-to-element mappings in the course of reading (Day & Gentner, 2007: 46). Similarity-based Access: The results for access were the opposite of the results for inferencemaking. Subjects had the tendency not to retrieve the matches they considered most sound. Rather they were more likely to access surface matches. There are three lines of evidence in this respect: a) combining object attributes to a match increased the proportion of retrieved. In the first two experiments, recall of surface matches was greater than recall for FOR matches. In the second experiment, recall of literal similarity matches was greater than recall of analogical matches; b) adding common object attributes contributes more to retrievalilibty than adding common higher-order reactions. In all three experiments recall of surface similarity was far greater than recall of analogical matches. The proportions of surface matches retrieved across three experiments were substantially higher than retrieval rate for analogies.
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Similarity: Accessibility and subjective soundness (inference-making) are both aspects of similarity. Adding subjective similarity resembled soundness in respects of its sensitivity to common structural relations. Adding relational information increased subjective similarity. Literal similarity matches were considered more similar than surface matches (Research Question 2); analogical matches were considered more similar than FOR-matches (Research Question t 2) and surface matches were considered object-only matches (Research Question 3). Another line of evidence is the comparative addition argument. Comparing the effect of higher-order commonalties verses adding object commonalties we find the following: analogies are rated as more similar than surface matches in both experiment 2 and 3. However, unlike soundness, similarity is increased by adding object commonalities and for this literal similarity matches are considered more similar than analogy matches; whilst surface matches are also considered more similar than For matches (Research Question) So it looks like both surface similarity contribute to subjective similarity. Thus as per the findings of this study, one can conclude with some level of plausibility that there are different types of analogies (similarity) that have differential effects on both access and inferential soundness. Whereas across-domain or far transfer analogy affects inference and elaboration, literal similarity or within-domain analogy has influence on retrievability. References
Anderson, J.R., Farrell, R. & Sauers, R.(1984). Learning to programme in LISP. Cognitive Science, 8, 87-129 Catrambone, R. (2002). The effects of surface and structural feature matches on the access of story analogs. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 28, 318-334. Catrambone, R., & Holyoak, K. J. (1989). Overcoming contextual limitations on problem-solving transfer. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 15, 1147-1156. Clement, J.(1986). Methods of evaluating the validity of hypothesised analogies. Proceedings of the Eighth Annual conference of of the Cognitive Science Society (pp.223-234), Amherst, MA. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Clement, C. A., & Gentner, D. (1991). Systematicity as a selection constraint in analogical mapping. Cognitive Science, 15, 89-132. Day, S.B. & Gentner, D (2007).Nonintentional analogical inference in text comprehension. Memory & Cognition 35 (1) 39-49 Detterman, D & Sternberg, R.J (1993). (Eds.), Transfer on trail: intelligence, cognition and instruction. NJ: Ablex Forbus, K. D., Gentner, D., & Law, K. (1995). MAC/FAC: A model of similarity-based retrieval. Cognitive Science, 19, 141-205. Gentner, D.(1983). Structure-mapping: A theoretical framework for analogy. Cognitive Science, 7, 155-170 Gentner, D. (2003). Analogical reasoning, psychology of. In L. Nadel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of cognitive science (Vol. 1, pp. 106-112). London:Nature Publishing. Gentner , D., & Clement, C. (1988). Evidence for relational selectivity in the interpretation of analogy and metaphor. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: advances in research and theory (Vol.22, pp.307-358). New York: Academic Press Gentner, D., Holyoak, K. J., & Kokinov, B. N. (Eds.) (2001). The analogical mind: Perspectives from cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Gentner, D., & Landers, R. (1985). Analogical reminding: A good match is hard to find. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Cybernetics and Society (pp. 607-613). New York: IEEE Press Gentner, D., Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2003). Learning and transfer: A general role for analogical encoding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 393-405. Gentner, D., & Markman, A. B. (1997). Structure mapping in analogy and similarity. American Psychologist, 52, 45-56. Gentner, D., Ratterman, M.J.,& Forbus, K.D.(1993). The roles of similarity in transfer: Separating retrievability from inferential soundness. Cognitive Psychology, 25, 254-575
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Gick, M.L., & and Holyoak, K.J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 138. Gick, M.L & Holyoak,K.J. ( 1987). The cognitive basis of knowledge transfer. In S.M. Cormier & J. D Hagman (Eds.). Transfer of learning, contemporary research and applications (pp.9-42) New York: Academic Press. Gillund, G., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1984). A retrieval model for both recognition and recall. Psychological Review, 91, 1-67. Goswami, U. (1992). Analogical reasoning in children. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Halford, G.S. (1992). Analogical reasoning and conceptual complexity in cognitive development. Human Development, 35, 193-217. Hintzman, D (1986). Schema abstraction in a multiple-trace memory moel. Psychological Review, 93, 528-551 Hintzman, D (1988). Judgemnets of frequency and recogntiton memeory in a multipe-trace memory model. Psyhcological Review, 95, 528-551 Holyoak, K.J, (1985).The pragmatics of analogical transfer. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 19,pp 59-87). New York: Academy Press. Holyoak, K. J & Koh., K. (1987). Surface and structural similarity in analogical transfer. Memory & Cognition, 15 332-340. Holyoak, K. J., & Thagard, P. (1995). Mental leaps: Analogy in creative thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Holyoak, K. J., & Thagard, P. (1989). Analogical mapping by constraint satisfaction. Cognitive Science, 13, 295355. Hummel, J. E., & Holyoak, K. J. (1997). Distributed representations of structure: A theory of analogical access and mapping. Psychological Review, 104, 427-466. Keane, M. T. (1988). Analogical problem solving. New York: Wiley. Kokinov, B., & French, R. M. (2003). Computational models of analogy making. In L. Nadel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of cognitive science (Vol. 1, pp. 113-118). London: Nature Publishing. Markman, A. B. (1997). Constraints on analogical inference. Cognitive Science, 21, 373-418. Novick, L. R. (1988). Analogical transfer, problem similarity, and expertise. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14, 510-520. OBrien, E. J. (1995). Automatic components of discourse comprehension. In R. F. Lorch, Jr. & E. J. OBrien (Eds.), Sources of coherence in reading (pp. 159-176). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Pirroli, P.(1985). Problem solving analogy and skill acquisition in the domain of programming. Unpublished manuscript. Ratcliff, R. (1978). A theory of memory retrieval. Psychological Review, 85, 59-108. Reed, S.K (1987). A structure-mapping model for word problems. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 13, 629-639 Reeves, L. M. & Weisberg, R.W (1994). The role of content and abstract inofrmation in analogical transfer. Psychologcial Buletin 115 (3), 381-400 Ross, B.H.( 1987). This is like that: the use of earlier problems and the separation of similarity effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition,13, 124-139 Ross, B.H. (1989). Remindings in learning and instruction. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.)., Similarity and analogical reasoning (pp.438-469). New York: Cambridge University Press. Schumacher, R.M & Gentner, D.(1988a). Remembering causal systems: Effects of systematicity and surface similarity in delayed transfer. Proceedings of Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting (pp1271-1275). Anaheim, CA, Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors Society Schumacher, R.M. & Gentner, D.(1988b). Transfer of training as analogical mapping. IFEE transactions on systems. Man, and Cybernetics, 18, 592-600 Simon, H. A & Hayes, J.R 1976). The understanding process: Problem isomorphs. Cognitive Psychology, 8, 165190 Wharton, C. M., Holyoak, K. J., & Lange, T. E. (1996). Remote analogical reminding. Memory & Cognition, 24, 629-643.
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Gender Analysis Using the Empowerment Framework: Implications for Alleviating Womens Poverty in Nigeria
Dr. (Mrs.) Hussainatu Abdullahi
Department Of Economics, Faculty Of Social Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria E-mail: hussayabdul@yahoo.com
Dr. Yahya Zakari Abdullahi

Department Of Economics, Faculty Of Social Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria E-mail: ayzakari@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p123
Abstract Poverty is a global problem of economic development affecting over a billion people worldwide. There has been growing inequality not only between rich and poor countries but also between men and women. Despite their crucial roles to the world economy, women constitute 80% of the worlds poor group (Abdullahi 2001). This brought about serious gender inequality which has become a crucial part of the development process and an important target of socio-economic policy. In Nigeria, there has been a proliferation of polices, programmes and projects that are derived from different macro-level economic and social policy approaches to third world development. So far these models have not guaranteed sustainable development and hence the quest for viable alternatives. This paper therefore, attempts to provide an alternative empowerment framework for poverty alleviation amongst women in Nigeria. Five different frameworks have been identified in the paper and the paper adopts the empowerment framework as the most viable. The paper concludes that if the empowerment framework can be used, it would go a long way in alleviating womens poverty in Nigeria. The paper further recommends that poor women must be allowed to define their own ends and means of development. They should therefore be allowed to participate in project formulation and implementation in order to have optimal results.
1. Introduction Poverty is a global problem of economic development affecting over a billion people world wide. The current trend seems to be a widening inequality not only between the rich and poor countries, but also between men and women and this has posed great challenge for policy makers, especially in the Less Developed Countries (LDCs) particularly Nigeria. Today, in spite of Nigerias rich endowment of human and material resources, about 70% of the population is estimated to live below the poverty line (Federal office of Statistics/World Bank, 1995). Poverty is not only a global phenomenon, but rather it is dominantly a problem of the present capitalist society in which a clear indication reveals a state of imperfection, contradictions and inequalities which every capital society must address (Abubakar, 2002).
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Globally, the issues of gender, class, racial, ethnic and religious inequalities have been heightened by capitalist structures and processes, consequently, disturbing a smooth process of development. The feminization of poverty has become a very visible feature of this sad phenomenon (Glendning and Miller, 1992). Women constitute 80% of the worlds poorest group in spite of their crucial roles in two spheres of life, that is, the reproductive economy (economy of care) and the productive economy (paid economy) (Abdullahi, 2001). Thus, gender inequality has become a crucial part of the development process and an important target of socio-economic policy (Afonja, 1996). Very disheartening enough, there has been little or no consensus about the appropriate policy framework for promoting the general development of women and reducing or closing the gender gap and inequality, due principally to paucity of data and the low level of development theories about this area of social development (Abdullahi, 1996). In the Less Developed Countries generally, and Nigeria in particular, there has been a proliferation of policies, programmes and projects that are derived from different macro-level economic and social policy approaches to Third World Development. So far these models have not guaranteed sustainable development, hence the quest for viable alternatives. The appropriate time to explore new strategies for poverty alleviation among the women folk is now, given the market increase in the level of public awareness and government commitment to gender programmes in the country. What we are searching for in our contemporary world is a clear understanding of development process, its essential dimensions, inputs and result oriented output for the society. It is useful to accept that gender issues are crucial to the development process, consequently, appropriate strategies for reducing or closing the gender gaps and inequality must be defined. To facilitate our understanding of this write up, the paper is divided into four sections including this brief introduction. Section two discusses a review of the five frameworks of Women in Development (WID) adopted in the third World Countries, while section three highlights gender analysis using the empowerment framework for poverty alleviation amongst women in Nigeria. The last part concludes the paper with recommendations. 2. A Review of the Five Frameworks of Women in Development (WID) Adopted in the Third World Countries and Their Limitations Having accepted the importance of gender issue to the development process, the next crucial step to take is a clear definition of the appropriate strategies for reducing or closing gender based gaps and inequality. The question that readily comes to mind, however, is how appropriate are the existing frameworks? How far have we achieved our goals and what new strategies must we embark upon? In most Third World Countries, five different frameworks for Women in Development have been adopted. They include welfare equity, poverty, efficiency, equality and empowerment projects. On the other hand, the corresponding models of development include modernization policies of accelerated growth; basic needs approach, associated with redistribution, the structural adjustment policies which are compensatory in nature and the paradigm of sustainable human development. The attempt of each of this framework is to bridge the perceived gaps which exist in the development process so as to increase womens level of participation and benefits from development. According to Afonja (1996), each of this frameworks redefined women and gender concerns across a broad spectrum of sectors and differs from the other with respect to the way entrenched inequalities are transformed. We now review each of these frameworks briefly. a. The Welfare Approach: This approach has been regarded as the most popular and oldest social policy adopted particularly for women in the third world countries. The approach predates Women in Development and was introduced by the colonial masters as a residual model of social welfare. As a result of their concern for a stable economic environment, and
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b.
c.
d.
exploitation of resources, residual measures were provided for the most vulnerable groups (women) when social welfare was not given credence. The idea of social welfare came into existence only after the breakdown of the normal structure of supply, family and market. Thus, such residual measures were mostly emergency relief packages, especially to assist the low income women in support of their reproductive assignments. The main criticisms leveled against this approach are that: Firstly, it has denied women access to international economic aid and prioritized government support for capital intensive, industrial and agricultural production in the formal sector. Secondly, it perceived women as passive recipients of development aids, thereby classifying them with the disabled and the sick. Thirdly, it placed too much emphasis on the reproductive roles of women rather than their lack of resources as the core problem. Finally, it is generally, not included among the integrative approaches and is believed to have marginalized women from the development process (Afonja, 1996). The Equity Approach: As a result of the limitations posed by the welfare approach, the Equity approach was introduced during the United Nations decade for women with the sole aim of achieving gender equity. While the approach is integrative in nature, it also recognized womens triple roles and placed a lot of emphasis on meeting the strategic gender needs through active state intervention, political and economic autonomy to women and a reduction in gender inequality. This was clearly spelt out during the International Womens Year Conference, where it was declared that the goal of the decade was integration of women into development processes. This essentially meant increase and an improvement of womens participation in the development process. The limitations of this approach include: Firstly, equity has been difficult to achieve because it requires the backing of the political power and pressure on the part o the women themselves. Secondly, equity programmes lack base line information for planning, while the donor agencies are reluctant to change the existing culture values and traditions of the host countries. Thirdly, the equity approach is implicitly calling for the restructuring of power relations in the society, while government and donors explicitly support gender equality at the level of policy; integration only considers raising the number of women in existing policies and programmes. The Anti-Poverty Approach: This approach has to do with the solution to the productive or practical needs of the women. This aim is pursued via small-scale income generation projects. According to this approach, reducing the income gap between men and women was perceived as the most crucial step towards reducing the level of poverty. The main limitation of this approach include: Firstly, while the anti-poverty approach brought about proliferation of small-scale income generation activities among women, they were too small in scale to alleviate poverty. Secondly, such small-scale businesses were concentrated in the rural areas where they were shielded from loans and resources for larger scale businesses. Thirdly, the approach failed to consider those factors that will bring about project viability, easy access to raw materials, guaranteed markets and small scale production capacity. Finally, it created the problem of opportunity cost in respect of management of the business and the burden of domestic work and child care that were ignored. The Efficiency Approach: This approach, which also seeks to provide solutions to the practical gender needs of women was influenced by macro-economic policies designed in response to the debt crisis and has advocated that, integrating women economically will guarantee a more efficient models for development. The main argument of this approach is that, if womens economic participation is enhanced and increased, it would guarantee equity. As a result of this notion, great efforts were geared towards understanding those salient
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constraints militating against womens economic participation and improving them as human resources for efficient and effective production. This approach however, is saddled with the following shortcomings. Firstly, male bias in the definition of the household as performing a unified welfare function obscures the inequalities inherent in the efficiency approach. Secondly, reservations exist as to the fact that womens practical needs are at other costs to them, thus the approach has failed to account for womens strategic needs. e. The Empowerment Approach: The empowerment approach is the most recent and popular approach which attempts to synthesize all the goals of earlier approaches in order to ensure a smooth transformation of the traditional social order, based on participatory doctrines. While this concept has been misunderstood, it is nevertheless less reactionary than the equity approach, and at the same time, it has outlined ways in which practical gender needs can be used to achieve strategic gender requirements. According to this approach, development is perceived to be more than increased access to resources and improved welfare level and as a process by which these benefits are obtained and sustained. The approach places serious emphasis on the participation by the target beneficiaries in the development process, rather than being passive recipients of the results of project outcomes. Thus, this framework has a lot of advantages over the earlier ones. For instance: It encourages capacity acquisition on the part of the women which has a long run effect in improving their general socio-economic status. Secondly, the approach not only recognizes womens reproductive roles, it has improved on the dimensional definition of roles in the welfare mode by recognizing the triple roles of women. Thirdly, it capitalizes on the community management roles of women and through their organizations raises their consciousness to their subordinated conditions (Afshar, and Denise, 1992). Arising from the above, therefore, the question arises as to how this empowerment framework can be used for alleviating womens poverty in Nigeria. It is to that we now. 3. Gender Analysis Using the Empowerment Framework for Alleviating Womens Poverty in Nigeria Generally, poverty alleviation programme in Nigeria have been tailored along the welfare approach. The birth of the Structural Adjustment Programme in Nigeria saw the adoption of the Efficiency Approach which encouraged investments in Womens income generating activities, with emphasis on improving the productive capacities of women. However, due to the shortcomings of these approaches earlier noted above, attempts to integrate women into the development process could not be sustained. Consequently, policy makers were faced with greater challenges following the unfavourable economic environment which exacerbated the poverty situation of women in Nigeria. Thus, very little attention was paid to equity issues especially, under a situation where economic needs appear to be of paramount importance and in the face of very strong patriarchal institutions. While policy makers may be tempted to pursue income generation in order to provide more access to economic resources, this would satisfy just the short-term practical needs, while those intrinsic elements which would satisfy the strategic needs that can be sustained may be left untouched. Thus, in order to overcome this problem or limitation, it is useful to advance a more recent version of the empowerment framework which presents a holistic view of socio-economic development and gender equality. Recent analysis of the empowerment framework saw the synthesization of all the earlier approaches which are represented in different stages of the process of achieving equality. The empowerment framework provides a way of understanding the process of womens advancement. In other words, Womens advancement could be understood in terms of a concern with five levels of
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equity and that empowerment is a necessary ingredient in the process of advancement towards equality, hence reducing the gender gap. These levels of equality are inter-connected and mutually reinforcing. These five levels are discussed, thus: The Welfare Level: This is the level of the material welfare of females, relative to males. Gender gaps at this level could be described in terms of women being mere statistics rather than individuals capable of changing their destiny in life, i.e. they are mere passive recipients of welfare benefits. The gender gap at this level could be measured in terms of the disparity between males and females on indicators of nutritional status, mortality rates, literacy levels, educational qualifications, ownership of property etc. However, any effort to solve this problem must involve women at all levels of decision-making concerning womens welfare. Thus, improved welfare can improve the capacity to act, consequently the basis for empowerment. This brings us to the next level i.e. ACCESS TO RESOURCES which is concerned with the first level of action to improve welfare. ii. The Level of Access to Resources: Relative to men, women have less access to such resources as education, wage employment services and skills training which make productive employment possible. When compared to men, women even have less access to their own labour, i.e. womens labour is largely monopolized by men in the unpaid work of child rearing, domestic and subsistence labour that she does not even have enough time to invest in her own advancement. Gender gaps in access to resources do not arise as a result of accident, but rather due to the discriminatory societal practices. Thus, overcoming gender gaps at this level will mean that women must act together collectively, and with men, to improve their access to resources. This collective action to improve access to resources is the first important element of empowerment. The aim is to overcome the discriminatory practices, resistance by society and achieve equal opportunity irrespective of gender. In this case, there has to be a sense of purpose which should grow out of the process of conscientisation which brings us to the next level. iii. The Level of Conscientisation: The gender gap which exists at this level is not material but rather a belief gap. The gap is between women believing that they cannot take action, that the man as the head of the household and should take all decisions, or that they can make action and that women and men can act together to change things for the better. In other words, it is the gap between women accepting their position as second class citizens or believing that they are equal citizens. iv. \Conscientisation essentially involves the refusal to accept the world as you find it, and instead to resolve to change it. Though this is much easier to say than to achieve in practice, for instance, we were all brought up in a particular world and within the belief system of patriarchal ideology, which we were made to believe that the system of male control within the home is the natural order of life. v. \Womens empowerment means sensitization to such beliefs and the rejection of such believes. It means recognizing the fact that womens subordination is not part of the natural order of things, but rather imposed by the discriminatory system that is socially built, but which can be dismantled. Conscientisation entails that the gender division of labour should not involve economic or political domination of one gender by the other. In this case, there has to be gender awareness which is essential in the empowerment process that provides the basis for mobilization on issues of womens inequality. vi. Mobilization Participation Level: Conscientisation is a level of understanding which justifies collective action. It brings together the intellectual aspects of dissatisfaction, analysis and i.
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action. Mobilization is, thus, the practical aspect of conscientisation. Mobilization involves closing the gender gap in areas like political representation and decision making. The gender gap in public life results in men taking decisions and women being subjected to mens decisions. Womens increased mobilization at the grassroots level will be the basis for increased representation in public life and potential contribution towards increased empowerment. Mobilization for womens empowerment is the mobilization around gender issues. That is mobilization is not an end in itself, but is for the purpose of exerting more over the political system so that womens interests are served. vii. Control Level: At the level of control the present gender gap is the unequal power relations between women and men. For instance, within the household, the husband exercise control over his wifes labour, time and income. The gender gap in control over income results in a gender gap between efforts and reward. The wife makes the effort and the husband reaps the reward. Equality of control means a balance of power between women and men, so that neither is in a position of dominance. This means that women will have power alongside of men to decide their own destiny and that of their society, and to ensure that the interest of men and women are equally served. Womens increased participation in decision-making will lead to further empowerment when such participation is used to achieve increased control over the factors of production, to ensure womens equal access to resources and distribution of benefits. Such control and access to resources will enable improved welfare for themselves and their children. The womens empowerment cycle could be shown as follows:
4. Conclusion and Recommendation From the ongoing, it is clear that women the world over are faced with serious gender gaps. They constitute half of the worlds population, and make important and largely unacknowledged contributions to economic life, and play crucial roles in all spheres of society, yet restrictive practices and constraints have not allowed women to take advantage of their numbers and position in order to improve their conditions of existence and decide their own destiny. A new agenda for women the world over is not only crucial but ripe. It is time women take their destiny into their own hands and believe they can do it, and that they are equal to the men as citizens of the same world. Thus, the framework provided in this write-up could be used to develop sustainable projects for poor women in Nigeria. The framework is flexible and can be applied to any sector of
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development. While it is not possible to elaborate on the details for each development areas, due to space constraints, the five levels can easily be applied at the programme design stage and during project monitoring and evaluation, which forms the paradigm for sustainable human development. For optimal result, project formulation and implementation must be participatory. Poor women must be allowed to define their own ends and means of development. It is high time emphasis is shifted from merely helping women to create wealth to gaining access to equitable development/ this suggestion might appear unattainable, but there seems to be no other option than to manipulate the development process this way to the advantage of all concerned. References
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Impact of External Appearance on Positive Social Perception

Mr.sc. Batjar Halili
University of Prizren psikologuklinik@hotmail.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p131
Abstract By this research, I have aimed to conclude about the rapport which exists between the appearance of students and the impact on this seemingly positive social perception. Many studies conclude that the appearance has significant impact on how people perceive each other. We have selected a sample of 200 students of the University of Prizren and of two university colleges named "Fame" and "Universum" whom have been undergone by this research (research through questionnaires). Results issued by this research are relevant to most of the results obtained by other researches, in which the appearance is particularly important factor in positive social perception. Always according to these results, the appearance of student has a crucial role in how students perceive each other in the context of clothing, physical beauty and the perception of these elements in cahoots with the personality, estimation in faculty, selection at place of work etc..
1. Introduction Firstly, its people appear their self to provide a desired support from others. Because the others often have what we want or what we need, we need to "convince" them to share it with us. A man who wants a job or who is hoping to meet a woman in particular should convey the impression to his interviewer or to the woman that he likes to show that it actually worth. Then, the self-presentation is a strategic way of gaining control of one's life, a way of increasing the trophies and price reductions (Jones & Pittman, 1982; SCHLENKER, 1980). Aristotle thought that "there can be no better presentation for a man that his beauty. The external appearance of an individual have been seen by the physiologist Krechmer as an indicator of what hides inside, indicator of the character of human personality. Krechmer through the external appearance was proving to do the classifications of individuals temperament and their tendencies to mental disorders. Our images for your self - our concepts for themselves are partly influenced by what we think others see us. Halo Effect: This effect consists in the phenomenon whereby initial knowledge on the positive characteristics of an individual, have been used to conclude other its uniformly positive characteristics. Erving Goffman (1959) presented the dramaturgical perspective, comparing self-introduction to theater, with actors, performances, event sites, scripts, props, roles, background areas, and likeness. Such a phenomenon is observed more often. Political leaders try to profit political supporters through the better physical appearance in the media. The impact of external appearance on positive social perception is also observed in many other camps of life. The first impressions we create for people depend entirely outwardly they manifest, counting clothes and their style. And then, the choice to be accompanied by someone also depends on his appearance. The people who look cute are perceived as more convincing when speaking in front of
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others. Students believe that the assessment in the school carries with it the physical appearance component. According to sociologists Muray Webster and James Driskel the advantages which brings the good physical appearance are the same to them which had been brought by advantages being white in comparison to being black, or being male versus female. But, unlike the aforementioned influences, which seem to be declining, the impact that has physical appearance does not show any decline. Solomon Asch has mentioned the phenomenon of primary effect (Zenden, 1987). According to him, the first impression that we get for others is trying to paint the majority of subsequent impressions for them. Especially in situations where the first impression is crucial, the dashing men benefit from their attractiveness (Christoph Braun, Martin Grndl, Claus Marberger, Christoph Scherber, Zimmer, 2000). In a research conducted by Shamo and Stark on the impact of the good physical appearance of the candidates to win a job, has shown that attractiveness was important in the evaluation of applicants. (Shannon, Michael L, Stark, C Patrick, 2003). This experiment had been done by them with 50 students, who were asked to make the selection of applicants for jobs. The applicants had similar professional knowledge but their appearance change. Data from the experiment showed that the physical appearance of the applicants has been an important factor in evaluating the candidates. However, we know that physically beautiful people are really more preferable and are looked with more admiration than unattractive people (Eagly et al., 1991; Feingold, 1992; Langlois et al., 2000). The attractive people are seen as more honest (Zebrowitz, Voinesco, & Collins, 1996). They seem to be more likely employed in managerial positions and chose to work in public offices, although the interviewers deny any impact of physical appearance (eg, Budesheim & DePaola, 1994; Mack & Rainey, 1990). They get smaller fines and bail in felony cases and short sentences in cases of crime (Downs & Lyons, 1991; Stewart, 1980, 1985). They are paid more: Compared with the being normal attractive, there is an approximately 7% disadvantage of being unattractive and a 5% advantage of being very attractive (Hamermesh & Biddle, 1994). People who are physically attractive are more desirable for romantic relationships. Even newborn children receive more affection from their mothers when they are delightful (Langlois et al., 1995). Is obvious is estimated when someone is physically attractive. Realizing this, most people try to become more attractive. Taking into account the following data: In 2002, the Americans went through approximately 6.9 million surgical and non-surgical cosmetic procedures increased by 228% since 1997 (American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 2003). The most popular cosmetic procedure performed over 1.6 million times in 2002 was the injection of Botox, which involves injecting a paralyzing toxin into facial muscles not to create wrinkles around the eyes, mouth and forehead. Worldwide the cosmetic is an industry with annual revenue of $ 20 billion, and manufacturers of perfumes and eau de cologne sell fragrances estimates by 10 billion dollars. 5 million Americans currently hold dental prosthesis or other orthodontic tools estimated nearly 1 million of those adults -most to improve the appearance of their smile. Americans spend 35 billion dollars each year on diet foods, weight loss programs, and membership in health clubs. Consider also the time and money you spend for the hair doing, nail repair, yourself embellishment with jewelry and tattoos, and buying clothes that will hide our weakest physical features and display them more attractive. And do not forget our more dangerous activities - even life threatening - like poise in the sun,
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keeping severe diet, and use of steroids to build muscle (Leary, Tchividijan, & Kraxberger, 1994; Martin & Leary, 2001) Usually happen that handsome men are perceived as more masculine. The same thing happens even with women who look beautiful. They are perceived as more feminine. One such phenomenon is welcomed for men but not for women. For many jobs are evaluated primarily the masculine physiognomy, such as being strong, independent, determined, etc... These features usually has been attributed to persons who show masculine character, so beautiful women to whom was attributed the strong female character, encountered difficulties for admission to these jobs. Considering the above findings, it appears that less beautiful women have more advantages in comparison with more beautiful, especially when they seek employment in the management positions. For this reason, many women today in western countries shape their external appearance by cutting off short hair, by wearing not very feminine or conservative dress, light makeup, etc. always to meet this criterion, so the manifestation of a seemingly more or less masculine. (Reis. et. Al 1982). So, different people in the different cultures conceive also the phenomena in different ways. Even external look and its impact seem to have different character according to different cultures. The impact of appearance has been studied in many nations and cultures, and almost all of these studies have similar conclusions. We, who live in the Prizren region, have decided to observe this phenomenon exactly in the place where we live so in this region. Through the introduction of this research, we try to provide information on the impact of positive social outwardly perception. The results we obtained are not significantly different from the results that we found in relevant researches. Through this study were measured variables: The impact of physical beauty on positive social perception. The dress and the elegance in positive social perception. 2. Hypothesis We have developed our research by the hypothesis that the "student's appearance is a very important factor in positive social perception." The way how looks a man is also one of the main factors in job selection.. The students who look pretty have positive assessment by the professors. The cloths which are worn by the students show their personality. External appearance is a factor of particular importance for the workplace selection. The students who look beautiful both in the physical as in clothing generally are perceived as honest persons. 3. Methods This research was done in order to draw conclusions on the relationship between the impact of the external look of the students in the region of Prizren and the positive social perception. Students selected for this research are students of Prizren State University and those of Prizren Private Universities. Sample of this research are students of the University of Prizren and of the two university colleges named "Fame" and "Universum". As sample in this research were 200 students. Half of them or 50% of those who were part of this study were male, while the other half were female. In order to samples that have been selected to be as representative as possible and enable us to make accurate generalizations as to all University students and two university colleges in Prizren.
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This research has been attended by students from the Education Department, Department of Psychology, Criminology, Law anf Management. 4. Procedures Attending these universities and collaboration with deans and students of those departments in order to help this research to present scientific value. For the data collection are used questionnaires. In the questionnaire were submitted 12 questions. Data processing is done by the program ESSPS 17.0, where data are simply descriptive statistics. Questions in this section are proving to ascertain the impact of social positive perception of physical beauty and elegance in dress influence positive social perception, the impact of beauty for career advancement. The questionnaires were applied to a university and two colleges. The selection of sample was random. There were100 students of the University of Prizren and 100 students of the two University Colleges "Fame" and "Universum". Students who responded to our questionnaire were students who were selected at random in sections during lectures at various intervals. The questionnaires were applied in the same way to all students of all directions. Then the data from these questionnaires were collected and analyzed according to the usual statistical analysis procedures. 5. Results 1. 2. When we asked what is the most important and valuable thing to a person, more than 100 of the 200 subjects of our sample have chosen external appearance in positive perceptions of students. Another hypothesis if the external appearance affects the assessment of students by professors 60% of them have said that this is not the case, 25 of them have said that they rarely happen to find connection to such thing, even when the going is unconscious, 15% of them expressed pro this element. Results confirming the way of wearing, in a correlation with the honesty, success and level how they are convincing to others. For the connection between the workplace and the external appearance, over 60% of respondents have said they agree that to succeed in finding a job, should look nice. A particular connection was found between how much the wearing can be representative of someone's personality. 70% of research subjects conceive a closely connection between the clothing and personality.
3. 4. 5.
References
Douglas T. Kenrick, Steven L. NEUBERG, Robert B. Cialdini 2005, Social Psychology. Third Edition, Arizona State University. Zanden, J. 1987. Social Psychology, Fourth edition, Ohio State University. Shannon, M. L., Stark, P. (2003). The influence of Physical appearance on personnel selection, Social Behavior and Personality Brawn, K., Grndl, M., Marbeger, C., Scherber, Ch., and Zimmer, A. (2000). More beautiful people have more advantages in life than those less beautiful. Universitt Regensburg. Pango Ylli, (2005). Social Psychology, "Universitys Library", Tirana, 2005.
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Wuz Up Wit Dat?: Exploring the Colonizing Properties of the Standard English Language and its Implications for the Denudation and Denigration of Black Survivalist and Stylistic Language, Syntax and Phonology
Buster C. Ogbuagu, Ph.D., M.S.W.
College of Arts & Sciences Department of Social Work University of St. Francis 500 Wilcox Street Joliet, Illinois, 60435, USA Email: bogbuagu@stfrancis.edu
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p135
Abstract Black linguistics and ethnolect in America, as a survivalist tool, has existed for over 400 years as a hybridized version of the English and other ethnic languages. This was especially so since Blacks were shackled and forcibly removed from Africa to work the plantation fields of the Americas. Since then its use has metamorphosed into a myriad of languages and sociolets, including lexicon that have been standardized into variants of Pidgin, Creole and others, by Black cultures and communities in America and all over the world. Using theories of racism and anti-oppression resiliency, the study explored the Colonizing properties of the Standard English language and how what is termed Black English language or African American Vernacular English-AAVE in the United States has been used over the millennia to promote esprit de corps and sustain the homeostasis of Blacks and their communities. It also showed how Black English as a survivalist language has suffered a targeted and sustained rejection and threat of extinction from within and without in educational and business institutions, while simultaneously having an ambivalent relationship in music, entertainment and popular culture with mainstream American society. The study presents deconstructionist ramifications for the integration or the lack thereof into mainstream American society of Blacks who use this language at home, in education, work, and civil society, especially due, to the perception that Black English language is ghetto, therefore has no place in or application for upward mobility and mainstream society. Key words: Standard English language, African American Vernacular language-AAVE, Pidgin English, sociolet, ethnolet, syntax, phonology, lexicon, racism, social exclusion, United States, Blacks, African Americans, Whites, White racism, White privilege
1. Introduction Black stylistic language, syntax and phonology have been in existence for over 400 years in Africa, with reference to Nigeria and some parts of the West African sub-region, when the Portuguese first entered around the 14th century (Osamuyimen, 2000; Metz Chapin, 1991). In America, Black language emerged out of the horrors of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade that saw hundreds of thousands of Africans shackled and forcibly brought to work the plantations of the Americas and the West Indies. On arrival, the Africans, now slaves, who came from a myriad of ethnicities, languages and cultures, had no way of communicating with one another. It is believed that there were several mutinies and strategies to escape back to Africa, including the Ebo Landing [and the legend of the Flying Negro] (Powell, 2004), which
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were not feasible if the planners of such great escape could not understand one another. To this extent, the conditions imposed by enslavement forced disparate groups as victims to forge a Pidgin-as in Africa a [Croele in America] form of English language, which the slaves applied in their communication and sustenance. Argues Martinez (2003) Black English evolved as a pot pouri of functional variant of communication, from plantation EnglishCreolization, and transported languages that were used and spoken by African Slaves. He continued, that Black English is a language cross-fertilization internalized and intergenerationally passed in an oral and aural environment and climate. This was mainly due to the Black Codes, as he argued, which attracted not only opprobrium, but severe sanctions of fines and prison for anyone apprehended attempting to inculcate in a slave the art of reading and writing. Later, even the White slave owners, out of necessity to communicate with their captives were forced to learn Pidgin or Creole, a variant of which is not only currently spoken by Blacks throughout the United States, but also by Whites, especially those resident in the Southern states of the United States (Games, 2011; Patrick, n.d.). The Black slaves, all through the era of the Slave Trade, used Black language primarily to communicate initially and later as agency of survival, esprit de corps, resilience against the horrors of slavery meted out to them by the Whiteman, sustenance of the essence of their culture, cultural values, which they handed down over the generations, knowledge of the world and about who they are and where they came from, expression of their lived experience and the maintenance of their individual and group identity. Suddenly, as a conspiracy theorist would like to believe, the Colonizing properties of the English language, which was the fulcrum for the formation of the Black language in the first instance now feels threatened by Black Vernacular language? Using psychological theories of racism, and other social identity coordinates, this study explored how systems that are located in governments, organizations, religions, institutions, especially educational institutions, and the American society, individually or collectively, have rendered the Black language and its syntax under an increasing attack. It found that Black vernacular language has not only been ghettoized, but as a ghettoized language, and its users, who are socialized in it, has been rendered unfit for educational and social institutions that assign upward social mobility. It also explored resiliency by how on the other hand, through the paradox of entertainment, music, and the popular culture Black language as a marginalized, ghettoized entity, has become mainstreamed by the same people who jeer at it in formal institutions. These now use it for their aggrandizement because it generates for them a large amount of capital and the appurtenances of financial authority, which they now apply in further marginalizing those [Blacks] on whose backs they climbed to success in the first instance. 2. Literature Review
2.1. Language
Language constitutes a power tool for communication, teaching, learning and sometimes to control and fringe others in society, who do not have it in their repertoire. In light of this assumption, language posits as a primary agency of communication and interaction, as well as defines how human beings interact with one another, understand one another and assign meaning to utterances and vocalization. Lev Vygotskys principle was utilized by Gredler (1997) to imply that language stands as the primus amongst the myriad of psychological enablers that mediate thoughts, feelings and behavior. Continuing, Gredler posits that the application of signs and symbols represent the genesis of sociohistorical line of humans, represented and discerned as human speech and written language. In time, the speech and written language become meaningful when they are mastered, internalized and utilized for the organization, regulation and control of social existence.
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A large number of minority groups, when they arrive in the west do not as a norm have and use the English language as their primary language. Many had neither spoken it nor consistently applied it as a communication medium prior to their sojourn in the west. In other cases, English may be their first language, but are spoken with a dialect that may be challenging to discern by those of the dominant or host society, who sometimes fail to perceive it as English language (Abraham and Troike, 1972). Bourdieu (1990a) perceived language more as an instrument of performance of power, and not just and merely for the purposes of communication, which in its pure state language actually is. This power is based on differences that occur on account of race, gender and class identity. For Ibrahim (2000) the application by Black and African American youth of such parlance as yoyo, whassup, whadap, homeboy, talk to the hands, yo go gal, rap and hip hop, etc., they are stylistically and lexically allying themselves with, and translating what they conceive as Black linguistic practice (p.66). Not only that, but Ibrahim also strongly suggested that these Black youths, by the way they speak, the type of lexical, phonological and syntactic choices they make, are also applying this linguistic style, to express and articulate certain identity configurations. Ibrahim further opined that the way Black youths speak, their lexical, phonological and syntactic choices are consistent with the expression and articulation of certain identity properties. Although the dominant culture would like to award a pariah property to the way Black and Black youths use language at home and when with peers, while at school or outside of it, it does not take away from the fact that this language represents in its purest form a genuine expression of desire and identification. David Millers book entitled Citizenship and National Identity was critiqued by Levinson (2002). Levinsons essay was entitled Minority Participation and Civic Education in Deliberative Democracies. She argued that for Blacks to be heard and understood by the majority population they have to learn, master and adopt the language of power which is interpreted as English. Levinson was a teacher of Black students in Boston and Atlanta, where she perceived Black students to be limited or deficient in Standard English vocabulary, contingent on their sustained and exclusive use of Ebonics, African American Vernacular English-AAVE, Black Vernacular English-BVE (Patrick, n.d.) at home and in their communities. Levinson further summed that the lack of exposure to mainstream English implicated the type of schools they attend, TV and movies that they stream and watch, the type of music they listen to and the books and literature they are exposed to. To this extent, Levinsons prescription was Civic education for deliberative democracy that uses the language of power ostensibly Standard English, to mainstream Black students into the American society. Levinson appears to have dabbled into contradictions, when she stated that some other discourses other than mastery of the language of power may yet stand in the way of Blacks feeling free to express themselves, honestly and openly without risking misinterpretation of their actual meaning. To this extent, it is quite in order to surmise that the mastery of the language of power to the exclusion of other variables represented by power, oppression, and other exclusion discourses falls short of granting Blacks audience by those of the majority population (Berry and Kalin, 2000; Dworkin and Dworkin, 1999; Hochshild, 1995). The sum total of the argument is that Power wielded by Whites as the majority population applies language as a medium to oppress and exclude, rather than language as a single and exclusive variable being culpable. To buttress this assertion, although Black Civil Rights activists such as Dr. Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, Jesse Jackson, Vernon Jordan and Elijah Mohammed all used the language of power [King had a Ph.D.], still were not spared the indignities of racial segregation and oppression Contrary to Levinsons genuine but faulty assumptions, mastery of the language of power(Ogbuagu, 2012) is not the issue because of its inability to confer power on minority groups who are deliberately, systemically and consistently denied it.
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3. Theoretical Framework The theoretical fulcrum for this study is derived from Psychological theories of racism, which main contention sees racism as a form of extreme prejudice, which manifests as the process of social perception. In this, prejudice is perceived as a form of extreme stereotype, and this stereotype, a derivation of the attitude of one individual or group towards another individual or group. Psychological theories of racism present as an ego-defense, contingent upon its ability to bolster or inflate the selfesteem of those who hold them. Psychological theories of racism was popularized by Tajfel and Turner (1986) (see also McLeod, 2008) when they espoused it in terms of Social Identity theory. Social Identity therefore emerges as a result of individuals naturally and constantly striving to maintain their positive self-image through the categorization of (Hogg, 2003) people into In-Groups or Out-Groups, sometimes through the process of racialization (James and Shadd, 2001; Warren and Twine, 1997). Dixson and Rousseau (2006); Dlamini(2002); Schuman (1975) contend that selfcondemnation (p.21) is the primary culprit in the demoralization of marginalized groups. They state that these marginalized groups and minorities accept and internalize the stereotypical images imposed on them from outside by Whites, prompting them to crawl into their shells, a situation that now provides the dominant group the temerity to gain and perpetuate their own power. Racism is hegemoniously woven into past and modern fabric of powerful societies, especially America (Ogbuagu, 2013) leading to its invisibility, inevitability and invincibility. This situation then renders it arduous to recognize, discuss, challenge and deconstruct. Collins (2000) stated:
To maintain their power, dominant groups create and maintain a popular system of commonsense ideas that support their right to rule. In the United States, hegemonic ideologies concerning race, class, gender, sexuality, and nation are often so pervasive that it is difficult to conceptualize alternatives to them (p.284).
Feagin (2000) perceives everyday racism as having a structural dimension, which normalizes and sometimes, justifies racist attitudes. An ideology is a set of principles and views that embodies the basic interests of a particular social group. Typically, a broad ideology encompasses expressed attitudes and is constantly reflected in the talk and actions of everyday life. One need not know or accept the entire ideology for it to have an impact on thought or action (p.69). Porter (1965) theory of Vertical Mosaic, posits that ethnic origins and groups are arranged vertically and applied in the formulation of classes. Those from Northwestern Europe, beginning with Anglo-Saxons represent the apex of this pyramid, while those from Africa were the dregs of society. Ultimately, those in the lower rungs are alienated from capital and the social and economic order (Mensah (2002). Social exclusion uses class and power in its repertoire (Bonnett, 2000; Bulmer &Solomos, 2004) and since those that are in power are perpetually insecure, they resort to the use of prejudice and discrimination to maintain their status (Simpson and Yinger, 1985). This power, which favors Anglo-Saxons as a White endeavor (Myer, 2005, p.20) and according to Heller (1985) and Pinderhughes (1989) becomes internalized owing to centuries old emasculation of Blacks and other minorities. To this extent Whites have created and defined Americas history emerging as White racism (Feagin&Hernan, 2001; Feagin, Hernan and Batur, 2001). Feaginet. al. thus defined White racismas the socially organized set of practices, attitudes and ideas that deny African Americans and other people of color the privileges, dignity, opportunities, freedoms, and rewards that this nation offers to White Americans (p.17).
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The concept of Whiteness argued Harris (2003) is that it is historically and conceptually coterminous with property, which comes with value and rights for humans. One of this right to property is the subjugation and alienation of those regarded as non-equals, particularly Blacks. In attempt to maintain property, Whites also use prejudice, which assists them develop sincere fictions (Feagin, Vera, and Batur, 2001, p.26) constructed by individuals or groups, which in turn reproduce myths held about society. In Apartheid South Africa (Foster, 2005) Jan Christiaan Smuts, propagated White European superiority and conversely, African inferiority when he stated:
Let us hurry to unite the knot and set the good genius of European civilization once more free from the bonds, which may strangle her in the future (p.1).
This clarion call, according to Foster, fostered for Whites a siege mentality and became intrinsic in their viewing themselves as an endangered species. Myers (2005) views racism as dialectical, having embedded itself, and operational at the ideological, structural and interactional dimensions. On account of this, racism uses a hierarchical structure to ascertain the distribution of differential opportunities, which pattern then is hegemonized, reproduced and perpetuted when passed through the generations in the socialization process. The hegemonic racism (Bolaria and Li, 1988b, 1985) unleashes havoc on the occupants of minority cultures and institutions, while simultaneously embedding inferior and subordinate complex on those it has already ravaged (Milloy, 1999). For Sullivan (2006) the shift from de jure to de facto racism corresponds with a related shift from habits of White supremacy to ones of White privilege (p.5). Sullivan argues further, that it does not take membership into the Ku Klux Klan and Aryan Nation to be identified as a White supremacist. What Sullivan argues as the indices for measuring being defined as such, are transactions with the world in which White domination becomes consciously affirmed and embraced. He argued, that as long as White domination is perpetuated, there will always be, at the micro level of this person, and macro level of society, a mix of White supremacy and White privilege. Sullivan asserted that this mix however, has a higher concentration of unconscious White domination. Sullivan continued:
It is no accident that it is difficult to hear the soft patter of White privilege. White privilege goes to great lengths not to be heard. Habits of White privilege are not merely nonconscious or preconscious. It is not the case that they just happen not to be the object of conscious reflection but could relatively easily become so if only they were drawn to ones attention.It omits the strong resistance to the conscious recognition of racism that characterizes habits of White privilege. As unconscious, habits of White privilege do not merely go unnoticed. They actively thwart the process of conscious reflections on them, which allows them to seem non-existent even as they continue to function (pp. 5-6).
Although the effort of critical White studies (Pascale, 2007) is to interrogate, disrupt and discomfit the invisible status of White privilege and Whiteness, there have been uneven outcomes, which appear to sometimes, even serve to recenter, reprivilege and perpetuate the lives and perspectives of White people. Pascale does not lose hope, due to the finding that there are abundant literatures that speak to the social, historical, legal and economic processes, which present vehicles for the deconstruction of a White racial identity. 4. Methodology This is an ethnographic study (Hammersley and Atkinson,1989)which applied qualitative methods to
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explore the issue of the English language as Blacks in the United States understand and use it. The fact of ethnography embeds the use of participant and non-participant observation (Spradley, 1980) which ethnographers have utilized over several decades (DeWalt and DeWalt, 2002)to uncover the lived experiences of people. For Schensul, Schensul and LeCompte (1999) participant observation entails "the process of learning through exposure to or involvement in the day-to-day or routine activities of participants in the researcher setting" (p.91). Why use observation? Schmuck (1997) offered that this method assists researchers check and measure nonverbal expressions, including feelings. This then helps to highlight interactional processes and the quality and quantity of time applied in this interactional process. As Schumk further argued, observation for the researcher presents as the vehicle for uncovering definitions of terms explicitly or implicitly applied during interviews, including those events that key informants readily share or those they are hesitant or disinclined to share because it would be insensitive and impolite. In some cases, it may be used to observe events described (Marshall and Rossman, 1995) during interviews by informants, which may assist uncover and make aware any inaccuracies or distortions of the key informants descriptions. I also used non-participant observation whenever I deemed it pertinent to reduce bias in the study. This strategy presented more challenges, although it was quite possible and productive to be a participant without making disclosures. Non-participant observation presents as means that can be utilized by a researcher, such as Naturalistic observation to observe events and its participants from a distance while not being a part of the activities. In this case, the researcher strives to exert rudimentary impact on the event that they would be surreptitiously observing. Engaging in participant observation has the potential to lead to phenomenological interviews, which evaluates different perspectives, what the meaning and content of an event that those who have experienced them translate them into, without coloring them (Babbie, 2004; Beins, 2004). The ethnographic method used in this study was enhanced by the information gathered by participant and non-participant observation and a large repertoire of literature, all of which were further triangulated through semi-structured interviews. Pertinent themes (Campbell and Gregor, 2004; Fontana & Frey, 2000) were highlighted to assist the participants chart a narratives course. The interviews were reduced to analytical materials for the purposes of sifting through and deciphering the meanings cocooned in the transcribed interviews(Kvale and Svend, 2009). Creswell (1998); Wright (2003); Hammersley (2000) all agree on the role and importance of observer integrity regarding the phenomenon, successfully achieved by the application of natural scientific methods, intuition, imagination and universal structures. In light of the fact that English as a language, and a colonizing one at that has impacted on many cultures across the globe, therefore in a very tangible way helped to inform their lived experience, the 75 participants in this study were randomly drawn from a multiplicity of cultures, languages and ethnicities that have experienced the English language phenomenon. The participants identified themselves as Africans [mainly Nigerians and other West Africans, Asians [comprising the Chinese], and African Americans in the United States, who are the main focus of the study. Most of the participants reside in North America, while a few were residents of Nigeria and other implicated countries in the West African sub-region, which were former colonies of Britain. There were 25 females, while the rest 50 participants were male, for no other reason than that there were more males accessible and willing to participate than females. 45 of the participants were African American owing to their continued involvement in the current language debate and divide. The participants, who were recruited through Key Informants ranged in age from 18 to 70 and expressed having knowledge about the language controversy in their respective countries. All the participants voluntarily agreed to participate and signaled their intention to do so by perusing the Consent form over a number of days and at their
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convenience, and signing and returning them to the researcher. Data collection, using audio recorder and field notes was done over a five year period, owing to the rather large sample size and challenges of accessing the participants. 5. Emergent Themes Several themes emerged from the interviews and interactions with participants. The most pertinent for exploring the subject matter were: English (Pidgin) in African countries, with Nigeria as a case example, English language in China, the controversy surrounding African American Vernacular English-AAVE, Ebonics, etc. in America-AAVE in the context of school and educational outcomes, Black English language in popular culture, Black English language in American Business, resistance to English language form of colonialism, President Obamas use of Black Vernacular and Standard English. 6. Discussion
6.1. English (Pidgin) in Nigeria and Other post-colonial African countries

Nigerian [Pidgin] English evolved (Esizimetor and Egbokhare, n.d.; Igboanusi, 2008; Ihemere, 2006; Crozier, 2005; Faraclas, 1996;Shnukel and Marchese, 1983) from its locals trade and other intercourse, first with the Portuguese circa 1469, followed by the Dutch and French around 1650 and finally the British around the 1800s. All these European linguistic groups, during their Nigerian Odyssey left vestiges of their language, all of which influenced the current ways Nigerians speak English. By the time the British consolidated their invasion and occupancy of Nigeria, British English assumed the supplantation of Portuguese as a paramount lexifier of Naij. The British government on assuming control of Nigeria promptly enforced its English language etiquette on the natives with gusto. I will get to that momentarily. The result was that the Pidgin language not only became very popular with those who struggle with speaking standardized British English, but also spread within big cities multilingual populations. The outcome is that currently in Nigeria, there are more persons who speak Nigerian Pidgin English language as lingua franca than any other. Persons from each of the more than 250 languages (Lewis, Robinson and Rubin; 1998; Wente-Luca, 1985) in this British drunken configuration use this medium to communicate. The British in order to wipe out the vestiges of previous Portuguese, French and Dutch rivaling languages, entrenched English language as the primary and lingua franca of Nigeria in schools and other institutions. According to 33.3 percent representing 25 of the participants from Africa, they were forced as students to use English language especially that referred to as the Queens English in their education(Whitehead, 1981). Frequently, and as a recipient of the accoutrement of British education I can attest to being physically whipped, forced to perform manual labor and other indignities just for straying into Pidgin English, the local language, Igbo or any Nigerian vernacular. Our education pedagogy consisted of European pedagogy and narratives, especially the waves of Britannia. We studied European History, from the Dark Ages to Oliver Cromwell and the ascendancy of the House of Windsor. Our literature, you guessed it, included English poetry and literature, including Daniel Defoe, Geoffrey Chaucer, all the works of Shakespeare and his escapades with Anna Hathaway of StratfordUpon-Avon, which we also dramatized to good effect or risked severe sanctions. Our rhymes had no cultural context, and can anyone out there explain to me why we should be made to sing when winter winds are blowing in the heat and heart of the tropical rain forest, especially when winter did not lexically exist in our social, geographical and cultural repertoire? (Bassey, 1999).
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Currently and due to the corrosive and colonizing properties of the English language, it is a high crime in Nigeria to mix tenses or misspeak as people will make a jest of you for gaffing in the English language. How about our children? The participants from Africa, especially Nigerians stated that, having internalized the concept of English language as superior to Igbo, Yoruba, Hausa or Bini, they began and currently still chastise them for attempting to speak any other language but English, and speak it well they must or risk being ridiculed by peers. If they are spared by their peers, they risk their teachers whipping them for making a gaffe in written or spoken English. Indeed, in Nigeria the fact that ones children can speak English fluently marks their social class and denotes elitism, while speaking vernacular classifies a child as member of a lower socioeconomic class(McLeod, 2008) and no parent wishes that on themselves or children. Therefore parents jumped hoops to ascertain that their children mastered British English and paid a high premium for it by losing their own language, sometimes entirely and completely. The Africans in the study, including15 Nigerians, most, of the Baby-Boom era, confirmed with chagrin, the colonizing properties(Dixson and Rousseau, 2006; Dlamini, 2002) of the English language and its impact on their lives. In Nigeria, when children of the educated elite try speaking Igbo or any of the local languages in the presence of their parents, they are hushed with Dont speak Igbo. Indeed, siblings report themselves to their parents when another speaks the forbidden language. My children who were a part of the participants often query why they are unable to speak Igbo, with my head cowered, I try to provide for them some of the reasons that I have volunteered here.
6.2. Has the English language also colonized China? In the next five years, all state employees younger than 40 will be required to master at least 1,000 English phrases, and all schools will begin teaching English in kindergarten. The government also is funding extensive teacher training programs to find new models for language learning and develop new textbooks (Ward and Francis, 2010, para.2). Parents who can afford to, are sending their children -- some as young as 2 -- to private language schools that are popping up all over the country. By the time they are 10, the children will be fluent (para.2). "China is more open to the world," said one teacher. "We [the older generation] want our kids to open their eyes to get to know the world [and] look at China not only from standing in China but from outside of China as well."(para.3). State-run TV launched an "American Idol"-type of reality show where kids have to sell themselves in English to clinch the judges' votes (para.4) Signs in not-quite-right English -- "Car Repairable," "CosmeToulogy" and "Welcom Go Home" -- can be found across the country (para.5).
In light of the above information, the question that needs an answer is whether this is a sign that the English language has also colonized China, with a population of about 1.3 billion and with approximately 1 billion people having Mandarin as the worlds most spoken language? The 5 Chinese participants stated that they learned English in China at a significant cost to them prior to their migration to the US. They also admitted that there was a tremendous pressure brought to bear upon students in China to learn and master English, as this was a vehicle for getting good and well-paying
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jobs that Americans siphon to China. What is poignant is that China is the worlds most populous nation, extremely wealthy and a US financier, yet, it is pandering to the English culture, represented by its language, English. One Chinese who appeared to understand the discourses of race and othering stated:
"I think that China is very important in the world," said one boy. "I wish that American people can speak, can study Chinese. I think that's very good for us to make friends with them" (Ward and Francis, 2010, para.8).
What this shows is that although China is powerful in so many ways, including having a significant trade imbalance with the US that is lop-sided in its favor, its citizens are quite aware that America could care less about them or their language, contingent on their reliance on the social identity theory to remind them how their category is superior to that of the Chinese. Of course, China must learn English, even at the expense of its own language, when English accounts as the common language of business, tourism, technology and the Internet.
6.3. Black English in America

6.3.1. AAVE in the context of School and Educational outcomes The controversy and racial undertones that greet AAVE as a distinct linguistic category did not begin today. However, its controversy-laden properties were amplified and brought to national and international attention in 1996. The hullabaloo occurred, when the Oakland California School Board, dared to want to cater to the needs of an educationally disadvantaged poor city in the San Francisco Bay area, with one half the population being African American. The pronouncement (Wheeler, 1999) was that the board was going to promote successful school outcomes for this population by paying more attention to the languages the students spoke and used at home. Not only this but recognizing it as such and prodding teachers to train to explore it objectively and meritoriously by using it appropriately in the classroom. Led by the New York Times, White media and English language purists immediately, and due to a siege mentality(Giroux, 1999) went for the jugular because of their morbid fear that the said linguistic genre not only closely resembled another language presumed to be higher in prestige; it was presumed that AAVE was just a horribly spoken, horribly pronounced nincompoop, grammatically riddled with mistakes as a pollutant version of their cherished prestigious language, English. Indignantly, it was presumed to be saturated with a repertoire of insolent street slang, preferred by ghettoized urban underclass. They did not care if the language was Spanish, Russian or Polish, but a rotten variant of English language? No, they were having none of that, and it would not be in their backyard. Amidst this feeding frenzy, what got lost was the fact that AAVE is a dialect of English and deserves recognition, respect and acceptance because those who use it in America are bona fide Americans, no less. They have also used it over several hundred years to survive a conspiracy of othering (Ogbuagu, 2012; 2013) but poignantly apply it to assist their individual and collective identity, stability and homeostasis. Wheeler (1999) maintains that although AAVE differs markedly from Standard English, it nonetheless and as other languages, contains a degree of regularity and stability attributable to a set of rules of grammar and pronunciation. Joining the fray, Nieto (1999) opined that Black and minority students are pressured to assimilate as a hidden agenda to discredit cultural and linguistic differences, which in turn promotes, sustains and reproduces inequality. 45 respondents representing 60 percent of the participants were African American, all born and raised in 35 states of the United States. They all were excited to participate in
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the study, especially the burning issue of how they were socialized to speak Black Vernacular English, which to them awarded a sense of belonging about who they actually are, has been under relentless attack. All stated that they had been socialized in school to view their variant of English as ghetto language. They stated that whenever they try speaking it, they are hushed to cease by teachers and sometimes even at home by their parents, for differing reasons. For the teachers who are predominantly White, Black English was a ghetto pollution that should be allowed to expire. For their parents, they fear that a mastery of that language-AAVE is a road to nowhere in America. Continued Nieto, those who speak a variant of English must shed them quickly on the porch of the school or receive severe sanctions from teachers and peers alike. With time, such minority students begin to show abhorrence for their own language, as represented by the 15 Nigerians in the study, leading to deculturalization (Boateng, 1990). Boatengs deculturalization takes place when those devoid of power are forcibly culturally deracinated. Scott (2000) shared the impact of cultural deracination through linguistic subterfuge:
Janice was in her final practicum of her certification year, and looked forward to her placement because this was the school where she hoped she would be working after graduation. She had particularly asked to work with the special education classes of children who had learning disabilities. One day in her second week, she was asked to assist in the class of children who were labeled educable mentally retarded. In the group of 10 children, there were 2 who did not seem to present the appearance of children with lower intellectual capacity. They were curious and observant, and responded quickly to the teachers demands, but said very little, and appeared to be very shy. Janices own curiosity was aroused: what were these children doing in such a class? Later on, in the staff room, the regular teacher told her that these children, two sisters, had recently come from Jamaica, and as no one could understand what they were saying, they were placed in that class (p.68).
The Black or minority student of AAVE is forced to perceive his or her language as unworthy, undesirable, counter-productive and a purveyor of sanctions. Besides, the United States typifies fertile grounds for pressuring ethnic linguistic assimilation, through subtle prohibition of languages other than English, especially in curricular and pedagogical delivery, as Crawford (1992) maintains, eventually excluding them from education and mainstream endeavors. Contrary to linguistic assimilation, Nieto (2000); Zanger (1993); Gibson (1991) therefore argue that the affirmation and maintenance of cultures and languages of Black and minority students promotes and accelerates successful educational outcomes.
6.4. Black English language in popular culture

Since the 1980s and 1990s, there has increasingly developed a racial, ethnic and transcendental use of Black [ghettoized] language for music and entertainment and profit. This cross over was inadvertently engineered by the advent of the likes of MC Hammer, Jay Z, Beyonc, 50 Cents, Eminem, Lee Iacocca in an ad for Chrysler with Snoop Dogg. Yet, the same language judged as not good enough and found an ambivalent use for upward mobility for white collar business. I will get to this later. In the 1950s, rock and roll and their rhythm were used and popularized by the products of the Black ghetto language. These were artistes personified by Chuck Berry, Little Richards of the Tutti Frutti fame, Bo Diddley , Ray Charles, Fats Domino, Sam Cooke, James Brown (Kirby, 2008). Soon, some artistes from the majority culture, Elvis Aaron Presley and others perceived the power of music presented by this medium and promptly hijacked it, leading to the reign of rock and roll, classic and
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progressive rock, preponderated by Whites in America, Europe and elsewhere. It was not be long before Black ghetto language saw a resurgence through Rapp, R & B and Hip-Hop as represented by M C. Hammer [Hammer dont hurt them], Snoop Dogg, Tupak Shakur, Biggie Small, Jay Z, 50 Cents, Puff Daddy, Beyonc and a host of others. Currently in America, Europe, Africa and the rest of the world, every child and some adults, Black, White, Hispanic, Asian, Green and Blue dabble into listening to and thoroughly enjoying these genre of music and some would willingly lay down their lives for its progenitors. All the participants across race, culture, gender and other variables of difference in this study stated that they knew all the popular culture artistes listed above, listened to most and enjoyed them, except 5 persons, representing approximately 7 percent of the total respondents. This 7 percent have heard of a few of them, but not many. This was accounted for by their immigration to the US from a primarily non-English-speaking country only a few years prior and the fact, as they admitted that they were preoccupied with finding a means of sustenance. So, the question that needs an answer is, why is this form of Black Vernacular language acceptable even in mainstream American society, but demonized and abhorred in areas, such as educational institutions, where social mobility is gained? As can be seen currently, some White artistes such as Eminem and a few others are into Black language artistry because it is percuniarily profitable and provides popularity and iconhood awarded by a large segment of American society, Africa and Europe who listen to and simply adore it. Who knows how long before it is again hijacked by Whites and mainstreamed for this reason just as in the case of rock and roll?
6.5. Black English language in Business- Chrysler Corp, Lee Iacocca and Snoop Dogg (what benefit to Black language users?)
America is a dyed-in-the wool capitalist society and pursuit of enterprise often spurs them to do whatever it takes to maximize profit. In this equation, Lee Iacocca, who was Chrysler Corporations successful CEO and savior by bringing it back from the brink of bankruptcy in the 1980s was known by mainly affluent and well-educated White America (Iacocca, 1984). However, and despite his enviable repertoire of achievements, he is a practical unknown among the youth and those who were either not born when he reigned or were not mainstreamed in American society. If anything, Lee, an aging White male-88 years[he engineered the Ford Pinto-a disaster and Mustang-a roaring success] (Iacocca, 1984)was brilliant, but quite boring. In order to promote sales (Hakim, 2005) Chrysler had to pair up a hip-hop artist from the ghetto and one whose only language was the Black Vernacular language, but very popular among young Americans in a commercial designed to increase sales. "It's a great way to continue to break through the clutter," said Suraya Da Sante, a spokeswoman for the Chrysler Group, a division of DaimlerChrysler, of the commercial. "Snoop is a hip-hop icon, a lot of people know him and recognize him, so it's a fun complement to Lee" (para.5). Asked about the Chrysler, Lee Iacocca and Snoop Dogg commercial only 20 interviewees, representing approximately 27 percentof the respondents admitted or recalled seeing it in 2005. When the researcher pulled the commercial on YouTube, the aha moment came to 40 interviewees or 53.4 percent of the respondents, who had not given a thought to the commercial when they initially saw it. They also had not thought of the implications for the Black language of the commercial, but now saw clearly, the ambivalent relationship that exists between the language and standard English and those who used them. In strange bedfellowship of Chrysler, Lee Iacocca and Snoop Dogg [actual name Calvin Broadus], Snoop drives up in a Dodge truck and, as he exits from the vehicle, Lee Iacocca interjects
"nice ride." Snoop opens up in his Black [ghetto] linguistic repertoire the only way he knows to speak English, driving off with Lee in the golf cart "Thank you Mocha Cocca.
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Chrysler and Jeep came up on beaucoup awards and Dodge trucks last as long as the D-Odouble gizzle. Plus, I got the hook up nephew, for sure." Puzzled and confused, Iacocca mutters: "You know, I'm not too sure what you just said. Now everybody gets a great deal."Snoop continues- "Foshizzle, I-ka-zizzle" (para. 8).
Someone adept at Black language explained the offers and what Snoop was trying to communicate to Lee Iacocca, who obviously was clueless. Even the two men had attires that spoke of their worldsapart difference. Although both men wear pink shirts here, Snoop Dogg wore an argyle sweater embossed with his popular S-D logo;also sports a white hat, sun glasses complemented by checkered white pants and blue. On the other hand, Lee was seen sporting visibly traditional golf attire. The commercial ends with Snoop translating Iacoccas famous tagline-
if you can find a better car, buy it (para. 12). "If the ride is more fly," he says, "then you must buy" (para. 13).
If one reads between the lines, Snoop Dog has no chance in his current incarnation of becoming the CEO of Chrysler or any White-owned or run corporation because he is simply not a good fit due to his only mastery of the English language being Black ghetto English and other discourses. On the other hand, corporate America saw a gold mine in him, being a hip-hop icon and one that is by leaps and bounds a much more recognizable face to young persons and American popular culture than Lee Iacocca. Therefore, in Chrysler, corporate America conveniently applied the Machiavellian ethos to its own ends. What mainstream English could not achieve, Black ghetto language accomplished. There lies the ambivalent and strange bed-fellowship between colonizing mainstream or Standardized English and Black [ghettoized] language.
6.6. New Directions and Milestones

6.6.1. Forging a less hostile, less ambivalent relationship between mainstream English language and African American Vernacular It is without question that the demonization of African American Vernacular English, especially its nonacceptance as complimentary to mainstream English stands to push it into extinction. It would be a shame that such language which sustained Blacks and promoted homeostasis of their communities and cultures through several millennia of White emasculation should be allowed to sunset. Not only that, its demonization represents the laying to waste of African American human capital, as the current insistence that AAVE is inferior denies Black youth the opportunity that formal education provides to rise to the height of their potentials. Rather than see AAVE as primitive and lacking in ability to spur upward mobility, America and all the other parts of the world that use it should instead see it for what it really is, complementary and a cultural heritage. Italians, British, Greeks, The Irish in America all have and use their vernacular in mainstream American society, and have not experienced a similar stifling of their upward mobility or exclusion as Blacks who use AAVE have. Perhaps, and as stated earlier, it may not necessarily be the language (Levinson, 2002) as it is the race discourse that continues to fringe Blacks in a nation that they disproportionately helped build. On this account, rather than expunging AAVE or Ebonics as some would like to refer toit in the school curricular, an anti-racist and multicultural education (Neito, 2000, 1999) pedagogy may embrace it and competency training for teachers and educators vigorously pursued. All the 45 African Americans in the study would like to see AAVE as a part of the school curriculum, which will appear in tandem with the Standardized English language. In
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support of this trend, Ghosh (2002) opined that the teaching of a second language should not be fashioned to demean and denigrate languages spoken and cultures practiced by minority students. In recognition of this all important discourse and issue confronting teachers on composition and communication on how to respond to the variety in their students dialects, the Conference on College Composition and Communication (1974) posted the following communiqu:
We affirm the students rights to patterns and verities of languagethe dialects of their nurture or whatever dialects in which they find their own identity and style. Language scholars long ago denied that the myth of a standard American dialect has any validity. The claim that any one dialect is unacceptable amounts to an attempt of one social group to exert its dominance over another. Such a claim leads to false advice for speakers and writers, and immoral advice for humans. A nation proud of its diverse heritage and its cultural and racial variety will preserve its heritage and dialects. We affirm strongly that teachers must have the experiences and training that will enable them to respect diversity and uphold the right of students to their own language
What the CCC is suggesting, which is supported by McLucas (n.d.) is a bidialectal compromise. McLucas strongly argues that prejudice is the main problem that speakers of AAVE confront, because most people, even those from the Black community believe that AAVE is sub-standard to Standard English. For him, as well as what CCC suggests, AAVE has the same legitimacy as American or British English and should not be discounted. One would think that a paradigm shift should have occurred since this statement was made in 1974. However, that time is yet to come for the obvious reason thatlanguage, especially English and other majority cultural languages such as French have hardwired colonizing and imperializing properties, rendering it infeasible to modify the control and domination genes that are embedded in them and the White teachers who preponderate the classrooms (James and Shadd, 2001; Warren and Twine (1997); Dixson and Rousseau (2006); Dlamini (2002); Schuman (1975). Not only this, but the fact that mainstream English is applied to confer a sense of superiority to Whites for whom it is a primary language, and in turn is applied to promote, maintain and reproduce racism and othering. 6.6.2. African resistance of English Language colonization With the scars of colonialism surreptitiously self-transforming into neo-colonialism, subjects of colonialism appear to be increasingly comprehending its various dimensions and hydra headedness that has allowed it to fester. In this vein, some have even taken steps to deal with Standardized English language for the menace they perceive it to be causing them. Those who still use the English language have chosen to speak and write and apply it in consonance with their culture and ways of doing things. One typical example is Nigeria, where, as soon as one is confronted for mixing tenses or using the socalled flawed English [in relation to how Standard English is used], they would spontaneously retort It is not my mother tongue and am I Oyinbo (White)? an allusion to those for whom it is their primary language. In 1968, the English Language department of the University of Nairobi, Kenya, faculty members agitated for and successfully abolished the English Language department, due to their contention that it was colonizing their thoughts and getting in the way of things (McGee, 1993). The agitators successfully argued that the English language curricular continued to represent and reflect European literary culture and concepts, while it deemphasized and denigrated African cultures and traditions. They argued about the essence of their emancipation from Britain when they still had to be forced to follow their ways of thinking and acting. Argued the abolitionists, the rustication of English language in the curriculum will provide them with the latitude to design a curriculum that would be appropriately
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consistent with the needs of Africans students and educators in institutions of learning. Ngugi (1972), a renowned writer of African literature surmised:
education is a means of knowledge about ourselves. Politically such knowledge works to reverse colonialisms impact on social construction of African reality: With Africa at the center of things, not existing as an appendix or a satellite of other countries and literatures, things must be seen from the African perspective (p.150).
Many people, especially those that have experienced the colonizing, therefore emasculatory properties of Standard English language can relate to and even agree with Ngugis measure. However, whereas this divorce and abrogation in somewhat culturally and linguistically homogenous Kenya is feasible, it will be next to impossible in North America for the nearly 50 million Blacks who call here home and have to deal with a majority population that has power, use the language for all its activities of daily living, and all interactions and social networking. Indeed, it will be committing hara-kiri for African Americans to attempt to abolish Standard English language, because they simply have no cultural base in the United States for doing it. The import of this action and argument underscores the dominating and deracinating properties of English language [language of power and domination] and how it can drive marginalized populations up the wall of anguish and sometimes, irrational thoughts and actions. Another lesson of this measure and its relevance is to underscore the colonizing, therefore, dominating effects of language [language of power]. A more feasible and attractive route would be just what the Oakland, San Francisco Bay area District School Board attempted to accomplish in 1995, which expectedly, but regrettably drew a lot of flak and brouhaha. Still, an effective recommendation would be to seek a solution that will accommodate African American Vernacular English in school and enterprise, thereby protecting the culture and the language that they are socialized into and use everyday of their life. Such a measure stands to also abate or eradicate the ridiculing by mainstream, White America (Gosh, 2002; Nieto, 2000) of Black students language into which they were socialized. It is important to note that as the demographics in North America shift and the resistance by the majority population remains, it may, and in tandem with language force itself on even the unwilling and unrepentant. Heritage Canada (2000); Moodley (1995); Kubat (1993); Naidoo (1989); Hawkins (1972) expect this paradigm shift to occur with or without the compliance of the majority population, due to the changing demographics of North America as the continent of immigrants. Another is Bobb-Smith (2003) postulation which perceives racism and racialization of Blacks as a situation that they may not ascribe to, especially the assignment of politicized identity that the oppressor and colonizer has awarded them. To this extent and as Bobb-Smith argued, the marginalized have the capacity to re-examine such identity, redefine, reconstruct or reject them outright. She maintained that oppressions of a subordinating type often present themselves as the cause clbre for the alteration of such identity from a static state, while simultaneously, and as the dynamic object,exerting recalcitrance to effect the desired changes. Bobb-Smith buttresses this argument:
learning to survive is connected to histories of oppressions and to the ways in which communities, subordinated and exploited by hegemonic powers, are sustained.the identities of Caribbean-Canadian women have been constructed to take up a legacy of learning, which has enabled them to produce acts of anti-subordination toward systems of exploitation (p.221).
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6.6.3. Presidency and Higher political office-Has Black English arrived at the White House and finally America? Many regard President Barack Obama as the first African American President, a misnomic summation, characterization and identity label that genetically and genealogically falls flat on its face. This is especially so when one factors that his mother, Anne Dunham was Caucasoid, therefore contributed an equal number of the 48 chromosomes required for a fetus to complete its mitosis and emerge as human. Be that as it may, Obama is a product of two worlds-Black and White and others, and it would appear that in this medley of cultures, Obamas use sometimes of AAVE is a strong indication that the Black linguistic culture may not be knelling its last toll but actually evolving and forcing an acceptance in mainstream American society. Alim and Smitherman (2012) forcefully argued that Obama may have wittingly or unwittingly become a major proponent of the standardization of AAVE linguistics sometime in 2008 post-election Presidential campaign. They observed that during this time, Obama visited Washington area Bens Chili Bowl just prior to his inauguration of 2009. Here, when declining to accept the change returned by a Black cashier, Obama retorted Nah, we straight (para. 7), a short sentence depicting a poignantly powerful African American way of expression. When prompted, most of the Africans and African Americans-70, comprising 93 percent of the respondents stated having observed President Obama drifting between Black Vernacular language and standardized English. For 45 African Americans in this sample, the fact that Obama routinely speaks their language made them particularly proud, not only of the President, but AAVE as their cultural language and symbol of their identity as Blacks. Those, who had been chided for speaking the language because it was branded ghetto said they now no longer felt ashamed of it as they had previously. The African Americans also stated that they would like AAVE to be taught [and teachers trained in them] in tandem with SEL so that it is not lost to posterity. Alim and Smitherman also opined that Obamas use of Black language in consonance with hiphop culture, as well as the use of flow shows a mapping of rhymes onto a beat. Theyre tryna bamboozle you (para.12). Obama, as the authors pursued, applied words and phrases not known to be used outside of the Black community and culture, such as trifling, which means lazy and inadequate and high-yella depicting fair-skinned Blacks (para.9). Obama was also described as engaging in zero copula by omitting auxiliaries that join subjects to predicates, a renowned attribute of Black linguistics. Further, Obamas application of speech crescendos and diminuendos embraces pulpit mannerisms and the accompanying prancing associated with Black preachers, such as Dr. Martin Luther King and Malcolm X, depicting the transcendence of Black language into the mainstream fora.
My opponent and his running mate are ... new ... to foreign policy, he said, adding the two pauses for great comedic effect. The second, and more familiar, was the soaring crescendo, beginning with in the words of Scripture, ours is a future filled with hope, in which Mr. Obama demonstrated his strongest mode of linguistic performance the black preacher style to end his remarks (knowing that providence is with us and that we are surely blessed) (Alim and Smitherman, 2012, para.1).
To this extent, Obamas flexibility of application merger of White syntax with Black linguistic style has not only established him as an epitome of American identity, but also an avant garde in mainstreaming and unifying American linguistic heritage cultures, be they White, Black or Hispanic.
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7. Conclusion and directions for future research It is increasingly clear that the world as we know it is shrinking and rapidly so into a small village, with multiethnic, multilingual implications that we have absolutely no control over. Obama, in his Dreams From My Father stated that he learned Spanish in Harlem in order to communicate with his Puerto Rican neighbors, claimed that his father of Kenyan descent, but as a subject of British imperialism spoke English with a British accent. He learned to speak some Hawaiian Creole himself from his maternal grandfather, and mastered the Indonesian language in less than six months, besides its customs and traditions. Not only that, he has exchanged pleasantries with his Kenyan paternal relatives in the Luo language, and tried signing with the hearing impaired community(as cited in Alim and Smitherman, 2012, para. 17). Pope John Paul II, formerly known as Karol Wojtyla spoke his native Polish in addition to fluent French, German, English, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Croatian, Ancient Greek and Latin and, he was none the worse for it, because his horizon widened and he became the most beloved Pope in recent history. Love it or hate it, Black English linguistic has come to stay, come of age, yet evolving and will come full cycle with or without deliberate human engineering. Certainly its advertent or inadvertent propagation by someone as powerful as President Obama, Chrysler Corp.,Hip-hop and Rapp artistes represented by Snoop Dogg, Eminem and the rest, have serious implications for politics, but more especially, education and poignantly in conscious or unconscious ways signal the genesis of the deconstruction of the myth of Whiteness (Aanerud, 2003; Chabram-Dernersesian, 2003; Muraleedharan, 2003). In his book, the Audacity of Hope Obama stated that:
members of every minority group continue to be measured largely by the degree of our assimilation. But while racial and ethnic minorities (and working-class whites) must continue to learn standard American English the countrys dominant language all children surely need to learn to understand and appreciate the nuances of Americas diverse ways of speaking (as cited in Alim and Smitherman, 2012, para.11).
This statement cannot be more poignant and pragmatic in light of trending facts that show Asians as Americas fastest-growing minority and Hispanics as the largest ethnic minority, which means that we aint seen nothin yet as multicultural, multiethnic ways of speaking, thinking, acting and relating are just emerging and will come full cycle in a short time (Warren and Twine, 1997). Alim and Smitherman (2012) could not have put it more aptly when they stated:
For too long, sounding presidential meant sounding like a white, middle- or upper-class straight man (with modest leeway for regional accents). In 2012 and beyond, its going to take a lot more than that to win over the hearts and minds and ears of the American people (para.20).
America, you are now officially on notice! References
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Abrahams, R. D.; and Rudolph. C. Troike. (1972). Language &Cultural Diversity in American Education. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. Babbie, E. (2004). The Practice of social research. (5thEd.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Bassey, Magnus O. (1999). Western Education and Political Domination in Africa: A Study in Critical and Dialogical Pedagogy.Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. Beins, B.C. (2004). Research Methods: A Tool for Life. Boston: Pearson/Allyn& Bacon. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 38(1), 35-43. Berger, Peter. L., and Luckmann, Thomas (1967). The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. NY: First Anchor Books Edition. Blauner, B. (2001). Still the Big News: Racial Oppression in America. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Boateng, F. (1990). Combating deculturalization of the African-American child in public school system: A multicultural approach. In K. Lomotey (Ed.), Going to School: The African-American experience (pp.7384). Albany: State University of New York Press. Bobb-Smith, Y. (2003). I Know Who I Am: A Caribbean Womans Identity in Canada. Toronto, Ontario: Womens Press. Bolaria, S. B. & Peter, S. Li. (1988b).Racial oppression in Canada. Toronto: Garamond Press. Bolaria, S. B. & Peter, S. Li. (1985).Racial oppression in Canada.Toronto, Canada: Garamond Press. Bonnett, A. (2000). Anti-racism. New York: Routledge. Bourdieu, P. (1990a). Language & symbolic power.Trans. G. Raymond & M. Adamson. Oxford: Polity. Bulmer, Martin and John, Solomos (2004).Researching Race and Racism. Taylor and Francis Group Campbell, Marie, L., and Gregor, Frances, M. (2004). Mapping Social Relations: A Primer in Doing Institutional Ethnography.Altamira Press. Chabram-Dernersesian, A. (2003). On the Social Construction of Whiteness Within Selected Chicana/o Discourses.In R. Frankenberg. (Ed.). Displacing Whiteness (pp.107-164). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Collins, P. H. (2000). Black Feminist Thought, Knowledge, Consciousness, & the Politics of Empowerment. New York: Routledge. Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCE) (1974, Fall). Students Right to Their Own Language.Special Issue of CCC, Vol. XXV. Retrieved January 12, 2013 from http://www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Groups/CCCC/NewSRTOL.pdf Crawford, J. (1992). Hold your tongue: Bilingualism & the politics of English Only. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley. Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing among Five Traditions. London: Sage Publications. Crozier, David H. (2005). Review of: Nigerian Pidgin in Lagos: Language contact, variation and change in an African urban setting, by Dagmar Deuber. Journal of West African Languages 32, (1-2): 181-182. DeWalt, Kathleen M. &DeWalt, Billie R. (2002). Participant observation: a guide for fieldworkers. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Dixson, A.D., and Celia.K. Rousseau. (Eds.) (2006). Critical Race Theory in Education: All God's Children Got a Song. New York: Routledge. Dlamini, S.N. (2002). From the Other Side of the Desk: Notes on Teaching about Race When Racialized.Race, Ethnicity and Education 5 (1), pp. 51-56. Dworkin, A. G. &Dworkin, R. J. (1999).The Minority report: An introduction to racial, ethnic & gender relations (3rd Ed.). New York: HarcourtBraceCollege Publishers. Esizimetor, David, and Egbokhare, Francis (n.d.).Naij (Nigerian Pidgin). Retrieved January 12, 2013 from http://www.hawaii.edu/satocenter/langnet/definitions/naija.html#bkgd-hce Faraclas, Nicholas (1988). Nigerian Pidgin and the Language of Southern Nigeria.Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 3: 2, 177-197. Feagin, J. R. (2000). Racist America: Root, Current Realities, and Future Reparations. New York: Routledge. Feagin, J. R.& Vera Hernan (2001). Liberation Sociology. Boulder, CO: Westview. Feagin, J. R.; Vera, Herman; &Pina, Batur. (2001). White racism: The Basics.New York&London: Routledge. Fontana, A. & Frey, J. H. (2000). The interview: From structured questions to Negotiated Text.
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Ethnicity and Economic Development in Central and Eastern Europe1

Giuseppe Motta
Sapienza Universit di Roma
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p155
Abstract Ethnicity and economic development have a strict connection in the history of Central-Eastern Europe. This essay aims to sketch some general lines of this complex relationship, focusing on the importance that culture and ethnical belonging had for the economic development of certain European regions. Inside the great multinazional Empires of Central-Eastern Europe, as a matter of fact, the inter-ethnic problems had always showed also an economic impact and had been largely conditioned by the distinction between dominant groups and dominated minorities. This situation was dangerously manifest at the end of the First World War, when the definition of a new geopolitical balance and the consolidation of the National States tried to erase this historical legacy creating many problems for the economic stability and the ethnic coexistence. Key words: Ethnicity, Economic development, National Minorities, Dominant Groups.
Nella storia di lunga durata del continente europeo, lo studio delle strutture economiche ha sempre rappresentato un utile strumento per comprendere il pi ampio quadro politico e culturale nel quale si vanno a inserire commerci, produzione e rapporti economici. Allo stesso tempo, l'analisi delle dinamiche sociali e della legislazione di un paese ha indirizzato gli storici e gli studiosi verso una pi lucida analisi dello sviluppo economico in s. La notissima analisi di Adam Smith sulla rivoluzione industriale inglese, in tal senso, costituisce un esempio illuminante per comprendere come lo studio economico non possa assolutamente prescindere dalla conoscenza di parametri di diversa natura, che al contrario afferiscono alla societ o alle disposizioni legali di una certa epoca e di un certo paese. La reciproca influenza esercitata dall'economia sulla societ e viceversa, in sostanza, non pu essere ignorata dagli studi dell'una e dell'altra materia, n tanto meno pu essere sottovalutata, sovrastimando un singolo fattore a discapito del risultato complessivo. Il progresso della societ europea, infatti, pu essere considerato come la summa di elementi diversi, fra loro strettamente legati e inscindibilmente connessi. Questi elementi possono essere s analizzati separatamente, ma non possono venire isolati e studiati come fenomeni indipendenti o del tutto estranei. Tornando all'esempio della rivoluzione industriale, non possibile parlare solo degli aspetti economici di tale epoca, ma necessario analizzare gli sviluppi di quegli anni: la normativa sul diritto di propriet, per esempio sul trespass, l'avvio e il consolidamento delle infrastrutture come la ferrovia, il pi generale contesto culturale di un'epoca in cui gli studi si vanno perfezionando e abbandonano le antiche logiche del dogmatismo e dell'immobilismo sociale. Una ulteriore opera che pu essere di aiuto per comprendere come progresso economico e realt socio-culturale non possano essere scissi e valutati separatamente sicuramente il noto lavoro del tedesco Max Weber, L'etica protestante e lo spirito del capitalismo, scritto dal sociologo, economista e
Il presente articolo pubblicato nell'ambito del progetto PRIN 2009 "Imperi e Nazioni in Europa dal XVIII al XX secolo" Unit di Ricerca Sapienza, Universit di Roma
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politologo tedesco nel 1904-1905, tradotto in inglese e divenuto uno dei testi pi importanti nel campo della sociologia economica. La tesi fondamentale di tale opera che la mentalit protestante e la sua pratica abbiano fortemente influenzato la nascita dello spirito del capitalismo, inteso non come mero sentimento di avidit e arricchimento, ma come un complesso di elementi che associati in un determinato momento storico animano la costruzione di un nuovo modo di intendere l'attivit economica degli individui, in maniera libera da preconcetti.2 Nei Paesi Bassi, in Germania, in Francia, in Inghilterra, le idee riformate, luterane e calviniste, trovano il terreno fertile per conquistare la nobilt e la borghesia imprenditrice tracciando nuovi assetti e una nuova cultura che influenza in maniera significativa il rapporto dell'uomo con concetti quali lavoro e profitto. Affiora cos una nuova concezione della vita in cui prende corpo uno sviluppo capitalistico, alle cui origini Max Weber pone proprio la nascita di una diversa etica, quella protestante. Weber si interroga sulle ragioni per cui nei distretti pi avanzati economicamente si sono sviluppati simultaneamente espressioni favorevoli a una rivoluzione interna alla Chiesa. L'emancipazione del tradizionalismo economico costituisce dunque un fattore importante per dubitare della santit delle tradizioni religiose e della legittimit delle autorit. In tal senso, la Riforma protestante implica non l'eliminazione del controllo ecclesiastico dalla vita di tutti i giorni, ma la sua sostituzione con una nuova forma di controllo, pi tollerante ma allo stesso tempo pi stringente. La mediazione della Chiesa cattolica tra Dio e i fedeli viene infatti indebolita se non cancellata dal luteranesimo, per cui ogni credente diviene quasi il sacerdote di s stesso, o comunque acquista la possibilit di avere conoscenza diretta dei testi sacri. Allo stesso tempo, per, Lutero sostiene che nessun uomo possa pensare di arrivare fino a Dio unicamente con le sue poche forze. Anche grazie all'apporto dato da Calvino, la ricchezza diventa dunque uno dei segni visibili attraverso cui si manifesta la grazia divina. Il benessere generato dal lavoro acquista il valore di vocazione religiosa e pu essere interpretato dal credente come concreta espressione dell'aiuto e del supporto divino, quindi della sua fedelt e della sua predestinazione. Se nel medioevo cristiano, quantomeno in alcuni contesti ecclesiastici e monacali, la figura del povero ricorda la presenza di Cristo, e la miseria considerata uno strumento per acquisire meriti per il paradiso, secondo l'etica protestante rappresenta invece una punizione per espiare le proprie colpe terrene. Secondo Weber la concezione del lavoro dei cattolici e dei protestanti profondamente diversa: semplificando, mentre il cattolico celebra le funzioni sacre come la messa o comunque prega per ottenere qualcosa, il protestante ringrazia Dio per quello che ha gi ottenuto e lo onora per questo motivo, senza aspirare ad ottenere dei benefici, se non attraverso il proprio lavoro e le proprie opere. Mentre le chiese cattoliche manifestano ed esaltano la gloria di Dio nell'oro e nella ricchezza dei loro edifici e delle cerimonie, al contrario quelle calviniste e luterane si battono contro quella che ritengono una mera idolatria, e si presentano come severi, seppur magnifici, luoghi di culto costruiti soltanto per pregare. Nel protestantesimo, la fede del tutto separata dalle opere e cos nello spirito capitalistico il lavoro e la produzione sono valori morali a s che vengono separati da ogni risultato esterno.
per il progresso e, di conseguenza, hanno alimentato una voglia di cambiamento che va di pari passo con un maggiore slancio in termini di intraprendenza economica. M.Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, London, 1950, p.48. R.Bendix, Max Weber: an intellectual portrait, Berkeley, 1977; D.Cantoni, "The Economic Effects of the Protestant Reformation: Testing the Weber Hypothesis in the German Lands, 2009; H. Treiber (a cura di), Per leggere Max Weber, Padova, 1993; M. De Feo, Introduzione a Weber", Bari, 1970; L.Cavalli, "Max Weber: religione e societ, Bologna, 1968; F.Ferrarotti, Max Weber e il destino della ragione", Bari, 1965. Sulla critica a Weber: R.Tawney, La religione e la genesi del capitalismo, Milano,1967.
2 Nonostante tutto, sostiene Weber, il dogmatismo e la mancanza di discussione hanno rappresentato dei seri limiti
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Il lavoro di Weber ha chiaramente scatenato una lunga serie di reazioni, di commenti entusiastici e di dure critiche. Altre interpretazioni storiografiche, infatti, hanno ribattuto alle tesi del tedesco sostenendo che non affatto vero che il cattolicesimo sia estraneo allo spirito capitalistico, ma anzi che lo abbia incoraggiato per esempio all'interno dei comuni italiani, nelle cattoliche citt di Siviglia, Lisbona e Venezia e nel loro capitalismo commerciale, la cui crisi, dopo il 1492, dovuta allo spostamento dei traffici verso il Nuovo Mondo e non certo a cause religiose o relative all'etica. La nascita del capitalismo un soggetto di vivo interesse che nel tempo ha attirato l'attenzione dei pi noti e importanti studiosi, da Marx, il quale vede nella dissoluzione della societ feudale la liberazione degli elementi propri della societ capitalistica, a Henri Pirenne, che individua nella centralit del commercio e nell'attivit dei mercanti le origini e l'evoluzione del capitalismo. Hanno poi partecipato a tale dibattito Marc Dobb e molti altri autori quali Brenner, Postan, Parker, Hilton, Cooper, Sombart, Brentano, Se, Tawney, Topolski, Polany.3 Non essendo questa la sede per approfondire le diverse implicazioni del notissimo libro di Weber, n il dibattito storiografico a cui ha dato origine, importante invece sottolineare come all'interno di tale analisi trovi spazio anche lo studio delle condizioni delle minoranze, nazionali o religiose. Trovandosi in una posizione di subordinazione politica a un gruppo diverso, queste, in maniera volontaria o incoscientemente, vengono spinte con particolare forza nell'attivit economica. Il riconoscimento che viene loro a mancare dal punto di vista etnico o confessionale, viene invece ricercato attraverso le proprie abilit professionali. Weber cita a tale proposito numerosi esempi: i polacchi in Russia, gli ugonotti in Francia, gli anticonformisti e i quaccheri in Inghilterra e, last but not least, gli ebrei lungo la loro millenaria storia.4 Queste argomentazioni vengono riprese alcuni anni pi tardi da Werner Sombart, economista e sociologo che nel 1911 dedica una sua importante opera proprio agli ebrei e al loro ruolo nello sviluppo del capitalismo moderno. Quella di Sombart una analisi attenta che, anche a livello storico, porta numerosi esempi per cercare di comprendere la peculiarit ebraica e la ricchezza di tali comunit, per esempio citando numerose statistiche e documenti in cui si danno diverse spiegazioni di tale arricchimento: la capacit di adattarsi a situazione diverse, la compattezza e la solidariet interna al gruppo, la bravura nel reperire informazioni e tradurle in vantaggi concreti, la disponibilit a viaggiare e muoversi... Allo stesso tempo Sombart ricorda le difficolt incontrate dalle comunit ebraiche, per esempio nel riconoscimento dei loro diritti come cittadini, ricordando per esempio alcuni atti della legislazione prussiana del Settecento, che proibiscono loro l'esercizio di alcune professioni o la vendita ai non ebrei di carne, birra e alcolici.5
3 Naturalmente il confronto storico su tali tematiche si arricchito di numerose, pi o meno interessanti e originali, opere, fra cui se ne possono segnalare qui solo alcune. Cfr. H.Pirenne, Storia economica e sociale del Medioevo, Milano 1967; R.H.Tawney, La religione e l'origine del capitalismo, Milano, 1967; L.Brentano Le origini del capitalismo Firenze, 1954; J.Topolski, La nascita del capitalismo in Europa: crisi economica e accumulazione originaria fra 14. e 17. secolo, Torino, 1979. Per quanto riguarda il contributo di studiosi italiani, cfr. L.Pellicani, La genesi del capitalismo e le origini della modernit, Lungro di Cosenza, 2005; A.Fanfani. Cattolicesimo e protestantesimo nella formazione storica del capitalismo, Milano, 1940; O.Nuccio, Addio all'Etica protestante. Umanesimo civile ed individualismo economico nella letteratura italiana: da Albertano ad Alberti, Roma, 2003.
4 Cfr.M.Weber, op.cit., p.39. 5 W.Sombart, The Jews and Modern Capitalism, Kitchener, 2001, p.126; M.Appel, Werner Sombart: Historiker und Theoretiker des modernen Kapitalismus. Marburg, 1992; J.G.Backhaus, Jrgen G. (ed.) Werner Sombart (1863-1941): Social Scientist. 3 vols. Marburg, 1996; J.Z. Muller, The Mind and the Market: Capitalism in Western Thought, Nussbaum,, 2002; F.Louis, A History of the Economic Institutions of Modern Europe: An Introduction of 'Der Moderne Kapitalismus' of Werner Sombart. New York, 1933.
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Il rapporto fra sviluppo economico e appartenenza etnica, dunque, non un settore inesplorato o totalmente nuovo, ma pu gi vantare autorevoli studi e importanti contributi, come quelli gi citati. Tale relazione, tuttavia, si arricchisce di nuovi spunti se inserita nel pi complesso contesto dell'Europa orientale, dove da sempre una moltitudine di popoli, etnie, lingue e religioni convivono nelle stesse citt e nelle stesse regioni. In tali territori, le condizioni economiche hanno spesso comportato distinzioni non solo sociali, ma anche etniche e linguistiche, e queste differenze hanno svolto un ruolo fondamentale nelle strutturazione del quadro socio-economico dell'Europa centro-orientale. All'interno dell'Impero asburgico per esempio, i contrasti nazionali manifestati dalla popolazione ceca fin dai tempi di Jan Huss, hanno avuto una connotazione non solo religiosa, ma anche economica e, come detto, nazionale: la fede hussita e pi tardi quella protestante rappresentano per i cechi una parte importante del loro sentimento nazionale, che si esprime attraverso la definizione di una precisa identit, per l'appunto nazionale ma anche confessionale, e la difesa di alcune prerogative economiche. Il contrasto con le autorit asburgiche, che d origine alla Guerra dei Trent'Anni (1618-1648), racchiude tutti questi elementi e si conclude con la sconfitta dei cechi. La fedelt all'imperatore cattolico viene ricompensata con ricchi privilegi di natura economica e cos, dopo la celebre battaglia della Montagna Bianca (1620), viene favorita la penetrazione nelle terre ceche di proprietari cattolici, soprattutto tedeschi.6 Pi in generale, si pu sottolineare come nei domini asburgici l'elemento tedesco sia predominante e, pur con le dovute distinzioni a seconda dei tempi e delle aree geografiche, la Germanizzazione diventa quindi anche uno strumento di ascesa economica e di progresso sociale. La stessa logica pervade l'Ungheria, sia durante il periodo della Corona di Santo Stefano, sia dopo il 1867 e il compromesso dualista austro-ungarico. Prendendo in considerazione la multietnica Transilvania, molti studi hanno infatti sottolineato come per la consistente popolazione romena tralasciando ogni polemica sulla effettiva predominanza numerica di tale gruppo nella regione l'unico modo di guadagnare una posizione nelle gerarchie statali fosse quello di magiarizzarsi, come dimostra l'esperienza degli Hunyadi: tale famiglia di origine romena riesce infatti ad assumere un ruolo di grande importanza solo in tal modo, e arriva a dare all'Ungheria un condottiero di fama come Janos Hunyadi (Iancu di Hunedoara) e un sovrano come Mattia Corvino.7 Analogamente, nei Balcani sottoposti al dominio ottomano, le popolazioni slave vengono assoggettate da una ristretta cerchia di funzionari di fede musulmana. La conversione all'Islam diventa una conditio sine qua non per accedere a posti autorevoli all'interno della corte, dell'esercito o dell'amministrazione ottomana. Diventa cos possibile che i giovani dati alla Sublime Porta dalle famiglie cristiane come tributo di sangue, devirme, possano venire arruolati nell'esercito o fare carriera a palazzo, anche arrivando a posizioni molto influenti. All'interno dei domini ottomani, inoltre, vige il sistema del Millet, istituito dal sultano Maometto II dopo la conquista di Costantinopoli nel 1453. Grazie a tale sistema ogni comunit confessionale nonmusulmana gode non solo della libert religiosa, ma anche di una particolare autonomia che le consente di regolare i propri affari interni e, in alcuni casi, di auto-amministrarsi. Il Millet fa parte
6 Sulla struttura delle terre boeme e i rapporti tra cechi e tedeschi, cfr. H. Agnew, The Czechs and the Lands of Bohemian Crown, Stanford 2004, p. 184; I.L. Evans, Agrarian Reform in the Danubian Countries: II. Czechoslovakia, in The Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 8, No. 24 (Mar., 1930), pp. 601-611. 7 Figlio di Giovanni Hunyadi, Mattia Corvino (Kolozsvar 1440 - Vienna 1490) fu re di Ungheria fra il 1458 e il 1490. Dopo la morte di Ladislao VI fu acclamato re grazie alle ricchezze della sua casata. Combatt eroicamente contro i turchi (1463) e contro gli ussiti (1468) conquistando la Moravia, la Slesia e la Lusazia. Nel 1485 occup parte dellAustria. Tent anche di ottenere la corona imperiale ma gli fu preferito Massimiliano dAsburgo. Per uninteressante e completa opera sulla vita di Mattia Corvino, cfr. P.Kovacs, Mattia Corvino, traduzione italiana di J. Sarkozy, Cosenza 2000.
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dell'organizzazione ottomana e diventa lo strumento attraverso cui i cristiani e gli ebrei riescono a convivere pacificamente all'interno di uno Stato musulmano, pagando tale libert con una maggiore imposizione fiscale, che tuttavia non impedisce loro di arricchirsi ed esercitare una importante influenza proprio grazie alla loro, solitamente pi avanzata, posizione economica.8 Questa particolare struttura socio-economica interna ai grandi Imperi multinazionali crea nei secoli una realt complessa e composita, dove le disuguaglianze sociali diventano spesso sinonimo di diversit etnica. Il retaggio storico di tale realt si palesa in tutta la sua problematicit nell'Ottocento, soprattutto nei Balcani che vengono liberati dal dominio turco, ma ancor di pi dopo il 1918, al termine della prima guerra mondiale. in tale contesto, infatti, che il successo del principio di autodeterminazione nazionale si unisce a istanze di rinnovamento economico e sociale e una generale voglia di cambiamento che coinvolge non solo le lites ma anche le masse. Secondo i pi convinti sostenitori del nazionalismo, la liberazione dall'egemonia straniera non pu tradursi in una semplice indipendenza politica ma deve portare a una analoga emancipazione economica e alla soppressione di tutti i privilegi del passato. Il problema rappresentato dal fatto che tali privilegi si presentano e vengono spesso percepiti non come pertinenza di una classe sociale aristocratica, quindi come propriet acquisite in ragione del proprio grado di nobilt, bens come conseguenza di una precisa appartenenza etnica. La propriet immobiliare, per esempio, sovente nelle mani di grandi proprietari che appartengono esclusivamente a una popolazione: i magnati magiari di Transilvania, Rutenia e Slovacchia, i bey musulmani della BosniaErzegovina, i tedeschi della Slesia e della Poznania sono tutti esempi di gruppi etnici che in particolari regioni hanno sempre associato il loro dominio politico a una consolidata influenza economica.9 Si spiega cos la situazione di alcune aree, come la Bosnia, dove secondo le statistiche del 1910 I nobili musulmani (begovi, age, spahije) hanno nelle loro mani pi o meno i 3/5 delle terre coltivate, mentre I serbi appartengono quasi esclusivamente alla categoria dei coloni (kmetovi).10 Una situazione simile la pu riscontrare in alcune regioni polacche e in Transilvania, dove per secoli rimasto un vigore un sistema basato sullesistenza di tre nazioni storiche (magiara, sassone e seclera) e lesclusione della popolazione romena, ridotta a una condizione socio-economica di inferiorit e soggezione.11 Dopo il
8 Sul ruolo dei non-musulmani all'interno dell'Impero ottomano, cfr. M.H. van den Boogert, The capitulations and the Ottoman legal system: qadis, consuls, and beraths in the 18th century, Leiden, Brill 2005; M.H. van den Boogert-K. Fleet (eds.), The Ottoman capitulations: text and context, Rome, 2003; A.Biagini, Storia della Turchia contemporanea, Milano, 2002; G.Motta (a cura di), I Turchi, il Mediterraneo e l'Europa, Milano, 1998; K.Cragg, The Arab Christian. A History in the Middle East, Westminster, John Knox Press, 1991; K.Karpat, Ottoman population, 1830-1914: demographic and social characteristics, Madison, 1985. 9 Chiaramente, l'analisi economica delle strutture interne ai grandi Imperi, in Europa centro-orientale, non pu riassumersi in cos poche parole e risulta effettivamente molto complessa. In questa introduzione, tuttavia, appare importante soprattutto sottolineare come l'appartenenza etno-culturale abbia condizionato anche lo sviluppo economico di molte comunit. Pi in generale, comunque, cfr. J.R. Lampe-M.R. Jackson, Balkan economic history, 1550-1950: from imperial borderlands to developing Nations, Bloomington 1982; D. F. Good, The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire. 1750-1914, Berkeley 1984. infine necessario segnalare una opera imprescindibile per comprendere tale realt economica, cfr. A.Gerschenkron, Il problema storico dell'arretratezza economica, Torino, 1965; A. Gerschenkron, La continuit storica, teoria e storia economica, Torino, 1978. 10 R.J. Donia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. A Tradition Betrayed, London 1994, pp. 122-123; A. Filipic, La Jugoslavia economica, Milano 1922, p. 44. 11 La storiografia romena ha definito il sistema in vigore in Transilvania fin dalla costituzione dell'Unio trium natinum del 1438 come delle tre nazioni, evidenziando come siano state le tre nazioni magiara, sassone e seclera a dominare la vita politica ed economica della regione fino al 1918. I romeni, infatti, venivano messi su un piano di inferiorit ed erano principalmente dediti all'agricoltura. Nel quindicesimo secolo, d'altra parte, la situazione non era molto differente anche se le famiglie romene avevano comunque di partecipare alla vita politica del regno di
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1918, nella regione di Pomorze, i tedeschi possiedono 127,750 ettari di terra e costituiscono il 19.6% della popolazione, mentre i polacchi, pur rappresentando l'80.4 % della popolazione, possiedono solo 77,390 ettari. Nel distretto della Silesia di Gross-Wartenberg (noto anche come Polnisch Wartenberg, poi come Sycw) delle 5241 piccole propriet, appena 37 appartengono a polacchi.12 Invertendo la prospettiva, le popolazioni come i romeni di Transilvania, i polacchi sottoposti al dominio del Reich tedesco, i contadini slavi della Bosnia-Erzegovina si sono invece considerate come le vittime di una profonda ingiustizia e hanno interpretato la loro povert, o comunque il loro generalmente pi basso tenore di vita, come una conseguenza della loro appartenenza etnica, della loro religione o della loro lingua. Tale percezione ha spesso trovato modo di essere confermata attraverso lo studio della legislazione agraria interna ai grandi Imperi ed ha alimentato nei secoli una fortissima voglia di rivalsa e riscossa nazionale, che a sua volta ha portato a ulteriori attriti e anche discriminazioni nel periodo successivo al primo conflitto bellico. Come stato magistralmente sottolineato nel lavoro di T. Berend e G. Rnki, dopo il 1918 la risposta a questa problematica storica viene rinvenuta dagli Stati dell'Europa orientale in un crescente nazionalismo economico, fatto di protezionismo, barriere doganali e altre misure che cercano di invertire I legami che molte regioni avevano consolidato con il centro Europa, con Berlino, Vienna e Budapest. Viene al contrario esaltato il ruolo del capitale autoctono, non sempre in grado di guidare lo sviluppo postbellico di tali territori, con il risultato di aggravare l'opera di ricostruzione e di normalizzazione sul piano economico che gi Keynes aveva indicato come uno dei pi pesanti ostacoli verso la pacificazione dell'Europa.13 Le difficolt del periodo interbellico e la grande crisi del 1929 non possono che aggravare questa instabilit, che caratterizza tanto il quadro economico, quanto i rapporti fra gli Stati e i popoli dellEuropa centro-orientale.
Ungheria come fanno gli Hunyadi e la famiglia Drago. Nel suo libro dedicato a Dracula, Vlad III, Matei Cazacu descrive l'amministrazione della Transilvania sottolineando le possibilit che le elits romene avevano nella Transilvania meridionale, nei distretti di Hateg and Fgra. Cfr. D.Prodan, The Origins of Serfdom in Transylvania, in Slavic Review, Vol. 49, No. 1 (Spring, 1990), pp. 1-18; J.Held, The Peasant Revolt of Babolna 1437-1438, in Slavic Review, Vol. 36, No. 1 (Mar., 1977), pp. 25-38; R. W. Seton-Watson, Transylvania, in The Slavonic Review, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Dec., 1922), pp. 306-322; M.Cazacu, Dracula. La vera storia di Vlad l'impalatore, Milano, 2006; I.A. Pop, Romni i mahiarii n secolele IX-XIV. Geneza Statului medieval n Transilvania, Cluj 1996. 12 Tali dati provengono dal Memorandum on Pomorze, redatto dal diplomatico britannico Savery e inviato a Sir A.Henderson (Warsaw, June 14, 1929). Documents on British Foreign Policy, Series Ia, Vol.VII, doc.187. Per il distretto della Silesia, invece, cfr. Mmoire sur le maintien du district de Gross-Wartenberg au territoire allemande, Archivio storico dello Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito, Roma (Aussme), fondo E8, box 185, cartella 5. 13 Nel 1919 il delegato britannico John M.Keynes scrive un libro molto polemico in cui critica severamente la mancanza di una prospettiva di cooperazione economica nell'area dell'Europa orientale, dove, secondo Keynes, viene a mancare il ruolo svolto in passato da Russia e Germania. Cfr. J.M.Keynes, Le conseguenze economiche della pace, Milano 2007. Tale profezia verr presto confermata dalla crisi del 1929 e dall'ampia serie di politiche protezioniste che gli Stati europei approntano per difendere le loro deboli economie, creando tuttavia seri problemi allo sviluppo del commercio internazionale. I.T.Berend-G.Rnki, Lo sviluppo economico nellEuropa centro-orientale nel XIX e XX secolo, Bologna 1978, p. 241; M.C.Kaser (ed. by), The Economic History of Eastern Europe, 1 9I9-I975. Vol.
I: Economic Structure and Performance between the Two Wars. Vol. II: Interwar Policy, the War and Reconstruction, Oxford, I985; F.W.Moore, Economic Demography of Eastern and Souther Europe, Geneva 1945; I.Svennilson, Growth and Stagnation in the European Economy, Geneva 1954.
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Cost Management in Translation

Department of Linguistics & Foreign Languages, Payame Noor University, I.R. Iran
Mostafa Ghazanfari
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p161
Abstract Translation management is a modern approach toward translation industry in order to improve performance, quality and to reduce the use of resources such as human resources, cost and time. In this study, the main goal is to identify the standard cost management procedures and to apply cost management knowledge to translation studies. The study is based on Project Management Institute (PMI) standards which consist of 9 different management knowledge areas such as time, cost, procurement, quality, human resources, integration, communication, and risk management. The findings are expected to shed some light on cost management and its related issues in translation studies. Key words: translation studies, translation management, cost management, PMI
1. Introduction Translation project management is the solution to the new face of translation activities. People today can expect an organized set of works from translation agencies, which have an organizational structure based on modern project management. It is associated with planning, executing, controlling, and delivering a final translation to a client. There are many reasons to justify the focus on project management; the primary one is the nature of translation that is normally carried out as a project (Dunne & Dunne, 2011, p. 25). The Project Management Institute defines a standard framework for handling every project type. According to PMI (2008, p. 434), project is a sequence of unique, complex and connected activities having one goal to be completed by a specific date. Furthermore, PMI methodology consists of project management body of knowledge (PMBOK) that comes next in this thesis. PMBOK is a comprehensive project management standard that provides a generic management framework that can be applied to any industry (Dunne & Dunne, 2011, p. 92). Therefore, it can provide a theoretical model to apply project management elements to translation applied aids introduced earlier by Holmes (1972) and Pym (1998). PMBOK, in summary, includes management of cost, time, procurement, human resource, quality, risk, scope, and integration. Project Management Institute (PMI) offers PM frameworks that can be used in any industry like language industry. Project Management Body of Knowledge, PMBOK for short, was owned, prepared, and published by the PMI. This international and reliable guide offered five processes such as initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing (PMI 2008).
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Cost management is the process of managing the costs involved in translation project. The central aim is to provide the same value to customers at a lower cost or provision of a higher value at the same cost (Dutta, 2005, p. 29). Cost is an important factor for a product to be successful; as the technology matures, the real competition is almost based on cost or price. Therefore, cost management is being increasingly implemented in various steps of project life-cycle to eliminate the redundant costs of the project in order to gain higher productivity and competitive price. Translation project like any project deals with challenge of cost management. 2. Cost Management in Translation Mackay (2006, p. 101) elaborated the most common payment terms for translators in the United States where freelance translators will be paid within 30 days of invoice date or so-called Ne 30. Although these payment terms are far better than Net 60 or 90, as your cash flow is only a month behind your work flow; * it is still far from the online era. Nowadays, with the improvement in computer industry, everything tends to go online in order to gain access to more resources (human or economic). Therefore, payments with (at least) 30 days delay would not work in modern translation management approaches. European clients still pay in terms of Net60 or longer and this shows their lack of trust in the system or putting less value for translation. Anyhow, the best approach is to maximize translators chances of getting paid on time on the basis of a well-organized invoicing system which is called cost management tools. Cost management can print out invoices with pre-defined standards such as rate, word count, total amount and project description. It must also be remembered that a translation companys rates will always be higher than those of a freelance translator, simply because the company has all kinds of additional costs (i.e. sales, accounting, IT maintenance etc.) and overheads that the freelancer does not have. 3. Why Cost Management? Translation activity is a job of receiving and completing project offers. Some customers ask for the overall project cost at the beginning while others expect invoices at the end. Like SamuelssonBrown(2006, p. 121) described, as price pressure reigns it is invariably the translator who offers the lowest price who will be offered the job. While there are good translators who will accept low prices, the risk is that customers will accept lower prices from less experienced translators. Cost management can serve as an important role in creating competitive translation rates in order to decrease the impact of luxury translation elements. The customer should understand the value of quality in translation and respect a reasonable higher translation price offered from translators with more experience. Moreover, in the current competitive market where the range of translators is from freelancers to employees of translation agencies, cost management can help beginners to survive. Also, many translation projects happen to experience possible overruns in the event that one or more tasks cost more than expected (Dunne & Dunne, 2011, p. 81). Therefore, cost management is a proper way to keep things under control while translating different projects. 4. Cost Management Processes Cost management in translation as the name implies deals with the costs and budgets of a translation project. According to Kim Heldman (2011, p.47) this knowledge area consists of three processes as follow:
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Table 1. Project cost management processes
Many project managers paid costs when creating their budget to cushion against possible overruns in the event that some of the tasks cost more than expected (K.J & S.E. Dunne, 2011, p.81). Therefore managing the project cost is so important that it may affect the overall quality of a translation project. Dunnes continues that current approaches to budgeting the translation and localization projects are problematic. Standard project management budgeting contains not only the aggregated costs but also includes the contingency and management reserves. Wysocki (2004, p.42) named four project management processes included in project cost management as follow: Resource planning: Unlike Heldens notes in table 6, this step is added by Wysocki and refers to resources required to complete the work of the project. However this definition is vague and ad hoc, the resources required in a translation project normally consist of time, cost, human resources (translators). Therefore resource planning is also applicable to defining responsibilities where managers decide to give the available translators a new project based on the available resources. In OTM system this step is automated and the required resources are listed for the translators and clients. - Cost estimating: This is driven by the resource planning process. Translation manager sets cost estimation in the same way as has been done for the time estimation of the project. It is normally based on the standard or localized and pre-defined costing tables where sometimes the overall cost of a translation project is the word counts. - Cost budgeting: This is another process in project cost management which deals with the various project tasks and the money required for them. Translation manager will set a different budget for the glossary making or editing phase. - Cost control: As its name says, it is about controlling the overall cost of the project where there are many changes in the cost of project tasks throughout the life cycle of the translation project. These changes should be controlled and passed from a logical standard that allows overflow for the task cost in a project event. 5. Translation Cost Evaluations Robinson(2003, p. 17) elaborated that above all cost controls virtually all translation. Take for instance, a transaltion which is too expensive for the customer will not be done, while on the other hand a translation which is too cheap for the translator may not get done either. Therefore, cost evaluation is necessary to approve that the defined price tag for a translation project is fair to everyone included. 6. Cost Management in Action Translation cost is measured on the basis of different factors. According to Gouadec (2007, p. 203), the basis for calculating translation costs and rates is usually around counts inherited from the days of the
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printing industry, including: - number of words, - number of signs, - number of standard or real pages (as opposed to physical pages, which may not be full pages) on the basis of 250 or 300 words per page which amounts to a fine rate per word. The standard implicitly adopted by the English and American translation industry is 250 words per page (25 6.5 inch lines, with double spacing, and pica 10 font), a throwback to the printing and typing era (Gouadec, 2007, p. 203). Differences in counts are also applied to line length, which may depend on paper format and standard margin denitions. Some of these standard definitions are as follows: - number of standard lines based on 60 characters per line the standard reference in Belgium, for instance, - number of standard sheets (25 lines of 60 characters each, i.e. 1500 signs the standard reference in the publishing industry or 30 lines of 60 characters each, i.e. 1800 signs). However, the count may also include items such as: subtitles, menu lines, lines of code, - minutes of dialogue unless the calculation is based on a transcript and therefore on the number of words, - reels, - items (translation of legends, tables, lists, etc.), - bits (used in software localization), - and also people who count by jobs, hours or days. There is no pre-defined standard to inscribe it on all translation/localization projects for the purpose of word-counting. Word-count norms are different from one another. Very different vocabularies are used in different genres of translation such as technical translation and literary translation. Therefore tariffs for these categories are often open to discussion and negotiation. According to Gouadec(2007, p. 202), one method of calculation is based on source material volume, irrespective of the source language. Therefore, the number of items is multiplied by the at rate per item. This is referred to as source unit calculation. It makes it easier for the work provider to know where he stands. Another method known as target unit calculation consists in basing the calculation on the translated volume, irrespective of language. The term expansion ratio refers to the difference in the number of words between the target and the source text and the translator needs to take it into account. Languages such as Persian are typically good examples of increase in the number of words in translation. Although Persian or French languages are known as poetic languages and more words are used in their texts, serious research has shown that the number of words can vary according to the translators professional capacity. Gouadec also commented that work providers are often worried about translators who deliberately spin out their translation as much as possible. So, the best method is to agree on a pro rata calculation applied to the source word count. These days, the method of multiplying the average number of words per line by the average number of lines per page, then multiplying the result by the number of pages is no more functional for modern translation industry. These different methods of word counts lead to a discussion on the merits of this or that application, from the translators or the clients point of view. The idea of counting any signs in the page is sometimes boring in the minds of professional translators, because it gets in the way of the real job which is creating a remarkable equivalent experience for the target readers. The value of
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translation is measured by its feeling, consistency, discipline, and beauty not the actual number of words and signs. 7. Project economics Project economics is a term to address the budgeting of the translation project. According to Gouadec (2007, p. 81) in most translation projects, the payment and budget follows an early contract between the work provider and the translator thus the translators financial liability is limited to the invoice total. The budgeting in traditional translation project management was doomed to the blind contract or word counts of the translation product. In blind contract between the customer and the translator, an estimated range of cost and time is set, while the translated product may take more or less time and cost at the end. On the other hand, the word-count method was also an amateur approach, where sometimes the translators over-translate a project to achieve more payment. There is no pre-defined costing recipe for all translation projects as it is determined by the structure and uniqueness of each project (Harkness, Behr, & Lui, 2010). Project economics which is not limited to the budgeting line of translation project, also includes other factors such as outsourcing, automatic cost measurement, and translators payment. Before investigating these terms, a translation project needs a work out plan for its commercial policy and strategy in order to know its potential finance and to provide a platform for future advertising campaigns (Gouadec, 2007) : - Define tariffs and a billing policy: It refers to the policy that affects the companys future cash flow. Although defining a preset standard billing and tariffs policy looks like a tidy and managed decision, the uniqueness of translation projects is way far from setting preset tariffs for every project type. Some projects require additional costs and human resources and the uncertainty of a translation project avoids it, while it is actually against democratic standards of a project. - Determine the resources required: This refers to allocation of resources in a translation project which consist of translators, technical writers, editors, proofers, translation manager, computer sources, and premises. This idea is about forecasting the required resources appropriate for a translation project, while it is not an objective approach. It is also counted as a manager task to decide the resource requirements. Thereafter, it may include underestimation and overestimation of project resources which are types of a blind estimation and against the free and online selection of resources. - Choose the premises with utmost care: It is about careful estimation of budgeting through a translation project, in order to avoid blind estimation of costs, additional charges, taxes, insurance, energy etc. Incorrect estimation of required project budget may ruin the agencys image and dissuade the customers from future contracts. - Work out the financial projections: Financial projections refer to income on the one hand and estimated costs on the other. These projections report financial sustainability of the project. The payment rate in translation management is fully subjective and it depends completely on the contract between the customer and translator(s). Software products such as Projetex or TOM provide many features related to the financial cycle of a project and assist the translator or manager to add an invoice for a project, while the customer should pay the invoice before the translation project starts. There are some modules like AnyCount or CATCount to assist the translator to find the word counts and a close estimation of project cost.
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Work out the operating charges: Operating charges in a translation project may include purchases, external services, taxes, staff costs, financial charges, and depreciation. Calculation of operation charges in a translation project can vary according to the following factors: - Work out how to finance investment: Initial sources of investment for a translator may be few, but in most cases it would be enough for a startup. These sources may include subscriber shares, funds from family and friends, governmental grants, banks or other sorts of loans. Therefore, either the translators decide what share of the workload they can take on and nd out what share of the cake they can get, or they decide what share of the cake they want and what cost will have to be paid in terms of investment, training or retraining (Gouadec, 2007, p. 120). - Complete all the legal formalities: This process is not directly related to the payment system or finance of the project, but it is a permission to do business. Legal forms like registration of translation organization permit the company to receive offers and continue its business in legal terms. It results in higher confidence from the customer as they know the organization is authorized by the government. Further to above discussion, there is no set system or rule currently in place in order to be used to produce word counts and it is the main reason why a customer gets different project invoices from different translation agencies. The tools for these agencies are internal and private, while this unclear state of price tagging may affect the customers mind, as they may think most of these prices are unfair. Moreover, if a translator produces a cheaper invoice, then the customer might think of it as translation with lower quality. From usual Word Count tools like MS Word to technical tools such as Trados, it is hard to generate a similar result, for these tools have their own methods of counting. As an example in MS Word, the software will not count the boxes, tables, and figures, thus it ends in a lower count. Other tools ignore items like embedded objects, headers, symbols and tags. On average, MS Word produces the lowest word count compared to Trados and Wordfast. Wordfast and PractiCount and Invoice produce higher word counts (Bologna, 2010). Table 2 Specifications of Word Count tools (adopted from WinTranslation)
Economics of translation project is not limited to setting invoices, other branches like online payments for customers and staff members are also valuable to a project management system. The idea that a customer needs to go to the bank in order to pay the project cost is ridiculous. This method of payment is ancient and out of sync, while it takes time and imposes much more cost on the system. Today, the money transaction is the easiest and fastest part of the project. Online banking and online payments assist project handlers to manage project costs with ease and speed. Costing process in translation projects regularly depends on the terms of payments which are agreed in advance. A mutual understanding of pricing structure must have been confirmed by the
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customer and translator(s), before the project is actually started. Some companies send proper invoice to the customer after the initial analysis of translation project and expect a full payment of the project, as it is an obligation for any further progress (Samuelsson-Brown, 2006, p. 77) . The invoice payment in translation management and freelancing are at opposite ends of the scale, for in the latter the payment is after the project completion. The difference is not only in the time of the payment, but it implies the reliability of project management system in the customers minds. When a translation project is offered to a freelancer, they reach an agreement on the pricing method but the freelancer will be paid after the translation is done and checked by the customer. Therefore, there is no pay back insurance for both the freelancers and customers. Back to management system the paid invoice may not be normally withheld or returned to customers, as the group of translation is working on the project, and the project cancelation will not be tolerated by the system. Moreover to this challenge, in modern translation management systems, freelancers and translation groups can bid for a project on which they can set a custom payment, and the customer on the other side is free to choose the best price among the ready translators bids. There is no convincing evidence that democracy can have a noticeable impact on the economies of societies. While, on the other side, countries like China, Singapore, and South Korea often claim that nondemocratic systems are better at economic growth. The idea that imperialism is the only and affective reason for these countries to have a growing economy, is subjective and with no convincing study. What is clear about democracy and the wealth growth in countries is that a friendly economic climate generates faster economic growth rather than a harsher political system (Sen, 1999). The economic growth in nondemocratic environment is more about harsh authorization and hardworking rather than an open market with equity in its members. Back to translation management, the change from a self-managing and freelancing into participating in a free and open management system mostly results in economic growth along with friendly workplace. 8. Conclusion Different people have different opinions toward translation management powered by software products. They question the reasons for using these products in translation project cycle. To be fair, they have the full right to ask for the causes and effects before they are assured in order to change their work structure. Similarly, many translators are not good with computers and online work environments, thus they need convincing answers before anyone can expect them to use any translation management product. Cost management as a sub utility of a bigger picture named translation project management, can offer a systematic and comprehensive management procedure that surely affects the way everyone treats translation. Translation is not a hobby anymore and it should be taken seriously as a profession where the exchange rates and project costs are measured based on pre-defined translation standards. The cost policy will be clear to the customer and it helps translators to avoid committing over-translations or any other unethical actions. The management of translation costs can keep the translation quality high as it increases the productivity and profitability of translation works. Works Cited
Bologna, S. (2010). Translation Word Count - Why do Word Counts Vary from Agency to Agency? Retrieved Sept 30, 2012, from WinTranslation: http://www.wintranslation.com/articles/ translationarticles/translation-word-counts/ Dunne, K. J., & Dunne, E. S. (2011). Translation and Localization Project Management: The Art of the Possible. John Benjamins Publishing. Dutta, M. (2005). Cost Accounting: Principles And Practice. Pearson Education India.
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Gouadec, D. (2007). Translation As a Profession. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Harkness, J., Behr, D., & Lui, A. (2010, Sept 9). Translation: Translation Management and Budgeting. Retrieved Oct 1, 2012, from Cross-Cultural Survey Guidelines: http://ccsg.isr.umich.edu/ trans_budg.cfm McKay, C. (2006). how to succeed as a freelance translator. Lulu.com. PMI. (2008). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK guide). Pennsylvania: Project Management Institute, Inc. Samuelsson-Brown, G. (2006). Managing Translation Services. Multilingual Matters Publishing. Sen, A. (1999). Democracy as a Universal Value. Journal of Democracy.
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An Evaluation of Students Perspectives on the Teaching and Learning of Property Investment Valuation in a Nigerian University
Namnso Bassey Udoekanem1
Department of Estate Management and Valuation Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria E mail: namnsoudoekanem@futminna.edu.ng Tel: +2348023741703
David Odegwu Adoga

Department of Estate Management and Valuation Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
Shien Stephen Kuma

Department of Estate Management and Valuation Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p169
Abstract This paper evaluates students perspectives on the teaching and learning of property investment valuation through an empirical study of 84 graduating real estate students in a Nigerian university selected through purposive sampling technique. It was found that the students overall level of understanding of the basic topics in property investment valuation was highest in the definition of property investments and lowest in hedonic modelling of property investment values. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) in the level of understanding of the basic topics in property investment valuation between the male and female respondents produced an F-ratio of 0.53 at p-value greater than 0.05. The respondents strongly agreed that practical exercises in the field will facilitate understanding of property investment valuation. They also agreed that lecturers with practical experience teach property investment valuation better and that property investment valuation should be taught together with valuation of financial assets. The paper concludes that there is need for practical-based property investment valuation curriculum at the university level in Nigeria in which property investment valuation is taught within the context of comparative investment appraisal. Keywords: Property Investment Valuation; Teaching; Learning; Students; University; Nigeria
1. Introduction Property investments are those real properties which are expected to produce benefits in the form of direct monetary return (Ifediora, 1993). They are properties which are income-yielding and as such produce an income-flow (Millington, 1982) or are acquired purely as an investment (Hargitay and Yu,
Corresponding Author
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1993; Baum and Crosby, 1995; Ajayi, 1998; Hoesli and Macgregor, 2000). According to Wyatt (2007), property investments comprise those properties which are held as investments, where the ownership interest is separate from the occupation interest. He further argued that in the valuation of property investment, the valuer will capitalise the rental income produced by the property at an appropriate investment yield using the investment method of valuation. This exercise is generally known as property investment valuation (Enever, 1986; Baum and Mackmin, 1989; Baum and Crosby, 1995; Ajayi, 1998, Udo, 2003; Wyatt, 2007; Jefferies, 2010). Property investment valuation involves the estimation of the future benefits to be enjoyed by the owner of a freehold or leasehold interest in land or property, expressing those future benefits in terms of present worth (Baum and Mackmin, 1989). It has also been viewed as the prediction of the most likely selling price of a property, to distinguish it from property investment analysis, which is the estimation of investment worth, all of which constitute the totality of property investment appraisal (Baum and Crosby, 1995). The underlying principle of property investment valuation is to discount net economic benefits from a property investment over its predicted life at a specified rate of return or discount rate (Wyatt, 2007). Basically, this requires the estimation of two major parameters. These parameters are the rental value and the capitalisation rate applied to the current and projected cash flows (Sykes, 1983). In terms of value, property investment represents the most significant investment class and constitutes nearly one-half of the wealth in the world (Karakozova, 2005). As concluded by Corgel, Smith and Ling (2000), property investment comprises 49% or $21.41 trillion of the worlds wealth ($44 trillion) whereas stocks and bonds comprise 25.5% and 18.8% respectively. Also, it has been found that property investment has high diversification benefits in the portfolio of local and international investors due to its low correlation with the returns of other investment vehicles in the investment market (Grubel 1968; Solnik and Boucrelle 1996; Longin and Solnik, 2001; Boon and Higgins, 2007). In Nigeria, the valuation of property investment may be required for several purposes and such exercise is a function of the property valuer. Given the role of property investment in the portfolio of investors globally, it is necessary to pay greater attention on the training of valuers. This will enhance the development of creative, innovative and practically-competent human resources for the impeccable valuation of property investments in the country. 2. Development of Property Investment Valuation Thought Before 1960, property investment valuation was solely based on the logic of the conventional technique which relies on some assumptions that there is no growth in future rental value over present rental value; that rents are fixed on long leases without review; and that the capitalisation rate used in the valuation is the internal rate of return expected from the investment. These assumptions have been found to be logical only during the pre-reverse yield gap and were based on the perception of property investors during the period (Baum and Crosby, 1995). The appearance of the reverse yield gap witnessed some changes in the property market, resulting also in the change of expectations of real property investors. These affected the conventional valuation technique, resulting in some adjustments to the approach. Baum and Crosby (1995) also showed that conventional valuation technique for rack rented freeholds, reversionary freeholds and leaseholds involved a single rate calculation where the freehold in perpetuity is the maximum value and the values of the reversionary interest and the leasehold interest summate to a total which equals the whole, such that the sum of the two equals the total value of the freehold in perpetuity. This basis gradually changed to the use of more than one remunerative rate of interest in the valuation of reversionary freehold and dual rate, and later tax adjusted dual rate valuation for leaseholds. Findings from empirical studies on property investment valuation techniques in the past three decades or so have revealed that the basis of conventional valuation technique was logical only before the
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appearance of the reverse yield gap, prior to the advent of inflation in the property market (Wood, 1972; Greaves, 1972; Marshall, 1976; Sykes, 1981; Crosby, 1986; Udo, 1989 and Ajayi, 1998). The advent of inflation in the property market brought with it some attendant effects on property investors. This made it necessary for the appraisal of property investments to be in comparison with alternative investment vehicles in the investment market. The existence of inflation in the investment market had initially brought out the inherent qualities between inflation prone investments producing inflationprone return and inflation proof investments producing inflation-proof return. In the property market, the effect of inflation gradually resulted in the introduction of rent reviews, a problem which could not be handled by the traditional property investment valuation models. These among other issues, necessitated research into investment valuation techniques appropriate for the valuation of property investments in times of inflation. Methods of property investment valuation which explicitly consider prospective future income flow generated by property investment, including rental and capital growth of the investment to reflect the treatment of future value changes due to the effect of inflation on the income flow, and which appraise property investment comparatively with other investment vehicles available in the investment market were proposed. These proposals resulted in the emergence of contemporary valuation techniques. Thus in the teaching and learning of property investment valuation in recent times, two major techniques have emerged namely, the conventional and contemporary valuation techniques. The strongest criticisms of the conventional valuation technique are that it fails to specify explicitly the income flows and patterns assumed by the valuer, and that it applies growth implicit all risks yield to fixed contracted tranches of income (Baum and Mackmin, 1989). Contemporary valuation techniques are based on the underlying assumptions that there is growth in future rental over present rental values; that rents are not fixed, but are reviewed at periodic intervals (review dates) and that the capitalisation rate depends on the preconceived level of growth in the future. Crosby, 1986; Baum and Crosby, 1995; Ajayi, 1998; Udo, 2003; Wyatt, 2007). On this basis, this paper seeks to evaluate students perspectives on the teaching and learning of property investment valuation in a typical Nigerian University with a view to illuminating critical areas requiring further improvement in the training of valuers for the valuation of property investments in the country. 3. Methodology and Data Data for the study were obtained through structured questionnaires. A total of 131 structured questionnaires were administered to 500-level Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech) Degree students in the Department of Estate Management , Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria, selected through purposive sampling technique, out of which 84 were properly completed and returned, representing a response rate of 64%.These students were selected because they have been taught property investment valuation as a course at various levels for about four academic sessions. Data collected for the study include the demographic characteristics of the respondents as presented in Table1, respondents opinions regarding their level of understanding of the basic topics in property investment valuation as well as their opinions on the teaching and learning of property investment valuation in the University as presented in Tables 2 and 3 respectively, among others. A 5-point Likert scale was used to determine the mean of the respondents responses for each of the opinions. The respondents opinions regarding their level of understanding of the basic topics in property investment valuation were analysed to determine their overall level of understanding. The points attached to the respondents level of understanding are: Very Good (5); Good (4); Fair (3); Poor (2) and Very Poor (1). Also, their opinions on the teaching and learning of property investment valuation in the University were analysed to determine their consensus opinion and rank based on the respondents mean response and Relative Importance Index (RII) respectively. Similarly, the weights attached to the respondents
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opinions on the teaching and learning of property investment valuation in the University are: Strongly Agree (5); Agree (4); Undecided (3); Disagree (2) and strongly Disagree (1). In the ranking of the opinions, the opinion with the highest RII was ranked first while the one with the lowest RII was ranked last. A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether differences in the level of understanding of the basic topics in property investment valuation between the male and female respondents are significant statistically while the Spearmans Rank-Order Correlation Model was used to determine whether the male and female respondents under study relate significantly in their opinions regarding the teaching and learning of property investment valuation in the University. Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents
Characteristics Gender Female Male Total Age Group 21 25 years 26 30 years 31 35 years Total Marital Status Married Single Total Frequency 38(45.2%) 46(54.8%) 84(100%) 58(69.0%) 24(28.6%) 2(2.4%) 84(100%) 6(7.1%) 78(92.9%) 84(100%)
Source: Authors Field Survey

Table 2: Respondents Responses on their Level of Understanding of the Basic Topics in Property Investment Valuation
Level of Understanding Basic Topics Very Good M F All 19 11 30 13 6 19 15 8 23 17 16 33 2 2 4 7 1 8 Good F 24 27 24 20 12 13 All 48 58 45 42 26 24 M 3 2 10 7 25 19 Fair F 2 5 5 1 18 21 All 5 7 15 8 43 40 M 1 5 Poor F 4 2 All M 5 7 15 4 5 6 6 Very Poor F All 1 1 2 1 2 1 -
M Definition of property investment 24 Classification of property investments 31 Characteristics of property investments 21 The property market 22 Property market cycles 14 Mathematics of property investment valuation 11 Construction of property investment valuation 7 3 10 8 tables Determination of net income of real properties 10 4 14 18 The Years Purchase as an Income 11 4 15 19 Capitalisation Factor Theory of property yields 8 3 11 14 Conventional leasehold valuation 7 4 11 19
8 16 20 20 40 10 5 17 35 15 14 29 2 18 37 12 12 24 3 15 29 22 14 36 2 10 29 18 18 36 2 2 2 4 4
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Conventional freehold valuation 7 3 10 21 13 34 17 16 33 - 4 4 - Marriage Valuation 4 2 6 11 14 25 15 7 22 14 6 20 1 6 7 Statistical techniques in property investment 6 2 8 9 11 20 23 16 39 6 5 11 - 1 1 valuation Equated yield technique 3 2 5 14 16 30 19 14 33 6 6 12 1 1 Real value approach 4 1 5 15 12 27 18 14 32 9 9 18 - 1 1 Explicit DCF technique 5 1 6 9 12 21 16 15 31 7 6 13 3 3 6 Contemporary leasehold valuation 4 2 6 14 15 29 24 15 39 3 6 9 - Contemporary freehold valuation 5 1 6 12 18 30 24 12 36 2 7 9 1 1 Hedonic modelling of property investment 3 1 4 4 4 8 16 11 27 12 13 25 5 6 11 values Depreciation of property investments 6 4 10 20 21 41 16 10 26 4 2 6 - Computer applications in property investment 5 6 11 11 7 18 14 11 25 8 9 17 4 3 7 valuation Note: M= Male Respondents Responses; F= Female Respondents Responses; All= Responses of all Respondents
Source: Field Survey (2010)
Table 3: Respondents Opinions on the Teaching and Learning of Property Investment Valuation in the University
Opinion Property investment valuation is an aspect of financial mathematics and should be taught using mathematical teaching methods Quantitative skills are necessary for solving property investment valuation problems Practical exercises in the field will facilitate understanding of property investment valuation Most examples in property investment valuation given by lecturers in the classroom are abstract Property investment valuation is difficult to understand Lecturers with practical experience teach property investment valuation better Computer software should be used in the teaching of property investment valuation Students should be given real live problems in property investment valuation to solve in the classroom Only lecturers with a minimum of Masters degree and professional qualifications should teach property investment valuation Property investment valuation should be taught together with valuation of stocks and shares Respondents Responses Strongly Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Agree Disagree M F All M F All M F All M F All M F All 16 6 22 27 25 52 3 17 10 27 22 26 48 6 34 31 65 10 5 15 2 15 14 29 21 19 40 5 4 2 6 11 9 20 3 6 2 2 1 5 3 9 8 4 6 1 3 1 3 1 1 6 1 1 1 2 5 1 2 2
8 22 21 43 4 3 1 1 3 4 1 1 1 5 5 1 2 2
29 18 47 14 16 30 23 19 42 12 10 22 9 28 19 47 15 14 29 3 20 22 42 14 9 23 6 15 10 25 21 17 38 5
9 18 1 4 7 -
4 10 2 7 12 1
Note: M= Male Respondents Responses; F= Female Respondents Responses; All= Responses of all Respondents
Source: Field Survey (2010)
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4. Results and Discussion The respondents performed better in understanding the property market and in the definition of property investment than in any other topic based on the mean of the respondents responses on their level of understanding of the basic topics in property investment valuation as presented in Table 4. Also, the respondents overall level of understanding was lowest in hedonic modelling of property investment values than in any other topic. Respondents strongly agreed that practical exercises in the field will facilitate understanding of property investment valuation. This opinion was ranked first by the respondents with a RII of 0.95 as presented in Table 5. Similarly, respondents also agreed that lecturers with practical experience teach property investment valuation better. This opinion was ranked second by the respondents with a RII of 0.90. In terms of the consensus opinion, the respondents agreed on all the opinions, but were undecided on the opinion that property investment valuation is difficult to understand. This opinion was ranked last by the respondents with a RII of 0.55. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) in the level of understanding of the basic topics in property investment valuation between the male and female respondents produced an F-ratio of 0.53 at p-value greater than 0.05 as presented in Table 6. This implies that although there are differences in the level of understanding of the basic topics in property investment valuation between the male and female respondents, such differences are not significant statistically. The correlation analysis of opinions of male and female respondents regarding the teaching and learning of property investment valuation in the University produced a strong positive correlation coefficient of 0.81 at p-value less than 0.05. This was found to be significant at both 0.05 and 0.01 levels as the p-value is 0.0049 (2-tailed) as presented in Table 7. The implication of this is that, the male and female respondents under study relate significantly in their opinions regarding the teaching and learning of property investment valuation in the University. Table 4: Respondents Overall Level of Understanding of the Basic Topics in Property Investment Valuation
Basic Topics Definition of property investment Classification of property investments Characteristics of property investments The property market Property market cycles Mathematics of property investment valuation Construction of property investment valuation tables Determination of net income of real properties The Years Purchase as an Income Capitalisation Factor Theory of property yields Conventional leasehold valuation Conventional freehold valuation Marriage Valuation Statistical techniques in property investment valuation Equated yield technique Real value approach Explicit DCF technique Contemporary leasehold valuation Contemporary freehold valuation Male 4.35 4.24 4.11 4.22 3.40 3.17 3.27 3.80 3.84 3.61 3.67 3.78 3.04 3.34 3.28 3.30 3.15 3.42 3.41 Mean Female 4.24 4.03 4.08 4.41 3.27 3.35 3.13 3.62 3.59 3.47 3.39 3.42 3.00 3.23 3.37 3.08 3.05 3.34 3.34 All 4.30 4.14 4.10 4.30 3.34 3.42 3.20 3.72 3.73 3.55 3.55 3.62 3.04 3.29 3.32 3.20 3.10 3.39 3.38
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Source: Computed from Data in Table 2
Hedonic modelling of property investment values Depreciation of property investments Computer applications in property investment valuation
2.70 3.61 3.12
2.46 3.73 3.11
2.59 3.66 3.12
Table 5: Respondents Consensus Opinion on the Teaching and Learning of Property Investment Valuation in the University
Opinion Property investment valuation is an aspect of financial mathematics and should be taught using mathematical teaching methods Quantitative skills are necessary for solving property investment valuation problems Practical exercises in the field will facilitate understanding of property investment valuation Most examples in property investment valuation given by lecturers in the classroom are abstract Property investment valuation is difficult to understand Lecturers with practical experience teach property investment valuation better Computer software should be used in the teaching of property investment valuation Students should be given real live problems in property investment valuation to solve in the classroom Only lecturers with a minimum of Masters degree and professional qualifications should teach property investment valuation Property investment valuation should be taught together with valuation of stocks and shares Mean Male 4.28 Female 3.95 All 4.13 Respondents Consensus Opinion Agree Relative Importance Index 0.83 Rank
4.20 4.70 4.02 2.75 4.53 4.27 4.54
4.21 4.76 4.11 2.74 4.41 4.26 4.34
4.20 4.73 4.06 2.74 4.48 4.27 4.45
Agree Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Agree Agree Agree
0.84 0.95 0.81 0.55 0.90 0.85 0.89
5 1 8 10 2 4 3
4.09
4.32
4.20
Agree
0.84
4.05
3.87
3.96
Agree
0.79

Table 6: Result of the Analysis of Variance in the level of understanding of the basic topics in property investment valuation between the male and female respondents under study
Source of variation Groups Residual Total Sum squares 0.102 8.113 8.215 DF 1 42 43 Mean square 0.102 0.193 F statistic 0.53 p 0.4712
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Table 7: Result of correlation analysis of opinions of male and female respondents regarding the teaching and learning of property investment valuation in the University
rs statistic 95% CI t statistic DF 2-tailed p 0.81 0.36 3.85 8 0.0049
to 0.95

6. Findings Most of the basic topics in property investment valuation in which the students overall level of understanding is good are aspects of the conventional techniques of property investment valuation. However, the students overall level of understanding is low in basic topics which are aspects of the contemporary techniques of property investment valuation and lowest in hedonic modelling of property investment values. Majority of the students strongly hold the opinion that practical exercises in the field will facilitate understanding of property investment valuation. Furthermore, other opinions agreed by the students are that property investment valuation is an aspect of financial mathematics and should be taught using mathematical teaching methods, most examples in property investment valuation given by lecturers in the classroom are abstract, lecturers with practical experience teach property investment valuation better, computer software should be used in the teaching of property investment valuation, students should be given real live problems in property investment valuation to solve in the classroom, only lecturers with a minimum of Masters degree and professional qualifications should teach property investment valuation, and property investment valuation should be taught together with valuation of stocks and shares. However, the students were undecided on the opinion that property investment valuation is difficult to understand. Although there are differences in the level of understanding of the basic topics in property investment valuation between the male and female students, such differences are not significant statistically. 7. Conclusion Based on the findings of the study, there is need for practical-based property investment valuation curriculum at the university level in Nigeria, in which property investment valuation is taught together with valuation of financial assets. This is necessary for the development of skills in comparative investment appraisal and the training of property valuers as investment specialists. Current global trend is that property investment is treated as part of the wider investment community, not in isolation. The implication of this is that, greater emphasis should be made on the teaching of topics which constitute contemporary techniques of property investment valuation, in which property investments are appraised comparatively with alternative investments in the investment market, coupled with real time problembased learning. References
Ajayi, C.A. (1998). Property Investment Valuation and Analysis. Ibadan: De-Ayo Publishers.
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Baum, A. and Crosby, N. (1995). Property Investment Appraisal (2e). London: International Thomson Business Press. Baum, A. and Mackmin, D. (1989). The Income Approach to Property Valuation (3e). London: Routledge. Boon, F.N. and Higgins, D. (2007). Modelling the Commercial Property Market: An Empirical Study of the Singapore Office Market. Pacific Rim Property Research Journal. 13(2): 176 193. Corgel, J.B.; Smith, H.C. and Ling, D. H. (2000). Real Estate Perspectives: An Introduction to Real Estate (4e). New York: McGraw-Hill Crosby, N. (1986). Application of Equated Yield and Real value Approaches to Market Valuation. Journal of Valuation 4: 158-69, 261- 74. Enever, N. (1986). The Valuation of Property Investments (3e). London: Estates Gazette. Greaves, M.J. (1972). The Investment Method of Property Valuation and Analysis: An Examination of some of its problems .PhD Thesis. Department of Land Management, University of Reading Grubel, H .G. (1968) .Internationally Diversified Portfolios: Welfare gains and Capital Flows. American Economic Review .58 (5): 12 - 99. Hargitay, S.E. and Yu, S.M. (1993). Property Investment Decisions: A Quantitative Approach. London: E & F.N Spon. Hoesli, M. and MacGregor, B. (2000). Property Investment: Principles and Practice of Portfolio Management. London: Pearson Education Ltd. Ifediora, G.S.A. (1993). Appraisal Framework. Enugu: Iwuba Ifediora and Associates. Jefferies, R. (2010). Real Value Valuation for Property in the 21st Century? A Comparison of Conventional and Real Value Models. Pacific Rim Property Research Journal .16 (4): 435 457. Karakozova, O. (2005). Modelling and Forecasting Property Rents and Returns. Helsinki: Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration. Longin, F. and Solnik, B. (2001). Extreme Correlation of International Equity Markets. Journal of Finance. 56 (2). Marshall, P. (1976). Equated Yield Analysis. Estates Gazette. 239, 493-7. Millington, A.F. (1982). An Introduction to Property Valuation (2e). London: Estates Gazette. Solnik, B. and Boucrelle, C. (1996). International market correlation and volatility. Financial Analysts Journal .52 (5): 17. Sykes, S.G. (1981). Property Valuation: A Rational Model. The Investment Analyst. 61: 20-6. Sykes, S.G. (1983). Property Valuation, Investment and Risk, in Chiddick, D. and Millington, A. (Eds). Land Management: New Directions. London: E & F.N.Spon. Udo, G.O. (1989). Modern Techniques of Property Investment Valuation: The Nigeria Response. Journal of the Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers. 13(1):19- 24. Udo, G.O. (2003). Model Building in Property Valuation. Enugu: Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria. Wood, E. (1972). Property Investment A Real Value Approach. PhD Thesis. Department of Land Management, University of Reading. Wyatt, P. (2007). Property Valuation. Oxford: Blackwell.
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An Examination of Causes and Consequences of Conflict Between Legislature and Executive in Cross River State, Nigeria
Bassey, Antigha Okon [Ph.D]
Lecturer, Department of Sociology University of Calabar P.M.B 1115 Calabar, C.R.S. Nigeria E-mail: antigha2k4@yahoo.com
Raphael Pius Abia

Senior Lecturer, Department of Sociology University of Calabar P.M.B 1115 Calabar, C.R.S. Nigeria
Omono, Cletus Ekok

Lecturer, Department of Sociology, University of Calabar Email: cletusomono@yahoo.com
Bassey, Umo Antigha

Unified Local Government Service Commission Calabar, C.R.S. Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p179
Abstract The study reviewed legislative-executive relationship in Cross River State fourth republic democratic government. The paper examines causes and consequences of conflict which was discovered as the nature of the relationship. Expost facto research design was adopted in which 100 sample was selected and studied. Data obtained was analysed using simple percentage analysis. The study also relied on secondary data obtained form archival materials. Discussion revealed the existence of harmony and conflict. The empirical test shows that the relationship was essentially conflictual. Causes of conflict discovered include: pride and personality clash, perceived executive dominance, ignorance of constitutional provisions, functional overlapping and performance of legislative oversight function. Consequences of conflict identified include: delay in discharge of duties, stalemate, disunity and outright opposition. The study recommended mutual respect as panacea to conflict, dialogue, bargaining and negotiation as well as constant interaction in workshop conferences and meetings. The study maintains that harmonial legislative-executive relationship is essential for the growth, development and sustenance of Nigerias nascent democracy. Keywords: Conflict, Legislature, Executive, Relations, Causes, Consequences
1. Introduction One of the major factors threatening Nigerias nascent democracy today is conflict between the executive
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and legislative arms of government. Contemporary development at the federal, state and local government levels proved that the relationship between the legislature and executive branch is not harmonious. Success and failure of government, as well as governmental policies, programmes and projects are all considered in many quarters as consequences of the nature of relationship existing between the executive and legislature. The major aim of this paper is to examine the relationship between executive and legislature in Nigeria is conflictual with particular reference to Cross River State Government. The paper will attempt to unravel the causes and consequences of conflict, as well as provide solutions for reducing or eliminating conflict between executive and legislature to foster harmony. It is hoped that the paper will provide guidelines to members of the executive and legislative branch of government for establishing harmonious relationship in policy making, good governance and democratic reconstruction. Legislature refers to institution that has the power to make or change laws. A legislative institution is any institution that has the power to make laws. The executive refers to the part of government that is responsible for making sure that laws and other decisions are carried out or implemented in the manner they were directed or planned. The third branch of government is the judiciary that interpret laws. This paper focuses on the legislature and executive branches of government in Nigeria. At the federal level is the Executive Council comprising the President and his Ministers responsible for various departments and functions of government. The federal legislature comprises the Senate and the House of Representatives. At the state level is the State Governor and his commissions responsible for various departments as executive, and the House of Assembly as the legislature. This paper examines specifically the relationship between the executive and legislative arms of government in Cross River State. 2. Conceptual Analysis and Review Conflict is a behaviour by a person or group that inhibits the attainment of goals by another person or group (Riggio, 2000). In ordinary usage, conflict is regarded as a state of opposition marked by fight or struggling. Perception of legislative and executive conflict is not far from Riggio (2000) definition of conflict. Legislative-executive conflict denotes a situation whereby the legislature is opposed to the executive and vice versa in matters of policy and their perception of the value of good governance. It is a state of partial or absolute incompatibility where one arm is in constant confrontation with the other (Bassey, 2000). In 2001, two years into the commencement of Fourth Republic in Nigeria democratisation process, conflict between the National Assembly (House of Representatives and Senate) and the executive at the Federal level of government existed, which was widely presented by the press (The Punch, 2001). The conflict transcends the relationship between state executive and the legislature in various states and even spilling to the local government councils. Major effect of such conflict was the impeachment of key personnel in both executive and legislature, such as Speakers, Deputy Speakers and Governors etc (Punch, 2007). Rockman (1983) identified four major elements in legislative-executive relations namely, values and perspectives of governance; the major players, actions and institutions; and legislative control and supervision of executive behaviour, which is referred to as oversight. These elements are the likely areas which conflict emerged between the two arms of government. Effective management of these key elements will reduce if not eliminate relational conflict in governance. The relationship existing between governmental units or arms may take diversity of nature, the focus of this research on conflict should not be misconstrued as the only form or nature of relationship existing between and among arms of government. The nature and diversity of such relationship is usually treated under Inter-governmental Relations (IGRs). Adamolekun (1982) defined Intergovernmental
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Relations as the interactions that take place among the different levels of government within a state. Looking at this definition, it excludes in its entirety legislative-executive relations within a particular level, because neither the executive nor legislature are levels of government, as in Nigerian federation, which consists of federal, state and local as levels of government. Legislative-Executive relations is the interaction and total transaction that takes place between the Executive and the Legislative arms at a particular level of government where both institutions exist (Bassey, 2000). The nature of intergovernmental relations and executive-legislative relations are in practice identical as both may involve conflict, cooperation, negotiation, bargaining and conciliation. This study focuses on conflict which is one of the prevailing relationship between legislature and executive at various levels of government in Nigeria. According to Loewenberg, Patterson and Jewell (1983), legislature is a body which promulgates laws, which authenticate and legitimise commands as to what citizens of a state can do or cannot do. Basic components or characteristics of legislature include: equal status of members, law-making and representation based on free and periodic elections. Appadorai (1975) categorised the functions of legislature as legislation, administration, financial appropriation and ventilation of grievance. Legislation is the most important function involving law making, administrative function has to do with light publicity on the act of governance by enduring check and balance on the executive branch. The financial function has to do with the appropriation power of legislature, while ventilation of grievance reflects the responsiveness of the legislature to public opinion and request in matter of state policy. As defined by the constitution, no arm of government is expected to usurp the functions of another arm. That is for example, executive has no power to expend what was not appropriated of the legislature as this will be conflict. Whether this constitutional provision is respected in the routine activities of arms of government in Cross River State in particular and Nigeria in general is what this paper is set to determine. 3. Legislative-Executive Relations in Cross River State The fourth republic Executive and Legislature in Cross River State commenced in 1999 with the rebirth of democracy in Nigeria. Despite the fact that at inception the Executive arm was led by a Governor from Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) and the executive led by Speaker from the All Peoples Party (APP), Bassey (2000) noted harmonious and cordial relationship void of conflict between executive and the legislature. The harmonious relationship was marked by cooperation, bargaining and negotiation as against conflict. Murray (1975) noted that when the executive and legislature are headed by different parties, there is bound to exist conflict which is likely to render the government ineffective as a result of disagreement in policy directions. Murrays (1975) observation did not hold true in Cross River State at this stage. This is not to say that there was no area of disagreement between executive and legislature in Cross River State but such were resolved through negotiation before disagreement transformed into conflict. For instance Rural Development Commission Bill sent to executive emerged from the House as Rural Development Authority Act. This happened without conflict because of the existence of machinery for cooperation to finetune grey areas. The cordial relationship in the fourth Republic saw to the submission and passage of the following Bills from the executive by the House. 1. Cross River State Rural Development Commission Bill 1999 2. Cross River State Forestry Commission Bill 1999 3. Cross River State Supplementary Appropriation Bill 1999 4. Cross River State Year 2000 Appropriation Bill 1999
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Prohibition of the Indiscriminate Dumping of Refuse on the Streets, Drains and Public Places in Cross River State Bill 2000 6. Girl-Child Marriage and Female Circumcision (Prohibition) Bill 2000 7. Cross River State Local Government Bill 2000 At the end of the legislature tenure in 2003 over 10 more bills were passed and 12 resolutions made (Cross River Radio, 2003). The situation in Cross River State differs significantly from what was obtainable in the National Assembly at the same period. It was reported in the press that Sultan Maccido (The Sultan of Sokoto and Head of Islamic Religion in Nigeria) sues for cooperation among arms of government in the federal level during the meeting of the National Executive Council of Nigeria Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs (Chronicle, 2000). After 1999 the situation changed and relationship of the two arms of government degenerated to conflict. The Nigerian Watch (2000) noted confrontation between the leader of the House and Executive Arms of Government and subsequent removal of the leader, as noted:
The travails of Honourable Ada fits into popular belief that he somehow engineered the Assembly woes through unnecessary confrontations with the executive arm of government and now his exit from the headship provide vista for new relationship.
5.
This condition shows that personal attribute of the leader (speaker) of the House later led to conflictual relationship between legislature and executive in Cross River State which was handled through the removal of the speaker, which indicates subordination of the legislature to the executive. To what extent the journalistic insinuation held true or false motivated this investigation, to examine the causes and consequences of executive-legislative conflict. 4. Theoretical background Conflict theory lays emphasis on the importance of interest in construction and implementation of norms and values and the manner in which pursuit of interest caused different types of conflict which forms part of normal life in the society. Major proponents of conflict their include Marx (1964) and Dahrender (1959). According to conflict theorists, society is made up of different groups with varying interest competing with one another for hegemony and control of power, authority and allocation of societys resources. Conflict theory provides a framework for the understanding and analysis of relationship existing between executive and legislature as competing groups in a state struggling for the control of state policy apparatus, as well as control and allocation of state resources. But to what extent legislative-executive conflict will produce change in terms of socio-economic development and consolidation of democracy necessitated the utilisation of functional aspects of social conflict in investigation. Coser (1956) examined the functions of social onflcit in his attempt to incorporate the analysis of social conflict into structural functionalism. Social structure here denotes network of interaction, while function refers to consequences of action in a system that the action takes place. The question is, what function does conflict produce in terms of the interaction of legislature and executive? It is the theoretical synthesis of conflict theory and structural functionalism that will specifically guide the analysis of executive-legislative conflict in terms of examining its causes and consequences. 5. Methodology In conducting this investigation, survey was carried out in order to permit the use of variety of data
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collection techniques. Such survey techniques utilised for gathering data include: interview, questionnaire and non-participant observation. Secondary data from newspapers, electronic media and other archival materials were also utilised. The area of study is Cross River State, one of the 36 states in Federal Republic of Nigeria with Calabar as its state capital and a total of eighteen (18) local government areas. Table I: Local Government Area in Cross River State and their population
S/No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Local Government Area Abi Akamkpa Akpabuyo Bakassi Bekwara Biase Boki Calabar-Municipal Calabar South Etung Ikom Obanliku Obubra Obudu Odukpani Ogoja Yakurr Yala Population 144,317 149,705 272,262 31,641 105,497 168,113 186,611 183,681 191,515 80,036 163,691 109,633 172,543 161,457 192,884 171,574 196,271 211,557 2,892,988
Source: National Population Commission, 2009 (2006 Census Figure)
The investigation focus mainly on the relationship existing between the legislative and executive branch of government in the state administering 2,892,988 people residing in the state (as at 2006 census). The population of the study was very large as it involved the entire executive, legislature, bureaucrats, politicians and members of the public who observed and contributed to the activities of the state policy formulation and implementation process. Because of the largeness of the population, a sample of 100 subjects were randomly chosen by the investigators, comprising 10 legislators, 10 members of executive branch, 20 public servants, 20 party politicians and 40 members of the general public. Size of sample cluster selection was in proportion to their general population. The subjects were accidentally selected at various locations such as: State House of Assembly Complex. State Civil Service Secretariat, Governors Office complex and the two tertiary institutions all in Calabar. Questionnaire was constructed as appropriate survey instrument. Questionnaire analysed statistically using simple percentage, comparison in tables (Osuala, 1982; Obasi, 1999). The questionnaire instrument required Yes, No or Undecided responses. 6. Data Presentation and Analysis The following demographic data were obtained.
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Table 2: Demographic Data

Age Range 18 30 31 40 41 50 51 60 61 and above Total Education Qualification Post Graduate B.Sc./HND OND/NCE B.Sc. FSLC/Others Social Status Category Freq Legislature 10 Executive 10 Public Servant 20 Party politician 20 Student 21 Others 19 100 Religion Religion Freq Christian 88 Muslim 3 Atheist 1 ATR 8 100 Sex Sex Male Fem. Freq. 67 33 100
Freq 39 24 31 4 2 100
Freq 12 31 18 36 3 100
Source: Field survey 2000
In the demographic data, 39 subjects were between the ages of 18-30, 24 (31-40), 31 (41-50), 4 (51-60) and 2 (61 and above). This indicates that politically active people concerned with legislative, executive affairs were mostly between the ages of 18 50 years, as frequency decline after the ages of 50 years. Many Cross Riververians are educated as over 97% attended secondary school and above which primarily negates the classification of the state as educationally disadvantaged state. But the locations where subjects were selected caused the increased number of educated subjects. Invariably, if subject selection was spread to rural areas, the true educational and literacy position of the state would have been revealed. The social category of respondents was purposively determined by the researchers in order to enhance unbiased response and prevent responses being one-sided. With 88% Christians among respondents, the state is predominantly a Christian state (Bassey, Ojua, Ering, 2012). The increase of male to female being 67/33 negates the demographic distribution in which females are more than male (NPC, 2009) and shows that males participate in political issues especially as regards observation of executive-legislative relationship more than females. 7. Analysis of Substantive Data and Findings From the discussion above, it is noted that the relationship is not static, at one time it is conflictual and at another harmonious. In view of this situation, statistical analysis using simple percentage analysis was utilised to determine actual relationship. The first guiding null hypothesis under test was; H0: There is no conflict between executive and legislature The statement number one (1) in the instrument stated that, There is conflict between executive and legislature. Response to this statement is presented in table 3. Table 3: Field Observation for Hypothesis I, Statement 1 and Percentage
Statement There is conflict between executive and legislature Yes 59 (62.77) No 23(24.47) Undecided 12(12.77) Total 94 (100%)
Source: Field survey (2000)
From Table 3 above, favourable responses Yes to the statement which negates the null hypothesis is 62.77%, while unfavourable responses No is 24.47%. Undecided is 12.77%. Consequently, the null
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hypothesis was rejected. The finding is that there is conflict between executive and legislature in Cross River State. The second task of the study was to unravel the causes of executive-legislative conflict and Table 4 presents data obtained in the field investigation. Table 4:
S/No 2 3 4 5 6 Statement Legislative-Executive conflict is as a result of pride and personality clash Conflict between legislature and executive is caused by perceived executive domination Conflict is due to ignorance of the constitution by executive and legislature Functional overlapping is a major cause of conflict Performance of oversight functions by legislature often result in conflict Yes 66(70.21%) 59(62.77%) 70(74.47%) 54(57.45%) 63(67.02%) No 24(25.55%) 30(31.91%) 21(22.34%) 28(29.79%) 22(23.40%) Undecided 4(4.26%) 5(5.32%) 3(3.19%) 12(12.77%) 9(9.57%) Total 94(100%) 94(100%) 94(100%) 94(100%) 94(100%)
Source: Field survey (2000)
Five variables were purposively examined in tune with Rockman (1983) identification of causes of legislative-executive conflict namely: pride and personality clash, executive dominance, ignorance of the constitution, functional overlapping and legislative performance of oversight function. Statement 2 legislative-executive conflict is as a result of pride and personality clash, Yes responses were 70.21%, No responses 25.53%, while undecided was 4.26%. The favourable responses as against unfavourable responses indicates that pride and personality clash are part of the causes of executive-legislative conflict. The fourth variable considered was ignorance of constitutional provision of balance of power as organs of government are expected constitutionally to operate co-ordinately, Yes was 74.47%, No 22.34% and undecided 3.19%. Since favourable responses Yes was overwhelming, ignorance of constitutional provision was accepted as part cause of executive-legislative conflict. The analysis showed that overlapping with high positive response Yes 57.45% was also a factor in executive-legislative conflict, likewise legislature performance of oversight function with 67.02% positive Yes responses. In determining the consequences of executive-legislative conflict with an open-ended question, which states thus: What do you consider to be the consequences of legislative-executive conflict on Nigeria nascent democracy? Only 73 (77.66%) of respondents responded to the questions out of 94. Twenty one (21) respondents left the answer space blank (22.34%). The following consequences were extracted: 1. Stalemate of state administration 2. Delay in discharge of official function 3. Obstacle to development of democratic institution and culture 4. Disunity between parties and intra-party disharmony 5. Inter-party opposition in government 6. Weakness of parties and their possible disintegration 7. Check and balance (accountability)
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8. Guarantee independence of legislature 9. Mitigate executive excesses The above nine statements represented consequences of legislative-executive conflict obtained from the responses to open-ended question. In view of the above findings, it is established that there was conflict between executive and legislature in the first legislative session of fourth republic democratic process commencing from 1999 in Cross River State, Nigeria. 8. Discussion Previous discussion in this study reveals the existence of harmony at the onset of the democratic process in 1999 between the executive and legislature in Cross River State, but as events unfold, the relationship degenerated from harmony marked by negotiation and bargaining to conflict. This is evidenced in the findings of the investigation which indicates high positive responses to the test statement There is conflict between executive and legislature being 62.77%. Since the executive was headed by Peoples Democratic Party and the legislature headed and dominated by All Peoples Party, conflict was inevitable as Murray (1975) explained that whenever executive and legislature are controlled by different parties, conflict must exist and Cross River State proved not to be an exception. The study also identified causes of executive legislative conflict in Cross River State to include pride and personality clash, perceived executive dominance, ignorance of constitutional provisions, functional overlapping and performance of legislative oversight functions. These discoveries follow Rockman (1983) postulate of these four variables mentioned above as the possible causes of conflict between executive and legislature in any democratic system. Though conflict exists, Rockman (1983) maintains that these variables refine themselves as they exist over time. Thus as democracy persists, the factors will be perfected by other democratic dynamics which will cause them to cease to function as sources of conflict. Such democratic dynamics include constitutional amendment, changes and development. The study also presented consequences of executive-legislative conflict. Some of the consequences are negative, while some are positive. For instance, delay in the discharge of official function and disunity between and among different parties threatens the continuity of the state, while check and balance foster accountability, leading to economic efficiency, progress and development. Every polity should examine such consequences and manage it properly in order to ensure dividend of democracy to citizens. The instrument also presented responses to the question How can conflict between legislature and executive be reduced or eliminated in order to ensure harmony? The respondents provided the following responses as strategy of ensuring legislative-executive harmony: Transparency in the conduct of state affairs; regular consultation; dialogue in resolving crises; regular interactions in meetings, workshops, conferences, dinner and other officials functions; effective and regular communication; integration of legislators into executive delegations; mutual respect for each other; reorientation of legislators and executive on provisions of the constitution with regards to functions and roles. 9. Conclusion and Recommendation Understanding legislature-executive relation is crucial to building democratic values and ideal for the sustenance of basic institutions and ensuring effective interaction towards democratic development. The paper reveals the varieties of relationship and interaction that exist between legislature and executive, which includes: bargaining, negotiation, conflict and harmony. Bargaining and negotiation themselves may result in either conflict or harmony. The discussion in the research shows that there exists both
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period of conflict and harmony in the relationship between legislature and executive in Cross River State. The findings of empirical text indicates specifically conflictual relationship. The paper specified causes of conflict between executive and legislature which includes; pride and personality clash, perceived executive dominance, ignorance of constitutional provisions, functional overlapping and legislative performance of oversight function. The paper also outlines consequences of conflict among which are: stalemate of state administration, opposition, disunity, delay in discharge of governmental functions among others. Mutual respect between executive and legislature is one cardinal panacea to the conflict. It is also recommended that dialogue, interaction in workshop, conferences and meetings should be considered as measures of ensuring cordial and harmonious relationship. References
Adamolekun, Ladipo (1983) Public Administration: A Nigerian and Comparative Perspective, London: Longman Appadorai, A. (1975) The Substance of Politics, Madras: Oxford University Press Bassey, Antigha (2000) Issues in legislative affairs: A study of Cross River State House of Assembly Legislative Fellow Research Report, Ibadan: The Institute of Social Science and Administration (TISSA), Vol. 1,2,3 Bassey, A. O., Ojua, T. A., and Ering, S. O. (2012) The Impact of Protestant Religion on Industrial Development in Nigeria. A Study of Protestants in Calabar, African Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 156165 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999, Lagos: Federal Government Printing Press Cross River Radio (2000) Morning News 6.30am, 5th and 6th June, Calabar, Cross River Broadcasting Corporation. Cross River State House of Assembly (1999) Votes and Proceedings No. 22, November 9 Coser, L. (1956) Masters of Sociological Thought. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich The Nigerian Chronicle (2000) Assembly Report, Nov. 6, 13, 19, 23 Dahrendorf, R. (1959) Class and Class Conflict in an Industrial Society, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Marx, K. (1964) The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts, New York: International Publishers The Nigerian Watch (2000) Friday Nov. 17 National Population Commission (2009) 2006 Census Result. Lagos: Government Printing Press Obasi, Isaac (1999) Research Methodology in Political Sciences, Enugu: Academic Publishing Company Osuala, C. (1983) Introduction to Research Methodology, Onitsha: Africana-FEP Publishers Murray, S. (1975) Urban Politics, Cambridge: Winthrop Publishers Rockman, B. (1983) Legislative-Executive Relations in Gerhard Loewenberg, Samuel, P. and Malahis, J. (eds.) Handbook of Legislative Research. Cambridge: Harvard University Press Loewenberg, G., Patterson, S. and Jewell, M. (1983) Handbook of Legislative Research. Cambridge: Harvard University Press Reggio, R. (2000) Introduction to Industrial/Organisational Psychology, New Jersey: Prentice Hall
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Economic Criminality in Transition Countries- Aspects of the Legal and Economic Analysis
Prof .Dr. Ismail Zejneli1 Prof Ass Dr. Alba Robert Dumi2
Prof Dr Dean of Low Faculty, SEEU University Tetova Macedonia Email: i.zejneli@seeu.edu.mk 2 As Dr, Dean of Graduated SchoolIsmail Qemali Vlora University Albania, Management Department, Economy Faculty, Tirana University Email:besi.alba@yahoo.com
a
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p189
Abstract Doubtfully considered the economic criminality, as a real dangerous form that damages the state economies, which is caused by economic criminal action taken; as such, the action that impedes business between business entities. All of these actions are considered as unlawful actions. These illegal actions of physical and legal persons who are exercising a business activity or in any way are related to the business, and essentially dealing with criminal acts performed in the economy which makes up economic crime. All these actions are undertaken for the purpose of material and financial benefits. The difficulties in dealing with economic criminality begin straight away when we attempt to find a blanket definition for it. No one has yet been able to do so satisfactory: Although economic criminality and the combating therefore is one of the most pressing issues of the present day, its definition and the definition of what constitutes an economic crime remains one of the unsolved problems Astonishing though that may seem, it is indeed the case. Economic criminality encompasses all crimes that are committed within, against and by business enterprises. While this includes crimes committed by employees, it is important to realize that employee criminality is only one facet of economic criminality. Key words: Economic criminality, Firm wide risk, Economy & Production, Activities Products and markets, EU financing reforms, EU standards.
1. Introduction Actions, which are not based in work and other permitted activities but in misuse, frauds and suspicious transactions. Criminality as a negative phenomenon and dangerous to society manifested in various forms throughout the course of human history."Economic criminality submitted in all areas of economic activity, ranging from the business of deposit, through production, cash business, commercial sector, foreign trade, commercial shops and hotel, accountants and economic sectors until in the general leadership
1.1 Economy criminality and definitions

As one of the best definitions of economic criminality considered definition of Edwin Sutherlandit (President of the American Association for Sociology) by 1939 which this criminality is considered as
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white collar criminality. According to him economic criminality considered as criminality which appears in the sphere of economic activity, which forms mostly manifested during the acquisition of shares, advertising of goods, coverage of financial and corruption of civil servants directly or indirectly.(See too; B.Banoviq, obezbegjenje dokaza was kriminalistickoj obradi krivicni dela privrednog kriminaliteta, Belgrade, 2002, p.13.) Basic causes that conditioned the appearance of this type of criminality are: report form of the property of the organization working, forms of property, the degree of concentration of functions, the development and justification defense system, the organization's business position working, governance and organization development professional and intellectual ability of the offender. Although the objective factors have central importance in terms of appearance and the structure conditionality certain economic criminality, professionalism and intellectual ability, as subjective factors, in certain cases, may be crucial in committing economic criminality offenses.Perpetrators of crimes against the economy may appear different persons, in some cases, economic offenses carry all persons, while some illegal works in the field of economy can perform only one category of persons. Associated with guilt, such offenses may be committed intentionally, which must include the desire of offender for his work. In some offenses against the economy is foreseen and the receipt of the items with which the offenses was committed (see Section 244 KP Kosovo, counterfeit money).
1.2 Macedonia and an overview in criminal actions field

Slow changes in Macedonia after independence have resulted with massive filling criminal actions which have not been known until then. This particular phenomenon has been evident during the process of transformation of state-owned enterprises into private. In this process by exploiting the situation of termination of these enterprises with state capital which enterprises created the situation that they have huge debts and using these situations to these enterprises necessarily should start a bankruptcy procedure. By utilizing these situations, these companies were bought very cheap, while in such purchases was created a certain layer of excluded from work that called as bankruptcy worker. These situations have caused to as certain that in the Republic of Macedonia as the dominant form of economic criminality be considered transformation of state-owned enterprises to the private, causing false bankruptcies, tax evasion, illegal transactions in the area of payment turnover, fraud of committees during their savings, maintain double accounting in order to remove corruption etc.. During the transition period, specifically during the years 2002-2010, economic criminality situation in the Republic of Macedonia was as follows;
2002 2003 2004 Misuse of official duty and authorizations Hiding of tax Damage and unauthorized access to a computer system Fraud in obtaining credit 178 84 2 2 854 109 1 3 504 96 7 1 2005 2006 2007 2008 275 114 2 28 291 477 35 2 10 40 7 25 367 67 20 88 2009 2010 290 54 63 67 246 50 36 74
From the above table we will see that offenses against public finances, circulation of payment and the economy from year to year is increased starting in 2004 to 2007, where later we will see that during the years 2009 and 2010 there is a slight decrease.
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In 2010, for committing offenses against public finances, payment circulation and the economy are presented 620 adult persons, of whom; 558 persons known perpetrator,78 female offenders, to 60 persons is thrown application, for 60 persons is interrupted further investigation, to 11 persons investigation is terminated, for 439 perpetrators is indicted and 62 perpetrators are unknown.
Tab 1: Economic criminality situation in the Republic of Macedonia on years 2002-2010 1.2.1 Juridical-penal treatment and economic sphere of development The state should be able to carry out its powers in the economic sphere in terms of the existence of private property as the dominant form of ownership, in which is based on the principle of freedom of establishment of business entities, there is a need for ensuring the implementation of state bodies powers in this area. This insurance is done by foreseen and sanctioning criminal actions directed against the public finances, payment circulation and the economy as a separate criminal offense in Criminal Code of Macedonia. This way of providing economic system is based on the so-called criminal legal protection. In 2008, out of a total of 15 462 known perpetrators of criminal offenses, 542 have been the perpetrator of this crime. Largest number of perpetrators of 232 are from Skopje. Of this number 21 were juvenile offenders as persons aged 14 to 18 years. 2. Literature Review and Hypotheses Economic criminality as very dangerous phenomenon is sanctioned and criminal and legal provisions. Criminal codes of various countries have provided separate chapters which treats this type of crime. Some of the offenses against the public finances, payment circulation and the economy by KP Macedonia are: Counterfeit Money (n.268.i KP); money laundering and illegal material benefit (n.273 KP); unauthorized production (n.276 KP); contraband (n.278 KP); violation of equality in the exercise of economic activity (n.282 KP); unauthorized use of a foreign firm (n.285 KP). Criminal Code of the Republic of Albania, based on the statement of the UN, for the fight against corruption and swag, in December 1996, nr.9275 Law, dated 16.09.2004, especially the in Convention on corruption, Council of Europe, date 27.Janar 1999, devotes a number of provisions-articles, against crime of corruption- active and passive corruption in the private sector, active and passive corruption of public officials, of high state and local elected officials, judges and prosecutors and other justice officials, witnesses, experts and interpreters and the exercise of unlawful influence on persons exercising public functions.
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2.1 Criminality associated with the laundering of money

This offense performed in the banking business, economic or financial will issue in circulation, will take, will give or will convert money which is aware that are obtained from the drug trade, arms trade or other criminal acts (n.273.par.1 IMC). More severe forms of this offense provided in parag.4, and considered that performed if the contractor has performed work as members of a group, gang or other association which deals with laundering of money and other material property. For this type of offense the offender shall be punished with imprisonment of at least five years. In provisions parag.5, provided that counterfeit money shall be forfeited. In money laundering is intended to be hiding and not the legality and use of revenue sources and results from these sources are for specific purposes legalizing illegal income. Fraud represents the essence of all the action in money laundering, because during all actions is intended that certain tools to be shown as legal in order they can be into circulation. In progress through the table will present data on persons accused of committing a criminal offense of money laundering, for the years 2006-2010.
Data per cases Convicted persons Women Persons found guilty Procedure was terminated 2006 1 2007 2 2 1 1 2008 19 1 2009 1 1 2010 1 1
From the total number of persons charged with criminal offenses of money laundering for the period in question, the court has decided as follows:
Convicted persons Women Total penalties Prison sentence Alternative measures Suspended sentence 2006 2007 1 1 1 1 --2008 19 5 9 9 10 10 2009 1 1 2010 -
From the above table we will see that during the period in question, for a criminal offense of money laundering have been convicted of a total of 21, persons of whom the most in 2008,19 people. Also we will see that the perpetrators of this crime appear persons of both sexes.
2.2 Criminality against illegal trade

After that in conditions of market economy, state has limited powers in many activities including and productive activities may happen to be produced and processed and placed on the market products which may have adverse consequences for the lives of citizens as is the case with the production or circulation of narcotic tools. In some commodities submit a source permanent destruction of risks as is the case with weapons. Because of this circulation with such goods is prohibited or restricted. Any action for that inserts in circulation these goods, that causes illegal trade. In 2008, 964 offenses were caused in legal circulation of illicit trade.
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2.3 Albania and problems identified.

In the context of criminality in Albania we will focus on a specific aspect for Albania. Any anticipated strategy should also take into account the level of payment and other benefits of the staff within the justice system in general and judges in particular. An appropriate level of pay and other benefits is probably one of the most effective ways to "immunize" employees from corruption. 2.3.1 The Constitution of the Republic of Albania. Offenses against the person are the worse wound crime in Albania. This is because these offenses are committed against individuals Albanian society "Offenses against the person recorded 2240 proceedings, or compared to 2002, decreasing 5.5%. ( Sollaku Th 2006 report pp 4) Although generally results in a decreasing trend of these criminal group, is evidenced an increasing number: 63 proceedings for murder, article 76 of the Penal Code. These crimes have significant consequences to life and health such as the death of 271 persons and serious or slight injury of 421 persons. Of these criminal proceedings were sent for judgment, judgment and convicted 863 defendants and 642 other defendants judgment continues. For these types of serious crimes the prosecution has sought the prosecution of fierce political and judgment proceedings, to influence in alleviation and prevent this phenomenon very negative, with serious consequences not only for the victims and their families, but also for the public safety of society as a whole. (Sollaku Th 2006 report pp 7,11, 21).
2.4 Albanian judicial system and the need for reform.

Albanian judicial system has undergone radical changes and a improved considerably over the last decade. However, the need for more legitimacy and control show that the Albanian legal system needs further improvement in order to create a stable and transparent system, based on the principles of the rule of law. Legal instrumental often not respected or abused in order to achieve results "desired" - but not necessarily legitimate. Consequently, the rights and freedoms of individuals often violated and give the impression that the judicial system is neither fair nor independent. (Law no. 8436, dated December 28, 1998, "On the organization of the judicial power in the Republic of Albania" [Judicial Power Law], Article 39, paragraph 1. 2.4.1 The specific data for types of economic criminality For illegal trafficking are followed 270 proceedings, with 327 defendants. It has been indicted in the court for 184 defendants and convicted 105 of them. 1. 2. 3. For the cultivation and trafficking of narcotics, has followed 333 proceedings, with 364 defendants. Has been indicted in the court and are sentenced 148 defendants. For criminal offenses that are related to illegal activity or state employees in the public service, are followed 407 proceedings, with 224 defendants. For offenses against the person, are recorded 2240 proceedings of which 63 for murder. These crimes have led to the deaths of 271 people and injuring 421 persons. For offenses against property and in economic sphere are 5101 registered proceedings of which were convicted 2413 people, while other 1227 trial continues.
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3. Methodology and Research Goal For theft of property, are recorded 2693 proceedings which have been sent to trial and are tried and convicted 1,198 defendants, while the other 653 are judging. For crimes in the field of customs and for criminal offenses relating to taxes are recorded 206 proceedings and are sentenced 145 defendants 62 others are on trial (OSCE Albania Report 2009). 4. Corruption in the Albanian judicial system International and national studies show that corruption in the Albanian judicial system is perceived to be too high and be a serious obstacle to the functioning of the judicial system. While the new government has demonstrated a serious commitment to the fight against corruption, few concrete measures have been taken so far to tackle the issue of corruption in the judicial system.
Cumming, C. M., and B. J. Hirtle (2001): "The Challenges of Risk Management in Diversified Financial Companies, pp 134
To find solutions related to the real and perceived corruption within the system of justice should take measures set. The first step would be to end immediately contacts / inappropriate connections between members of the judiciary and the parties in the proceedings or their representatives. In addition, each court and the prosecution should be required to develop strategies and take concrete measures to combat corruption within the relevant institution in the Republic of Albania.
4.1 Needs for legal proceedings rigorous in Albanian system.

As noted in this scientific paper, deprivation of liberty of persons set it in an extremely delicate situation. For this reason, it is important that the deprivation of liberty to be as limited and to follow rigorous proceedings defined in international documents, the Constitution of the Republic of Albania and in the Code of Criminal Procedure. All actors involved, that are police, prosecutor, judge and defense attorney, also have a key role in maintaining these standards and in taking action against abuses against persons or investigative actions. In this aspect, there is room for much improvement in the Albanian context. Thus, it is observed that in most cases, persons deprived of their liberty are not informed of the reasons for arrest or their rights; them regularly abused by the police; they are unable to contact with a lawyer and are not sent
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before a judge within the time specified in Constitution. Decisions argued in a poor manner and give the impression that decisions on the appointment of security measures often issued without legal reasons.
4.2 Economic criminality prevention

Considering the fact that economic criminality can appear in different forms, according to the recommendations contained in the International Convention, but also in bilateral agreements for the elimination of economic criminality, is necessary that within each system to be established more bodies and specialized institutions in order to be able to follow, detected and sanctioned this type of criminality. Anti-corruption policy is in the foreground, not only in the transition period, but also in other developed countries, because it is a widespread international phenomenon and socially in a very great risk. The fight against corruption, as international phenomenon, requires not only an effective policy within the country, but also international cooperation, based on the European Convention. From criminal and legal standpoint, figures analyzed in the special part of criminal law and practice will prove how that it would be effective measures taken to prevent and fighting corruption at the present time and which areas will need to be met, in order to fight his policies give proper results. Important role in economic crime prevention directly have; courts, public prosecutors, police, financial police and customs and services indirectly, the management of public revenues, directorate for prevention of money laundering, the state anti-corruption commission, , the state market inspectorate etc.. 5. Conclusions and recommendations Economic criminality undoubtedly now considered as very dangerous form that are hurting the economies of different countries, developed or under development. Important role in economic criminality prevention directly have; courts, public prosecutors, police, financial police and customs services and indirectly, department of public revenue, directorate for prevention of money laundering, the state anti-corruption commission, the state market inspectorate etc. Also the implementation of the legislation has a special significance in the prevention and combating of successful economic criminality. In preventing and combating economic criminality, important contribution will also provide ongoing scientific approaches, various economic forums, seminars, national and international conferences, etc. Crimes in the field of customs and for criminal offenses relating to taxes and tax liabilities are recorded 206 proceedings, with almost the same figure in 2002. Have been tried and convicted 145 defendants and are in judicial review 62 defendants. Analysis of the number of prosecutions for these offenses shows 21.7 percent of proceedings for crimes in the field of customs. Downward trend in 57 percent of proceedings for criminal offenses in connection with taxes and tax liabilities, does not reflect the real state of criminality in this important area, where collected revenues for the state budget. "Continues to feel the lack of effectiveness of internal control in taxes and tax liabilities, and therefore is not detected and reported the real criminality in this sector, which has to do not only with the concealment of income, but also with the laundering of dirty money. References Penal Code of the Republic of Macedonia; Penal Code of the Republic of Albania; A Dumi General knowledge of the economy and ADP, Publish January 2012, A Duumi MJSS Journal 2012 Vol 3 Nr 3 Albania and Development low
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A.Jashari Commercial law subjects, Tetovo, 2008 I.Zejneli Criminal law- special part- lectures, Tetovo, 2007 R.Halili Criminology, Pristina, 2009 V.Latifi Criminology, Pristina, 2008 S.Begeja Criminology, Tirana, 2004 M.Kancev Kazneno pravna zastita na ekonomskite odnosi, MPKK, nr.1, Skopje, 1997 Sh.Milan Organizovani crime-Pojam of krivicnoprocesni aspect, Belgrade, 2003 CPC Article 316. CPC Articles 321 and 322. CPC Article 340. Civil Procedure Code, Section 173 dh). CPC Article 364. Commentary of Criminal Procedure; Halim Islam, Artan Hoxha and Ilir Panda, Tirana 2003, p. 489. Civil Procedure Code, Article 236. CPC Article 341.United Nations Convention on International Organized Crime (Palermo Convention), adopted on 12-15 December 2000. DNB (2002): "Structure of Financial Supervision," Quarterly Bulletin of de Nederlandsche Bank, March, 37-42. DOWD, K. (1994): "Competitive Banking, Bankers' Clubs, and Bank Regulation," Journal of Money, Credit & Banking, 26, 289-308. EC (2001): "Towards an EU Directive on the Prudential Supervision of Financial Conglomerates," Brussels: European Commission. EDWARDS, F.R. and M.S. CANTER (1995). The Collapse of Metallgesellschaft: Unhedgeable Risks, Poor Hedging Strategy, or Just Bad Luck?, Journal of Applied Corporate Finance 8, 86105.
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Constructivist Didactics in Teaching Economics: A Shift in Paradigm to be Exemplary Teacher

Ziyn Engdasew Woldab (Ph.D)
Assistant Prof. Adama University, Ethiopia. engdasewziyn@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p197
Abstract This paper begins with a theoretical analysis and critique of the prevailing behaviorist instructive which promotes a model of imparting and receiving knowledge in economics education. This approach is criticized for its inadequacy to facilitate higher order thinking, problem solving, creativity and collaborative learning. Contemporarily, research findings in cognitive learning shift the paradigm and provide new dimensions to information processing and constructivist view of teaching economics. It recognizes learners as constructor of knowledge and an active participant in the process of learning economic facts and principles, and economics teachers as facilitator of students learning. This theoretical paradigm in teaching economics doesnt disvalue the instructional roles of teachers, rather it advocates that teaching economics should not only instructive but also constructive. Hence, this paper presents the philosophical and psychological roots and major pedagogical principles of constructivism, the rationale for adoption of traditional instructional perspectives with modern constructivist approach and its practical implications in teaching economics. Finally, it concludes that learning economics should not be only instructive, but also constructive. Keywords: Behaviorism, Constructivism, Didactics, Paradigm, Instruction
1. Introduction Teaching is a scientific and goal directed activity. It is the most fundamental responsibility of teachers irrespective of their time and stage of education. It is an intricate and complicated process involving diverse pedagogical skills and sensibility as well as scientific principles and modern approaches. Teachers should not only acquire the quantum of knowledge that is required for various groups of learners, but also use diverse contemporary methods and techniques of teaching for which they have to master knowledge and skills. The quantum of approaches and pedagogical techniques is being multiplied so fast and some of the theories and concepts are getting outdated that there has been an innovation in the approaches of teaching. Pedagogical research findings indicated that, two major learning theory metaphors have dominated education (behaviorism and constructivism) as a whole since the late 1800s, however since halfway through the nineties, the constructivist approach of learning and teaching has represented the newcomer theory in didactics(Jackson, 1990). As per behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of Stimulus-Response pair and the result of instruction. In this traditional learning- teaching philosophy, the predominant understanding of didactics is characterized by interventions. The acquirement of new knowledge and skills is considered to be a process controllable from the outside that has to be imposed on the individual learners.
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Meanwhile, learning through intrinsic motivation is widely ignored. Learning targets are predominantly formulated behaviouristicaly and this leads to the taylorisation of learning (Jackson, 1989). Learning is the construction of knowledge in the perspectives of constructivism, and it is the result of construction. These changes in explanatory metaphors have resulted from, and have allowed for new insights concerning the nature of learning, the methods of teaching and acquisitions of knowledge and skills. In this context, the assumption of constructivist didactics is that reality in learning process is not perceived in the way it is, but in the way the learner experiences it. Therefore, learning doesnt mean perceiving given contexts, but it does mean form own ideas ((Brooks and Brooks, 1993). For many quarters of a century, the implicit learning theory and didactics underlying the curriculum and pedagogy of economic education, has been behaviorism. Economics education has much to learn from recent advances in knowledge of how students approach learning (Mayer, 2003). In this respect, the emerging theory of constructivism has implications for educational practices of economics education, which provides higher order thinking, problem solving and collaborative learning. This paper highlights the theoretical assumptions of behaviorist and constructivist philosophies and looks for the essential features and didactics of constructivists, role of constructivist teacher and its implication in teaching economics to be exemplary teacher. 2. The Basics of Behaviorist Theory The learning theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behavior that can be observed and measured rather than what occurs in the mind (Good & Brophy, 1990).It views the mind as a black box in the sense that ResponseStimulus can be observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind (Doolitltle, and Camp, 1999). It supports the practice of analyzing a task and breaking it dawn in to manageable chunks, establishing objectives, and each measuring performance based on those objectives. It promotes desired behavior and knowledge transmission (Ibid). The application of behaviorist theory to the classrooms of economics education has generally been referred to as explicit or direct instruction. The teacher is the only active agent in the classroom, transmitting knowledge to students who are expected to absorb information passively. This theory is teacher directed and teacher controlled. In this system, competition, grade and, standardized testing are upheld as the means to monitor the students performance. This theory of learning is criticized for its inability to address the provision of high order critical and creative thinking, problem solving and collaborative learning. 3. Constructivism - Epistemological Roots Constructivism is a theory of learning and teaching that has roots both philosophy and psychology. Constructivist learning is knowledge construction based on the assumption that learners actively create and restructure knowledge in highly individual ways, through experiences. It emphasizes the importance of knowledge and skills an individual brings to the experience of learning. It also recognizes the construction of new understanding as a combination of prior learning, new information, and readiness to learn (Brooks and Brooks, 1993). Fosnot (1996) describes constructivism by reference to the major principle: learning is an important ways depends on what we already know; new ideas occur as we adapt and change our old ideas; learning involves inventing ideas rather than mechanically accumulating facts; meaningful learning occurs through rethinking old ideas and coming to new conclusions about new ideas which conflict with our old ideas.
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The essential core of constructivism is that learners actively construct their own knowledge and meaning from their experiences. Philosophically, this essence relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism and relativism, the concept that while reality may exist separate from experiences, it can only be known through experience, resulting in a personally unique reality (Andre Gordan, 1995). Thus, constructivism acknowledges the learners active role in the personal creation of knowledge, the importance of experience (both individual and social) in this knowledge creation process and the realization that the knowledge created will vary in its degree of validity as an accurate representation of reality. These fundamental didactics of constructivism provide the foundation for basic principle of teaching, learning, and knowledge process in any field of study. 4. Constructivist pedagogy Constructivist pedagogy is the pedagogy of libration. It is also called the pedagogy of construction (Andre Giordan, 1995). It starts from the needs of the learners and offers appropriate learning environment for their free involvement in learning, their creativity, and their knowledge of how to be. In the constructivist didactics, collaborative and interactive methods are used to encourage students to challenge and consider different perspectives. The cultural and economic environment helps to give meaning to situations, his knowledge progresses when fertile subjective interactions between his mental activities and his environment are put in place (Ibid). The general theoretical propositions indicated that eight factors are essential in constructivist pedagogy. These theoretical principles are derived not solely from constructivism, but assembled from other learning theorists in different times ( Steff&Galle, 1995). Learning should take place in authentic and real world environments- Experience plays paramount role in building accurate representations of reality, consensual meanings in social activities, or personally coherent models of reality. It is well known for its catalysis nature in knowledge construction. However, knowledge construction is enhanced when the socially and object-oriented experience is authentic. The contents and learning experiences should be relevant to the learner- Constructivist didactics advocates the adaptive function of knowledge in real life challenges. This relevance boosts learners motivation in learning and encourages seeking for more adaptive knowledge. Consequently, experience with relevant knowledge and skills will provide the individual with the mental processes, social information, personal experiences necessary for enhanced functioning with in ones real life. Learning should involve social negotiation and mediation- Constructivist didactics emphasized the role of social interaction as basis for knowledge construction. It provides grounds for the development of socially relevant knowledge and skills. If learner acquires experience in social mediations, this experience may contradict or validate his prior knowledge and skills. If contradictions appear, then the learner must accommodate this contradiction and uncertainty in order to accurate social model of reality. Every kinds of learning commence within an individuals previous knowledge. Understanding a students behavior requires an understanding of the students mental structure. It is only by understanding students prior knowledge and experience, will the teacher be able to create effective experience, resulting in optimal learning. Constructivists advocate that the acquisition of knowledge and understanding is a continuous process that is highly influenced by students prior knowledge. However, knowledge and understanding are not directly visible, but rather must be inferred from action. Thus, to take into account an individuals current level of understanding in this ongoing teaching and learning process, a teacher must continually
Content and skills should be understood within the framework of the learners prior knowledge-
Students should be assessed formatively, serving to inform future learning experience-
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assess the individuals knowledge. This formative assessment is necessary to accurately create the next series of experiences and activities for students. Students should be encouraged to become self-regulatory, self-mediated and self-aware- The basic assumption in constructivist pedagogy is that learners are not passive recipients of knowledge, rather active in their construction of knowledge and meaning. This activity involves mental manipulation and self organization of experience; and requires that students regulate their own cognitive functions, mediate new meanings from existing knowledge, and form an awareness of current knowledge structures. Teachers serve primarily as guides and facilitator of learning- As per constructivist pedagogy; there is no factual knowledge to transmit. The typical role of a teacher is motivating learners to construct their own knowledge, providing examples and illustrations, discuss, facilitate, support and challenge, but not to transmit knowledge. The teacher is also responsible to guide students to create awareness about their experiences and socially agreed-upon meanings. Neuhauser(1992) put it best that teachers do not teach, but students learn. Students should ask their teachers: Let me discover, dont tell me things, give advice Learners exposure in experiencing multiple perspectives of a particular event provides the student with the raw materials necessary to develop multiple representations. These multiple representations provide students with the ability to develop more complex schemes relevant to the experience. In general, multiple perspectives provide the students with a greater opportunity to develop a more viable model of their experiences and social interactions. This principles are versatile and the backdrop of the pedagogy of constructivist classrooms, role of constructivist teacher and applicable in the strategies of constructivist teaching. 5. The Constructivist Classroom in Teaching Economics Constructivists pedagogy mainly emphasized the need to establish democratic classrooms and learning environments, which could operate in accordance with the aforementioned basic principles of constructivism. It gives due concern for shared responsibilities and decision making within the learner and the teacher. The classroom is no longer a place where the teacher pours knowledge in economics principles and facts into passive students, who wait like empty vessels to be filled (Senapaty & Pradhan, 2005). In this respect, (Brooks & Brooks, 1993) clarifies the basic features of constructivist classroom, which have practical implications to teach economics as follows: Students autonomy and initiatives are accepted and encouraged- In constructivist class rooms, teachers should have to respect and encourage students ideas, which yields independent thinking and helps learners to attain their own intellectual identity, take responsibility for their own learning and become problem solvers. In this stage, the assumption is that if there is no freedom for free discussion, and to make choices, students are less likely to adopt deep approaches to learning economic facts and theories. Higher level thinking is encouraged- In constructivist class room, economics teachers should challenge students to reach beyond memorization and simple clarification of facts, principles and theories of economics. He should also motivate learners to synthesis, analyze, predicting and justifying their ideas and conceptions in their own understandings. Students are engaged in experiences that challenge hypothesis and encourage discussion- The students should be encouraged to design, predict their own hypothesis about economic phenomenon. The economics teacher should have to give ample opportunities, models and
in my terms, when my work is poor, tell me how to improve it. Teachers should provide for and encourage multiple perspectives and representation of content-
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illustrations to test their hypothesis through collaborative and cooperative discussions and mediations in their classroom. Students are engaged in dialogue with the teacher and each other- In constructivist class room, the activities are interactive; the class environment supports the active involvement of students in collaborative activities. These activities and interactions help students change or reinforce their ideas. If they have the chance to explain their views and opinions of economic realities, they can hear others reflections, they can also construct their own personal knowledge. The class uses raw data, primary sources, and manipulative, physical and interactive materialsConstructivist approach of teaching economics initiate learners to participate in concrete world situations, which help them to analyze and synthesis abstraction with concrete.
6. Constructivist Strategies in Teaching Economics Many instructors conceive of teaching as the well organized syllabus, explained in clear and well organized lectures with assignments and examinations to test for mastery. The unwelcome but inescapable fact is that sometimes, this kind of teaching doesnt result in student learning outcomes. It certainly doesnt stimulate the best students in economics classes (Becker, E. W., and Watts, M. 1998). Research findings indicated the chalk-and-talk approach is the instructional strategies predominantly used in the teaching of economics which is based on lecturing that ignore students' view (Walstad and Watts, 1985). The role of the teacher is the transmission of knowledge, learners found to be passive recipients of information; the class is dominated and controlled by the teacher. It is the common explanation for the low interest of students on economics courses (Becker and Watts, 2001a; George, 2008). Constructivist pedagogy denounces such traditional behaviorists approaches of teaching economics and recommends its own perspectives through exploring some useful strategies from traditional approaches. It has been realized that constructivist pedagogy has paramount implications for teaching economics education. First, teaching economics cannot be viewed as simple transmission of knowledge about economics facts, principles and theories from the teacher to the learner through mere lecturing. Second, learning is based on previous knowledge; hence some association should have to create between prior knowledge of economics with the present new knowledge and understandings. Third, economics teacher should have to engage students in learning experiences through brainstorming their prior knowledge and make them to synthesis with the new information. Some of the strategies that help economics teachers to move towards constructivist approaches are: seeking and using student questions and ideas to guide lessons and instructions; engage students in questioning, activity construct and explain a model and providing adequate time for reflection and analyzing the ideas given by students. In general, constructivist pedagogy determines the principles, stages of teaching, strategies and the crucial role expected from the constructivist teacher, which have paramount implications to become a model teacher in economics. According to Fosnot (1996), some of the stages of strategies that help teacher to move towards constructivist didactics in teaching different subjects are the following. These stages have practical implication in teaching economics. Introduction- In this phase of teaching, prior knowledge and experience can be activated in many ways. Recall previous knowledge about economics; introducing new theories and principles, asking some questions, which make students to be active participant and eagerly involve in discussions and classroom discourses.
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Exploration- Students engage in collaborative and cooperative learning, experimentation,
employ learners centered strategies, practice enquiry approach, discuss with teachers and classmates about economics facts and issues. Experiential Mode- Students interact and challenge each other and discover new ideas, construct their own understandings. Hence, meaningful learning occurs with authentic learning tasks. The teacher mainly acts in the provision of materials and arranging appropriate learning environment and facilitating learning and guiding learners. Abstract Conceptualization and Understanding- As per constructivist pedagogical tenets, learning economic facts and theories, is a matter of associating and attaching a new meaning to past cognitive experiences, constructing new explanations, experiences and making decisions. Reflection- Constructivist teacher encourage students to reflect on their current ideas and findings in the light of earlier hypothesis. This reveals that learners in economics education are encouraged to think about their own learning. Application and Evaluation- Evaluation is ongoing process of instructional process. This makes the constructivist approach of teaching a cyclic process. This process enable constructivist economics teacher to assess whether the learner has achieved understanding of concepts, theories and principles of economics or not. In general such stages of strategies can be adopted by a committed economics teacher to be both constructive and instructive for effective economics teaching.
7. The Role of Constructivist Economics Teacher As research in cognitive science indicated, constructivism as emerging theory of learning is based on the idea that learning occurs when a learner actively constructs a knowledge representation in working memory. In this view of learning, learner is a sense maker, whereas the teacher is a cognitive guide. It plays the role to encourage students to use active learning technique, e.g. experiments, and problem solving, to create more knowledge and then to reflect what they have understood. Contrary to criticisms by some traditional educators, constructivism does not dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert knowledge. Constructivism modifies that role, so that teachers instruct students to construct knowledge rather than to produce a series of facts. The constructivist economics teacher provides tools like, problem solving and inquiry-based learning activities with which students formulate and test their ideas, draws conclusions and inferences, and pool their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment. Thus, teaching economics should not only instructive but also constructive, instruction and construction can be connected successfully, however, which category of economic education and which contents should be filtered. One has to point out which challenges teachers have to meet facing the fields of instructive and constructive teaching approaches. In general, the role of constructivist economic teacher is different from the traditional role of a teacher as information provider. In constructivist classrooms, economics teachers functions as a stimulator of curiosity and resource person. A teacher also acts as senior co-investigator, a guide, as co-learner and as facilitator of knowledge construction. 8. Conclusion The central idea dealt with this paper is that currently behaviorist teaching approach is the predominant mode of instruction in the teaching of economics, which makes the subject least popular and not easily understandable discipline indifferent levels of education. Recent research findings in cognitive learning and teaching have given new dimensions of constructivist view of teaching and learning economics.
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Constructivist didactics highly recognizes learner as a constructor of knowledge and an active participant in the process of learning economics. Contrary to other modern theorists of teaching and learning, constructivists extremely demand teachers, the active role of the teacher and the worth of expert knowledge. It modifies the role that the economics teachers help students to construct knowledge rather than just mechanically receiving knowledge from the teacher. Thus, learning economics should not be only instructive, but also constructive. Instruction and construction cannot be put in to effect using a simple all or- nothing principle. Learning always demands motivation, interest and activity on the part of the teachers, thus, every learning process is constructive, the major objective of teaching is to enable and activate constructive learning. Learning also requires orientation, instruction and guidance. The teacher should have to play the role of both instructive and facilitator and guide for constructive learning. Hence, it requires a paradigm shift and the commitment to adopt the instructive perspectives with constructivism to be exemplary teacher in economics. References
Andre, Giordan, (1995). New Models for the Learning Process: Beyond Constructivism? Prospects, Vol.25, No.1. Becker, E. W., and Watts, M. 1998. Teaching economics to undergraduates: Alternative to chalk and talk. Northampton: Edward Elgar. Becker, E. W., and Watts, M. (2001a). Teaching economics at the start of the 21st century: Still Chalk-and- talk. The American Economic Review, 91(2), 446-450. Brooks,J.G.&Brooks,M.G.(1993). In Search of Understanding: The case for Constructivist. Association for Supervision & Curriculum, Alexandria, Cashin, W.( 1990). Students do rate different academic fields differently. In Student rating of instruction: Issues of improving practice. New directions for teaching and learning. Edited by M. Theall and J. Franklin. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Good, T.L., Brophy, J.E. (1990). Educational Psychology: A realistic Approach (4th ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman Fosnot,T. (1996).Constructivism: A psychological theory of Learning, in C.T.Fosnot (ed.) Constructivism, theory, perspectives and practice, New York: Colombia University Press. George, M. F. (2008). On the Teaching of Financial Economics: A Pedagogic Note. Journal of Investing, 17(3), 105-110. Jackson, M. (1990). Knowledge For What? Australian Quarterly 48(1) Jackson, M. (1989).Less Lecturing, More learning: Studies in Higher Education 14(1) Neuhauser (1992). The Social Contract between Teachers and Students. In Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speech in History;Newyork: Norton 1027. Pintrich, R.S.,& Schunk, D.H.(1996).Motivation in education: Theory, research, and application. Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Senapaty H.K and Pradahan.N(2005). Constructivist Pedagogy in Classroom in Indian Journal of Education. Vol.31,No.1. Steef,L.P.and Gale,J.(1995). Constructivism in Education (eds.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. Von Glaserfeld, E.( 1998). Sensory experience, abstraction, and teaching. In Constructivism in Education, ed. L. P.Steffe and J. Gale,. Hillside, N.J: Erlbaum. Walstad, W., and Watts, M.( 1985). Teaching economics in the schools: A review of survey Findings: Journal of Economic Education, Vol.16, No.2
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Economic Impact of HIV/AIDS and Stigmatization on Women in Nigeria: Challenges for the Actualization of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGS)
Dr. Yahya Zakari Abdullahi
Department Of Economics, Faculty Of Social Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria E-mail: ayzakari@ahoo.com
Dr. (Mrs.) Hussainatu Abdullahi

Department Of Economics, Faculty Of Social Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria E-mail: hussayabdul@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p205
Abstract Trapped between the shackles of the monster called poverty, haunted and manacled by the lethal dose of shame i.e. the millennium exterminator called HIV/AIDS, the Nigerian woman is thrown into the oblivion of stigmatization, discrimination and rejection. This situation has worsened her already precarious socio-economic wellbeing thereby jeopardizing her ability at self-actualization and economic independence. However, without the government taking very crucial steps to stem the tide of the real killer disease (stigma), the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which the whole world including Nigeria are striving to attain may be a herculean task. This paper attempts on explanation of the myths and misperception about HIV/AIDS, the stigma arising there from and consequently the challenges that must be overcome towards the actualization of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
1. Introduction At its core, development must be about general improvement of human wellbeing, eradication of hunger, disease, ignorance and provision of productive employment for all. Its first goal must be to end poverty and satisfy the priority needs of all people in a way that can be productively sustained (for) future generations (Ghali, 1995). For several years, the development challenge for Nigeria was the diversification of the productive base of the economy, i.e. away from oil, thereby embarking on several ad hoc stabilization or reform measures, a major reform package being the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) of the middle 1980s. In recent time, following the United Nations agenda on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Nigeria embarked on a new reform programme known as National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS). The objectives of NEEDS among others, is to enable Nigeria achieve a turn around and grow a broad-based market-oriented economy that is private sector-led and in which people can be empowered so that they can, as a minimum afford the basic needs of life. It is therefore a pro-poor development
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strategy with sources of economic empowerment being gainful employment and provision of social safety nets for (the) most vulnerable groups, (especially women), Akpobaseh (2004). However, this dream is under serious threat by the greatest millennium exterminator, i.e. HIV/AIDS. Thus, by killing so many people in their prime age, HIV/AIDS constitute crucial challenge to this reform agenda for economic growth and development that can be sustained. Indeed, it poses serious obstacle to human capital, discouragement of investment and erosion of productivity. In fact, HIV/AIDS does not only undermine a nations efforts at poverty reduction, but also it constitutes serious constraint to the improvement of the peoples standard of living. Nevertheless, the health consequences of poverty and deprivation for all people are enormous and very serious. Ultimately, the experience of women in most cases differs from those of men in a number of ways due to womens vulnerable position, not only in the labour economy, but also in the area of care economy (Abdullahi, 2004). It is therefore not surprising to note that womens health generally and their reproductive health in particular has in recent time become so fundamental that it has taken a prominent place in the United Nations agenda for the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) i.e. improvement of maternal health. Maternal health concerns have become very crucial and urgent in view of the current deadly lethal dose of shame in the name of HIV/AIDS for which women constitute the highest statistics of the affected and infected. It is useful to note that the HIV/AIDS scourge is shrouded in myths and misperception which unfortunately has led to serious stigmatization on the part of the women who have fallen victims due to their vulnerable position in all spheres of life. The need to understand the reality of this scourge cannot be overemphasized, especially if the objective of attaining improvement in maternal health, an important goal of the United Nations MDGs is to be actualized. In the light of the foregoing, this paper is divided into five (5) sections including this brief introduction as section one. Section two (2) provides an insight into the meaning of HIV/AIDS, the myths and realities surrounding it. In section three (3) an overview of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria is discussed with emphasis on the role of religion, culture versus sex and poverty, etc, while section four (4) looks at the economic impact of HIV/AIDS and stigmatization on women in Nigeria and its challenges for the actualization of the MDGs. The final section looks at the way forward towards actualizing the MDGs with conclusion. 2. HIV/AIDS: Meaning, Myths And Realities In this section we discuss the meaning, myths and realities of HIV/AIDS. a. Meaning of HIV/AIDS: To understand the issue of HIV/AIDS, it is important to pose a very crucial question, i.e. why it is perceived as such as lethal dose of shame? The answer is very simple, i.e. that people are ignorant of its meaning, hence the myths and misperceptions about the disease. Studies have shown that in 1984 and 3 years after the first reports of a disease that was to become known as AIDS, researchers discovered the primary causative viral agent, the human immunodeficiency viral type 1 (HIV-1). In 1986, a second type of HIV, called HIV-2 was isolated from AIDS patients in West Africa, where it may have been present decades earlier. However, studies of the natural history of HIV-2 are limited, though comparisons with HIV-1 show some similarities while suggesting some differences (Salaam, 2006). HIV-2 infections are predominantly found in Africa, thus West Africa, thus West African Nations with a prevalence rate of HIV-2 of more than 1% in the general population are: Cape Verde, Cote dvoire, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Niger, Sao Tome, Senegal and Togo (Ibid).
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b.
However, according to Cadman (2003), HIV is an acronym which stands for Human Immune deficiency Virus. HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. AIDS on the other hand means Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It is the most advanced stage of HIV infection. Thus, HIV causes AIDS by attacking the immune systems soldiers known as CD 4 Cells. When too much of these CD 4 cells are lost, the body is less able to fight off any infection. Most often, these may develop into serious and sometimes very deadly infections. These infections are referred to as Opportunistic Infections (OIs) due to the fact that they take advantage of the already weakened defenses of the body system. Consequently, AIDS result when the bodys immune system is compromised such that it cannot effectively fight off opportunistic infections from attacking it, hence it becomes very deadly. It is useful to stress that AIDS does not occur as soon as one is confirm as being HIV positive since the virus can remain for several years in the body without any sign of disease. However, if it is left without treatment, it will result to destroying the immune system, thereby creating room for opportunistic infections. Cadman (2003) opines that the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defines someone as having AIDS if he or she is HIV positive and meets one or both of the following conditions: Has had at least one of 21 AIDS defining opportunistic infections; and Has had a CD 4 Cell count ((T-Cell count) of 200cells or less (A normal CD 4 count varies by laboratory, but usually it is in the range of 600 to 1,500)) It is useful to stress that both HIV-1 and HIV-2 have the same modes of transmission and are associated with similar opportunistic infections, hence AIDS. Studies have revealed that in persons infected with HIV-s, immunodeficiency develops more slowly and it is milder when compared with persons infected with HIV-1. Thus, those with HIV-2 infectiousness seem to increase. However, when compared with HIV-1, the duration of this infectiousness is shorter. It is also reported that HIV-1 and HIV-2 also differ in geographic patterns of infection (Op. Cit). The Myths and Realities about HIV/AIDS: According to Trisdale (2003), most stories and rumours about HIV/AIDS are not only highly exaggerated, but they are in most cases made up. Consequently, in order to tackle the problem of HIV/AIDS it is very crucial to sieve out the myths from the realities. This is because, once one develops strong belief in the myths about the HIV/AIDS, it creates serious fear, denial, discrimination and the resultant effect may be serious damage to ones health which kills faster than the HIV/AIDS. i. Myths about HIV/AIDS: Trisdale (2003) highlights the following as the myths surrounding the HIV/AIDS scourge: HIV does not cause AIDS; The AIDS Test cant be trusted; Viral load tests dont really tell anything about a persons health; Straight people dont get HIV, etc. ii. Realities about HIV/AIDS: She also points out the following as the realities about HIV/AIDS. If you dont have HIV, you dont get AIDS, but if you have HIV you (may) eventually have AIDS; HIV medications known as antiretrovirals dont cure HIV, but can help keep people healthy for a longer period of time; AIDS Test measures the bodys response to HIV, called antibodies. The HIV antibody called ELISA is 99 % accurate;
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Viral load measures the amount of HIV in a persons blood. According to Trisdale, several studies have revealed that people with high viral loads are at high risk of falling ill or die than people with low viral loads; Majority of HIV positive people worldwide are heterosexual; You can pass it on to others, like your partner through sex or your baby during pregnancy, childbirth and breast feeding. Other modes of transmission include sharp objects, blood transmission from infected person; HIV can be passed on more easily if: i. You have sex without using a condom; ii. You have a sexuality transmitted infection (STI); iii. You have dry sex, i.e. wiping the private part or putting substance like snuff, vinegar, Colgate, Jik to dry up the vagina before sex; iv. You have rough sex like rape. This can cause cuts and bleeding and this helps HIV to get into the body more easily. Arising from the above, Trisdale warns that care should be taken in giving out wrong information because the myths about HIV/AIDS are very dangerous as they can make people fear when there is no cause to do so and also make one not to fear in the face of danger. 3. An Overview of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria: The Role of Religion and Culture Versus Sex and Poverty That Nigeria is the most populous black nation hence the acclaimed giant of Africa is no longer in doubt. Also not in doubt is the siege of patriarchy which has encompassed all spheres of the Nigerian society in the area of female genital mutilation, child marriage, widow inheritance, polygamy, while all the dominant religion proclaim the superiority of the males over the females, i.e. the traditional, Islamic and Christian religious practices. This Divinely ordained male dominance forms the ultimate basis of patriarchy entrenchment in the Nigerian culture (Isiramen, 2003). Nigeria is a society where talks about sexual issues are viewed as immoral, hence shrouded in great secrecy. This secrecy surrounding sexual relations, coupled with the religious and cultural expectations that subjugate women is largely responsible for womens (greatest) vulnerability to HIV/AIDS in the country, thus making Nigeria to be on the brink of HIV/AIDS disaster (Ibid). Arising from the above, studies have shown that Nigeria has the fastest rate of HIV/AIDS infection in West Africa, with the prevalence rate among women attending antenatal clinics rising from mere 1% in 1986 when HIV was first discovered in Nigeria to 21% in the (new millennium), thus women make up 60% of HIV/AIDS sufferers in Nigeria (Ibid). According to Oshotimehi (2006), the HIV/AIDS prevalence rate rose from 1.8% in 1992 to 4.5% in 2001, and 5.8% in 2003 and has fallen to 4.4% in 2005 which to him is still on the high side for a country like Nigeria. A number of factors have been isolated as being responsible for the high statistics of women affected by the HIV/AIDS scourge. These factors include among others religion, culture, sexual relation and poverty, etc, as discussed below. a. Religion and Culture versus Sexual Relations: Sex is the primary mode of transmission of HIV/AIDS. Thus womens vulnerability to this scourge is correlated according to Isiramen (2003) to the religious-cultural demands of the society in the area of sexual relations. According to her, from cradle, girls are groomed and indoctrinated to bear suffering and humiliation in silence. As usual, in a heavily patriarchal society like Nigeria, the males and females undertake different roles with different expectations in the area of sexual relations. While men can prove their virility and macho power through extramarital sex, it is a taboo for
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b.
the woman. In addition, both Islam and the traditional religion permit polygamy, hence fidelity on the part of the men is ruled out. Arising from the above, the tedious task of ensuring a successful marriage (a highly valued institution) lies on the womans shoulder alone. This involves provision of sex whenever the man is in need. Thus, in order to keep the sanctity of marriage, and in order to avoid castigation, shame, rejection, rebuke and dishonor or disgrace of divorce, most women suffer veneral diseases, the most deadly and prevalence of which is HIV/AIDS in silence. This indeed is a very rich and fertile atmosphere for the fast spread of HIV/AIDS (Ibid). In addition, due to womens low status in marriage relationship they fall prey to marital rape, i.e. a situation of coerced or forced sex. The tales of single women girls are worse in terms of rape as they suffer the shame in silence in order to avoid jeopardizing their future chances of marriage. All these factors combine in no small measure towards reducing womens ability to protect themselves, hence their high susceptibility to the HIV/AIDS scourge. Women are also exposed to HIV/AIDS due to other vile and highly repulsive cultural practices such as female genital mutilation and widowhood rites. Genital mutilations are usually enforced as a check on womens promiscuity in some societies in Nigeria. Usually, unsterilized instruments are used to perform this crude and horrifying operation by local physicians. The implication of this on the health of the woman is better imagined, needless to say in the spread of HIV/AIDS. Also in some societies in Nigeria, widowhood rites expose women to serious health problems, including the risk of HIV/AIDS infection. This rite involves shaving the head of the woman with unsterilized razor blade and a times forceful marriage to the deceaseds relation who may not have been tested for HIV. The Poverty Panacea: The economic condition of the country has also played crucial role in the spread of HIV/AIDS. As a richly endowed country, both in human and natural resources, Nigeria had no business with poverty. Unfortunately, due to gross mismanagement of the nations resources, the masses have been reduced to abject poverty and deprivation, with about 70% of the population living on less than one US dollar a day. This state of affair i.e. the economic pressure force some women into the dangerous and precarious life style of a commercial sex worker, especially among the teeming mass of the unemployed youths in order to escape the pangs of poverty. The irony of it all is that this escape route for survival resort to death sentence through the HIV/AIDS scourge. Therefore, as long as no effort is made to at least provide the basic needs for the masses, no amount of preaching against prostitution will change the situation (Isiramen, 2003). Arising from the above, is the fact that because of the religious and cultural barriers, most women are not aware that they are infected and when they do they maintain the culture of silence due to stigmatization, a more deadly exterminator than the HIV/AIDS scourge. This is the subject of discuss in the next section that follows.
4. Economic Impact of HIV/AIDS and Stigmatisation on Women in Nigeria: Challenges for the Actualisation of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGS) There is no doubt about the fact that people of all income levels and age groups are highly susceptible to the economic impact of HIV/AIDS either directly or indirectly. In the same vein, all sectors of the economy are also affected, like the issue of governance, the production and the social sectors, etc. However, the poor, particularly women and girls are the most vulnerable to HIV/AIDS and are thus disproportionately affected by the epidemic. Indeed, the greatest burden of care rests on the heads of women/girls. Most often families find it easier to withdraw girls from school in order to care for sick
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relations or assume other responsibilities within the family. This always ends the girls education, thereby jeopardizing her future prospects at self-actualization and economic independence. The resultant consequences on girls development is especially fundamental, leaving girls even more susceptible to HIV/AIDS infection as they are less able to achieve the earning power required to increase their economic independence. The impact on the national economy is best imagined i.e. reduced education for women seriously impedes the general economic development of a nation. Indeed, the economic impact of HIV/AIDS on governance cannot be overemphasized. This is because the government and the private sectors are loosing highly valuable and very skilled employees to the epidemic; hence they are being confronted with mounting bills on health care, widow and orphan maintenance, etc. This results to reduced revenue and lower return on investment. In addition, the loss of skilled employees through this epidemic is seriously hampering capacity, while the costs of new recruitments, training, benefits settlement and replacement are mounting. According to United Nations Fact Sheet (2001), HIV/AIDS is reducing the ratio of healthy workers to dependants, thereby reducing productivity. This trend has slowed the development of the private sector, a core element in the development strategies of many nations especially Nigeria. The agricultural sector is not left out as HIV/AIDS is reducing investment in irrigation, soil enhancement and other capital improvement strategies. This has inhibited agricultural production as households are being constrained to shift to crops that are less labour-intensive but also in nourishment. This has further worsened the food crisis in Nigeria in particular. This indeed poses serious challenges to the actualization of the MDGs by 2015 whereby people suffering from hunger are supposed to be reduced by half. The economic impact on the social sector too raises a lot of concerns. The HIV/AIDS epidemic has seriously overburdened the social system, consequently hindering health and educational development. It has been reported that in some countries ravaged by the epidemic, life expectancy has been reduced by 20 years, with the current rate of children orphaned by the disease amounting to about 13.2 million, which is also expected to double by the year 2010 (UN Fact Sheet, 2001). This panacea poses serious demands on social welfare, especially for a country like Nigeria which is already overburdened by huge developmental challenges. For instance, the quality and efficiency of our educational system, coupled with our health system that is already seriously overstretched are cases of contention. HIV/AIDS has seriously undermined social cohesion and has become a serious threat to social and political stability in Nigeria. Indeed, the MDGs of ensuring universal primary education by 2015 is no doubt at a great risk in Nigeria. Arising from the above is the economic consequences of stigmatization of people living positively with HIV/AIDS, the bulk of whom are women. Thus, between HIV infection (which does not kill) and AIDS (which could kill), there is a potent exterminator whose name is stigma (JAAIDS, 2006). According to JAAIDS, HIV/AIDS is the most misunderstood and stigmatized (ailment of the millennium) stigma is more lethal than the virus itself. It not only kills, it also perpetuates its own particular kind of emotional trauma which has serious consequences on self-esteem, mental health, and access to care. Indeed, stigma is one of the forces that are fast driving the widespread nature of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Stigma and discrimination can manifest in many ways (Engederhealth, 2006). It is usually fuelled by ignorance. While a lot has been discussed about HIV/AIDS, very few people still have factual knowledge of the virus as distinct from the syndrome. People view HIV/AIDS as a disease and this is very wrong because it is not so in the scientific parlance. Across Nigeria, the stigma, prejudice and denial surrounding HIV/AIDS are major obstacles in trying to stem the spread of the pandemic (Clarke, 2006). According to Clarke, reports about HIV positive women being tortured, burned and abandoned have frightened many women, especially within the Muslim communities, about seeking tests
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or treatment. There are also situations where husbands know their status and take ARVs, but will not tell their wives. While it is gratifying to note that the existence of HIV/AIDS is slowly gaining acceptance, principally due to the laudable activities of the National Action Committee on AIDS (NACA), there is no doubt that a lot still needs to be done especially in the fight against ignorance, myths and the sociocultural obstacles fuelling its wide spread. The question that readily comes to mind at this juncture is which way forward? This is the subject of discuss in the next section. 5. Towards Actualization of the Millennium Development Goals: The Way Forward For long time HIV/AIDS awareness campaigns were viewed as another western propaganda to spread foreign ways of thinking, especially among traditional Muslim communities. But the reality today is that HIV/AIDS is real and a lot of people have lost their lives, with many women widowed and a lot of children orphaned. The epidemic is spreading like wild fire. What should Nigeria do about this scourge in order to actualize the MDGs on health generally and maternal health in particular, especially as it relates to HIV/AIDS? Nigeria can do the following to overcome this problem a. The Risk Avoidance Strategy, i.e. the ABC of HIV/AIDS Prevention: The first step towards overcoming the spread of the epidemic is to attack the most primary cause i.e. sex. This is the most common way through which HIV/AIDS could be contacted. Thus, since the late 1980s it had been known that individuals could take action to either reduce or avoid altogether the risk of becoming infected with HIV/AIDS through sexual transmission. Thus, the risk could be avoided through: i. Abstinence: i.e. by avoiding altogether any sexual activities that could cause transmission of HIV/AIDS and wait till one gets married to the right partner. ii. Be Faithful: i.e. avoiding sexual relationship other than with a mutually faithful uninfected partner. iii. Condomize: i.e. by avoiding correct and consistent use of condoms, especially for people who cannot discipline themselves sexually. Empirical evidences from Uganda and Botswana have shown that the ABC method has been effective in curtailing the spread of HIV/AIDS (Avert, 2005). In fact, the slogan was believed to have been first adopted by the Botswanan government in the late 1990s as part of a general public AIDS awareness campaign. However, there have been other variations with more specific definition of ABC by the US-funded PEPFAR initiative and UNAIDS, though with very little difference in meaning. b. The Influence of Religion and Culture: No effort to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria can afford to ignore the dominant influence of religion and culture. There is no doubt about the fact that the high secrecy attached to womens sexual experiences through religiouscultural norms has contributed in no small way to womens vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. No culture is immune to change, hence Nigerians must let go of the traditional notions of male chauvinism (Isiramen, 2003) citing Martin Foreman (Director of AIDS programme of the Panos Institute, London) opines that the HIV/AIDS epidemic cannot be curtailed until men are persuaded to reassess their traditional concepts of masculinity. Without men, there would be no HIV/AIDS epidemic. c. Education and Information: The role of qualitative education combined with accurate and timely information towards minimizing the spread of HIV/AIDS cannot be overemphasized. In Nigeria today, there are overwhelming evidences on the high rate of women among the statistics of the illiterates and uninformed. When women are not educated
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d.
e.
f.
and consequently well informed, they fall easy prey to all the excesses of the chauvinistic maledominated society. In the light of this, there is the urgent need to replace the secrecy surrounding sexual relations with effective and timely information and qualitative education. In this respect, we advocate for the inclusion of sex education in our school curriculum. It is also useful to stress that education means empowerment, hence women should be empowered to make decisions about all aspects of their lives, especially about the use of their bodies. They must be encouraged to resist those negative aspects of socio-cultural and economic pressures, while religious leaders should provide the correct interpretation of the various holy books (the Holy Quran and Bible). After all Islam in particular is the religion that has accorded women high status in the history of mankind. Islam saved the girl-child from being buried alive, a barbaric practice of the Arabs during the pre-Islamic era. Islam is kind to women in adolescence because she is granted rights of inheritance and the right to be educated and in old age, Islam adores women with garment of honour and dignity (Dindi, 1994). Poverty Alleviation/Eradication: While it is essential to stress that absolute poverty can be eradicated, relative poverty on the other hand can only be alleviated. Which ever angle we may take, it is very crucial to observe that it is possible to stop the spiraling crisis of HIV/AIDS by attacking head-on this monster called poverty. Sadly, we have burgeoning number of our citizens living below the poverty line, while many others could safely be referred to as living dead. With no job, no food, no hope, the devil easily engages otherwise vibrant youths in devilish activities, (the easiest being prostitution). Consequently, we all are common losers in the pauperization and dehumanization of the bulk of our citizens through economic theories which speak of macro and micro-effects of policies which sadly neglects and negates the common sense economic theory that democracy must start with the stomach (Daily, Sun, 2006). In the light of this, improved and intensified poverty efforts on the part of policy makers to promote equitable growth, generate employment, raise incomes, improve agricultural production, promote and expand informal sector livelihood. Nigeria can safeguard her current development achievements through effective integration of HIV/AIDS activities into her overall development agenda. Also each sector of the economy should take into account the issue of HIV/AIDS in their development plans through the introduction of measures that will sustain public sector functions. Work-place Legislation, Provision of Social Services and Justice: Given the current conducive political environment, the time is ripe for the policy makers to explore innovative ways of maintaining and rebuilding capacity towards containing the epidemic. In addition, effective and efficient labour and social legislations should be put in place in other to boost peoples rights, i.e. a National work-place policy on HIV/AIDS, while more effective ways of delivering social services should be aimed at those that are worst affected by the epidemic, i.e. the widows and orphaned children. There should also be legislation on good homes for the widows and those orphaned by the epidemic. In the same vein, legislation should be made for adoption of these orphans. In addition, if the battle against HIV/AIDS is going to be victorious, the need to maintain security, justice and democratic governance cannot be under estimated. In this respect the government should create a conducive environment that is confidential to enable people voluntarily present themselves for free counseling and testing. When the majority, if not everybody are aware of their HIV/AIDS status, it will help to control further spread. Empathy and Love for those already affected and infected: We have noted earlier that the issue of stigmatization is more deadly than the virus itself. Stigma devalues intervention for support, reduces sense of self-esteem and pride. One culture in Nigeria used to be such that we are our
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g.
brothers keepers. Nigerians are known for their love and affection for family ties and relationships especially during crisis period. No doubt, those already affected are seriously in daring need of love affection and understanding. Let us unite in our solidarity and dream that it is possible to have an HIV/AIDS Free Generation by empathizing with those already carrying the virus. It is not a death sentence as it was originally portrayed through sensational reporting by the mass media. We should not pity, scorn, despise or shun the infected if we all exhibit a positive attitude to these people infected, it will go long way in prolonging their life time. Hope should be communicated for their survival and encouragement. We should also note that with or without HIV/AIDS death will come one day. Let us all stretch a hand of love to our kit (s) and other affected neighbor (s) alike. Capacity Building: The need to provide relevant capacity for those already affected cannot be overemphasized. Dolling out stipend is only a temporary measure, but teaching them requisite skills will create a double-edged-sword, i.e. it will go a long way in reducing their emotional trauma and boredom, while at the same time empowering them economically. It is gratifying to note that a number of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have taken steps in this direction, but a lot still need to be done, especially by philanthropists and the Civil Society at large.
6. Conclusion There is no doubt about the fact that the initial negative presentation by some medical personnel and the sensational captions by the Nigerian Mass Media on the so-called dead-sentence nature of the HIV/AIDS epidemic made it so scary that people found it difficult to accept its presence on time, hence its sporadic spread and consequently stigmatization of those affected. Thus lack of effective communication, information and acute ignorance has combined in no small measure to fuel the spread of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria. The fight is still raging, while the tide is still very high, but there seems to be hope at the end of the tunnel, especially given the general global concerns (Global Funds) and that of the current democratic government (NACA) in the struggle to reduce the epidemic. Nevertheless, we strongly believe that the spiraling case of HIV/AIDS can be stopped if there is a permanent solution to poverty generally and as it affects women in particular. In addition, religious organizations need to intensify efforts towards combating the epidemics. It is our belief that if leaders imbibe the political will and are transparent, honest, and accountable, by putting their minds and will into its permanent extermination, the dream of actualizing the Millennium Development Goals will be triumphantly attained, while Nigeria will lead the Committee of African Nations with respect to having future generations that are HIV/AIDS-Free. It is on this note we conclude the paper. References
Abdullahi, H. (2004): Poverty, Deprivation and Womens Health: A Review in Issues in Economics, 1 (eds.) by C. U. Aliyu, and Abdullahi, A. S., a publication of the Department of Economics, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria; p. 181 201. Akpobasah, M. (2004): Development Strategy for Nigeria, a paper presented at a 2 day Nigeria Meeting organized by the Overseas Development Institute, London, 16th 17th June. Avert (2005): The ABC of HIV Prevention, by Avert.org. Avert is an international AIDS charity. (file://D://Hivprevention/The ABC of HIV prevention.htm) Cadman, I. (2003): What is HIV? (http://www.thewellproject.org/HIV_The_Basics/ What_is_Hiv.jsp). Clarke, I. (2006): Nigeria: A Lethal Dose of Shame, in IRIN Plus News, HIV/AIDS News Service for Africa (http://plusnews.org/AIDSreport.asp?Report!!) =5335&SelectRegion=West Africa.
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Daily Sun, Friday December, 8th 2006 Front page Dindi, S. (1994): The Rights of Women in Islam, a paper presented at a workshop on the Them: Womens Health, Rights and Concerns, organized by the Planned Parenthood Federation of Nigeria (PPFN), Southern Zone at The University of Ibadan Conference Hall, 19th 22nd May. EngenderHealth (2006): Reducing Stigma and Discrimination surrounding HIV/AIDS in Nigeria. (http://www.engenderhealth.org/itf/nigeria-2.html) Ghali, R. B. (1996): An Agenda for Development, (former United Nations Security-General, Boutrus Boutrus Ghali). JAAIDS, (2006): Stigmatization Reduction Season Begins, eForum Message by Journalists against Aids Nigeria (JAAIDS), May 9th. (http://www.nigeria-aids.org/eforum/Msg/ Read.cfm?ID=5800). Ones, C. (1995): Marriage is not a Vaccine Against AIDS, World 53. Oshotimehi, B. (2006): NACAs Activity, on NTA Channel 10 Towards a Greater Nation, a programme presented by Omotayo-Omotosho, December 5th, 12.00 Noon (National Action Committee on AIDS, Chairman Prof. Babatunde Oshotimehi). Salaam, (2006): AIDS in Muslim African Countries. (http://www.salaam.com.uk/ themeofthemonth/ october02_index.pho?1=4) Trisdale, S. K. (2003): Myths and Misperceptions about HIV, July. (http://www.thewellproject.org /HIV_The_Basics/Myths_and_Misperceptions.jsp). United Nations (2001): HIV/AIDS and Development, Special Session on HIV/AIDS Global Crisis Global Action, Fact Sheet, 25th 27th June. Vasquez, C. (1994): The Myths of Invulnerability: Lesbians and HIV Disease, Focus, 8 (9):1.
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Beyond Refuge: Post Acceptance Challenges in New Identity Constructions of African Refugee Claimants in Canada
Michael Baffoe, M.S.W; Ph.D
Assistant Professor of Social Work University of Manitoba 500B Tier Building, Winnipeg, MB, R2N 2X2, Canada. Tel: (204) 474-9682, Fax:(204) 474-7594 e-mail: Michael.Baffoe@ad.umanitoba.ca
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p215
Abstract Undergoing the process of refugee claims and refugee determination in Canada is not easy: It involves long periods of waiting and uncertainty when the focus of the claimants is only on getting their claims accepted. The period after acceptance of refugee claims however, involves a difficult process of rebuilding disrupted and (in some cases), shattered lives, in safety and dignity. While government and mainstream settlement agencies focus on housing, language training and employment as the immediate and important settlement needs of new immigrants and refugees, the refugees themselves undergo very difficult processes of reconstructing new identities as part of their efforts to carve new ways of life for themselves and their families. They are eager to shed the refugee label/tag and take on new identities as they navigate their way through their new society. This article highlights findings from studies done with Africans who arrived as refugees and refugee claimants in Montreal and Toronto from the late 1980sto the mid 1990s, most of whom are now either permanent residents or Canadian citizens. Key Words: Africa, Refugees, re-settlement; new identity constructions, mental health, stigmatization. Labelling; counter-storytelling
1. Introduction With the changes in the geo-political landscapes around the world and political, economic and social upheavals, many people continue to find themselves at risk and seek asylum outside of their own borders (UNHCR, 1997c). This is involuntary or forced migration and many of such people who become known as refugees continue to seek protection and humanitarian assistance in other countries around the world. The UN Convention on Refugees emphasizes that the determination of refugee status reflects an incompatibility between the applicant and his/her state or country of origin (Boyd, 1999; Connors, 1997). Forced migration and its resultant turning of people into refugees have been an important component of international migration in Africa. The number of refugees in Africa increased steadily from 1960 to 1995, passing from 79,000 to 6.4 million in that period. Since 1970, refugees in Africa have constituted a substantial proportion of the world's refugees. The proportion of refugees in Africa peaked in 1975, when three out of every five of the world's refugees had found asylum in the continent. Since 1985, at least a third of all refugees in the world have been hosted by countries of Africa. In addition, the growing reluctance of receiving countries in Africa to grant asylum and refugee status on a prima facie basis has also contributed to the reduction of official numbers of refugees hoisted by other
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countries on African soil (Zlotnik, 2004). Many of them therefore sought asylum and protection in a number of Western countries including Canada. The refugee influx into Canada from Africa started in the mid 1980s reaching a peak in the early 1990s when political repression and social and economic instability were rampant and prevalent in most African countries (Zlotnik, 2004; Boyd, 1999). There are about 20,000 individual refugees annually in Canada representing a little less than 10% of total immigration into Canada (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 1994). The literature is replete with numerous studies on refugee movements around the world and on settlement services provided to refugees in host societies (see Keely, 1992; Loescher and Loescher, 1994; UNHCR, 1997). There is however a dearth in the literature on an important, but often overlooked, aspect of the lives of former refugees in host societies: their burning desires and quick attempts, in their post-refuge years to shed the refugee labels, and to reconstruct new identities, different from the refugee label and identity which many regard as stigmas. Around the world, images that are flashed on television screens and in newspapers portray refugees mainly in negative light: poor, hungry-looking and malnourished. A large number of Africans who arrived in Canada in the late 1980s and 1990s as refugees who were the subjects of this study, were very well educated professionals who escaped from their countries due to political repressions and persecutions in their countries of origin (Bauder, 2003; Grant, 2005b; Li, 2001; Mulder &Korenic, 2005). These do not fit the usual images that are portrayed about refugees as stated above. It is no wonder that this section of the refugee population in Canada have been eager to shed the refugee label as soon as their claims to refugee status are accepted. This study is therefore an attempt to shed light on this important aspect of the settlement lives of refugees in host societies, especially Canada. It focused on a group of African refugees who arrived in the Canadian cities of Montreal and Toronto between the late 1980s and mid 1990s. It begins with an overview of the United Nations Convention and Protocols on Refugee Protection, refugee movements into Canada from the 1980s to the early1990s, and Canadas Refugee Protection system which administers refugee claims in Canada. A brief look is taken at refugee sponsorships programs by the Canadian government and private-sponsoring organizations of refugees into Canada. This is in addition to those making refugee claims at Canadas ports of entry as well as those that make in-land refugee claims. Thirdly, the methodology and theoretical framework that guided the study are presented. The study then takes a look at settlement and integration services that are provided to refugees and new immigrants in Canada. Next, the findings from the study, which include narratives from the participants are presented. The final section discusses the findings from the study and concludes with some recommendations for assisting this new population groups not only in Canada, but in countries that receive and host refugees. 2. United Nations Convention relating to the status of Refugees Adopted on 28 July 1951 by the United Nations Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, the Convention stipulates that:
Any person who by reason of a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, nationality,religion, membership in a particular social group or political opinion is outside his country of origin or nationality and is unable or unwilling by reason of such fear, to return toor avail himself/herself of the protection of that country, or (b). Not having a country of nationality, is outside the country of his former habitual residence and is unable or, by reason of such fear, is unwilling to return to that country (UNHCR, 2007; Loescher and Loescher, 1994).
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Persons in need of protection as stipulated in the UN Convention are people whose removal to their home countries would subject them personally to a danger of torture, a risk to their life, or a risk of cruel and unusual treatment or punishment (UNHCR, 1997). 3. Refugee Claimants and Refugees This study deals with two types of refugees: refugee claimants and refugees. A refugee claimant is a person who considers himself/herself as fitting the UN Convention Refugee definition and seeks/applies to another country he/she considers safe for protection under the UN Convention on refugees. Such a person is willing to remain permanently in the country to which he/she applies for protection with the hope of starting a new life (Loescher and Loescher, 1994). Millions of people are on the move around the world as a result of wars, civil strifes, political repression, climatic changes/natural disasters, and famine. Refugees for purposes of this study are former refugee claimants who have been deemed or accepted as refugees by the new host country to which they applied for protection as fitting the United Nations Convention on Refugees. They may also be persons who were sponsored into a host society by government or private organizations or agencies from refugee camps around the world. Such persons are those that had escaped from their former countries of origin or habitual residence, living in another country and are deemed to be facing danger to their lives if returned to those former countries. These are usually referred to as sponsored refugees(UNHCR, 1997c; Loescher and Loescher, 1994). 4. Canadas Refugee Determination Process Canada has an obligation to grant protection to Convention Refugees and other persons in need of protection. This is because Canada has signed a number of United Nations Conventions, including: the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees the 1984 Convention Against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment Canadas Refugee Determination process has evolved and undergone dramatic changes from the mid-1980s (Heckman, 2009). The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act governs matters concerning immigration and refugee protection in Canada, including much of the work of the IRB. The Act came into force on June 28, 2002, replacing the previous Immigration Act of 1976. Persons may claim refugee status at any point of entry into Canada: Land Borders, Airports, and Sea Ports. There are also those persons who make In-LandRefugee Claims. These are persons who have arrived in the host country earlier under different circumstances and may make a refugee claimto the appropriate immigration offices or offices designated for that purpose if they have reason to believe that they cannot return to their country of origin or habitual residence for reasons underlined in the UN Convention on refugees (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2009). In either situation, the refugee claimant is examined first by an Immigration Officer at the point of entry for eligibility to make a refugee claim. This is the first stage of the refugee claim that determines admissibility grounds of the Refugee Claimant. The officer may refuse the refugee claim on any of the following grounds: security risk; claimant is deemed to have committed crimes against humanity either in times of peace or war; serious criminality; health reasons; or inadmissible family member. If the claimant is deemed admissible, the claim is then referred to the Immigration and Refugee Board (IRB) for Adjudication (Canadian Council for Refugees, 2003).
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Established in 1989, the Immigration and Refugee Board (IRB), Canada's largest administrative Tribunal, is a quasi-judicial Commission which is supposed to be independent of both Citizenship and Immigration Canada and the Canada Border Services Agency (Heckman, 2009, Matas, 1989). Ithas four Divisions:The Immigration Division; Immigration Appeals Division; Refugee Protection Division; Refugee Appeals Division. It is the Refugee Protection Division that hears and determines refugee claims referred to it by the Immigration Officers that examined the claimants at the points of entry or points of refugee claim. These hearings were, during the period covered by this study, held before Refugee Panels consisting of two Refugee Board Members; a Refugee Hearing Officer (RHO) representing the government; the refugee claimantand his/her legal representative. If the IRB Adjudicating panel accepts the claimants story, it issues a decision recognizing the refugee claimant as a refugee under the United Nations Convention. The refugee claimant (now recognized as a conventionrefugee is then allowed to apply to Citizenship and Immigration Canada for permanent residence status. If the IRB disbelieves the claimant, it issues a negative decision stating that the claimants claim has no credible basis and is therefore not recognized as a refugee under the United Nations Convention (CCR, 2003). For the purpose of this study, the focus will be on those that are accepted as Convention Refugees. There has been constant criticism in Canada over the years on the work of the IRB especially appointments to the Board and the process of adjudication (Matas, 1989). Refugee and immigration advocates in Canada have for years complained about the competence of some of the personnel appointed to the Board. Some of the complaints and accusations, relevant to this study, have centred around suspicions and concerns of incompetence and bias attitudes of some Board members towards refugee claimants (Heckman, 2009). The IRB adjudication process has over the years been engulfed in lengthy delays during which some claimants have had to wait for periods ranging from two to five years to have their claims heard (Hathaway, 1991; 2005). These long periods of waiting have created uncertainties and a lot of stress among refugee claimants, many of whom were separated from their families as at the time they arrived in Canada as refugee claimants or sponsored refugees (Canadian Task Force on Mental Health Issues Affecting Immigrants and Refugees, 1988). 5. Methodology A qualitative research approach was the preferred choice in this study because it falls in the realm of phenomenology which, according to van Manen (1997), is the study of lived experience. Reflection on lived experience is always recollective; it is a reflection on experience that is already passed or lived through (van Manen, 1997). This study is therefore about the lived experience of its participants: former refugees and refugee claimants from Africa living in Canada. The research design and methodology therefore recognized the participants as expert knowers in their own lived experiences. The research process therefore recognized the expertise of the participants, through interviews which explored their ideas and understandings on their journeys, often painful, from their original homelands to Canada and the long struggles to seek acceptance and protection. It also focused on the second phase of their lifes journeys to reconstruct new identities in their new homelands. The study adopted the method of open-ended (in-depth) ethnographic interviews, which, according to Denzin and Lincoln (1998), is one of the mostcommon and powerful ways to grasp the meanings that people ascribe to their dailylives. The interview questions were designed to generate not only answersover the meanings that the interviewees have attached to their migration experiences as refugees but also their personal stories and accounts of life historiesand experiences in new societies. Secondary data included Canadian government statistics and annual immigration and refugee reports,
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reports and minutes of meetings of refugee community organizations and newspaper articles. A combination of purposive and snowballing sampling techniques was applied. The researcher, who arrived in Canada in the late 1980s as a refugee claimant himself knew a number of people in the communities identified. He contacted a number of former refugee claimants from the communities who also recommended other potential participants who also agreed to participate in the study. The researcher also attended a number of meetings of some of the refugee communities in a participant observer status. There was trust between the researcher and participants as the latter regarded the researcher as one of us who understood our struggles. 6. Theoretical Framework The Critical Race Theorys tenet of counter story telling was the theoretical framework that guided the study. Critical race theory gives voice to marginalized people to tell their stories and experiences within a framework where the center of analysis is the narrative (Grant and Asimeng-Boahene, 2006). As a former refugee claimant in Canada who has experienced most of the issues that the participants alluded to, I find the use of counter-story telling very relevant to the lived experiences of the subjects of this study. Critical Race Theorys tenet of counter-storytelling refers to the illumination of the cultural and personal narratives, family histories, and metaphorical stories that present a contrast to dominant societal narratives about race. These stories are viewed as central sources of information necessary for an authentic and comprehensive understanding of racial stratification and subordination (Dixson and Rousseau, 2006).Given that storytelling is a significant aspect of human communication, CRT has advocated for marginalized people to tell their often unheard and unacknowledged stories and for these perspectives to be applied to the existing dominant narratives that influence the law (Solorzano and Yosso, 2002). Delgado and Stefanic (2001) also describe CRTs tenet of storytelling/counterstorytelling as a process of naming one's own reality. In the case of refugees, they are the only ones who can tell and re-enact the experiences that form their reality from their countries of origin or former places of habitual residence to the new societies to which they have run to seek protection and opportunities to start new lives. To get accepted as Convention Refugees in Canadas Refugee Determination system, refugees claimants have to recall painful experiences to tell and retell their stories to people (Immigration Officials and Refugee Board Members) who may have no such experiences and who sometimes decide not to believe the stories the refugees have to tell because they sound too much out reality for these immigration and refugee hearing officials (Matas, 1989). 7. Research Participants The participants in this study were sixty persons of African origin who had arrived in Canada as refugee claimants from the mid 1980s up to the mid 1990s. They were from Ghana and Nigeria in West Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo (former Zaire) in Central Africa, and Somalia in the Horn of Africa. The researcher, a former refugee, was a former resident of Montreal, frequently visiting Toronto and knew a number of former refugee claimants in those cities. There were large numbers of refugees and refugee claimants from the above countries in the two cities during the period of this study. Thirty participants from the former refugee communities in Montreal participated in the study. Ten participants each were selected from the Ghanaian and Somalian communities and five each from the Congolese and Nigerian communities respectively.
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An equal number of thirty participated in the study from Toronto. These were from three communities: ten each from the Ghanaian, Somalian and Nigerian communities. With the exception of the Somalian group, all the other participants in the study arrived in Canada as refugee claimants. Of the ten participants of Somalian origin in the study, six had arrived in Canada as refugee claimants while eight had been sponsored to Canada from refugee camps in Kenya.Most of the participants were interviewed about a year or two after the acceptance of their refugee claims or after their arrival in Canada as sponsored refugees. All the participants were interviewed again about three to four years after the first interviews. They had, as some of them put it, metamorphosed from refugees, to permanent residents of Canada and becoming Canadian citizens. In all, the study interviews took place over a period of about six years. All the participants were interviewed twice, the second being follow-up interviews, on their agreement, to check on how they were doing in their new identities as Canadian citizens and engaging in new vocations or professions. 8. The Refugee Resettlement and Integration process in Canada When a refugee claimant or refugee family is finally accepted to stay in Canada for protection, and permanently, they are then entitled to services provided by an array of Settlement Agencies that can be found in all the major cities and urban centers in Canada where refugees have been settled (Abu-Laban et al, 1999; Indra, 1993; Satzewich, 1993). Refugees that arrived on their own in Canada are usually referred to Provincial health and Social Services authorities for assistance. The Government Assisted Refugees (GARs) receive 12 months of income and settlement support from the Canadian Federal government (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2008). The Private Sponsored Refugees (PSRs) receive settlement support from their sponsoring groups and organizations which include housing. However all the refugee categories are entitled to receive health and other social services, language and job search training provided by the provincial governments (CIC, 2008). Settlement agencies and even government departments have tended to focus on the deficits of refugees instead of their strengths. Despite the educational backgrounds, language and occupational skills that most refugees come into Canada with (see CIC, 2003), they are usually regarded by host societies and their settlement agencies as lacking physical security, limited language and labour market skills, living in extreme poverty and having significant mental and physical health problems including disabilities (CIC, 2008; Indra, 1993; Lamba, 2002). They also are regarded, usually not backed by data as more likely to be on welfare or social assistance (Basran, &Zong, 1998; Bauder, 2003). They are all lumped together as needing the same traditional services of housing, language training, job training and job search (Lamba, 2003; Li, 2001; Reitz, 2001; Zetter, 1999). It is a one-size-fit all approach. It is this blanket image and stigma of helplessness and neediness attached to all refugees in Canada that the participants in this study struggled to shed during their post refugee acceptance periods. 9. Findings/Discussion In this section I analyze the view presented by the study participants with the objective of teasing out some significant emerging themes. The refugee experience is often characterized as uprooting and traumatic, which is true. They may have experienced war, persecution, imprisonment, displacement, trauma, rape and torture, among others (Lamba, 2003). In their new host societies, refugees continue to deal with the effects of the above as well as social isolation and exclusion, conflicts with cultural expectations and mainstream institutions, role changes, identity crises, and a social reconstruction of the concept of home, (Bernier, 1992).
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It was echoed over and over again by the study participants how they resented the negative refugee label and stigma and were eager to shed it at the earliest opportunity. Lamba(2003) points out that because refugees are often admitted due to a collective traumatic experience, their new identities frequently and traditionally come to be defined via this collective cause. Government personnel, settlement service providers, and even researchers have all being guilty of reducing groups of refugees, wherever and whatever backgrounds they come from, to a single category of needy and helpless persons (Daniel & Knudsen, 1995). In so doing, their distinctive life stories and histories, the push and pull factors for their escape, personal goals, individual needs, aspirations and ambitions are ignored or minimized (Zetter, 1999). Furthermore, as Gold (1993) point out, simplistically characterizing refugees as persons in need can have significant negative consequences. Other authors (see also Mazur, 1988; Kuo& Tsai, 1986) have also maintained that socially constructed expectations of refugee passivity and dependence create institutions and procedures that can discourage refugees from taking control of their lives. It leads to a situation where the thinking of settlement services and researchers come to revolve around lost capacity of refugees who are then viewed in only dependent roles, characterized by need and helplessness (Mazur, 1988). It is these images and perceptions that the former refugee participants in this study have been struggling to shed and overcome. The following narratives from some of the participants illuminate this point:
Escaping from the land of my birth...finding myself in Canada as a refugee is something that I never dreamt will happen to me. In Canada the images of refugees that are shown on television and in newspapers are those of hungry-looking, helpless people in camps. I never lived in a refugee camp. I was never hungry. I was a well-educated person holding a top professional job at home. It is the unfortunate political circumstances there that forced me to escape for my life. All I need here in Canada is protection and the chance to pursue my career which I am surely qualified for. To equate me to the category of a hungry-looking, helpless uneducated person coming from a refugee camp really hurts. You see, watching these pictures and reading about these in newspapers here contributes in lowering your self esteem
From another:
They never give us a chance here to prove ourselves as fit for careers that we have trained in prior to our coming to Canada as refugees. Whenever we go to some of the settlement agencies, they dont bother to enquire about our background. I have had all my education up to university level in English, but they keep referring me to ESL classes which I really dont need. Honestly, the settlement agencies did nothing for me. I had to struggle for information myself as to how to further my education. In fact I was determined to get some Canadian education to boost the ones I came with and move away from this distressing refugee stigma
10. New Identity Construction in host societies Identities are social constructions. As defined by Hall (1996), identities are about questions of using the resources of history, language, and culturein the process of becoming rather than being: not who we are or where we camefrom, so much as what we become, how we have been represented and how thatbears on how we represent ourselves.Always in process, identities undergo constant transformations and are increasinglyfragmented, fractured, and multiply or reconstructed across different, often antagonistic,discourses, practices, and positions Hall, 1994). Fragmented and shifting asthey are, however, identities strive for a closure, a belief in internal coherence, anda sense of eternity (Frith, 1996), which can be achieved through retelling the stories ofthe past, sometimes painful as in the case refugees, and imagining a new secure homeland.
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Participants in this study became engaged in struggles at creating new identities, from their assigned refugee labels which, as indicated above, many resented due to the stigma attached to it. But reconstructing new identities in foreign, often strange lands is not an easy undertaking. Hall, (1994 ) emphasises this point by pointing out that diasporic identities are constantly producing and reproducing themselves anew alongitineraries of migrating,but also re-creating the endless desire to return to lost origins. Diaspora members, living on culturalborderlands or interstitial zones, cluster around remembered or imaginedhomelands, practise authentic home cultures, form ethnic communities, so as tore-root their floating lives and reach a closure in making sense of their constantlychanging subjectivities (Frith, 1996; Hall, 1996). Some of the study participants attested to how they struggled to construct new identities from the refugee labels. All the refugee communities which were part of this study found the need, earlier on their arrival in Canada, to form advocacy groups clustered around the refugee label. There were the Ghana Refugee Union, Montreal formed in 1987, The Ghanaian Refugee Association, Toronto, formed in 1989, The Nigerian Refugee Association, Montreal formed in 1990 and a number of Somali Refugee Associations in Montreal and Toronto in the early 1990s. It emerged from the study that most newly-arrived refugee claimants and refugees in the above communities were eager to become members of these refugee associations when they first arrive in Montreal and Toronto. They became active members of the associations to assist in their advocacy work aimed at getting fair and speedy refugee hearings for their members. However, most of the same members who were active members of their refugee advocacy groups showed little or no interest in the same associations when their refugee processes were over and they became permanent residents. The associations were thus compelled to change their names, the Ghanaians from the Ghana Refugee Union to the Ghanaian-Canadian Association and the Nigerians from the Nigerian Refugee Association to the Nigerian-Canadian Association. The Ghana Refugee Association in Toronto completely folded up as most of the members lost interest altogether in the need for any grouping. The researcher attended some meetings of the Ghanaian-Canadian Association in its new identity in the mid to late 1990s. Some excerpts from the narratives of respondents attest to the above:
Most of our members have got their refugee claims accepted and are now permanent residents. We need now to move from the advocacy role for refugee acceptance of the former association to a new role of assisting our members with pressing settlement issues of education and employment and most importantly with their new struggles to sponsor their families some of whom have been separated for over five years. We also feel the urgent need to repackage the image of the association to retain our membership because many of them do not want to be associated with the refugee label anymore. Now they find it demeaning to be called refugees. It is ironic though since that is the label that got them accepted to stay permanently in this country. Well, we have no choice. We have to change with the times
Another interesting narrative from one participant:

During the three years that I was waiting for my refugee claim to be accepted, I had this Social Insurance Card number starting with a 9. It was like the number 9 was a dirty identity. Wherever you go, from looking for jobs or getting some government service, the moment they see your card with the 9, they look at you differently, I mean not in any positive light. So when I got my permanent residence paper, the first thing I did was to apply for a new Social Insurance Number. Now nobody looks at me with strange eyes or dirty looks when they see my card number starting with a 2. Hei, man, its not a nice experience in this country being a refugee
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Most of the study participants also lamented the fact that their lives were in limbo when they had the status of refugee claimants and refugees. Their children (if they had) could go to school, but they (the adults) were not allowed to continue their education because as refugee claimants, they were regarded as temporary residents. No wonder most of the participants pointed out that their first actions as accepted refugees or permanent residents were to rush to continue their education or get into job and skills training programs. Another narrative from a participant:
Some of the embarrassing moments of my life as a refugee here in Canada was being asked many times whether I speak English. Most occasions I have tried to explain to people that I have had all my education in English up to having a Masters Degree, and the official language of my former country is English. They dont pay attention. Its like the only thing they saw about me is being a refugee who needs help with food and how to speak English. It was embarrassing. In fact I dont want to remember those days.
When new comers move to a new society, they are likely to live in places where they find people who look like them in terms of ethnicity or cultural backgrounds (Owusu, 1999). This is sometimes out of the need for comfort, support and security (Simon, 1998). However, as some study participants point out, the places that they lived in the cities of Montreal: Parc Extension, Cote-des-Neiges, Mountain Sights and Pierrefonds came to be stigmatized as the refugee ghettos. In Toronto, study participants had the same complaints of their neighbourhoods being labelled and stigmatized. Most of the Ghanaians lived in the Jane and Finch suburb in Etobicoke, while most Somalis lived in the Dixon and Kipling area all of which were labelled and stigmatized as refugee ghettos. The following narratives from some participants highlight their frustration on the ethnic ghetto stigmas.
I constantly prayed for the day when my refugee status will be over so that I could further my education and get a good job to enable me move my family out of the Jane and Finch area. This is not a bad neighbourhood. Compared to the number of people who live in that area, the refugees were insignificant, but because the refugees were concentrated in a number of high rise buildings which were close to each other, the whole neighbourhood came to be associated with refugees. When you mention to someone that you live in Jane and Finch, they look at you differently. So we got our permanent residence, we moved very quickly to Brampton in the West End, far away from Jane and Finch. In fact I dont want to remember that area and I dont let my children go back there even though most of their friends still live there.
From another participant:

The Canadian media tried to portray the Somalian refugees who lived in the Dixon and Kipling area in Toronto as contaminating the neighbourhood. The CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation) even did a documentary on us. It was a very bad Television series. They called it A Place called Dixon. The message the media sent to Canadians was that Somalian refugees were destroying their nice neighbourhood. We were very stressed and confused during this period. We had committed no crimes except coming to Canada and to Toronto as refugees. But the question is: what is wrong with many Somalis living in the same area? We need each other for support. Why dont they complain when many White people lived in the same neighbourhood? Something is wrong her, man.
11. Conclusion When refugees, who are people engulfed in forced migration due to situations of persecution, war, insecurities and trauma move to peaceful and sometimes wealthy countries, they have high expectations
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for better lives for themselves and their families. They have hopes that their children will have access to opportunities for better lives, different from the disrupted and insecure ones they (adult refugees) were subjected to before arriving in their country of refuge. As this study found out, these hopes of a better, secure future and opportunities for their children depend, to a large extent on how successfully the parents, who arrived in the host society as refugees, navigate their way through the system in their new society. As the findings from this study show, the opportunities that are available to them and their children are embedded within a complex broader social and cultural environment that stigmatized them because of their migration backgrounds. They engage in multiple tasks of trying to shed the painful memories of their past which brought them to Canada as refugees and another process of shedding this stigma. As many of the study participants lamented, this process saps a lot of their time and energy. An important and unique aspect of this study was its focus on how refugees who come to Canada, some of them well-educated professionals, experiencing stigmatization and labelling react with destigmatization moves and gestures. It should be realized that refugees are people first, like everyone else. They are just unfortunate to have found themselves on the wrong side of history and lifes journey at some points in their lives. What they need in their new societies is support, understanding and encouragement to enable them rebuild their disrupted lives. They certainly do not need stigmatization and labelling which may be another form of the persecution and harassments they escaped from and hope to leave behind them. References
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Dixson, A. D. and Rousseau, Celia.K. (eds). Critical Race Theory in Education: All God's Children Got a Song. New York: Routledge, 2006. Frith, S. (1996).Music and identity.In: S. Hall & P. du Gay(Eds.). Questions of cultural studies (pp.108-117). London: Sage. Grant, P. R. (2005b). The devaluation of immigrants foreign credentials: The psychological impact of this barrier to integration into Canadian society. A final report to the Prairies Metropolis Center.http://www.pcerii.metropolis.net/, November, 2009. Grant, R. A., andAsimeng-Boahene, L. (2006). Culturally responsive pedagogy in citizenship education: Using African proverbs as tools for teaching in urban schools. Multicultural Perspective(8)4: 17-24. Hall, S. (1994). Cultural identity and diaspora. In P. Williams & L. Chrisman (Eds.), Colonial Discourse andPostcolonial Theory: A Reader (pp. 392-403). New York: Columbia UP. Hall, S. (1996). Introduction: who needs identity? In S. Hall & P. du Gay (Eds.), Questions of Culturalidentity(pp. 1-17). London: Sage Publications. Hathaway, J. C. (2005). The Rights of Refugees under International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hathaway, J. C. (1991). The Law of Refugee Status. Toronto: Butterworths. Heckman, G. P. (2009). Canadas Refugee Status Determination System and the International Norm of Independence. Refuge, vol. 25(2), p. 79-102. Indra, D. M. (1993). The spirit of the gift and the politics of resettlement: The Canadian private sponsorship of South East Asians. In Robinson, V. (ed). The international refugee crisis: British and Canadian responses, p. 229-254. London: Macmillan. Keely, C. B. (1992).The Resettlement of Women and Children Refugees.Migration World 20 (4): 14-18. Kouritzen, S. (2000).Bringing life to research.TESL, Canada Journal, 17(2), 1-23. Kuo, W. H., & Tsai, Y. (1986). Social networking, hardiness and immigrants mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 27, 133-149. Lamba, N. K. (2003). The employment experiences of Canadian refugees: Measuring the impact of human and social capital on employment outcomes. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 4091), 45-64. Li, P. (2001). The market worth of immigrants educational credentials.Canadian Public Policy, 27(1), 23-38. Loescher, G. and Loescher, A. D. (1994).The Global Refugee Crisis: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Matas, D. (1989). Closing the Doors: The Failure of Refugee Protection inCanada.Toronto: Summerhill Press. Mazur, R. E. (1988). Refugees in Africa: The role of sociological analysis and praxis. Current Sociology, 24, 1-24. Mulder, M., &Korenic, B. (2005).Portraits of immigrants and ethnic minorities in Canada: Regional comparisons. Alberta: PCERII. Owusu, T. (1999). Residential Patterns and Housing Choices of Ghanaian Immigrants in Toronto, Canada. Housing Studies, vol. 14(1), 77-97. Reitz, G. J. (2001). Immigrant skill utilization in the Canadian labour market. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 2(3), 518-548. Satzewich, V. (1993). Migrant and immigrant families in Canada: State coercion and legal control in the formation of ethnic families. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 24(3), 315-338. Simon, P. (1998). Ghettos, Immigrants, and Integration: The French Media. Neth. J. of Housing and the Built Environment, vol. 13(1). Solorzano, D. &Yosso, T. (2002). "A Critical Race Counterstory of Affirmative Action in Higher Education." Equity and Excellence in Education, 35, 155-168. UNHCR. (2007). Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. Retrieved May 2009, from http://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10.pdf. UNHCR. (2007c). The State of the Worlds Refugees: A Humanitarian Agenda. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Van Manen, M. (1997). Researching lived experience. Edmonton, Alberta: The Althouse Press. Zetter, R. (1999). International perspectives on refugee assistance. In Ager, A. (ed), Refugees: Perspectives on the experiences of forced migration, p. 46-82. New York: Pinter
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Zlotnik, H. (2003). Migrants' rights, forced migration and migration policy in Africa. Paper Presented at the Conference on African Migration and Urbanization in Comparative Perspective held in Johannesburg, South Africa, June 2003.
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Pakistan: Considering a Failed State

Md. Kamal Uddin
Department of Asian and International Studies City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong & Assistant Professor (On Study Leave) Department of International Relations University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Email: kamalircu@yahoo.com
Md. Matiul Hoque Masud

Lecturer, Department of International Relations University of Chittagong Bangladesh Email: masud.ir.cu@gmail.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p227
Abstract Vibrant political situation and unstable foreign policy has more strongly raised the question whether Pakistan is a failed state or not? Its dependence on major powers for security and absence of specific sphere of nationalism has made Pakistan more exposed. Over the last few years Pakistan is going to be considered a failed state because the indicators of a failed state have harmonized with the real impasse of Pakistan. Pakistans failure as state would have an international and regional ramification. Pakistan backed war on terrorism and balance in South Asia would be more inconsistent if Pakistan failed. International community always would like to solve crisis related to Pakistan to fix up a men not by implementing a system. Pakistan was used as spring board by big powers for their own interest. If Pakistan failed it would be the first state which is not weak but failed. The paper will discuss the dubious position of Pakistan as a failed state; of course, without denying its internal dynamics and imminent tribulations related to its malfunction. The paper at last will propose some guiding principles to solve the setback. Key Words: Failed State, Democracy, Intervention, Foreign Policy
1. Introduction Internationally Pakistans position has always been dubious, questionable and unpredictable. Absence of democracy, religious politics, separatist movement and dependent foreign policy has been the symbol of Pakistan since its independence. Geo-strategically important Pakistan in the middle of India, China and Iran usually used by every major powers as playground. Mutuality of interest got preference in Pakistans foreign policy in dealing with major big powers. Frequent disputes, absence of confidence building measures, uneven development and big powers imbalance in assistance have made Pakistan more hostile to India. Building symmetry in power and getting international preference to India pushed Pakistan to change its allies. And thats why its foreign policy was not stable and independent.
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Internal dynamics and mutual mistrust have made the state a difficult country to govern. 1 According to Newsweek it is the most dangerous nation.2 However, most of the indicators essential to be failed state have been found in Pakistan. As strategically important de facto nuclear state and engaged in solving various common security problems of the world community, Pakistans failure as state will be far reaching and devastating. But still we notice a ray of hope at the end of the tunnel that cannot be overlooked. Many argue that both the failed state theory (like many other analysts Stewart Patrick feels that failed states concept is not analytically reliable)3 and Pakistans position as failed states are questionable. Last election in 2008 has opened a way to democracy after a bitter brutal autocratic background. Truly, every ally wanted to hold a titular men that serve well as their own interest as President of Pakistan. They never tried to nurture a stable and sound form of government. They never thought about the system which will be better suited in case of Pakistan. The US led war on terrorism gave Pakistan an international presence but took away its acceptance. By the name of combating terrorism, frequent drone attack on Pakistans territory without its approval compelled Pakistan to review its relations with the US. China can come forward to get to the bottom of political impasse that has risen from internal and external mistrust. 2. Failed state: Definition and Indicators The word Failed does not mean weak or unstable state. In the phrase Failed State, the word State is as important as Failed. State is not similar to nation. A state can be described as a group of people who share a common territory, history, culture, ethnic origin and language. A state is a set of institutions that possess the authority to govern the people.4 It is the organization that has monopolistic power on the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. It thus includes such institutions as the armed forces, civil service or state bureaucracy, courts, and the police. State means a sum of institutions that works together for the welfare of the people. It is not necessary to include a territory or heritage. State includes its government, military, public services etc. In 2006 Noam Chomsky in his book Failed States: The abuse of Power and the assault on democracy used the phrase and gave some indicators and elements essential to be considered failed state. He has indicated failed state to those states that have lost their physical control over their territory, whose legitimate authority is increasingly minor, whose public services have lessened; totally unable to interact with other states with trust, and internationally whose position is dubious. State failure suggests that the government if one exists is completely unable to maintain public services, institutions, or authority, and that central control over territory does not exist. State failure implies that central state authority and control do not de facto exist. Failed States refers to states in which institutions and law and order have totally or partially collapsed. Geographically, failed states are essentially associated with internal problem that have cross-border impacts they may face disintegration movement from their underdeveloped and exploited areas. Politically, collapse of law and order may fragment state authority that leads to civil war among paramilitary groups; they are unable to protect
Husain Haqqani, The Role of Islam in Pakistans Future,The Washington Quarterly, 28:1 Winter 2004-05, p-87 Nizar Diamond Ali, Is Pakistan a failed state? Daily Dawn, July 20, 2010.( The writer criticized The Newsweek Magazine in his writing for covering Pakistani nation negatively) 3 Stewart Patrick, Weak States and Global Threats: Fact or Fiction?, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Spring 2006), pp. 2753; 4 Ali Hashmi, Is Pakistan a failed state? The Daily Times Wednesday, August 04, 2010
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their citizens from violence.5 Internationally, there will be no body representing the state to negotiate and enforce in world level without the outsiders influence. Historically, its history may rise in colonial regimes that destroyed its own local social traditions thats why unable to get an effective identity and nationalism. 6Some of them may face partiality in nation building process. Sociologically, in such states the police, judiciary and other bodies serving to maintain law and order may no longer able to operate. Democratically, they suffer from a serious democratic deficit that causes gradual destruction of formal democratic institutions. Its writ of government is challenged by militant groups.7 Legally, the term failed states is often used to describe a state that can no longer perform its basic security and development functions and that has no effective control over its territory and border. Since 2005, the USA based think tank Fund for Peace and well-known magazine Foreign Policy has been publishing Failed States Index. The index shows five types of failed State in terms of their intensity-alert (if index is 90+ ), warning (if index is 60+), dependent territory, moderate (if index is 30+), sustainable. Ranking is based on the total scores of the 12 indicators. For each indicator, the ratings are placed on a scale of 0(low intensity) to 10(high intensity). So, total scores will be 0 to 120. In 2011, 177 states were included in the list, of which 35 were classified as "alert", 88 as "warning", 40 as "moderate", and 11 as "sustainable". 8 The Failed State Index consider some indicators essential for being failed state- There are twelve indicators which demonstrate states failure.9 Out of twelve indicators four are social, two economic and six political.
2.1 Social indicators:

1. 2. 3. 4. Demographic Pressures high density in population in comparison to supply of food and other complementary resources, reserved ownership of land and transport; and religious and historical sites under strict national control etc; Humanitarian and Social Security problems- massive movement of Refugees and Internally Displaced Peoples (IDPs) by forced uprooting of large communities or ethnic groups Social Identification-atrocities committed with impunity against communal groups or specific groups, institutionalized political and communal identity over nationality; Continual Human Flight - both the brain drain of professionals, intellectuals and political dissidents and intentional emigration of the middle class, ethnic populace to other places of the state or any other state.
2.2 Economic indicators

1. 2. Imbalance in Economic Development inequality and injustice against a group or a tribe in education, jobs, and economic status according to their communal or religious identity. Stern Economic Decline high rate in inflation, fall in foreign investment, debt payments, deflation of the national currency and a growth in drug trade, smuggling.
5 6
Noam Chomsky, Superpower and Failed States, Khaleej Times, April 5, 2006 Daniel Threr, The "failed State" and international law International Review of the Red Cross, No. 836, 31-121999. 7 Dr Shabir Choudhry, Is Pakistan A Failed State? Countercurrents.org 8 See for details-Failed State Index-2011. 9 Shabir Choudhry, Op,cit.
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2.3 Political indicators:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Lack of Transparencywidespread corruption and political elites use their positions to oppose transparency, accountability. Lack in Public Services state become useless and fail to defend citizens from terrorism and violence; and fail to provide crucial services, such as health, education, sanitation, public transportation and essential commodities. Violation of Human Rights through Politicization- widespread abuse of legal, political and social rights, including those of individuals, politicization of the judiciary, internal use of military for political ends State within a State- State-sponsored or state-supported private or religious militias will increase terrorism and religious riot. This army within an army will protect and promote the interests of the dominant military, religious or political elite. Rise of Political Elites continuous conflict between the ruling elites and state institutions, national decision will be taken in lines with religious, tribal or nationalistic or sub nationalistic identity Foreign Intervention receive free interference in internal affairs through military and economic assistance in accordance with foreign interest.
3. Questionable Position of Pakistan: According to the latest (2011) index scores, Pakistan ranks 12th out of 177 countries examined.10 In both 2009 and 2010, Pakistan took the number 10 spot on this index, whereas in 2008 it was ranked number nine. Looking at the indicators used for the ranking, Pakistans worst scoring categories were: Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons (9.2), Group Grievance (9.3), Security Apparatus (9.4), External Interventions (9.3), Legitimacy of the State (8.6), and Uneven Economic Development (8.5).11In line with the above mentioned indicators of Failed States we have no other to defy Pakistan from the Failed States list: With a population exceeding 170 million people, it is the sixth most populous country in the world and as the second largest Muslim population after Indonesia. Its demographic pressure is increasing at large extent. At 2.03% it has the highest population growth rate among the SAARC countries, resulting in an annual addition of 3.6 million people. The population is projected to reach 210.13 million by the year 2020 and would double in next 34 years.12 Diversity in unity in communal affairs is an ever emerging crisis in Pakistan. Communal identities get preference in nation matters. Panjabi, Pashto, and Mohajir identities are considered superior than others. So belonging to any high profiled community is recognized as compulsory in Pakistan. The major threat to Pakistan is that the populace of periphery area considers the law and regulations ordered by their communal leader are more legal and social oriented than state proposed laws. Religious identity is critical in Pakistan. Muslim of Pakistan believes them as real Muslim and different from other South Asian semi-Muslims,
Charles Bara, Pakistan: A Failed State? ISN Special Feature, on Thursday, 14 July 2011 ibid 12 Lecture delivered to the participants of the Command and Staff Course at Command and Staff College Quetta on September 4, 2009, available at: http://www.iba.edu.pk/News/speechesarticles_drishrat/ Pakistan_ Economy_Challenges_Prospects.pdf
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they think them more similar to Arabian Muslim. Mainly identity in Pakistan is socially constructed from upward. Institutionalizing the communal political identity creates atrocities in different area. For various reasons, Pakistani skilled professionals are gradually crossing the national border for better and secure life. Political impasse and insecure future is largely contributed to the skilled human flight to other states from Pakistan. According to official estimates of Pakistans Overseas Employment Corporation, near about 36000 professionals, including doctors, engineers and teachers, have migrated to other countries in last 30 years.13 Uneven development and imbalance in national social services causes mistrust to state authority. In 2011, 57.7% of adult Pakistanis were literate. While female literacy was 45.2% but in tribal areas this rate was 3% (Human Development Report, 2011). Pakistan hosts more refugees than any other country in the world including 1.7 million Afghan refugees from neighboring Afghanistan (UNHCR). Refugees and IDPs in major times take part in separatist and religious movement and causes insurgency to draw attention of the world community for their survival. Displacement is a key problem, by mid-July 2009; Pakistans National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) put the total of Internally Displaced People (IDPs) at just over 2m, while unofficial figures are as high as 3.5m. Economic situation is not well solving. Dependency on foreign debt and investment is the major setback of Pakistans economy. Necessary commodities are not available for all. The inflation rate for the fiscal year 2010-11 was 14.1% Approximately 19% of the population and 30% of children under age of five are malnourished. About 20% of the population lives below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day.14 Economic status of Pakistan is not in first-rate. The rate of unemployment is 25% in 2011.15 According to Finance Ministry of Pakistan, the foreign exchange reserves had declined by $10 billion. Devaluation of currency is daily news now in Pakistan. In 2006, Pakistani Rupees per dollar was 60.35 and in 2010 it soar up to 85.27. The volume of external debt in December 2010 is around $56 billion which consumes 50.6% of GDP (Ministry of Finance, Pakistan). Lack of democracy within Party and the state give the social acceptance to wide spread corruption by political elites. Public services are useless. Political rights in Pakistan are very narrow, for example, The 2009 Freedom in the World report by Freedom House gave Pakistan a political rights rating of 4 (1 representing free and 7 representing not free), and a civil liberties rating of 5, earning it the designation of partly free .16 Throughout the country, there is an almost complete absence of legitimate authority and institutional mechanisms for decision-making. Most decisions are made by the President himself who also tends to personally conduct Pakistani diplomacy. Coordination between different branches of government is also virtually non-existent. Pakistan does not provide reasonable public services to all or at least most of its citizens (which flows directly from its lack of territorial control). Even in Karachi, the countrys biggest city, the authorities are unable to provide even a minimum of personal security, with an
Info available at :http://www.yespakistan.com/education/brain_drain.asp Economic Watch, 29th May, 2010, available at http://www.economywatch.com/world_economy/ pakistan/ 15 ibid 16 Economic Watch, 29th May, 2010, available at: http://www.economywatch.com/world_economy/ pakistan/
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average of 4.7 murders in the city every night most of which are politically motivated.17 And due to ongoing military operations and militant activities in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) in north-west Pakistan, there has been enormous internal displacement of persons. Violation of Human rights in every sector is common and legally accepted. Communal leaders are countered by using state force. Even, Political and military interests have been prioritized over humanitarian considerations in their offensives against the Taliban. Some popular, legal and recognized culture is not globally accepted like Blasphemies law. Pakistan is unable to control its territory physically. In the North-west, along the border with Afghanistan, tribal militants and the Taliban are actively challenging the governments physical control. In the south-west, Pakistan is close to losing one of its biggest provinces Baluchistan to a bloody insurgency that openly seeks independence under separatist movement. And while one tends to think of Pakistans military as a more professional, secular organization, the evidence now clearly shows that it has been infiltrated by violent Islamist, insurgent and terrorist groups at basically all levels. Pakistan faces many challenges. Since 9/11, 35,000 Pakistanis have died in suicide bombings, with an average of more than one such bombing a week (BBC News, 7th May, 2011). Since 9/11 the US led NATO forces ran drone operation over 120 times, without approval from authority, which is clearly a threat to Pakistani sovereignty. Interference in internal affairs has increased.
4. A State without an Independent Foreign Policy Under the flag of friendliness and goodwill towards the nations of the world Pakistan distinguished herself as moderate Muslim country. Security problem with India and Afghanistan pushed Pakistan towards alignments with the USA. Continuing developed relations between the USA and India pressurized Pakistan to ally with Socialist world namely the USSR and China. Pakistan withdrew from the SEATO, CENTO and joined in NAM to secure its interest. To deter secret enrichment of uranium by Pakistan the USA cut all security assistance. The Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan allowed Pakistan and the US to get involved in a marriage of convenience. The USA opened again its all assistance after 9/11. The US led war on terrorism made Pakistan more vulnerable in the middle of cross-fire. The US nuclear deal with India and mistrust in case of terrorism has posed Pakistan to get ally with China. From its independence, Pakistan had no stable foreign policy. It took alignment, nonalignment, bilateralism, anti-Indians, and isolationist foreign policy in the phase of history. Religion based social and political tradition has made Pakistan compelled to take Anti-Indian foreign policy. Then to present two nations have fought four wars between them. To counter India searching security allies was the foremost policy of Pakistan. As an Immediate aftermath of independence, Pakistan faced territorial boundary disputes from two sides with India and Afghanistan. First Kashmir war (1947-48) made Pakistan bound to explore allies. On the other side Afghanistan claimed its sovereignty over North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Baluchistan.18 India and the USSR gave support to Afghanistan. In May 1954, Pakistan signed a Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement with the US. In September 1954, Pakistan joined the South East Asia Treaty Organization
17 18
ibid Dr.Hasan-Askari Rizvi, Pakistans Foreign Policy:An Overview 1947-2004,Pildat Briefing Paper,p-10
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(SEATO) though it was not East Asian states. In September 1955, Pakistan joined the CENTO that helps Pakistan to get ally with Muslim states. A Bilateral Agreement of Cooperation was signed in March 1959. Though all treaties have been signed but Pakistans security ambition (to counter India) has not been fulfilled because the US agreed to use its assistance against Communism. On the other hand most of the Middle Eastern states responded negatively to Pakistans security ties with the West. The USSR extended its support to India. Pakistan has lost its ground in NAM. Without any security commitments in return for arms transfer the US rushed military equipments to India in October 1962 to counter China. Pakistan began to review their alignment with the US. Pakistan decided to improve its relations with the USSR and China. The USSR adopted a balanced approach towards Indo-Pak disputes in 1965 and maintained neutrality in signing Tashkent Declaration in January 1966. Pakistan began to plead for the seating for China in the UNSC. China stood by Pakistan during 2nd Indo-Pak war. China was its the most important source of supply of weapons when the US imposed an arms embargo on the South Asia in the post 1965 war period. At the time of a widen rift between China and the USSR in 1969, Pakistan did not endorse Asian Collective Security System advocated by the USSR. The Soviets were disappointed by Pakistans role in Sino-American rapprochement. Concrete Soviet support (military support and action in UNSC) to India through Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation strengthened Indias interfering policies in East Pakistan. As a result of American limited help and arms embargos, Pakistan withdrew from the Commonwealth (returned in 1989) the SEATO, and the CENTO. After the independence of Bangladesh, Pakistan took independent approach to world affairs that helped to normalize its relations with India by signing Simla Peace Agreement in 1972. In 1974, when India exploded (peaceful) its first nuclear bomb, Pakistan was secretly working on setting up uranium experiment. The Soviet military intervention in December 1979 was a turning point for the US-Pak relations. Mutuality of interest has fulfilled. The US gave $ 7.4 billion assistance package between 1981 and 1993.19 After the completion of Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989, Pakistan made various attempts to install to new government in Kabul comprising pro-Pakistani mujahedeen groups. The US shifted its interest and imposed sanctions against Pakistan for its secret nuclear project under the Pressler Amendment in the Foreign Assistance Act. Pakistan had lost its strategic relevance for the US after Soviet collapse. Pakistan gave support to the Taliban regime in Afghanistan (1996-2001). It adversely affected Pakistans reputation at the international level. India took the chance and suspected that Pakistan armies and intelligences sponsored Islamic militant groups in Indian administered Kashmir. 20 The two states engaged in a limited war in Kargil region of Kashmir in 1999. To overthrow nuclear imbalance and show minimum credible deterrence, Pakistan exploded its first nuclear bomb in 1998.21 After the ground breaking event of 9/11 Pakistan got focus because the US identified the AlQaeda movement of Osama bin laden based in Afghanistan was the main culprit of the event. As Pakistan supported the Taliban regime and shared a long border with Afghanistan, its support to the US led war on terrorism was important. Both states gave immense strategic support. Pakistan was concerned like the past after the overthrow of Taliban government from Afghanistan Pak- US relations might not continue for a long time; the US would abandon Pakistan when its strategic interest shift away from in or around Pakistan. It happened. After the death of Osama bin laden, Pakistan has lost its significance
Ibid, p-19 Abdus Sattar, Pakistans Foreign Policy(1947-2005) (London: OUP,2007) p-53 21 M. Asghar Khan, Weve Learnt Nothing from History: Pakistan-Politics and Military Power, (Oxford University Press, Karachi 2005), P-67
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for the US interest. So, foreign policy of Pakistan is not independent. It varies if foreign policy of others changes. There is no basic foundation of Pakistans foreign policy. 5. Pakistans Failure: Regional and International Ramification: At present failed states are the single most security threat to liberal democratic states. According to Jack Straw, Terrorists are strongest where states are weakest, and weak or failed states provide a breeding ground or sanctuary for terrorism.22 According to Fukuyama, weak and failing states have arguably become the single most important problem for international order.23 If Pakistan fails, it will be a safe haven for Islamic militants. The state may misplace its nuclear project and clue to the militants. Weak and failing states are vulnerable to all forms of smuggling, including trafficking in small arms and light weapons. 24 It will create security concern in regional and international arena. Whole South Asia will lose its balance of power. Imbalance in power and uneven development in a region may raise security mistrust among neighboring states. Regional organization likewise SAARC will mislay a state that has leading power. Refugee flow from the failed states may create insurgency in neighboring states. Major Powers will start their great game to increase their sphere of influence in the region. Common security threat like- terrorism, drug trafficking, arms trade, nuclear proliferation will be difficult to tackle without the assistance from Pakistan. 6. Ever present Challenges ahead of Pakistan: Since independence to 1956, Pakistan was a dominion in the Commonwealth of Nations and it became a distinguished Islamic Parliamentary Republic in 1956. The civilian rule was hindered by a coup dtat by then-Army Commander-in-Chief General Ayub Khan, who was the first Chief Martial Law Administrator and also the President during 195869. Ayub Khan's successor, General Yahya Khan (196971), also an Army Commander, General Yahya Khan surrendered his authority to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who became the first and to-date the only civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator. Civilian rule resumed in Pakistan from 1972 to 1977. Bhutto was removed by a coup d'tat and in 1979, General Zia-ul-Haq became the third military president and fourth Chief Martial Law Administrator. Military government lasted until 1988. When Zia died in a plane crash in 1988, Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the first female Prime Minister of Pakistan. She was followed by Nawaz Sharif and over the next ten years the two leaders fought for power and alternated as the country's situation worsened. Military tension in the Kargil with India was followed by Kargil War, after which General Pervez Musharraf took over through a Bloodless coup d'tat and captured vast executive powers. General Musharraf ruled Pakistan as the head of state from 19992001 and as President from 2001-08. On 15 November 2007, Pakistan's National Assembly completed tenure for the first time in its history when a new election was called. In the 2008 elections, Bhutto's Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) obtained the largest number of seats and its member Yousaf Raza Gillani was sworn in as Prime
Jack Straw, Reordering the World: The Long-Term Implications of September 11 (London: Foreign Policy Research Centre, 2002). 23 Francis Fukuyama, State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), p. 92. 24 Edward Newman, Failed State and International Order, Contemporary Security Policy, Vol.30, No.3 (December 2009), pp.429.
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Minister. Musharraf resigned from the presidency when threatened with impeachment on 18 August 2008, and was succeeded by current president; Asif Ali Zardari. The first Constitution of Pakistan was adopted in 1956, but was suspended in 1958 by General Ayub Khan. The Constitution of 1973 suspended in 1977, by Zia-ul-Haq, but re-instated in 1985 is the country's most important document, laying the foundations of the current government. The Pakistani military establishment has played an influential role in mainstream politics throughout Pakistan's political history, with military presidents ruling from 19581971, 19771988 and 19992008. The election of 2008, despite a difficult start with voter registration and manipulation of electoral rules, was reasonably air and peaceful, despite Taliban threats to disrupt the process. That election saw the peaceful and democratic transfer of power which brought President Asif Ali Zardari and Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gilani into office. Despite the problems with President Zardari, who is widely viewed as corrupt, an important shift has taken place politically. Perhaps under Army pressure, Zardari began relinquishing the sweeping presidential powers he inherited from Musharraf. In April 2010, Zardari signed the 18thAmendment which returned Pakistan to a parliamentary democracy more in line with its 1973 Constitution, which remains the lodestone of democratic legitimacy in Pakistan. This is the first time in recent history when a president "willingly" ceded power to a prime minister. Democracy deficit, military intervention in politics, disputes in cabinet, failure in national integration and state within state are leading internal challenges ahead of Pakistan. Democracy is still not well practiced and well established. After its independence as sovereign and democratic state it took nearly a decade to frame a constitution. Since 1958-73, 1977-88, 1999-2008, there was not democratically elected government in Pakistan. Democracy and the rule of law were not nurtured. When military thinks that the civilian government is not capable to run the state and serve the nation, it upholds the state power from democratically elected government. Dispute within Cabinet between Prime Minister and President is not historically rare in Pakistan. Constitution gave Prime Minister the power to overthrow President. Governor General Malik Ghulam Muhammed misplaced public council trice between 1953 and 1955. Then, being President Iskander Mirza announced martial law and made Muhammad Ayub Khan Commander In Chief but Ayub Khan in 1958 disposed Iskander Mirza and took the legal power of Presidency in 1960. General Zia took the power in 1977 and sentenced death to Bhutto in 1979. After death of General Zia, Benazir Bhutto crowned power in 1988 but overthrown by Ghulam Ishaq Khan in 1990. Mian Mohammad Nawaz Sharif reached power in 1990 and overthrown in 1993. In 1996 President Farooq Leghari overthrew Benazir. In 1999 Musharraf overthrew government under a coup. The nation got sound democracy after 2008. Creation of Bangladesh in 1971 as independent nation was considered a failure of Pakistans national integration. Baluchistan may follow the so. Pakistan may break into pieces. The Baluchistan problem was potentially serious in that it sought to generate separatist and nationalist sentiment within a culturally distinct ethno-linguistic group that had its own autonomous history. The Baluchis were accustomed to having arms and historically overlapped with Iran as well as Afghanistan. Within Pakistan, the Baluchistan area made up 42 per cent of the entire country. Baluchi separatism was perceived as a threat to the state of Pakistan. The Sindhudesh or Sindhi nationalist problem was probably the most significant potential base of separatism in Pakistan because of the long history of Sindhi states prior to British rule, the highly developed language, and the relative size and territorial compactness of the Sindhi population in Sindh province. It was geographically an ominous threat too because Sindhi independence could turn northern Pakistan into a landlocked country.
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Olama mashaek (Islamic leaders) and Islamic militants have raised themselves as third party in the disputes between military and civilian government. State may lose its nuclear secrecy to these third parties. Pakistan has taken the challenge of defeating the Pakistani Taliban seriously. 25 Pakistan has made significant strides in securing its nuclear arsenal through the establishment of the National Command Authority and the Strategic Plans Directorate. 7. Conclusion State failure can only be countered through democracy, reform in governance, and positive international response in time. Pakistan has to give up its longstanding ties with radical Islam and share intelligence with the US to remove mistrust. Pakistan has the potentialities to frustrate antiterrorism operation and radicalize key segments of Islamic world. The militarys political ambition should not be encouraged. Pakistans excess focus on religious ideology, military capability and external alliance has weakened it internally that leads state governed institutions in decline. Pakistan should give more emphasis on developing own economy. It should remove its intersecting fault lines between civilians and the military, among different ethnic and provincial groups, and between Islamists and secularists. These countering measures can only tackle state falling. The US should not use its aid (Since 9/11 the US has provided Pakistan - or more accurately the Pakistani military - with more than $20bn in aid) 26as leverage to influence in Pakistans internal politics. Independent foreign policy will pave the way for Pakistan to solve common security problems. It may be difficult for the world community to force an end to Pakistans status as an Islamic ideological state. The world should demand reform in Pakistans governance. Military of Pakistan should not nurture Islamic militancy in home land and may give up national objectives like building pro-Pakistani government in Afghanistan or sponsoring terrorism in Indian Kashmir. It should give more emphasis on economic prosperity and popular participation in governance. There should be a balance in spending between military and social services. Establishing democracy, strengthening civil society and building secular political parties can contain its falling. Bibliography
Ali Hashmi(August 04, 2010), Is Pakistan a failed state? The Daily Times Wednesday Abdus Sattar(2007) Pakistans Foreign Policy(1947-2005) ,London: OUP, p-53 C. Christine Fair (June 24, 2010), Is Pakistan a failed state? No. in Foreign Policy Magazine Charles Bara (14 July 2011) Pakistan: A Failed State? ISN Special Feature, on Thursday Daniel Threr(1999), The "failed State" and international law International Review of the Red Cross, No. 836 Economic Watch, 29th May, 2010, available at http://www.economywatch.com/world_economy/ pakistan/ Edward Newman (December 2009), Failed State and International Order, Contemporary Security Policy, Vol.30, No.3 pp.429. Francis Fukuyama (2004), State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, p. 92. Hasan-Askari Rizvi, Dr., Pakistans Foreign Policy: An Overview 1947-2004, Pildat Briefing Paper,p-10 Husain Haqqani(2004-05), The Role of Islam in Pakistans Future, The Washington Quarterly, 28:1 Jack Straw (2002), Reordering the World: The Long-Term Implications of September 11 , London: Foreign Policy Research Centre M. Asghar Khan (2005), Weve Learnt Nothing from History: Pakistan-Politics and Military Power, Oxford University Press, P-67
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C. Christine Fair, Is Pakistan a failed state? No. in Foreign Policy Magazine June 24, 2010 Owen Bennett-Jones, Pakistan: A failed state or a clever gambler? BBC News, Islamabad on 17th May 2011.
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Nizar Diamond Ali(July 20, 2010), Is Pakistan a failed state? Daily Dawn, ( The writer criticized The Newsweek Magazine in his writing for covering Pakistani nation negatively) Noam Chomsky ( April 5, 2006), Superpower and Failed States, Khaleej Times Stewart Patrick (Spring 2006), Weak States and Global Threats: Fact or Fiction?, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 2 pp. 2753; Shabir Choudhry Dr, Is Pakistan A Failed State? Countercurrents.org Lecture delivered to the participants of the Command and Staff Course at Command and Staff College Quetta on September 4, 2009, available at: http://www.iba.edu.pk/News/ speechesarticles_drishrat/ Pakistan_Economy _Challenges_Prospects.pdf Owen Bennett-Jones, Pakistan: A failed state or a clever gambler? BBC News, Islamabad on 17th May 2011.
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Effects of Household Size on Cash Transfer Utilization for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Rural Ghana
Mavis Dako-Gyeke, Ph.D
Corresponding Author Department of Social Work, University of Ghana Accra, Ghana, West-Africa. Email: mavisdako@yahoo.com
Razak Oduro
Department of Social Policy London School of Economics and Political Science London, UK
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p239
Abstract Ghanas Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) program was implemented in 2008 to provide social protection to vulnerable groups, such as orphans and vulnerable children (OVC). This qualitative study explored how household size influenced the extent to which the basic needs of OVC were met. A purposive sampling method was used to recruit 21 households caring for OVC. In-depth interviews were conducted with 21 caregivers and 10 OVC, to gather data for the study. The findings indicated that household size influenced spending decisions of caregivers, although the cash transfer was conditional. Additionally, it was found that the cash received by caregivers was used to benefit all children in the households, both beneficiary and non-beneficiary. Based on the findings, we conclude that cash transfers will have the intended impact on beneficiaries if traditional family living systems and practices are taken into consideration in the design and implementation of national social protection programs. Keywords: Caregivers, Cash transfer, Ghana, Household size, Orphans and vulnerable children
1. Introduction Cash transfer is a form of social assistance, which is increasingly becoming a major part of anti-poverty policy measures in most countries. International development partners and donor agencies have recognised cash transfer as a core pro-poor development tool for reducing short-term poverty and breaking the intergenerational transmission of poverty, particularly in sub-Saharan African countries (DFID, 2011; Holmes & Barrientos, 2009). In different parts of the world, cash transfer systems have evolved differently because there are variations between the well established and complex social protection systems that exist in Europe and North America (Schubert & Slater, 2006) and those in developing countries, like Ghana. The principal objective of cash transfers is to facilitate household consumption of basic needs and examples include social assistance payments, such as social pensions for the elderly, the disabled and widows as well as allowances to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and
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acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) orphans (Case & Deaton, 1998; Farrington, Slater & Holmes, 2004) and other livelihood support payments to households living below the poverty line (Slater, 2011). As a crisis response measure, cash transfers have gained prominence in most governments initiatives in meeting the Millennium Development Goals of 2015 (Bryant, 2009). The increased urgency, according to Adato and Basset (2009), has been as a result of continued interaction between HIV and AIDS and other drivers of poverty. Low-income countries affected by the HIV and AIDS epidemic face the challenge of providing sufficient resources to satisfy the basic needs of their members, especially poor households (Fields, 2001). In Ghana, while considerable progress has been made in reducing high poverty levels as well as the prevalence rate of HIV and AIDS, major issues still persist. For instance, 18.2 percent of Ghanaians live in extreme poverty (Adjei, Aboagye & Yeboah, 2012; Ghana Statistical Service, 2008) and do not have adequate resources to meet their basic food requirements (Jones, Ahadzie & Doh, 2009). In addition, the HIV and AIDS epidemic has increased the burden of poor families in responding to their needs and that of their children, especially orphans (Marcus, 2004) and vulnerable children. Schubert (2008) opined that poor households most often adopt micro-coping mechanisms, including withdrawing children from school, children taking up informal employment and care responsibilities among others, and these reinforce the spiral of poverty. In the process, children could become vulnerable to violence, exploitation, abuse and neglect (Badu-Nyarko & Manful, 2011; Jones et al., 2009). The number of children becoming vulnerable due to poverty, as well as orphans in Ghana continues to increase steadily as indicated by the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS, 2006). The survey showed that about fifteen percent of children are not living with their biological parents and eight percent of them have one or both parents dead. In addition, the Ghana National HIV and AIDS report (2010) indicated that there were about one million and four hundred thousand orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in 2009 and this is expected to increase to about one million and five hundred thousand by the year 2015. These numbers present an ample concern as Lund and Agyei-Mensah (2008) contended that the increased number is likely to become one of Africas silent ticking bombs. The increased number of OVC suggests the need for policies and programs that could simultaneously address poverty and vulnerability among children and enable them achieve their full potential (Slater, 2011). Consequently, cash transfer has been identified as one potential way to improve the human capital development of vulnerable children (Bryant, 2009; DFID, 2011). Thus, the value of cash transfers is not only limited to its ability to tackle income poverty and support the achievement of broader social, economic and development objectives, but also to ensure the protection of societys most vulnerable groups (Mushunje & Mafico, 2010). Evidence from Latin American countries where conditional cash transfers (CCTs) are largely implemented suggests that CCTs have been successful in countries such as Brazil, Mexico, Nicaragua, Honduras, and Columbia among others (Baird, McIntosh, & Ozler, 2011). Conditional cash transfer is tagged as a magic bullet in development and perceived as a panacea to escape poverty, promote inclusion and provide the much needed stimulus to enhance the human capital development of children (Adato & Hoddinott, 2010). Conditional cash transfer schemes connect safety nets directly to human capital development, by making the receipt of cash conditional on school enrolment and /or attendance at certain health services (Handa & Davis, 2006; Schubert & Slater, 2006). In this regard, Ghana embraced cash transfer as an effective long-term response to extreme poverty among vulnerable groups in March 2008 and the program was named Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP). For the reason that strong and thorough evidence on cash transfer impacts to date come from conditional cash transfer schemes (Adatoa & Bassett, 2009), this study focuses on LEAPs conditional cash transfer for orphans and vulnerable children.
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2. Background of Ghanas LEAP Program The Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) Program was implemented in Ghana to address child poverty and vulnerability. The program was first piloted in 2008 with 1,654 beneficiary households in 21 districts, began expanding in 2009 and 2010, reached 68,000 households in 2012 and is expected to increase to 165,000 households across Ghana by 2015 (Daily Graphic, 2012). LEAP is a program that aims at supplementing the incomes of dangerously poor households through the provision of cash transfers and linking them up with complementary services so that over time, they can leap out of poverty (Gbedemah, Jones & Pereznieto, 2010; National Social Protection Strategy, NSPS, 2007). LEAP combines both conditional and unconditional cash transfers and eligibility is based on poverty and having a household member in at least one of three demographic categories; single parent with orphan or vulnerable child, elderly poor, or person with extreme disability unable to work (PWD). Under the LEAP, the categories of beneficiaries identified as the most vulnerable in society are: caregivers of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC); pregnant and lactating women; impoverished elderly; severely disabled persons; and households dependent on fishing and subsistence food crop farming. The LEAP program sets positive conditionalities that promote synergies with complementary social services, which include childrens school enrolment and retention, registration at birth, uptake of post-natal care and immunisations for young children (Gbedemah et al., 2010). Additionally, other conditionalities aim at eliminating certain behaviours, such as child trafficking and children engaging in worst forms of child labour. In order for orphans or vulnerable children to qualify as LEAP beneficiaries, households through caregivers are identified and given cash every two months on condition that they (a) enrol and retain the children in school, (b) do not engage the children in exploitative labour, and (c) ensure that the children have access to health care services and nutritional food (NSPS, 2007). Since the cash transfers are time bound, households receive money for three years before they are expected to graduate from the program (Jones et al., 2009). Even though in other parts of the world, most often, women are selected as recipients of cash grant, in Ghana, the LEAP manual of operation does not include this explicitly as a requirement. Nonetheless, the NSPS recommends that female caregivers should be prioritised, as this is likely to have maximum impact on households (Gbedemah et al., 2010). 3. Statement of the Problem Although the benefits of conditional cash transfers (CCTs) with respect to meeting the socioeconomic needs of poor and needy children in Latin America and other developing countries are well documented, little is known about the effectiveness of CCTs in sub-Sahara Africa, particularly Ghana. The scarce literature available has mostly concentrated on cash transfers and poverty reduction. This research, which is part of a larger study, therefore goes beyond extant literature by exploring the effects of household size on conditional cash transfer utilisation for beneficiary orphans and vulnerable children. This is essential because households play an important role by ensuring that the needs of children are met and invariably this is influenced by the surrounding circumstances within which the household operates. As Schubert and Slater (2006) argue, there are contextual differences between countries in the quality and quantity of service provision, the capacity to implement conditionality and socio-cultural, ethnic and political contexts. Additionally, while the conditionality of cash transfer schemes is believed to enable individual households take responsibility of beneficiary children (Lund et al., 2009), cultural beliefs and practices can influence how cash is utilised at the household level. The nature of family living in most Ghanaian communities could affect the extent to which conditional cash transfers are utilised for beneficiary
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children. In most households, family members are deeply rooted in family solidarity and engraved in the culture of sharing. Importantly, in large-sized households, sharing the cash received among targeted and other children, as well as other vulnerable persons could suggest that the targeted children will not benefit much and this could have implications for the impacts of the LEAP program. A major challenge therefore is how caregivers in poor households make decisions or are unconstrained to use the cash received on only LEAP beneficiary children. While poor households are given conditional cash with the belief that it will have trickle-down effects on targeted children, the unconditional use of this cash may cause undesirable spending (Schubert & Slater, 2006). This makes conditionality the most controversial part of social protection programming (Slater, 2011). Consequently, household level decision-making becomes crucial in determining how the cash is utilised and whether the targeted child or children would benefit fully from cash transfers. In this study, household is defined as a group of persons who live together as a unit with a caregiver who is responsible for their basic needs. This study therefore explored the influence of household size on conditional cash transfer utilisation for OVC in the Atwima Nwabiagya District of Ghana. The objectives of the study are: 1. To find out how household size influences cash transfer utilisation for orphans and vulnerable children with regard to provision of their school needs. 2. To determine how household size influences cash transfer utilisation for orphans and vulnerable children with regard to provision of their health needs. 3. To ascertain how household size influences cash transfer utilisation for orphans and vulnerable children with regard to provision of their food needs. 4. Methodology
4.1 Research Design

This article is based on primary data collected through a qualitative research methodology. Qualitative research methods give an understanding of the situation in its uniqueness, presenting what respondents perceive about the situation and what their meanings are (Patton, 2002). A phenomenological approach of inquiry was employed for the study because it gives a description of what people experience and how they experience what they experience (Patton, 2002). Additionally, the phenomenological paradigm provides complex descriptions of how respondents experienced a given phenomenon (Mack et al., 2005). In this study, participants were given the opportunity to share their experiences regarding the LEAPs conditional cash transfer for orphans and vulnerable children.
4.2 Study Area

The study was conducted in the Atwima Nwabiagya District in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. It is one of the largest districts in that Region. The district was selected for the study because it was included in the LEAP pilot program in 2008. Also, a vulnerability analysis conducted through a District Survey in 2005, indicated that some communities within the district were vulnerable, particularly children in those communities. In addition, the district was ranked third in HIV and AIDS prevalence in the Ashanti Region. For the purpose of this study, three communities within the district were selected, namely, Amadumase Adankwame, Akyena and Gyankobaa. These communities were purposively selected because they were identified by the district Social Welfare Department as areas with increasing numbers of orphans and vulnerable children.
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4.3 Participants
Through a purposive sampling strategy, three LEAP beneficiary communities were selected for this study. This allowed for the selection of information-rich cases whose situation illuminate questions and provides issues of importance to the purpose of the study (Patton, 2002). Twenty-one beneficiary households were selected and there were forty-three (19 males and 24 females) LEAP beneficiary OVC in these households (Table 1). Sixteen OVC were between ages five and eight, eighteen were between ages nine and twelve, and nine were between thirteen and fifteen years old. Twenty-one female caregivers, aged 20 to 70+ years (one from each household) and ten OVC, aged 10 to 15 years were interviewed.
4.4 Data Collection Procedures

Data was collected from respondents through in-depth interviews using open-ended questions. The open-ended interview questions provided an opportunity for the researchers and participants to discuss emerging issues in much detail. It also enabled the researchers to probe participants responses for elaboration and to explore key issues raised by respondents, which were central to the study. The consent of the respondents was sought before the in-depth interviews were conducted. For the children, consent was sought from their caregivers and emphasis was placed on the willingness of the children themselves to participate in the study.
4.5 Data Analysis

Thematic analysis, a process aimed at uncovering embedded information and making explicit what respondents said, was used in analysing the data of this study (Hoepfl, 1997). Participants responses were recorded verbatim and read thoroughly and repeatedly. The data was organised under themes based on the narrative explanations and opinions of respondents. Using the methodology of reduction, the researchers analysed the data and searched for possible meanings that made the information more meaningful and understanding (Creswell, 1998). The most illustrative quotations were used to buttress important points that emerged from the data gathered from respondents. 5. Findings and Discussion
5.1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Sampled Households

As indicated in Table 1, twenty-one households were selected from three LEAP beneficiary communities within the study area. A total number of forty-three children benefited from LEAP through their caregivers and out of this ten children were selected as participants for this study. The demographic information on the beneficiary OVC participants indicated that all of them were double orphans; they had lost both parents and were living with relatives who were their caregivers.
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Table 1: Composition of LEAP beneficiary households in the study area

Number of sampled households HH 1 HH 2 HH 3 HH 4 HH 5 HH 6 HH 7 HH 8 HH 9 HH 10 HH 11 HH 12 HH 13 HH 14 HH 15 HH 16 HH 17 HH 18 HH 19 HH 20 HH 21 Total Total number of children in selected households 1 6 8 7 3 6 5 9 10 2 4 5 6 7 4 3 8 5 7 4 6 118 Number of LEAP beneficiary OVC in selected households 1 2 3 3 1 3 3 3 4 2 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 43
**HH- Household
5.2 Cash Transfer and Provision of Beneficiary Orphans and Vulnerable Childrens Basic Needs
Gathering information on the number of children in the households and how that influenced households spending decisions was necessary because it could determine how cash transfers were utilised in households. The amount of money received from LEAP gets into the household purse to increase the monetary income of the household. However, decisions regarding how cash is utilised are the responsibility of caregivers, who are obliged to expend the money conditionally on beneficiary orphans and vulnerable children. In this study, beneficiary childrens basic needs explored were education, health and food.
5.3 Provision of LEAP Beneficiary OVCs School Needs

The study found that all children of school-going age in the households included in this study, irrespective of the household size were enrolled in school. This finding suggests that the number of nonLEAP beneficiary children in the selected households did not prevent the caregivers from enrolling beneficiary OVC in school. However, it is important to emphasise that both the beneficiary and nonbeneficiary children were enrolled in school before the introduction of the LEAP cash transfer program. Given that LEAP beneficiary households are poor and therefore retaining children in school could be a critical concern (Adatoa & Bassett, 2009), caregivers motivation for retaining children in school was further explored. It was found that the OVC attended public schools where students did not pay school fees because of the Education Capitation Grant introduced by the government of Ghana in the
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2005/2006 academic year. This initiative which aims at increasing access to basic education takes care of tuition fees and makes basic education free. During an in-depth interview, one caregiver remarked:
. . . today, if you do not take children to school, you deny them a better future . . . during my time, my father did not have money to provide us education. But now, if you go to school, you do not pay school fees . . . though there are other school expenses to pay, it is better to enrol children in school. (Caregiver in Household 2)
The above statement is similar to the responses of all the caregivers included in this study, which revealed that the capitation grant motivated them to enrol the OVC and other non-beneficiary children of their respective households in school. It is therefore difficult to make a linkage between beneficiary OVCs school enrolment and the cash transfer program. This notwithstanding, the importance of the cash transfer was examined beyond OVCs school enrolment. The study explored how the cash transfer was used to provide for educational materials, pay for other educational expenses and how that served as an incentive for school attendance. This is essential because beyond access to education, provision of required educational materials often becomes a challenge, especially for poor households. It was expected that because the OVC in this study did not pay school fees, their caregivers would use the cash received to provide for other educational needs and consequently encourage school attendance and retention. It was however found that the educational needs of the OVC were not met since the conditional cash received from the LEAP program was not spent on beneficiary children alone. The caregivers used the money for all dependants in their households and this negatively affected the school attendance of OVC. Given that the LEAP beneficiary households are poor, it is likely that all the children (both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries) in these households suffered from deprivation with regard to their educational needs except school fees, which was covered by the capitation grant. Thus, targeting only OVC in poor households may not be an effective way of reducing poverty (Farrington & Slater, 2006) as the objectives of the conditional cash transfer program would not be achieved. Due to the competition for educational materials among the LEAP beneficiary children and other children in the households, the caregivers used the cash unconditionally to benefit all the children. According to Schubert and Slater (2006), the unconditional use of cash transfers may cause undesirable spending. Mushunje and Mafico (2010) therefore suggest the value of cash transfers should not be limited to its ability to support the achievement of their objectives but also to ensure the protection of societys most vulnerable groups, such as all children in poor households. This is vital because children are disproportionately represented among the income-poor since majority of them suffer from severe deprivation and their vulnerability has cumulative and long-term consequences (Barrientos & DeJong, 2004). Even though the conditional cash transfers aim at keeping children from leaving school because of inability to pay fees or because of labour needed at home (Adatoa & Bassett, 2009; NSPS, 2007), the LEAP beneficiary children in this study reported absenting themselves from school even when they were not sick. The reasons they gave ranged from lack of school materials which led to dismissal from class to assisting caregivers on their farms. Schubert (2008) opines that poor households most often adopt micro-coping mechanisms, including withdrawing children from school and children taking up informal employment. The LEAP OVC in this study, especially those from households that had many non-LEAP children, revealed that they attended school two or three days in a week. This was a strategy the caregivers in those households adopted to have all the children benefit from school attendance since they did not have enough financial resources to cover the childrens school expenses for the entire school
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week. The findings showed that household spending decisions were most often influenced by household size. Echoing their concerns, two LEAP beneficiary children said:
I do not go to school every day, sometimes, two days or three days in a week. . . . I am in Junior High School second year, I dont have drawing board and the required mathematics book and because of that the teachers always punish me, so I find it difficult going to school every day. (A 12-year old OVC in Household 17) I have eight siblings . . . three LEAP beneficiaries, my mother gives each of us one Ghana Cedi everyday for school . . . she says the burden is too much, so at times, we do not attend school every day . . . sometimes I go to school three times in a week and some of my siblings go on different days . . . when we have class test, I run to school to take the test . . . also assist my mother on the farm on Fridays too. (A 15- year old OVC in Household 8)
During the interviews, the issue of OVC missing some school days because their labour was needed at home was raised. Some caregivers mentioned the option of children learning apprenticeship or engaging in trading activities if they were unable to complete their schooling due to absenteeism, among other factors. Also, when the caregivers were asked why the cash transfers were not spent on beneficiary children only because it was conditional, the caregivers indicated that it was difficult to isolate beneficiary children from non-beneficiary children since they were all members of the household and all should benefit from resources transferred to the household. This is what two caregivers had to say:
It is very difficult for me to separate my children . . . in the Akan tradition, your sisters children are your children, I dont want them to think I love my children more than them . . . we all belong to one family, so we share what we have. (Caregiver in Household 3) We are all having challenges in this family . . . I was having more difficulties more than my sister who died. We never knew such program would come to our aid. Now I have six children who are under my care including the orphaned children of my sister, how can I use the money only on my sisters children in such a situation? (Caregiver in Household 9)
In most of the households in the study area, caregivers utilised the cash received from LEAP for all children in the household irrespective of who was a beneficiary or not due to family cohesion and communal living. Although the extended family networks could negatively affect beneficiary OVCs school attendance and retention, the family is regarded the best place for caring for OVC. As Lund and Agyei-Mensah (2008) suggest, the household is an important place for effective care of OVC because of the familial and community care. In most instances, the family and the communal clan function as social support systems for individuals in need (Awusabo-Asare, 1995; Nunkuya, 1992), such as orphans and vulnerable children.
5.4 Provision of LEAP Beneficiary OVCs Health Needs

As part of the LEAP cash transfer conditions, caregivers are required to enrol OVC in the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS, NSPS, 2007). Enrolling beneficiary children in the scheme will enable them obtain NHIS cards to access free health care services at accredited health centres or hospitals. The NHIS requires annual renewal of cards by paying insurance premiums. The study explored the health decisions of caregivers with reference to OVC in their households. Specifically, the caregivers were asked whether beneficiary children were enrolled on the NHIS. If yes, how often the
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NHIS cards were renewed and if no, the alternative measures adopted by caregivers in seeking health treatment for beneficiary children were explored. The findings revealed that, thirty-three beneficiary children were not enrolled in the NHIS, four were registered with valid NHIS cards, and six were registered but their cards had expired. Given that the conditional cash transfer payment was subject to certain types of behaviour, including clinic attendance (Farrington & Slater, 2006; NSPS, 2007), this finding was very surprising. When asked why some beneficiary children were not enrolled in the NHIS, caregivers who had many children in their households reported it was difficult to get all the children, both the LEAP beneficiary and nonbeneficiary children registered because the financial burden was high. They stated that, the children had a lot of demands and the cash transfers were insufficient to cover all their expenses. The major challenge most caregivers faced had to do with registering only beneficiary children in their households and thereby excluding the non-beneficiary children. Two caregivers said:
. . . for the money, you know that the children go to school, eat everyday and have to wear clothes. I am taking care of seven children [three LEAP beneficiaries], so I was unable to register all of them. (Caregiver in Household 4) . . . the money cannot cover everything . . . the children are many [8 children, 3 LEAP beneficiaries] I was not able to get all of them registered . . . when I received the money, I bought food stuffs in order to benefit all of us. (Caregiver in Household 3)
With regard to LEAP beneficiary OVC who had valid cards and attended hospitals, caregivers reported spending extra cash to purchase drugs which were not covered by the NHIS. This could be difficult for beneficiary households since they live below the poverty line (Slater, 2011). In order to purchase drugs that were not covered by the NHIS for OVC, some caregivers resorted to borrowing with the anticipation that when they received the cash transfer, they would use it to offset their debts. One caregiver had this to say:
. . . at times you go to the hospital and you are told the insurance does not cover some drugs, so I come home to borrow money to buy drugs with the anticipation that when I get the government money, I can use it to settle my debts. (Caregiver in Household 9)
Additionally, exploring the alternative healthcare methods adopted by caregivers who did not register the OVC in their households with the NHIS, it was found that some caregivers resorted to herbal medicine in treating the children when they were sick. In Ghana, many people still patronise herbal medicines due to financial constraints, lack of healthcare facilities, religious or cultural beliefs, among others (Ofori, 2011).This is common practice in rural communities, such as the study area, where caregivers have easy access to herbal plants. Commenting on the issue, one respondent mentioned that:
I do not take the children to the hospital. They do not have NHIS cards because I could not afford having all the children registered. I use herbs when they fall sick. (Caregiver in Household 8)
Furthermore, it was found that the communities included in this study had no healthcare centres and therefore the residents often had to walk long distances to the district capital in order to access healthcare services. In such situations, the main barrier to accessing health care services is not the disinclination of caregivers to send OVC to health facilities, but structural limitations of the healthcare system in Ghana. These constraints hamper access to healthcare services, particularly in rural areas where distances are immense and the transport infrastructure is deficient (Schubert & Slater, 2006). In this
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instance, it is not the demand-side rather the supply-side bottlenecks that limit the access of poor rural households to basic health services (Schubert & Slater, 2006). The findings suggest that the principal objective of cash transfers to enable household consumption of basic needs (Case & Deaton, 1998; Farrington et al., 2004), such as attending health clinics may not be achieved.
5.5 Provision of LEAP Beneficiary OVCs Food Needs

Since the LEAP cash transfer scheme is subject to certain types of behaviour, such as caregivers ensuring that orphans and vulnerable children in their care have access to nutritional food (NSPS, 2007), beneficiary households food security was explored. In this regard, questions relating to (a) the number of meals consumed per day by beneficiary OVC and (b) how household size influenced spending decisions on food were asked by the researchers. It was found that twenty-four OVC had three meals in a day and and nineteen had two meals in a day. Also, the caregivers reported spending a greater part of the cash transfer on food items due to the large number of children (both beneficiary and non-beneficiary) in their households. According to them, the cash was used up during the first week and afterwards it was difficult providing enough food for the children in their respective households. This suggests that the in-flow of the LEAP cash every two months could not sustain the households till the next payment; the length of time the cash transfer remained in the households was therefore very short. In this study the caregivers also mentioned that the LEAP cash received was spent on the food needs of all members in each household because a household operates as a communal entity. Although, the cash transfers were to be utilised conditionally, the living arrangements, especially household size influenced spending decisions of caregivers. Thus, the cash received was used for the benefit of both OVC and other family members because each household ate from a common pot as they were considered members of one household. During the individual interviews, two caregivers remarked:
. . . almost all of the government money I receive through LEAP goes into the food budget. I am able to buy a lot of foodstuffs as soon as the money comes . . . food is very necessary so I make sure all the children eat three times a day. We all enjoy together when there is money (Caregiver in Household 15) . . . the children in my house enjoy most during the first week the money is paid . . . I am able to buy a lot of foodstuffs . . .when there is no money, we do not eat much and they understand. (Caregiver in Household 9)
The above responses from the caregivers clearly indicate that they did not discriminate by ensuring that the beneficiary OVC had food while the other children in the household did not. Since the LEAP beneficiary households are dangerously poor (Holmes & Barrientos, 2009) they do not have adequate resources to meet their basic food requirements (Jones et al., 2009). Thus, all the children in the sampled households needed food and therefore it was difficult for the caregivers to meet the conditionality of the cash transfer which was meant for the exclusive use of the LEAP beneficiaries. This was one of the reasons why some beneficiary OVC had meals twice daily. This finding could also explain why the educational and health needs of some beneficiary OVC were not met. Although, the cash transfers were to be utilised conditionally, the living arrangements, especially household size influenced spending decisions of caregivers. With regard to the LEAP beneficiary OVC who had meals twice daily, the study found that households living arrangement influenced the cooking schedules of most caregivers. The average household normally had two meals in a day. Majority of the households were located on compounds consisting of other households and all the people on a compound were extended family members.
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During the interview, some caregivers mentioned that they did not cook in the afternoons as reflected in a caregivers assertion:
. . . we live in an extended family compound . . . traditionally, cooking for lunch is not the practice, . . . so if I cook in the afternoon I am obliged to share with the all the children in the household . . . I am caring for nine children, I dont have enough money to cook three times. In the evening, every mother in each household cooks so there is enough food for all the children to eat. (Caregiver in Household 8)
The findings indicated that the extended family living structure negatively affected the number of meals beneficiary OVC had in a day. While it was difficult for caregivers with many dependants (beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries) to take care of the food needs of their respective households, it was more challenging to feed all the children of the extended families in different households within the various compounds. In these households, cooking meant sharing the food to benefit all the children on a compound instead of the OVC in the beneficiary households. As the family and the communal clan function as social support systems for individuals in need (Awusabo-Asare, 1995; Nunkuya, 1992), such as hungry children in low-income families, the caregivers had cultural responsibility to share the food among all the children on their compound when they cooked. However, in this circumstance, due to limited financial resources, large family sizes and cultural practices, the LEAP beneficiary OVC were deprived of lunch among other basic needs. Sharing limited resources among many children is a common practice in Ghana because the traditional household is more than the nuclear family with little consensus on its boundaries. 6. Conclusions and Implications The LEAP cash transfer is a form of social protection provided by the government to meet the needs of vulnerable groups in poor households in Ghana. This study explored the influence of household size on conditional cash transfer utilisation to meet the school, health and food needs of orphans and vulnerable children in the Atwima Nwabiagya District. The findings indicated that households, which were made up of different members of the extended family operated as single units and therefore cash transfers were utilised for all children (both LEAP beneficiary and non-beneficiary) who resided in the households of caregivers. This suggests that household size influenced the spending decisions of caregivers even though the cash transfer was conditional. In practice, the cash transfer failed to meet the conditionality requirement because the money was used to meet the needs of non-LEAP beneficiary children as well. The beneficiary children, especially those who resided in households with non-beneficiary children did not benefit much from the LEAP. Although all the OVC in this study were enrolled in school, they were deprived of other basic needs. Some caregivers were unable to (a) provide the school needs of OVC, (b) enrol OVC in the national health insurance scheme, and (c) adequately provide for the food needs of OVC. All these issues are crucial and deserve urgent policy attention because they could lead to school absenteeism and consequently have a negative impact on school retention. The LEAP program would achieve its aim of breaking the cycle of poverty in poor households if beneficiary OVC stay in school and are able to transition to higher levels of education While the amount of cash paid to the caregivers was determined by the number of OVC in the households, it is vital to emphasise that the OVC were part of larger poor families, where majority of children in the households were non-LEAP beneficiaries. Since these households were poor, the caregivers found it difficult to utilise the cash transfer exclusively on beneficiary children as the other children in these households equally had educational, health and food needs as well. In order for the LEAP program to achieve its intended impact of reducing household poverty, the cash transfer program
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should be extended to include all children in beneficiary households since they all have unmet needs. As Slater (2011) noted, targeting specific social groupings is likely to involve major errors of exclusion. In this regard, most children in poor households in the study area were excluded from the program though they were equally vulnerable. Even though conditionality requires behavioural change, this might be difficult to achieve in Ghana, especially in rural communities due to the extended family living system with its inherent sociocultural norms. This may influence cash transfer utilisation in households where OVC reside because the operations of these households depended largely on cohesion and sharing to benefit all family members. The conditionality notwithstanding, the caregivers made rational choices by using the cash received through the LEAP program to benefit their entire households as it was difficult to isolate the OVC from other household members. Hence, measures must be put in place to ensure that the program strengthens family cohesion rather than weakens it. Since, the LEAP conditional cash transfer targets orphans and vulnerable children in family households, we argue that the size of the household can contribute to or diminish the potential benefits embedded in the program. Given that conditional cash transfer interventions operate through and affect complex entwined structural and traditional social relationships, the conditionality of the program must be reassessed. We therefore conclude that cash transfers will have the intended impact on beneficiaries, especially OVC if deep rooted family living systems and structural challenges, such as difficult access to health-care facilities are taken into consideration in the design and implementation of national social protection programs. References
Adato, M., & Basset, L. (2009). Social protection to support vulnerable children and families: The potential of cash transfers to protect education, health and nutrition. AIDS Care 21 (1), 60-75. Adato, M., & Hoddinott, J. (2010). Conditional cash transfers in Latin America. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. Adjei, P. O., Aboagye, D., & Yeboah, T. (2012). Extreme poverty and vulnerability experiences on urban highways in Ghana: Assessing social protection policy responses. Educational Research 3(5), 436-446. Atwima Nwabiagya District Survey. (2005). Vulnerability Analysis Report. Retrieved on April 20, 2011, from http://atwimanwabiagya.ghanadistricts.gov.gh Awusabo-Asare, K. (1995). Living with AIDS: Perceptions, attitudes and post-diagnosis behaviour of HIV/AIDS patients in Ghana. Health Transition Review, 5, 265-278. Baird, S., McIntosh, C., & Ozler, B. (2011). Cash or Condition? Evidence from a cash transfer experiment. The Quaterly Journal of Economics 126, 1705-1753. Barrientos, A., & DeJong, J. (2004). Child poverty and cash transfers. Childhood poverty research and Policy Centre Report No. 4. London: Save the Children. Bryant, J. H. (2009). Kenyas cash transfer program: protecting the health and human rights of orphans and vulnerable Children. Health and Human Rights, 11(2), 65-76. Badu-Nyarko, S. K., & Saka-Manful, E. (2011). Where are the HIV/AIDS orphans? Exploring haracteristics of vulnerable children in public residential care in Ghana. Journal of Global Social Work Practice 4(1), 1-19. Case, A., & Deaton, A. (1998). Large scale transfers to the elderly in South Africa. Economic Journal 108(450), 1330-1361. Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Daily Graphic. (2012). 68,000 Households Benefit From LEAP. Retrieved on April 20, 2012 from http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/news/features/11651--68000-households-benefit-from-leap Department for International Development [DFID]. (2011). Cash transfers. Evidence Paper. London: Policy Division.
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Farrington, J., Slater, R., & Holmes, R. (2004). Social protection and pro-poor agricultural growth: What scope for synergies? Natural Resource Perspectives, 91. Retrieved on March 22, 2012 from http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/docs/1664.pdf Fields, G. S (2001). Distribution and development: A new look at the developing world. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Gbedemah, C., Jones, N., & Pereznieto, P. (2010). Gendered risks, poverty and vulnerability in Ghana: Is the LEAP cash transfer programme making a difference? London: Overseas Development Institute. Ghana National AIDS/STI Control Program & Ghana Health Service. (2010). National HIV prevalence and AIDS estimates report 2009-2015. Accra, Ghana. Ghana Statistical Service. (2008). Ghana living standards survey: report of the fifth round. Accra: Ghana Statistical Service. Handa, S., & Davis, B. (2006). Conditional cash transfers in Latin America and the Caribbean. Development Policy Review, 24(5), 513-536. Holmes, R., & Barrientos, A. (2009). Child poverty: A role for cash transfers in West and Central Africa? Briefing Paper: UNICEF and Overseas Development Institute. Jones, N., Ahadzie, W., & Doh, D. (2009). Social protection to tackle child poverty in Ghana. Briefing Paper: UNICEF and Overseas Development Institute. Lund, R., & Agyei-Mensah, S. (2008). Queens as Mothers: The role of the traditional safety net of care and support for HIV/AIDS orphans and vulnerable children in Ghana. GeoJournal, 71, 93-106. Lund, F., Noble, M., Barnes, H., & Wright, G. (2009). Is there a rationale for conditional cash transfers for children in South Africa? Transformation: Critical Perspectives on Southern Africa, 70(1), 70-91. MacAuslan, I., & Riemenschneider, N. (2011). Richer but resented: What do cash transfers do to social relations? IDS Bulletin, 42(6), 60-66. Marcus, R. (2004). The role of cash transfers in tackling childhood poverty. CHIP Report 2, London: Childhood Poverty Research and Policy Centre. Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey [MICS]. (2006). Monitoring the situation of children, women, and men. Ghana, Accra: Ghana Statistical Service/UNICEF/USAID. Mushunje, T. M., Mafico, M. (2010). Social protection for orphans and vulnerable children in Zimbabwe: The case for cash transfers. International Social Work, 53, 261-285. Ministry of Manpower Youth and Employment. (2007). The national social protection strategy of Ghana. Accra, Ghana. Nukunya, G. K. (1992). Tradition and change in Ghana: an introduction to Sociology. Accra, Ghana: University Press. Ofori, V. A. (2011). Return to natural living: the role of traditional medical practice in Ghana. Retrieved on September 25, 2012, from http://citifmonline.com/?id=1.671653 Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Schubert, B. (2008). Protecting the poorest with cash transfers in low income countries. In A. Barrientos & D. Hulme (Eds.), Social Protection for the Poor and Poorest: concepts, Policies and Politics (211223). London: Palgrave. Schubert, B., & Slater, R. (2006). Social cash transfers in low-income African countries: conditional or unconditional? Development Policy Review 24(5), 571-578. Slater, R. (2011). Cash transfers, social protection and poverty reduction. International Journal of Social Welfare, 20(3), 250-259. Woolcock, M., & Narayan, D. (2000). Social capital: Implications for development theory, research, and policy. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank.
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Impact of Albanian Folklore in Literature

MA. Ermelinda Kashahu
University Eqrem Cabej Faculty of Education and Social Sciences Department of Literature Gjirokastr, Albania ekashahu@gmail.com
Edlira Dhima
Ismail Qemal University of Vlora College of Human Sciences Department of Language and Literature Vlora, Albania E-mail: edadhima@gmail.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p253
Abstract Folklore has a really important place in the literature of this country, where we can mention the (Cikli i Kreshnikeve) (The Cycle of the Valiant Heroes), and their opponents, "Kral-s" and "kapedan-s". Along with the epos, Albanians had created also the fund of the ballades, which came like shocking memories of the past ages. One of them is that which is known in the south with the name of Konstandin and Doruntine, whereas in the north "Knga e Halil Garris" (The song of Halil Garria). There are other authors who have being strongly inspired by the Albanian oral poetry, which is included in the Cikli i Kreshnikeve (The Cycle of the Valiant Heroes), while in the Lahuta e Malcise (The Lute of Malecia). Another poet is Palaj Bernardin. Palaj is classic lyrics and elegiac author, who published the majority of his works in thirty years in the Franciscan magazine "Hylli i Drites (Star of the light). The folklore is and will remain an invaluable asset for the Albanians, and will continue to be an inspiration for artists in the future, as it was in the past. Key words: Folklore, collectors, Albanian literature
1. Introduction The folklore has indeed an important role in the literature of this country. Our folklore is very rich, where we can mention the Ciklin e Kreshnikeve (The Cycle of the Valiant Heroes), with Muji1 and Halil2, Gjergj Elez Alia3 etc. in the centre of this cycle stand the jobs of the file of the Valiant Heroes, as
The history of the Albanian literature a publication of University of Tirana 1959, volume I page 3-136. Marchiano, Canti polulari, albanezi delle colonie dItalia, Foggia 1908, p. 26. 3 R. Sokoli, On the songs of work in our folklore, Nentori magazine, February 1995, p. 129.
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well as their opponents, the "kral-s"4 and "kapedan-s"5 [1] especially from the coastal regions. The war of the Valiant Heroes is situated at a time and in an environment that does not acknowledge yet the fire guns. Their content and the social outlook, the artistic elements they contain, the Songs of the Valiant Heroes send you back to an earlier period than that of the Ottoman occupation. Along with the epos, Albanians had created also the fund of the ballades, which came like shocking memories of the past ages. One of them is that which is known in the south with the name of Konstandin and Doruntine, whereas in the north "Knga e Halil Garris" (The song of Halil Garria). [2] The ballade of Kostandin and Doruntine is often treated as a masterpiece which raises the cult of besa (trust), the sanctity of the given word, for the sake of which the curse could follow you in this life and the other. The message of besa (trust) is present in the breath of the ballade, but before this message is the breath of the human power to come back to this life. In addition to the oral creativity, at this time began to emerge many other writings such as the koleksioni i kodikve (collection of the codices) which constitutes one of the most important cultural resources of the Albanian people. This collection contains over 100 volumes, which constitute complete works (manuscripts) and 17 fragments. The Codices of Albania, the oldest of which is "Kodiku i Purpurt i Beratit" (Purple Codex of Berati), are an important fund for the history of the development of the old biblical literature. [3]All these important parts of the Albanian folklore, earlier Albanian write a great drive for the continuance of the Albanian literature. These works became an inspiration for the young authors, who owing to them they became acquainted with the good and bad in the art. These works were not just an inspiration for the Albanian literature, but they also became a drive for the cinematography, ballet and many other fields of the Albanian art. It should be said that, many intellectuals of the renaissance were educated and were influenced by the European breath of that time but yet they did not forgot the folklore. From these legends are created works of a worldwide fame, such as the work of Ismail Kadare "Kush e solli Doruntinen"(Who brought Doruntina home), based on the tradition. Another case is that of Mitrush Kuteli, who took enough of the elements of his narrations from the Tosk6 folklore, the way he had heard it in his childhood and exploited it to recreate clear motives of life in the countryside. Among these works where Kuteli made the folklore a part of his creativity, we can mention here: Ago Jakupi and other narrations, a summary of seven narrations about life in the countryside; Kapllan Aga i Shaban Shpats (Kapllan Aga son of Shaban Shpata). [4] Narrations Tales, etc. Another poet, in whose works catch the eye, the close ties with oral literature, is Fishta, even though some authors have criticized Fishta for 'folklorism', for the imitation of the folklore, without being able to create a real epic poem. It is worthy to be mentioned that Fishta is mightily inspired by the Albanian oral poetry, as well as by the cycles of heroic poetry called Kng kreshniksh (Songs of Valiant Heroes) when he wrote Lahuta e malcis. [5] Another poet dedicated to the folklore was Bernardin Palaj. Palaj is also an author of classical and elegiac lyrics, in the most part published in the years 30 in the Franciscan magazine Hylli i Drits (Star of the light). [6]The folklore is and will remain an invaluable resource for the Albanians, and will continue to be an inspiration for artists in the future, the way it was in the past... Every people create its art and culture. Our people have also done this since in the earlier times, since the writing was not yet invented. Thus our people has created songs and fairy tales, legends and proverbs, the cycle of the valiant heroes and riddles, their characteristic music and dances, their rich costumes and their various habits, their special way of building houses, bridges, castles etc., In this way, in addition to other things, they have expressed the richness of their fantasy, the ability to create genuine
Lyric folk songs, Tirana 1955, p. 294. The Archive of the Albanian Folklore (Z. Sako) 6 The Nations Depositories, Volume III, Tirana, 1937, p. 131.
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art works, be it words, be it the diversity of the costumes, be it musical melody etc. This way, they had continuously brought their part in the culture and art of humanity, in the world civilization. This entire cultural and artistic heritage, earlier it has been a habit to be called folklore, a word derived from English (folk-people and lore-knowledge of art). Later with this name was called only that what was created by the people. Albanian folklore is very rich. Our thinker, Branko Merxhani, who highly evaluated our folklore, speaks more than once about the necessity of learning of this resource by us.[7]
We should enter within the people, - he writes, - and live along with the people, to cognize their sayings and narrations of their traditions; to follow the way of thinking and the rhythm of their feelings; to enter inside in the understanding of their religious life and to understand the feelings of their morals. Such a great endless and headless school, a whole lively university is the life of the people (). From this school of popular life emerged the genies of history.7
Has the folklore had influence in the Albanian literature? Certainly yes, During its history, the literature has been a bearer and the first source of the acknowledgement of the mythology, an expressive of the biblical thought, religious in general, laudatory of the creative power of the human being, an analytical mirror of the individual and the society, an elaborator and a spreader of the revolutionary thought etc., by remaining at the same time artistically organized word, with the natural tendency to make a life distinguished from other activities. This is our folklore, with a clear beauty, understood and experienced. The folklore is conserved orally by passing from a generation to the other. Therefore, it is exactly the popular memory that which conserves it, and has made it able that the songs, fairy tales, proverbs etc., to not be lost and that every good part of the ancient folklore to come to our days. In the beginning of the nineteenth century scholars from different countries began to show a great interest about the folklore, because in it, in addition to an artistic treasure, they saw also characteristics which determine features In the year 1635 we find an Latin-Albanian dictionary of the author Frank Bardhi which included some proverbs; later on the Arbresh8 of Italy, the great poet Jeronim De Rada publishes in 1866 a book with different songs entitled Rhapsody of an Albanian Poem gathered in the region of Napoli; Zef Jubani publishes in 1871 a Summary of folk songs and rhapsodies of Albanian poems whereas in the year 1878 Thimi Mitko publishes the most known folkloric summary Albanian Bee. It is worthy to mention here the summary entitled Sea Waves (1898) of the author Spiro Dine. [8] The most distinguished Albanian folklorists are: Zef Jubani, Jeronim De Rada, Bernardin Palaj, Ernest Koliqi, Qemal Haxhihasani, Ramadan Sokoli etc. One of the characteristics is the collective feature. We emphasize here that the collectors of the Cycle of The Brave Heroes at the Nations Depositories have also written down the names of the rhapsodists, who have sang masterpieces such as: Kenga e Gjergj Elez Alis (The Song of Gjergj Elez Alia), Martesa e Halilit (The Marriage of Halil) etc. According to Naim, the folklore as a permanent demand had its influence in the Albanian literature.9[9] It could support the point of views on the ancientness of the Albanians, without dealing with mythology and their antique polytheism, without holding on after the ancientness and originality.
M. Xhaxhiu, Literature and Folklore , The poem Narrations of the Arbr and problems of the poetry of De Rada. 8 A. Xhangolli, Folkloric Literature, Prishtina 1996, Bogdani, R. 9 Gj. Zheji, ajup and the folklore, on Nentori, Tirane, 1966.
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In supporting this opinion let us mention as an example the song Kur mrzen cjapi me zile (When the Billy goat with a bell rests in the shade), which has become one of the most preferred lyric folk songs of the southeastern regions of the country (Prmet, Skrapar, Kor, Pogradec etc). The various variants of this song are registered as a text or as a melody and they conserve the essential idea. The influence of the folklore appears often also in the poem History of Scanderbeg about which in any case is said that it does not contain obvious layers of the folkloric resource. But it is certain that the poet heard something, perhaps by his close friend Halit Brzeshta. At the Albanians of Italy, as it appears in a folkloric summary of Jeronim De Rada and Kamarda, the tradition of . has been alive. From the Albanian emigration, in those few elements we have from their folk culture, we find a lyrical wedding song. This song is heard even nowadays in Gjirokastra. Bibliography
The history of the Albanian literature a publication of University of Tirana 1959, volume I page 3-136. Marchiano, Canti polulari, albanezi delle colonie dItalia, Foggia 1908, p. 26. R. Sokoli, On the songs of work in our folklore, Nentori magazine, February 1995, p. 129. Lyric folk songs, Tirana 1955, p. 294. The Archive of the Albanian Folklore (Z. Sako) The Nations Depositories, Volume III, Tirana, 1937, p. 131. M. Xhaxhiu, Literature and Folklore , The poem Narrations of the Arbr and problems of the poetry of De Rada. A. Xhangolli, Folkloric Literature, Prishtina 1996, Bogdani, R. Gj. Zheji, ajup and the folklore, on Nentori, Tirane, 1966.
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The Impact of Contraceptive use on Women Health: A Study of District Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Asma Zafar
Sociology & Anthropology Department, PMAS University of Arid Agriculture-Rawalpindi
Muhammad Asim
M. Phil Scholar, Department of Sociology G.C University Faisalabad, Pakistan E. mail: masim202@gmail.com
Irum Gillani
Sociology & Anthropology Department, PMAS University of Arid Agriculture-Rawalpindi
Nazia Malik
Assistant professor, Department of Sociology G.C University Faisalabad, Pakistan
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p257
Abstract Womens health is about issues and matters specific to female anatomy. Womens health issues are related to the female genitalia, breast, and other physiological structures. Womens health matters include menstruation; pregnancy and menopause. Contraceptives are a thoughtful and premeditated selection of a birth control technique or set of techniques. In Pakistan, there is an increasing trend of using contraceptives to regulate unwanted pregnancies due to recent awareness of family planning and several women health problems launched by government. However, unawareness about the use of contraceptives would be more dangerous and its prolonged use sometimes results in multiple complications. In order to study the impact of contraceptives use on women health, 100 female respondents were taken as study respondents through purposive sampling technique. It was found that (88%) female were using contraceptives continuously, (82%) female respondents found the contraceptives effective then (62%) female respondents reported physical problems are the disadvantages of contraceptives. (59%) of female respondents were from city and (41%) female respondents were from towns and majority of them were using contraceptives. Keywords: Impact, Contraceptives, Women health
1. Introduction Womens health was thought to include only issues of childbirth and reproductive health. Gender-specific medical research has demonstrated major differences between the way male
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and female physical systems develop and handle diseases. In addition to physical differences, men and women face different challenges in obtaining and paying for medical services. Economic status, health insurance coverage, a womens role as caregiver equally affect a womens health (Tina, 2006). Contraception is avoidance of pregnancy by different methods other than avoiding coitus or hysterectomy, whereas contraceptives are preventive methods to help women avoid unwanted pregnancies: they include all temporary and permanent measures to prevent pregnancy resulting from coitus. The contraceptives method may be broadly grouped into two classes-Spacing methods and Terminal methods. Spacing methods are of four types; Barrier methods, Hormonal methods, Intra-Uterine Devices and Natural Family Planning methods. Terminal methods are of two types; Male sterilization and Female Sterilization (Chohan, 2000) Pregnancy and contraceptive methods both have important health effects that include risks and benefits. The net impact of contraception on womens health has not been reported previously. Every method of contraception dominates nonuse in most clinical settings. Increasing the use of more effective methods even modestly at the expense of less effective methods will improve health and reduce costs. Method that require action by the user less frequently than daily are both less costly and more effective than methods requiring action on a daily basis (Sonnenberg, 2004) Effectiveness of a contraceptive is influenced by characteristics of both user and contraceptive method. Helping a women select the method that best meets her needs requires an understanding and careful assessment of these factors. A number of factors contribute to the user characteristics and affect a womens potential for successful contraceptive use. Life stage, socio-economic status, education, responsibilities, and work schedule are among the variables a provider needs to assess before recommending a specific contraceptive method to a client. Health concerns, religious and cultural beliefs, past experience with contraception play a vital role in choice and effectiveness of any contraceptive methods (Hatcher, 2000). Family planning saves womens and childrens lives and improves the quality of life for a substantial number of women. It is one of the most effective investments for helping to ensure the health and well-being of women, children, and communities, and is a key component of quality reproductive health services. Contraceptive use improves womens health by allowing women to avoid unwanted and poorly timed pregnancies. It also helps to empower women by allowing them to decide the number and spacing of their children; this, in turn, provides them increased opportunities for participation in educational, economic and social activities (WHO, 1991) 2. Materials and Methods A micro-level survey was conducted in two hospitals, Rawapindi General Hospital and Holy Family Hospital, in District Rawalpindi. There are eight government hospitals in Rawalpindi. These two hospitals were selected purposively because they were having family planning centers and fifteen to twenty females used to visit these centers daily. A sample of 100 females was drawn by using convenient sampling technique by including 50 females from Rawalpindi General Hospital and 50 females from Holy family hospital respectively. The data was
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collected through females interviews using a well-structured questionnaire. The data thus obtained was analyzed to draw conclusions and make pertinent recommendations. 3. Results and Discussions The present study shows significant results. With regard to the education of female respondents who had no qualification except their religious education or in other words illiterate were 36% which indicate that even in the city like Rawalpindi the female education is not of the satisfactory level, Even that most of the respondents were illiterate but awareness about contraceptive use among female was at high level due to the governmental Family Planning Programs. With regard to the husband income of female respondents 51% were earning 11-15 thousand per month which shows more concerned about the size of their families due to limited economic resources and the competition to improve the status of life. The percentage of female respondents in 15-20 income class was much less this is because the study was conducted in government a hospital which provides respondents contraceptive facilities at very cheap cost or approximately free for every one. The female respondents who have children 1-4 were 67% and the respondents having children 5-8 was also considerable because it was only 28 % so it is still needed to educate people about contraception. Percentage of respondents with regards to the contraceptive method used was shown in figure 1 where 29 % respondents uses condoms, 28% were using IUDs (Intra uterine devices) 17 % were using oral pills & the rest uses other methods.
35 30 25 Percentage 20 15 10 5 0 Condoms Oral pills Injections Norplants IUDs Ligation
Figure 1:- Contraceptive method used
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88% respondents continuously uses contraceptives while only 12% were not using it continuously due to complications they could not continue contraceptive use. Effectiveness of contraceptives is influenced by characteristics of both user and contraceptive method. The respondents who find the contraceptives effective was 82% & for whom contraception failed and they got pregnant was 18%.The reason behind the failure of the contraceptives was incorrect and inconsistent use of any method. 93% of respondents use only one contraceptive because they were satisfied with the effectiveness of their method and only 7% were using different contraceptives because they were having physical problem & due to the failure of contraception. 94% of the respondents consulted doctor before choosing any contraception because doctor suggested them which method to be used after complete medical check up and taking into consideration the history of the respondents and only 6% do not consult any doctor before using & selecting contraceptives. A comparison of different variables & choice of contraceptives was taken into consideration. Comparison of the female respondents with regard to their area, education, income, impact on women health & effectiveness with respect to the choice of contraceptives was studied Table 1: Comparison of female respondents with regard to the impact of contraceptives on women health.
Contraceptives Condoms Oral pills Injections Norplants IUDs Ligation Total Impact on women health No impact Positive Negative 29 0 0 7 5 1 7 2 51 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 16 0 21 2 49 Total 29 17 21 1 28 4 100
In comparison to the respondents with regard to their area and choice of contraceptives, the highest percentage of the choice of contraceptives in towns was condoms and in cities was IUDs, where as the lowest percentage of the of contraceptives in towns was Norplants and ligation, and in cities was nor plants. The choice of contraceptives was also influenced by the level of education of the respondents. There was also a great variation in the choice of the contraceptives regarding the economic status of the respondents. It is obvious from the table 1 that the respondents either reported negative or no impact of the contraceptives. Not a single respondent said that she felt any positive change due to the use of contraceptives. Along with the physical side effects of the contraceptives there were superstitions of the respondents because if they had any problem after using contraceptives whether it was related to it or not they thought that this problem might be the side effect of the contraceptives. So may be they had some positive impact on their health but they do not notice it. The other thing which is very clear from the table was that the respondents who were using condoms all of them
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reported no impact because condoms are non-hormonal contraceptives so they do not interfere with hormonal system and do not cause any problem. The only side effect associated with condoms is slight latex infection or lack of sexual satisfaction, but no respondent had even reported that. 4. Conclusion and Recommendation The present reveals that pregnancy and contraceptives methods both have important health impacts that include risks and benefits. Health conditions decrease the safety and effectiveness of any method. The effectiveness of a method depends on its correct and consistent use. Incorrect and inconsistent use leads to several health problems and failure of contraception. It was noticed during research that less educated people with low economic status have more children then educated and economically stable people. The interest will develop and people will further motivate to take preventive measures against unwanted pregnancies. So contraception is due to incorrect and inconsistent use of contraceptives so its consistent and correct use should be made possible by counseling and guidance. Contraceptives should be provided at affordable prices further its quality should be improved to reduce health problems. Awareness should be increased by media and other sources, male contraceptives should be introduced rather then female & government can help through the provision of better medical free camps for counseling and contraceptive availability. References
Chohan, A. 2000. Fundamentals of Gynaechology. 1st ed.,MAR Publishers Lahore. 145p Hatcher, J. 2000. Contraceptive Technology. 17th ed., Sage Publishers. London. 295p Sonnenberg, FA. 2004. Costs and net health effects of contraceptive methods. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi Tina, S. 2006. National conference of State Legislatures, Womens Health. http://www.ncsl.org/programs/health/forum/womenhealth.htm#intro WHO. 1991. Communicating Family Planning in reproductive health. http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/family_planning/index.html
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The Ecomomic Impact of Agricultural Products in the Albanian Exports

M. Sc. Eda Bezhani, Ph.D. Candidate
Lecturer, Aleksander Moisiu University, Durres, Albania Email: edabezhani82@gmail.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p263
Abstract Exports are considered as one of the priorities of government for the developing of the economy and facing the trade liberalization process of Albania in the international market. The increasement of exports is one of the most fundamental indicators for increasing the competitiveness in the economy, the increase of investors and one of the indicators for increasing the employment in Albania. The performance of the economy in these years has been characterized in quite large fluctuations in its stability, restructuring, growth rate and in this way of huge transformations. This kind of performance has accompanied also that part of exportoriented economy by turning the economy and the domestic market to a market economy that is relied mainly on imports. Based on the Intermediate Interim Agreement on the 1- December 2006, it is expected a significant impact on domestic economic structure. Due to this agreement the export tariffs will decrease faster than those of imports. This is expected to have a positive effect because in the EU countries perform about 60% of imports and 80% of exports 1 . Because of the rapid expansion of exports and moderate growth in imports , there has been an improved trade deficit, helping to balance the demand and supply for foreign currency and to maintain the national currency 2 . Exports during the first 8 months of the year increased 25 billion ALL compared with the year 2010. Domestic Exports includes the agricultural products (medicinal plants, tobacco), by metals (ferrochrome and aluminum), leather, from timber and mineral products (fuels). Exports of agricultural products include all countries in the region, but we are also exporting to Hungary, Germany and other countries of the European Union. Keywords: Exports, agricultural products, agricultural marketing.
1. Introduction
Export growth is important because of its effect on internal trade and economic stability. Even more, the rate of economic growth and the distribution of income and wealth in a country are closely related to export growth.
By the given statistical data is observed that the export-import ratio in years has varied almost at the same levels 1:9 (export-import).
1 2
Strategy and business development investments (2007-2013) Monetary Policy Report, April 2011
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Table 1: Exports and imports in agro-food industry and trade balance (in Million Euro)
600 500 400 300 200 100 0 -100 -200 -300 -400 -500 -600 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Agri-food exports Agri-food imports Agri-food trade balance
The good performance of exports has contributed to narrowing the trade deficit with 5.9% annually for this period. The average coverage of imports by exports was estimated at 47.3% and this is recorded as its higher historical point. Trade exchanges recorded an increasement of 30.4% during the first two months of the year. Exports in value continued in upward trend to accelerate during the first start of the year 2010 and expanded 66% in annual report 3. Despite this, it is worthly emphasizing that there is a considerable increase in production, increase in exports, imports, but also are increased the country's needs (so increase in consumption). Noting that domestic export is represented mostly by agricultural products. During the year 2010 have seen an improvement in trade balance (calculate local needs from domestic production plus exports minus imports), some products of agro-processing sector. Valueadded services sector and the agricultural sector contributed positively but to a lesser extent annual increase of real GDP. One of the strategic policies of Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Consumer Protection (MAFCP), is the promotion of agro-industry sector because the Albania's geographical location offers a trade potential, especially with the EU markets. Albania has also entered into free trade agreements with all Balkan countries creating the opportunity for trade throughout the region. In the agro-food industry there is a gradual development and sustainability in recent years providing an average annual increase in value of about 3-5%. Given that agricultural-livestock products and agro-processing have a considerable potential to increase export volumes, in particular the support for increased production of bio.
Monetary Policy Report, April 2011
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Agro-industry sector productivity has increased by 4.7 in the year 2008 and 5.2 in the year 2010 (calculated as the total output value by the number of employees), however the competitiveness of agrofood industry is limited. So 91% of cheese that is needed for a year and only 9% are imported; 89% of butter is produced in the country, 86% olive oil, 68% sausage and bacon, and about 57% natural and sparkling water4. Table 2: Export-Import in 2000-2010
Export opportunities in Albania for agricultural products and processed have increased significantly but still are far from their real capacity. This is mainly result of: i. lack of marketing facilities (storage, processing, packaging of products); ii. low standards concerning food safety; iii. low degree of competition in the Albanian market of agricultural products because of low quality and relatively high cost of Albanian products. The development of exports plays a very important role on improving macroeconomic indicators. The importance of export growth is seen not only to reduce the trade balance, but also to improve the quality of products and increased manufacturing skills, creation of new jobs, improving the welfare and general economic development of the country. Improving the quality of our products will positively affect the growth of exports and will increase the the level of replacing imports with locally produced products.
Ministry of Agriculture Statistical Yearbook, 2010
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2. Exports: In the year 2010, the value of exports in agricultural and food products accounted 9 154 million leks, from which 73% with EU countries (Italy and Greece, with greater weight); 5% the United States; 3.5% in Turkey; and about 18% with regional countries (Kosovo, Macedonia, etc.). From export growth during 2000-2005 was about 45%; from 2005-2008 about 33%; in 2009 had only 2% growth of exports (compared with 2008); and in 2010 had increased by 22%. The main products have been exported on: medicinal plants, fresh vegetables and processed; oily seeds, watermelons, internal livestock, canned fish, and raw hides. If you look at the data of 2010 noted that the largest share of export value of agro-industry occupies about 54%, followed by agriculture and livestock 35% to 11%. 3. Imports: In 2010, imports of agricultural product services accounted for about 80 293 milion ALL, of which 54% of the EU countries (notably Italy and Greece). The products that play the most important role on imports were: fresh vegetables, wheat, vegetable oils, cereals, flour or starch, edible mix, alcoholic beverages, tobacco and processed tobacco. Greater importance to the value of imports of processed products are occupied (agro-industry) by about 62%, followed by agricultural products and livestock products 26% to 12%. 4. Some of the reasons for restricting Albanian exports: Deficiency and low levels of agricultural production and agro-processing industry; Lack of marketing facilities (storage, processing, packaging of products); Low standards on food safety; Low degree of competition in the Albanian market of agricultural products because of low quality and relatively high cost of Albanian products.
Table 3: Structure of Export 2005 - 2010
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Low competitiveness of our products mainly is associated with low quality, but also with food insecurity and high cost of production. These are the main factors limiting exports. This confirms the fact that the products exported have a little more demand for food safety, or guarantee them a higher degree (canned fish, medicinal plants, tobacco, watermelon, etc.) 5. Instruments to promote exports Some of the instruments for promoting and increasing exports are: - Competitiveness Fund for promotion of exports; - Support scheme in agriculture; - Exposure of the products through organizing National and International Fairs; - Improvement of network marketing, etc. Competitiveness Fund for promotion of exports implemented by Albanian Investment Development Agency (AIDA). Albanian Investment Development Agency as a public agency responsible for the implementation of private sector development and particularly for SMEs, promoting export and foreign direct investment in Albania, was established and operates under the Law No. 10303, dated on 15 July, 2010 "On the Establishment and organization of the Albanian Investment Development Agency". Besides these activities, it also manages promotional and fund program competitiveness. Financial support is provided through the implementation of a grants scheme for cost-sharing to a maximum of 1 million per company exporters but not more than 50% of the total cost. Support is provided for activities such as product certification, implementation of quality management system, market research, sales missions, conformity assessments required to penetrate the target market, representation abroad (costs related to finding agents and distributors, participation in fairs as a visitor, participation in trade fairs as exhibitors, promotion, publishing and design promotional materials for the target market). Costs need to be approved in accordance with standard procurement procedures, use of specific consulting services, customized product (including coverage and labeling, creating web pages, etc.). Support Scheme in Agriculture: The second instrument supporting the scheme was applied to the state budget funds by the Agency of Agriculture and Rural Development (AZHBR) in the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Consumer Protection in the framework of support for agriculture. This scheme directly affects the growth of production; support agro-processing businesses, therefore increase the possibility of exports. Also this scheme is a financial support to cover the cost of certification of organic agricultural products and intended for export. Organization of fairs: Serves as one of the main instruments in terms of encouraging exports and promoting businesses and products of the Albanian regional and international market. So for years planned a fund from the Ministry of Agriculture Food and Consumer Protection budget for participation in these events. Only for 2010 are based on the participation in international fairs 5 and 6 national regional fairs. This in close cooperation with business associations, financial institutions, donor projects, local governments, etc. Positive impact not only affected the revenue growth of businesses through the conclusion of new contracts, knowing the latest trends, technologies, etc., But above all in creating a stable image of Albanian businesses and products. Improvement of marketing: Establishment of wholesale and retail markets, slaughter of cattle collection centers; refrigerating rooms; have been some interventions to improve quality and storage products to a possible increase in their exports. Farmers have begun to orient the marketing of products, the selection of seeds. These measures have given high yields.
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6. Conclusions To reach a sustainable economic development, firstly we should take into consideration that exports is a very important factor on this development. Export opportunities in Albania for the agricultural products and also for the processed products have been increasing significantly, but still they are far from their real capacity. This is mainly due to some factors: a) Lack of marketing facilities ( storage, processing, packaging of products); b) Low standards related to food safety; c) Low level of competitiveness in the market of the albanian agricultural products due to low quality and relatively high cost of the albanian products. The importance of increasing export is not only seen for reducing the trade balance, but also for improving quality of the product and increasing production capability, opening new jobs, improving the wellfare and also for the economic development of the country. Increasing the quality of our products will have a positive impact on export growth and will increase the rate of imports with the locally produced products. Bibliography
Strategy and business development investments (2007-2013) Monetary Policy Report, April 2011 Ministry of Agriculture Statistical Yearbook, 2010 Sector Strategy of Agriculture and Food (SSBU), 2007 2013 National Plan for Implementation of the SAA 2009 2014 Institute of Statistics
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The 21st Century Educated African Person and the Loss of Africans Educational Identity: Towards an Afro Education Model
Dr. Wycliffe Amukowa
Economic Policy and Education Research Centre (ECO-PERC) New Jersey, USA kwamukowa@yahoo.com
Ms. Caroline Vihenda Ayuya

Department of Psychology Daystar University ayuyac@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p269
Abstract Africa like other parts of the world strongly believes in the axiom of education per excellence, that is, African nations share in the vision of education as a pivot for social change and integrated development. However review of literature shows a discontent from some African scholars over the practice of Western formal education on the Continent of Africa. This discontent stems from the belief that Western formal education destroys Africa; resulting into the loss of Africans educational identity, underdevelopment, moral decadence and cultural erosion. Several concerns emerge in the light of this discontent: 1).What is Education? 2).Who is an educated person? 3) Who is responsible for Africans loss of educational identity? This paper engages a critical appraisal and review of this discontent with the intentions of arriving at an understanding of the 21st Century educated African Person and proposes an educational model for Africa in this regard. Key Words: Africa, Colonialism, Culture, Development, Education, European, Schooling
1. Introduction The praxis of education being a condition for social change and development can only cease to be a mirage in Africa, if the African connotation of an educated person can be disseminated and made ingrained in our living consciousness. Such an African orientation will bring about an attitudinal behaviour change that will aid developmental drive. In fact, such an understanding will set Africa nations on the pace of catalyzing, sustaining and consolidating their developmental efforts in the 21st Century (Balogun, 2008). However, survey of literature shows that Africans seem to make dismal contributions, not only to the Continent of Africa, but to the world at large with blame on what is argued as improper practice of education on the continent. Nsamenang (2009), notes that the African school, the social institution officially mandated to deliver relevant education, has been responsible for Africas inability to ensure a good life, renew and strengthen its own culture and worse yet to generate and share its cultures knowledge and know-how. Hirsh (2010), informs that in Africa, education is creating poverty throughout the continent in which
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the culprit is the school system itself, which is more suitable for foreign than national labor markets. Consequently, increasing numbers of African school leavers, graduates and professionals now imagine their futures away from their countries, depriving their countries of human resources as many are part of brain drain statistics around the world. According to Nsamenang, (2008), there is little continent-wide evidence to show for the expressed wish of the then Organization of African Unity (OAU) and UNESCO that African educational authorities revise and reform the content of education in the areas of the curriculum, textbooks, and methods, so as to take account of the African environment, child development, cultural heritage, and the demands of technological progress and economic development, especially industrialisation. This implies that the problem of educational relevance persists in Africa. This paper proposes an account of understanding the 21st Century educated African person and proposes an Afro educational model that would facilitate Africans educational identity and contributions to development. The Afro Educational model proposed is not merely an aspect of educational practice in place, but it is, in fact, a completely different way to approach gaps in educational practice in Africa. It utilizes the critical, analytic and speculative methods of philosophizing coupled with documentary review. The literature reviewed sets forth as an indicator of educational concerns in Africa. The ineffectiveness of education in Africa as unearthed from the review of literature and the need for development in Africa towards improved quality of life serves as evidence for the timeliness and relevance of an Afro Educational model. However, there are some limitations of the literature reviewed as basis of this paper: First, the literature is based on arguments raised by Africans and this may fail the objectivity test. The discontent among the African scholars may be seen as mere subjective opinions as they are not supported by scientific findings. Second, the dissenting scholars have all been trained in Western Educational model and as such, it may be argued that they are not propagating anything new but gaps in their lives. Considering the population, varied educational practice and cultures in Africa such opinions may call into question whether education in Africa is as ineffective as the reviewed literature would indicate. Nonetheless, this discontent provides a jumping-off point for this discussion and an Afro educational model would be successful even if the discontent is only but subjective opinions. This paper has four main parts. The first part makes an exploration of the conceptualization of education and the case against schools, while the second part concentrates on the idea of an educated person. In its third part, this paper discusses the loss of Africas educational identity and in its last part the paper presents the 21st century educated African person and proposes an Afro educational model. 2. Conceptualization of Education Deciding how to care for and educate the next generation is an old matter to which individuals and cultural communities the world over have evolved various approaches. By revealing that Africa is home to the earliest humans, scientific evidence informs us that the continent has had the longest experience with the care and education of children. (Callaghan, 1998). So, what is education? What is it to educate? Scholars provide a variety of the definition of education. Peters (1967) argued that to lay claim to education, first the learner must possess the capability to understand what he is being taught. Second, the process must be done in a manner that is morally acceptable and third, it must be a conscious effort to bring about a positive change in the state of the mind of the recipient which must be directed at achieving a desirable goal. Boyd and King (1977), consider education to be the training and instruction of the young for the business of life. Gwanfogbe (2006) supports this definition of education as given by Boyd and King (1977) and argues that this definition is appropriate because since the beginning of
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human civilization each human society has been interested in training the future generation to improve on their social, economic, cultural and political life of their society. Mohanan (http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/publications/educated/intro.htm) disagrees with the definition of education as training and observes that education is not the same as training, even though training may be one of its ingredients. He argues that for instance, a person who has been taught to repair refrigerators, drive an automobile, or play basketball can be said to have received training, but such training per se does not constitute education. Similarly, even though learning is a necessary ingredient of education, not all forms of learning lead to education. Monkeys, birds, and rats can learn from experience, and they can even be trained, but it cannot be said that they can be educated. Mohanan(ibid) then defines education as the process of actualizing what is unique to the human mental potential. Education enhances the human mental capability because it is a preparation for future life, and a good way of preparing individuals for future life is to enhance their mental capability so that they can cope with the challenges of life more effectively. According to Balogun (2008), in its etymological derivation, education comes from the Latin word educere meaning to lead out or to bring out. Balogun (2008) argues that this definition is sterile as another school of thought has denied that education comes from educere, to lead out, but rather from educare which means to form or train. This way Balogun (2008) maintains that education refers to the act of developing knowledge, skills or character of a child. It may also be defined as the act of bringing up, rearing, guiding or directing a child. The 1828 edition of Noah Webster's An American Dictionary of the English Language http://modernedfailedus.blogspot.com /2005/12/times-have-changed.html) presents the definition of Education as the bringing up, as of a child; instruction; formation of manners. However, Omona (1998) argues that education is not only tied to children because adults or persons beyond the connotation of a child continue to be nurtured through education. Indeed, to conceptualize education with focus on a child pays no respect to the present day reality of continuing and adult education. With the coming of industrialism and increase in demand for knowledge and skills, education became increasingly associated with schooling and with sort of training and instruction that went on in special schools. According to Hirst (1990), this has culminated in the development of compulsory schooling for all, and may well have brought about such a conceptual tightening up that education is used with a connotation of knowledge and understanding. Within this purview, UNESCO (19995) defines education as comprising organized and sustained communication designed to bring about learning. This definition associates education with schooling or literacy. Indeed in its part of definition of education, the 1983 edition of Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary Unabridged Edition, provides that it is the process of 1) training and developing the knowledge, skill, mind, character, etc. especially by formal schooling; teaching; training. 2) Knowledge, ability, etc thus developed, 3) formal schooling. This perceived association of education and schooling has seen several cases brought against the school as discussed below. 3. The Schools Anti-Educational Effect: a Case against Schools Three scholars have criticized the school for not promoting education and being counter-productive to the society. Everett Reimer (1971) argues that the school is dead; Ivan Illich (1970) calls for deschooling society while Paul Goodman (1964) propounds compulsory mis-education. This section makes an overview of each of the cases brought against the school by these three scholars.
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3.1 School Is Dead: Everett Reimer

Everett Reimer (1971) observed that Schools are supposed to educate. This is their ideology and public purpose of which they have gone unchallenged. He argued that different schools do different things, but increasingly, schools in all nations, of all kinds, at all levels, combine four distinct social functions, custodial care, social-role selection, indoctrination, and education as usually defined in terms of the development of skills and knowledge. Reimer (1971) held that:
It is the combination of these functions of the school: social functions, custodial care, social-role selection, indoctrination, and education as usually defined in terms of the development of skills and knowledge, which makes schooling so expensive. It is conflict among these functions, which makes schools educationally inefficient. It is also the combination of these functions, which tends to make school a total institution, which has made it an international institution, and which makes it such an effective instrument of social control (Reimer, 1971:13)
Reimer (1971) noted that Custodial care is now so universally provided by schools that it is hard to remember earlier arrangements. He argued that children must be cared for, if they really are children, that is, and not just young members of the community taking part in its normal productive and social affairs. To Reimer (1971), child care costs money, money, however, is the least of the costs of providing custodial care in schools. The really important consequence of packaging custody with the other functions of the school is the extension of childhood from age twelve to twenty-five, and from the sons and daughters of the rich to the youth of the whole society. This, in turn, is only one aspect of the division of modern life into school, work and retirement. So long as children remain full-time students they remain children, economically, politically, even legally. According to Reimer (1971), the social-role selection function of schools is directly in conflict with their educational aims than custodial cam. Schools sort the young into the social slots they will occupy in adult life. Some of this sorting occurs at the high-school and college level, when students begin to opt for this or that profession or trade and enter special curricula of one to a dozen years in length for vocational preparation. In this regard, Reimer (1971), held that:
The results of even this accepted aspect of job selection in school are wasteful and often disastrous. Part of the waste is in the high proportion of dropouts, not only from professional and trade schools but from the professions and trades themselves, frequently after long and expensive investments have been made. (Reimer, 1971: 16).
Reimer (1971), points out that the major part of job selection is not a matter of personal choice at all, but a matter of survival in the school system. Age at dropout determines whether boys and girls will be paid for their bodies, hands or brains and also, of course, how much they will be paid. This in turn will largely determine where they can live, with whom they can associate, and the rest of their style of life. Reimer (1971), argued that:
The school system has thus amazingly become () the major mechanism for distributing values of all kinds among all the peoples of the world, largely replacing the family, the church and the institution of private property in this capacity. () schools confirm rather than replace the value distribution functions of these older institutions. Family, religion and property have such an important influence on access to and success in school that schooling alters only slowly and marginally the value distributions of an earlier day. () by this means we shall each year rake a score of geniuses from the ashes of the masses. The result of such a process, () is to keep the elite alive while depriving the masses of their potential leaders (Reimer, 1971: 17).
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As Reimer (1971), discusses, betrayal of the hopes of schooling is implicit in the selection function which schools perform. Selection implies losers as well as winners and, increasingly, selection is for life. Furthermore, school is a handicap race in which the slower must cover a greater distance bearing the growing burden of repeated failure, while the quicker are continually spurred by success. Nevertheless, the finish line is the same for all and the first to get there win the prizes. Consistently punishing half of the children who are trying to learn what society is trying to teach them is not the worst aspect of combining social role selection with education. Reimer (1971), held that:
Such punishment is an unavoidable result of the relative failure, which half the school population must experience while climbing the school ladder in competition with their more successful peers. Such punishment can scarcely help but condition this half of the school population to resist all future efforts to induce them to learn whatever is taught in school. But this is only the lesser evil. The greater is that school necessarily sorts its students into a caste-like hierarchy of privilege (Reimer, 1971: 18).
If schools continue for a few more generations to be the major means of social-role selection, Reimer (1971) observed that the result will be a meritocracy, in which merit is defined by the selection process that occurs in schools. Schools define merit in accordance with the structure of the society served by schools. Reimer (1971), maintained that:
This structure is characterized by the competitive consumption of technological products defined by institutions. Institutions define products in a way, which is consistent with the maintenance of a dominant hierarchy of privilege and, as far as possible, with the opportunity for members of the currently privileged class to retain their status in the new 'meritocracy'. What schools define as merit is principally the advantage of having literate parents, books in the home, the opportunity to travel (...) merit is a smoke screen for the perpetuation of privilege (Reimer, 1971: 19).
According to Reimer (1971), all schools teach the value of childhood, the value of competing for the life prizes offered in school and the value of being taught; not learning for one's self of what is good and what is true. Reimer (1971) maintained that all schools indoctrinate in ways more effective than those which are generally recognized. By the time they go to school, children have learned how to use their bodies, how to use language and how to control their emotions. They have learned to depend upon themselves and have been rewarded for initiative in learning. However, the school destroys these values. Reimer (1971), points out that:
In school these values are reversed. The what, when, where and how of learning are decided by others, and children learn that it is good to depend upon others for their learning. They learn that what is worthwhile is what is taught and, conversely, that if something is important someone must teach it to them (Reimer, 1971: 20).
Children learn in school not only the values of the school but to accept these values and, thus, to get along in the system, they learn the value of conformity and, while this learning is not confined to school, it is concentrated there (Reimer, 1971). Reimer (1971), held that:
The school is the first highly institutionalized environment most children encounter. For orphans and children who are sick or handicapped this is not the case, and the retarding effects of institutionalizing infants is impressively documented. Orphans learn so well not to interfere with institutional requirements that they seldom become capable of making a useful contribution to society. The argument for schools, according to Reimer is that they strike the balance between conformity and initiative, which the institutional roles of adult life will require (Reimer, 1971: 20f).
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Reimer (1971) argued that schools both reflect dominant values and maintain a stratified world. They make it seem natural and inevitable that hierarchies are inherently correlated and cannot be independent of each other. Schools do not have to teach this doctrine. It is learned by studying an integrated curriculum arranged in graded layers. Reimer (1971) observed that after performing childcare, social screening and value-teaching functions, schools teach cognitive skills and both transmit and at graduate levels; create knowledge. Schools rest much of their case on their claim to teach skills, especially language and mathematical skills. Schools teach the grammar of language, the theories of mathematics, science and the arts. Thus Reimer (1971) wrote:
Undoubtedly they do; but the real question is whether these things are learned in school more than they would be otherwise () (Reimer, 1971: 22).
The pernicious effect of schools on cognitive learning, according to Reimer (1971) is best seen by contrasting the impact of schooling on privileged and underprivileged children. The underprivileged, whose home environments are lacking in the specialized resources schools provide, are relatively unsuccessful in school and soon leave it with an experience of failure, a conviction of inadequacy and a dislike for the specialized learning resources of which they are subsequently deprived. The privileged, whose home environments rare rich in the specialized resources of the school, who would learn on their own most of what the school has to teach, enjoy relative success in school and become hooked on a system which rewards them for learning without the exercise of effort or initiative. Reimer (1971) concluded that:
Thus, the poor are deprived both of motivation and of the resources, which the school reserves for the privileged. The privileged, on the other hand, are taught to prefer the school's resources to their own and to give up self-motivated learning for the pleasures of being taught () no country in the world can afford the education its people want in the form of schools ()(Reimer, 1971: 23).
3.2 Deschooling Society: Ivan Illich

Ivan Illich (1970) called for the disestablishments of schools. He argued that many students, especially those who are poor, know that they are schooled to do () to confuse process and substance (...). Illich held that once these become blurred, a new logic is assumed: the more treatment there is, the better are the results; or, escalation leads to success. The pupil is thereby schooled to confuse teaching with learning, grade advancement with education, a diploma with competence, and fluency with the ability to say something new. His imagination is schooled to accept service in place of value. Medical treatment is mistaken for health care, social work for the improvement of community life, police protection for safety, military poise for national security, the rat race for productive work (...) (Illich, 1970: 5). According to Illich (1970), the school polarizes a society and grades the nations of the world according to an international caste system. This way, the school divides the society and undermines the social fibre. Illich (ibid) maintained that:
Countries are rated like castes whose educational dignity is determined by the average years of schooling of its citizens, a rating which is closely related to per capita gross national product. The very existence of obligatory schools divides any society into two realms: some time spans and processes and treatments and professions are "academic" or "pedagogic," and others are not. The power of school thus to divide social reality has no boundaries: education becomes unworldly and the world becomes non-educational (Illich (1970: 10).
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Illich (1970) held that the school is recognized as the institution which specializes in education. Its failures are taken by most people as a proof that education is a very costly, very complex, always arcane, and frequently almost impossible task. School appropriates the money, and good will available for education and in addition discourages other institutions from assuming educational tasks. Work, leisure, politics, city living, and even family life depend on schools for the habits and knowledge they presuppose, instead of becoming themselves the means of education. Simultaneously both schools and the other institutions which depend on them are priced out of the market. Illich (1970) observed that the school was meant to give everybody an equal chance to any office. Many people wrongly believe that the school ensures the dependence of public trust on relevant learning achievements. However, instead of equalizing chances, the school system has monopolized their distribution. Illich (1970) held that:
()The school system rests on the assumption that most learning is the result of teaching. Teaching, it is true, may contribute to certain kinds of learning under certain circumstances. But most people acquire most of their knowledge outside school, and in school only insofar as school, has become their place of confinement during an increasing part of their lives (...) (Illich, 1970: 12).
In Illich (1970)s view, the school system performs the threefold function common to powerful churches throughout history. These Illich (1970) identified as: the Myth of Institutionalized Values, the Myth of Measurement of Values and the Myth of Packaging Values. According to Illich (1970), School initiates the Myth of Unending Consumption. This modern myth is grounded in the belief that process inevitably produces something of value and, therefore, production necessarily produces demand. School teaches us that instruction produces learning. The existence of schools produces the demand for schooling. Once people have learned to need school, all their activities tend to take the shape of client relationships to other specialized institutions. Illich (1970) argues that once the self-taught man or woman has been discredited, all nonprofessional activity is rendered suspect. In school learners are taught that valuable learning is the result of attendance; that the value of learning increases with the amount of input; and, finally, that this value can be measured and documented by grades and certificates. Illich (1970) maintained that:
Once young people have allowed their imaginations to be formed by curricular instruction, they are conditioned to institutional planning of every sort. "Instruction" smothers the horizon of their imaginations. They cannot be betrayed, but only short-changed, because they have been taught to substitute expectations for hope. They will no longer be surprised, for good or ill, by other people, because they have been taught what to expect from every other person who has been taught as they were (Illich, 1970: 28).
This transfer of responsibility from self to institution, Illich (1970) observed, guarantees social regression, especially once it has been accepted as an obligation. He points out that; the man addicted to being taught seeks his security in compulsive teaching (...) the woman who experiences her knowledge as the result of a process wants to reproduce it in others (Illich, 1970: 28). Illich (1970) discusses that the school initiates young people into a world where everything can be measured, including their imaginations, and, indeed, man himself. But personal growth is not a measurable entity. It is growth in disciplined dissidence, which cannot be measured against any rod, or any curriculum, nor compared to someone else's achievement. In such learning one can emulate others only in imaginative endeavor, and follow in their footsteps rather than mimic their gait. Illich (1970) puts it that:
() the school pretends to break learning up into subject "matters," to build into the pupil a curriculum made of these prefabricated blocks, and to gauge the result on an international scale.
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People who submit to the standard of others for the measure of their own personal growth soon apply the same ruler to themselves. They no longer have to be put in their place, but put themselves into their assigned slots, squeeze themselves into the niche which they have been taught to seek, and, in the very process, put their fellows into their places, too, until everybody and everything fits (...) (Illich, 1970: 29).
In Illich (1970)s belief, people who have been schooled down to size let unmeasured experience slip out of their hands. To them, what cannot be measured becomes secondary, threatening. They do not have to be robbed of their creativity. Illich (1970) puts it that under instruction, such people have unlearned to "do" their thing or "be" themselves, and value only what has been made or could be made (Illich, 1970: 29). Once people have the idea schooled into them that values can be produced and measured, they tend to accept all kinds of rankings. Illich (1970) rests that:
There is a scale for the development of nations, another for the intelligence of babies, and even progress toward peace can be calculated according to body count. In a schooled world the road to happiness is paved with a consumer's index (Illich, 1970: 29).
While calling for the disestablishment of schools, Illich (1970) maintained that the School sells curriculum; a bundle of goods made according to the same process and having the same structure as other merchandise. Curriculum production for most schools begins with allegedly scientific research, on whose basis educational engineers predict future demand and tools for the assembly line, within the limits set by budgets and taboos. This way, Illich (1970) held that the distributor-teacher delivers the finished product to the consumer pupil, whose reactions are carefully studied and charted to provide research data for the preparation of the next model, which may be ungraded, student-designed, teamtaught, visually-aided, or issue-centered" (Illich, 1970: 29). Illich (1970) observed that the result of the curriculum production process looks like any other modern staple. It is a bundle of planned meanings, a package of values, a commodity whose balanced appeal makes it marketable to a sufficiently large number to justify the cost of production. Consumerpupils are taught to make their desires conform to marketable values. Illich (1970) rests that thus they are made to feel guilty if they do not behave according to the predictions of consumer research by getting the grades and certificates that will place them in the job category they have been led to expect (Illich, 1970: 29). Illich (1970) argued that the school pushes the pupil up to the level of competitive curricular consumption, into progress to ever higher levels. Expenditures to motivate the student to stay on in school skyrocket as he climbs the pyramid. This way, Illich (1970) puts it that on higher levels they are disguised as new football stadiums, chapels, or programs called International Education (...) if it teaches nothing else, school teaches the value of escalation () (Illich, 1970: 30). According to Illich (1970), school programs hunger for progressive intake of instruction, but even if the hunger leads to steady absorption, it never yields the joy of knowing something to one's satisfaction. Each subject comes packaged with the instruction to go on consuming one offering after another, and last year's wrapping is always obsolete for this year's consumer. The textbook racket builds on this demand. Educational reformers promise each new generation the latest and the best, and the public is schooled into demanding what they offer. Illich (1970) held that:
() Both the dropout who is forever reminded of what he missed and the graduate who is made to feel inferior to the new breed of student know exactly where they stand in the ritual of rising deceptions and continue to support a society which euphemistically calls the widening frustration gap a "revolution of rising expectations."() (Illich, 1970:30).
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Illich (1970), propounded that the school serves as an effective creator and sustainer of social myth because of its structure as a ritual game of graded promotions. Introduction into this gambling ritual is much more important than what or how something is taught. Illich (1970) held that () It is the game itself that schools, that gets into the blood and becomes a habit. A whole society is initiated into the Myth of Unending Consumption of services (...) this happens to the degree that token participation in the open-ended ritual is made compulsory and compulsive everywhere (...) (Illich, 1970: 31). According to Illich (1970), the School directs ritual rivalry into an international game which obliges competitors to blame the world's ills on those who cannot or will not play. Illich (1970) concluded that:
() the school is a ritual of initiation which introduces the neophyte to the sacred race of progressive consumption, a ritual of propitiation whose academic priests mediate between the faithful and the gods of privilege and power, a ritual of expiation which sacrifices its dropouts, branding them as scapegoats of underdevelopment (...)(Illich, 1970: 31).
3.3 Compulsory Miseducation: Paul Goodman

Paul Goodman (1964), observed that education is a natural community function and occurs inevitably, since the young grow up on the old, towards their activities, and into (or against) their institutions; and the old foster, teach, train, exploit and abuse the young. Even neglect of the young, except physical neglect, has an educational effect. This way, Goodman (1964) maintained that formal schooling is a reasonable auxiliary of the inevitable process, whenever an activity is best learned by singling it out or special attention with a special person to teach it. Yet it by no means follows that the complicated artifact of a school system has much to do with education, and certainly not with good education. According to Goodman (1964), schools play a non-educational and an educational role. On noneducational, schools are a baby-sitting service. The educational role is, by and large, to provide, at public and parents' expense; apprentice-training for corporations, government and the teaching profession itself, and also to train the young, 'to handle constructively their problems of adjustment to authority'. Goodman (1964) observed that people had to be taught in order to multiply the sources of citizenly initiative and to be vigilant for freedom. Everybody had to become literate and study history, in order to make constitutional innovations and be fired to defend free institutions, which was presumably the moral that history taught. And those of good parts were to study a technological natural philosophy, in order to make inventions and produce useful goods for the new country. By contrast, the citizenly reasons for which we compel everybody to be literate are to keep the economy expanding and to understand the mass communications. Goodman (1964) however noted that:
The schools less and less represent any human values, but simply adjustment to a mechanical system. Pedagogically, a teacher must try to teach each child in terms of what he brings, his background, his habits, the language he understands. But if taken to be more than technical, it is a disastrous conception (Goodman 1964:10).
According to Goodman Goodman (1964), the philosophic aim of education must be to get each one out of his isolated class and into the one humanity. However, the most important strengths of human values are flouted by the schools: independence, initiative, scrupulous honesty, earnestness, utility, and respect for thorough scholarship. Goodman (1964) maintained that () rather than bourgeois, our schools have become petty bourgeois, bureaucratic, time-serving, gradgrind-practical, timid and nouveau riche climbing. For many poor children, school is orderly and has food, compared to
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chaotic and hungry homes, and it might even be interesting compared to total deprivation of toys and books. Besides, the wish to improve a child's lot, which on the part of a middle-class parent might be frantic status-seeking and pressuring, on the part of a poor parent is a loving aspiration (Goodman 1964:11). Goodman (1964), argued that schools present a gloomy irony. The school that for a poor child might be a great joy and opportunity is likely to be dreadful; whereas the middle-class child might be better off not in the 'good' suburban school he has. Other poor youths herded into a situation that does not suit their disposition, for which they are unprepared by their background, and which does not interest them, simply develop a reactive stupidity very different from their behavior on the street or ball held. They fall behind, play truant, and as soon as possible drop out. Goodman (1964) puts it that:
The school situation is immediately useless and damaging to them, their response must be said to be life-preservative. They thereby somewhat diminish their chances of a decent living, but we shall see that the usual propaganda that schooling is a road to high salaries -- is for most poor youths a lie; and the increase in security is arguably not worth the torture involved (Goodman 1964:11).
In Goodman(1964),s belief, it is in the schools and from the mass media, rather than at home or from their friends, that the mass of () all classes learn that life is inevitably routine, depersonalized, venally graded; that it is best to toe the mark and shut up; that there is no place for spontaneity, open sexuality, free spirit. Trained in the schools, they go on to the same quality of jobs, culture, and politics. Goodman (1964) concludes that:
This education is, miseducation, socializing to the national norms and regimenting to the national 'needs'(Goodman 1964:11).
4. The Africans case against schools Formal schooling and European mode of education has been criticized as a key factor that has led to the creation of a smothered African person. In this regard, various scholars have generated several arguments against schools and maintained that European mode of education is unsuitable for the African people and the continent at large. The case against schools in Africa could be examined within four broad points: Deculturalisation, Acculturation, Peripheralisation of the self (Seasoning) and the Paradox of Schools in Africa.
4.1 Deculturalisation
According to (Marks, 1996) based on the historicity of colonial education and their current neocolonial African representatives, schools in Africa play the role of cultural transmission of a particular class orientation without critical approaches. This is because colonial education was specifically about cultural imperialism and class transplantation. Gutek (1993), says that the differences were only those of degree of such imperialism and transplantation. Neo-colonialist still defined education in these narrow terms in which the key element in this kind of education, is first about the process of deculturalisation. According to Spring (1997) and Asante (1994), deculturalisation becomes the process whereby the natives are culturally impoverished, made to hate themselves, and made to feel that only that which is metaphysically, epistemologically, axiologically, (i.e., ethically and aesthetically) other, or outside of themselves, is worthy of respect and thereby of being learned. This deculturalisation goes as far as asking students to change their names, dress code and/or religious beliefs; punishing students for speaking their native language within the school premises; and pressuring students to avoid eating local delicacies or
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using African names (Jagusah, 2001:8). Asante (1994) observes that it has gotten to the point that some 'educated Africans' will not let their children speak any African language as a reinforcement of the schools conditioning mission. This simple linguistic act alone cuts these young ones off from a wealth of cultural capital needed for all contextual, personal and societal development.
4.2 Acculturation
Pai & Aldler (1997) observed that schools in Africa play the role of acculturation. This is when the desired values are administered to the students. The students are required to spend an inordinate amount of time acquiring European languages and knowledges at the expense of real critical academics. Some of these European languages are basically useless outside of their immediate context. The most important aspect of education, that is, the enculturation (Pai & Aldler, 1997) of African student, is left unattended. This is because the first phase of African education, the pre-colonial phase, which should have tied the students to their respective communities as a basis for critique and reform, are eliminated or easily dismissed (Makgoba, 1997: 14). This makes educated Africans good for every other community but not the African community. The educated Africans are total strangers to their own African context. This is educating for export, not for home development. In the field of technical knowledge, the educated African is given modules and textbooks based on little of what they are familiar with. Neither is there any room or provision for practical demonstration in the immediacy of such a context.
4.3 Peripheralisation of the self (Seasoning)

Schools, as agents of education in Africa put learners on the periphery of development through the process of seasoning. According to Spring (2000), seasoning is the method by which Africans worldwide are made to be subordinate to Europeans. The first approach this method uses is to make the slave, the colonised or the neo-colonised obey by instilling fear of the owner through threats of death and torture for disobedience. The second aspect of seasoning is that of making the slave, the colonised or the neo-colonised loyal to the master, even when the master is not physically present. The masters economic blueprint, which such a master will never even think of implementing at home, will be shoved down the throats of the slave, the colonised or the neo-colonised, using a neo-colonised general or politician. The third aspect is that of making the African slave, colonised and neo-colonised believes in the superiority of the white race over the black race. Everything humanly or divinely good is from the white race. Their gods are the only ones that can save, their currency the only real currency acceptable, their facts, no matter how distorted, the only acceptable facts. Then, the final aspect becomes very easy: the slaves, colonised, and neo-colonised thoroughly hate themselves. As result of seasoning the Africans, like the African slaves, hate Africa, and lose pride in their heritage (Spring, 2000:199).
4.4 The Paradox of the African School

Nsamenang (2009), noted that paradoxically, the African school, the social institution officially mandated to deliver relevant education, has been responsible for Africas inability to ensure a good life, renew and strengthen its own culture and worse yet to generate and share its cultures knowledge and know-how. African education is not improving quality of life, but this is baffling in the light of rising continent-wide school enrollments and the students enthusiasm to learn. Hirsh (2010), claims that in Africa, education is creating poverty throughout the continent in which the culprit is the school system itself, which is more suitable for foreign than national labor markets. Consequently, increasing numbers of African school leavers, graduates and professionals now imagine their futures away from
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their countries. A resultant massive youth and expert exodus is depriving their countries of human resources and causing problems in recipient Western countries and beyond as many are part of brain drain statistics around the world, many of them illegal immigrants in very precarious conditions (Nsamenang 2009). Herzog (2008) regrets that the African school, the social institution now assigned the role of preparing children for life, is responsible for Africas inability to regenerate itself. The school education most Africans have received is inadequate to usher them into a productive and hopeful way of life. In general, education in most African countries is more suitable for foreign than national labour markets because it offers mainly incoherent chunks of Western knowledges and skills repertoires and is deficient in local wisdom and situated intelligences, which Africas agrarian economies require most. In fact, a good number of institutions in Africa can be seen actively advertising training programmes for EuroWestern employment agencies and labor markets. School leavers and graduates are thus alienated from their cultural roots by dint of education and are mostly ignorant of their status quo because they have been educated not to reflect the factors that create and sustain their sorry state. Ojiaku (1974) argued d that the nearly universal conviction from the advent of formal education in Africa was that it would provide a good life and develop the society. Of course, education in Africa produces experts, but ever since the early 19th century when the Euro-America presence in Africa began to be noticeably felt in the interior, Africas knowledge has increasingly ceased to be rooted in the African soil. Conclusions on African scholarship are significantly influenced by Western ideological perspectives, value systems and interpretative frames. The African school is aggravating the situation because it is detached from the social thought, cultural traditions and livelihoods of African societies. As such and despite a huge and growing number of Africans with impressive academic and research credentials, indigenous scholarship of a kind to be considered truly original remains sporadic, in relative short supply, and essentially imitative of, or largely patterned after, contributions by Western scholars (Kashoki, 1982). In addition, pedagogy and the educative sciences have mainly been imported from the industrialized societies of Europe and North America and remains overly Euro- American in character (Dasen and Akkari, 2008). According to Nsamenang, (2004), schooling and the mass media deepen a sense of alienation in Africans by suggesting that they should be like Westerners, but there are neither resources and avenues nor any need to achieve it. Africas overriding educational challenge is to mold Africas children into African identity productive citizens, who are adept and adaptable to the requirements of a global era. Foundation skills (reading, writing, math, science, etc), communication skills, adaptability skills, Personal management skills, group effectiveness skills, and influence skills are essential for academic success and adaptation in a global community. These academic and workplace skills should be worked into school curricula. In addition, African schools poised for the competitiveness and knowledge-driven global marketplaces must integrate into school curricula basic skills in organizational and communicative effectiveness, creative thinking and problem solving, leadership and team spirit, and interpersonal negotiation, and above all else future career visions. The question of development is also viewed entirely as a question of material acquisition, through whatever means. Education becomes commodified and is viewed only as a gateway to stealing. No moral imperatives are considered. Teaching and learning to transgress boundaries, and to become creative for the larger good of humanity, are dismissed. There are no longer conscious efforts to make a distinction between wants and needs. The soul is sacrificed for the material. 5. The Idea of an Educated Person According to Schofield (1972), in ancient Greece, an educated person was one who was mentally and
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physically balanced while in Rome an educated person was one who was a good orator and also excelled in military training. In the Middle Ages England, an educated person was either a lord or priest. Aubery (1999) avers that the educated person (man) is to be discovered by his point of view, by the temper of his mind, by his attitude towards life and his fair of thinking. He can see, he can discriminate, he can combine ideas and see whether they can lead, he has insight and comprehension. He is more apt to contribute light than heat to a discussion and will oftener than not show the power of uniting elements of a difficult subject in a whole view. Peters (1972) held that an educated person is one who posses a considerable body of knowledge together with understanding. He/she has developed capacity to reason to justify his/her beliefs and conduct. The educated person is one who is capable; to certain extend, of doing and knowing things for their own sake. Mohanan (http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/publications/educated/intro.htm) argues that to be considered educated, a person should have undergone a process of learning that results in enhanced mental capability to function effectively in familiar situations in personal and intellectual life, as well as to adapt to novel situations. This way, an educated person should possess knowledge needed for making informed rational decisions and inferences on familiar and novel situations in personal and intellectual life. In addition an educated person should be able to do certain things. When faced with familiar as well as novel situations, an educated person should be able to perform required tasks, make informed decisions and arrive at informed conclusions. An educated person should have the capability to enhance and modify his/her knowledge and thinking abilities on an ongoing basis so as to cope with novel situations and to cope with them in a more successful manner. An educated person should be capable of independent learning that facilitates coping with and adapting to the changing environment and be capable of using language clearly, precisely and effectively for epistemic purposes. Michigan State University (www.msu.edu/unit/provost/Educated_Person.htm) in asserting that it is committed to graduating an educated person posts that an educated person is someone who has learned how to acquire, analyze, synthesize, evaluate, understand, and communicate knowledge and information. An educated person has to develop skills that respond to changing professional requirements and new challenges in society and the world at large. He or she must be able to take skills previously gained from serious study of one set of problems and apply them to another. He or she must be able to locate, understand, interpret, evaluate, and use information in an appropriate way and ultimately communicate his or her synthesis and understanding of that information in a clear and accurate manner. Harvard University Graduate School of Education (http://www.gse.harvard.edu /news-impact/2012/04/watch-the-askwith-forum-live-defining-the-educated-person/Defining the Educated Person) posts that to be considered educated students should leave school with a deep understanding of themselves and how they fit into the world, and have learned what some call soft skills complex problem-solving, creativity, entrepreneurship, the ability to manage themselves, and the ability to be lifelong learners. According to the American Council of Trustees and Alumni (ACTA) (2003), becoming an educated person requires an understanding of ones place in the worldcultural as well as naturalin pursuit of a productive and meaningful life. And it requires historical perspective so that one does not just live () born one day and gone the next, but as part of that social contract that binds our generation to those who have come before and to those who are yet to be born. 6. An Educated Person in the African Context Balogun (2008) observes that in Africa, the notion of an educated person has been largely patterned after the Western conception. Thus, it is no surprise that such conceptual model fails to achieve its purpose in African societies. This increase on the emphasis of education has failed to bring about a commensurate increase to individual and national development. Balogun (2008) points out that
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although today in Africa, there is more enrolment of pupils in educational institutions at different levels, more funds disbursed into that sector by governments and private initiatives, these still have resulted into low evolution of educated personnel in Africa. Balogun (2008) puts it:
Enmeshed in this predicament, scholars and those who care about the future of Africa education have written volumes, indicating and attributing the failure to personnel factors. However, unknowingly to them, they do not suspect that the Western model of education, which they have uncritically assimilated, cannot facilitate the development and evolution of educated personnel in Africa (Balogun, 2008:9).
According to Balogun (2008) an educated person in the context of contemporary African understanding shows evidence of well-integrated personality; he or she is morally conscious of his or her actions and shows evidence of responsibility in the social welfare of others. He or she is a person of all season, who is cultured and broadminded; socially sensitive of his or her crucial role in the developmental process, and embraces socialism rather than individualism stressed by Western idea of educated person. Such a person is thus related with society and is an evidential embodiment of societal values with his or her physical body, mind and spirit fully developed to the fullest capacity to ensure the survival of his or her society. In this regard, Balogun (2008) maintained that:
() the educated person in the African context is one who shows evidence of a well integrated personality, meaning being economically prudent, socially and politically competent, morally acceptable and intellectually and culturally sophisticated. Being economically prudent means being economically efficient in the sense of possessing skills and knowledge that earns a means of survival as well as making a contribution to the common good. Hence a socially and politically competent person is one who has the ability to participate and does participate in decisions as affecting his or her life and others in his or her community. And being ethical, is a function of behavioural dispositions in which makes a person act morally in line with cultural values and norms of society, thus intellectual and cultural sophistication are meant to make the person socially aware of not only the developments in the environment, but also to observe the cultural norms of the society. And thus, a synthesis of all these qualities makes for a true African understanding of the idea of educated person (Balogun, 2008:9)
In the African conception, an educated person according to Akinpelu (1969) can be described as one who combines expertise in some specific economic skills with soundness of character and wisdom in judgement. One who is equipped to handle successfully the problems of living in an immediate and an extended family; who is well versed in the folk-lores and genealogies of the ancestors; who has some skills to handle minor health problems and where to obtain advice and help in major ones; who stands well with the ancestral spirits of the family and knows how to observe their worship; who has the ability to discharge social and political duties; who is wise and shrewd in judgement; who expresses self not in too many words but rather in proverbs and analogies leaving hearers to unravel his or her thought; who is self controlled under provocation, dignified in sorrow and restrained in success; and finally and most importantly, who is of excellent character. 7. The Loss of Africans Educational Identity and the Blame Game According to Zulu (2006), in a rush to negatively judge Africa and its contributions to human civilization, some scholars have continued to circulate incorrect information to give support to false assumptions. For instance, Zulu (ibid) observed that Nwomonoh (1998) mistakenly stated that before the introduction of Western style schooling the only formal schooling received by millions of people in
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Africa was the Islamic system. In debatable contrast, Zulu (2006) argued that Africa is not the historical or educational stepchild of Islamic or Western education. History verifies that an African process of education was transmitted and accumulated throughout the continent before the advent of invasion or colonialism. Olufowobi (2006) avers that if education means the bringing up of individuals in the society, then every society has a system of training its youth for good living and in this regard, Africans had developed their communal patterns which guaranteed consistency and peace in their societies before the coming of the Europeans. On an almost same wavelength, Oluwole, (2000) argued that the curriculum from primary through secondary to tertiary institutions is based on the false belief that Africans never developed any form of knowledge, science, technology or democracy. Thus, the faculty theories of the Greeks, the Romans, the Germans, French and more lately the Americans are all taught to African youths as absolute truths. It is under this ideology that Africans both as scholars and youths remain mentally bound to Western intellectual culture, and what is more baffling perhaps is the continued belief that there is no way to ever amass evidence for the existence of an indigenous African intellectual culture in pre-colonial times. Amoda (1978) (1964) mentioned that the precise problem of education of the African is to develop his/her powers as an African. The method which had been pursued has been absurd because it has been carried on without the study of the man and his intellectual possibilities. In the long run it produces, as a rule, only caricatures of alien manners, who copy the most obvious peculiarities of their teachers, with all their draw-backs and defects. Amoda (1978) noted that the problems of the black and African world are seen as caused by the experiences of Western civilization. A clash of civilization, African and Western, is assumed as the hegemonic level. The African civilization defined in this formulation as black, maintains its integrity while its authority is denied through the imposition of alien will; its existence and legitimacy remain implicit in the people. At the social level, Western values are incorporated into traditional values leading to cultural confusion and alienation of the colonized. Afolabi and Isiquzo (2000) stressed that traditional rites and customs have lost their living content. Thus, contact with colonialism deprived them of their original functions. The African then became more uncertain of which culture to adopt; he/she became a lost person without identity, the basis which Afolabi and Isiquzo (2000) concluded that Western education did not generate the true essence of African education and therefore there is need to either redefine the essence of education or redefine the kind of education needed to achieve desirable results in Africa.
7.1 Emancipation: The Essence of Education

In the Republic, Plato maintained that the essence of education is to lead a person from the dark cave of ignorance into the limelight of knowledge by turning the eyes of the soul from darkness to light. This implies that freedom should be the end product of education. According to Fafunwa (1974), education should proceed to emancipation, since no form of freedom can be enjoyed in the absence of education. As reflected in African indigenous knowledge system; no one can be respected in the society except when they have undergone adequate trainings that expose them to the values that make self useful for personhood, and relevant to society. Majasan (1967) maintains that the goal of African education prior to Western education, was the production of an individual that is responsible and capable of taking care of himself/herself and contributing positively to the development of his society. In the African context, education has resulted into negative emancipation. In the search for formal education, Africans naively acquired the wrong type of education. Most African nations were exposed to educational programs that maintained white superiority by distancing students from their own culture and history. Rodney (2000:264) argued that colonial schooling was education for subordination, exploitation; the creation of mental confusion and the development of underdevelopment. Therefore, rather than
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having a society full of educated and enlightened members, African society has a population who are illiterates as a result of cultural diffusion established by the colonial imposition. Conversely, today African nations are in a struggle to overcome depressed economies and antiquated class systems. Oluwole (2000) observes that Western education cannot be rejected in its totality because of how much it has permeated into the African knowledge system, more so that the world is gradually growing into a global village within which all kinds of cross cultural activities are taking place, and African people are not excluded. However, it is an urgent task for to raise indigenous knowledge system such that it competes favourably with any other knowledge system. Oluwole (2000) noted that Africans today do not know who they are because they never studied nor tried to discover who they were yesterday. Through Western education, African youth have been misled and in doing so, they have an inadvertently hopeless future designed for them. The twenty-first century offers an unparalleled opportunity to correct the basic error of African education in general and African studies in particular. Balogun (2008), argued that Africans have been conceptually decolonized into believing that it is only formal education that can afford a person to be successful, rather than emphasizing being a person of value, as successful. In view of the crass for formal education without due consideration of the ethical dimension, social vices have escalated at a geometric progression rate. Thus, all eyes are on paper qualification without concession for moral probity, intellectual creativity or problem solving capacity, thus the resultant effects of these are obvious: examination malpractices, nepotism, mediocrity at the expense of meritocracy in public, private and corporate corruption, unemployment, and high crime waves with the long-run effects of all these anomalies leading to political instability, social disorder and stunted development. Balogun (2008) maintains that:
When viewed critically, and if the idea of an educated person is to be taken to its logical conclusion, it would be no surprise to say that only a few people in Africa can claim to be educated. Even person of the seemingly educated elites who are on the corridors of power today are in the real sense of the word, uneducated. In short, the values attached to Western model of education has encouraged Africans to uncritically embrace the idea of an educated person as one who is associated with being bookish, prowess, paper qualification focused and bestowed with academic appellations. Marred in this conceptual distortion, contemporary African emphasis has been on formal education at the expense of other ethical qualities that make an educated person in traditional African culture. The belief is that the more the numbers of formal educational institutions, the higher the level of educated personnel in the continent (Balogun, 2008:9f).
Balogun (2008) argued that an increase in the emphasis on formal education has failed to commensurate with an increase in educated personnel, thus education has always been taken to be a pivot for social development. But in a situation, where there is a dearth of a a truly educated as we have in Africa, the pace of development cannot be accelerated but only remain stagnant as it is, and as a result of the superimposition of the Western model of education on Africa, a distorted notion of education and educated personnel has become pervasive in Africa. The contemporary neglect of the African notion of an educated person has made literacy education a basis for the cultivation of an abysmal of ignorance, greed, individualistic acquisition, and sorts of social vices. Yet, the products of such an education in African context do not totally qualify as educated personnel without fulfilling the cultural and ethical dimension of being educated. Thus, the absorption of only Western model of education without ethical education will continue to be a clog in the wheel of progress and development in contemporary Africa. Rodney (2000) argues that education is crucial in any type of society for the preservation of the lives of its members and the maintenance of the social structure. Under certain circumstances, education also promotes social change. The greater portion of that education is informal, being acquired by the
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young from the example and behaviour of elders in the society. Under normal circumstances, education grows out of the environment; the learning process being directly related to the pattern of work in the society. Rodney (2000) emphasizes that:
Indeed, the most crucial aspect of pre-colonial African education was its relevance to Africans, in sharp contrast with what was later introduced. African education can be considered outstanding: its close links with social life, both in a material and spiritual sense; its collective nature; its manysidedness; and its progressive development in conformity with the successive stages of physical, emotional and mental development of the child. There was no separation of education and productive activity or any division between manual and intellectual education. Altogether, through mainly informal means, pre-colonial African education matched the realities of pre-colonial African society and produced well-rounded personalities to fit into that society. Reliance on memory alone placed severe limits on education of that type (Rodney, 2000:377)
7.2 Western Imperial-Christian Education in Africa

According to Nsamenang (2008), the declared objective of both the Missionary and imperialist education was to bring enlightenment to save African souls from damnation hence, the growth of European activities on the African continent reflected the expansion of European trade and political influence in the world. Similar motives and values justified their commercial, political and cultural expansionism. The technical, industrial and military superiority of the West came to be taken as signs of corresponding moral and spiritual superiority. It is therefore no accident that the early Europeans whether Christian Missionaries or colonial administrators did not consider African culture or environment in planning educational curricula. As a result, Western education intended to alienate the learners from their own culture and people; and to a large extent succeeded in many parts of Africa. Nsamenang (2008) discusses that:
Since the scope of education taught was very inadequate, it also became difficult for education to transform the society. Africans were not involved in the formulation of the educational policies. The acceptance or denial of the school system by Africans depended largely on the attitude of the colonial administrators. When they were sympathetic and amenable to the Africans, they attracted many school children. But when they were hash and brutal, many Africans were reticent of Western education (Nsamenang (2008:48)
The adaptationist education policies introduced by the British indirect rule policy, for example, was invariably aimed at maintaining Africans in European servitude, a state of education that has not changed much today. The scope of curricula reduced the hope for scientific and technological education considered essential for acquiring Western knowledge for development. (Nsamenang, 2008). In this regard, Nsamenang says that:
It can therefore be argued that the African perception of education was shaped by the introduction of the relationship between educational achievement and socioeconomic advancement. The demand for educated Africans to serve in the colonial services also required the acquisition of a more literary education than that offered by adaptationist and assimilationist education. Accordingly, any insistence on adaptation was a constraint on development. As such, there was a conflict between the British concept of colonial education and African perceptions of education. Missionary societies also required educated Africans to eventually take over the responsibility of local Christian Churches in their communities. The type of education given to them differed from that proposed by the colonialists, which was a replication of the metropolitan practice meant to ensure the suitability of the
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recipients for colonial service, since those who had colonial education enjoyed economic mobility. (Nsamenang (2008:48)
Colonial agents saw their burden as one of enlightening and civilizing Africans and their societies; they adopted education as the right way to relieve their yoke. Given this self-imposed responsibility, one might expect colonial governments to have made major efforts to introduce schools throughout the African colonies. Regrettably, most colonial governments did little to support schools and educational development. Nsamenang (2008) notes that:
Colonial Europe did not want to spend their own resources to build, maintain and administer African colonies; they insisted that each colony supplies the revenue to develop and govern it. Colony-specific interests did not prioritize education, as universal basic education for Africans was not in colonial policy. Colonial strategies and efforts to achieve the twin goals of generating wealth for the coloniser and achieving a stable administration of the colony left destructive legacies visible today in Africas educational efforts. In fact, at the end of colonial rule, no African colony could boast that more than half of its children had completed elementary school, and far fewer attended secondary school (...) Thus, at independence, African governments were torn between creating more higher education spaces for leadership needs and addressing the equally challenging need for more basic education. The situation has not changed much today, as most African countries are still struggling with this education dilemma, hence liberalization of education into private interests across the continent (Nsamenang, 2008:48).
The colonisers needed mainly subordinates a few clerks and sub-administrators to do back work not head work (Pence and Nsamenang, 2008). Such tactics may be inherent in some development cooperation partnerships with African governments. The low education levels which most colonial governments provided to sustain elementary structures of governance, law, and order, have contributed to postcolonial difficulties to expand basic education. Nsamenang, (2008) writes that:
This has been exacerbated by remarkable disparities across countries, ethnic groups and regions of the continent. Some of the disparities in access to education in many African countries at independence persist today. Colonial educational services were thus unevenly developed and produced mixed results; a historical precedent that has been difficult to reverse in much of Africa. In spite of limited support for public education, those who were able to receive an education often became their countries pre- and post-independence leaders. But some of the leaders were killed, imprisoned, or overthrown by the armies that the imperialists put in place to protect them (Nsamenang, 2008:50)
According to Nsamenang, 2008), at independence, three forces affected educational developments in Africa (Pence and First, colonial governments lacked not only the resources but also the goodwill and motivation to initiate universal basic education for Africans. Second, Western education was established as part of the disruptive process of colonisation and acquisition of African spheres for European states. Third, the establishment of institutional education or schooling in much of Africa was by Christian missionary societies who believed in the ability of Africans to read the Bible in their own languages as important to the conversion process. In addition, the curricula of Christian schools not only focused on the Bible and denominational liturgy but were broad to take in secular or non-religious content. This way Nsamenang notes that:
(). As most Missionary societies were poor, they could not support their preferred number of schools and therefore, they did not extend their education outreaches as far as they desired. The overarching message from this historical sketch is schismsdisconnects which alienate Africans from their cultures, particularly their indigenous roots regarding the care and education of the young. But
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these apprehensions are largely muted in ongoing education discourses and educational policy development for Africa. Models of Western schooling are instead promoted in a manner that suggests both an ignorance of the coexisting education heritages and also is guided by the belief that those others are incapable of educating a healthy and productive adulthood (Nsamenang, 2008:51).
According to Herzog (2008), African states have tried to make their curricula and pedagogies as much like the Western Europe but less African as possible on the assumption that doing so will make their education similarly productive. Regrettably, these attempts have produced disappointing results for Africa, yet the same education models and curricula persist today. School education has not automatically brought economic growth and societal development in Africa, contrary to what was predicted by human capital theory (Dasen and Akkari 2008). Instead, education in much of Africa renders most graduates faintly literate and numerate with only a tiny minority mastering the intricacies of the Western countrys knowledge and cognitive systems but with almost every educated African imitative of Western lifestyles with unsuccessful strives to be modern by eliminating indigenous African heritages from their behavioural repertoires. In a near wavelength, Nsamenang (2008) noted that:
Educated Africans, especially the apparently successful ones, wage an endless war to reconcile within their psyches and lives the conflicts engendered in living within the twilight of fiercely competing value systems and ideologies; they are alienated from their indigenous traditions and communities of origin. It is Africans whose cultural tap roots, implying individual and collective identities, have been withering for centuries who are the citizens being called upon and expected to lead and develop Africa (Nsamenang, 2008:7).
According to Nsamenang, (2008:10), there is little continent-wide evidence to show for the expressed wish of the then Organization of African Unity (OAU) and UNESCO that African educational authorities revise and reform the content of education in the areas of the curriculum, textbooks, and methods, so as to take account of the African environment, child development, cultural heritage, and the demands of technological progress and economic development, especially industrialisation. This implies that the problem of educational relevance persists today in Africa. One facet of the inappropriateness and unproductive nature of Africas education is pervasive insufficient training of the vast majority of teachers of all levels of education. African education does not prepare graduates satisfactorily for productive personal life and the world of work in public services and the private sector and in the increasing rates of school dropout, the disconnect between the curriculums European ideals and the training relevant to a rural economy, hence the teaching of unemployment (Hirsh, 2010). Although there is worldwide apprehension about educational relevance, Africas education, compared to that of the West which it copies unreflectively, does not match curricular contents with the learners local realities.
7.3 Education for Africas Underdevelopment: Anti-thesis from Walter Rodney

According to Walter Rodney (2000) the colonizers introduced a new set of formal educational institutions in Africa, which partly supplemented and partly replaced those which were there before. The colonial system also stimulated values and practices which amounted to new informal education. The main purpose of the colonial school system was to train Africans to help man the local administration at the lowest ranks and to staff the private capitalist firms owned by Europeans. In effect, that meant selecting a few Africans to participate in the domination and exploitation of the continent as a whole. Rodney (2000) presents that:
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It was not an educational system that grew out of the African environment or one that was designed to promote the most rational use of material and social resources. It was not an educational system designed to give young people confidence and pride as members of African societies, but one which sought to instill a sense of deference towards all that was European and capitalist. Colonial schooling was education for subordination, exploitation, the creation of mental confusion and the development of underdevelopment. Africans were being educated inside colonial schools to become junior clerks and messengers. Too much learning would have been both superfluous and dangerous for clerks and messengers (Rodney, 2000:380).
Rodney (2000) argued that if independent Africa is still without the benefits of modern education (as it is) then 75 years of colonial exploitation undoubtedly have something to do with that state of affairs; and the absurdity is so much greater when one contemplates how much Africa produced in that period and how much of that went to develop all aspects of European capitalist society, including their educational institutions. Rodney (2000) maintained that:
Those Africans who had access to education were faced with certain qualitative problems as the quality was poor by prevailing European standards. The books, the methods of teaching and the discipline were all brought to Africa in the 19th century; and, on the whole, colonial schools remained sublimely indifferent to the 20th century. New ideas that were incorporated in the capitalist metropoles never reached the colonies. In particular, the fantastic changes in science did not reach African classrooms, for there were few schools where science subjects were taught. Similarly, the evolution of higher technical education did not have any counterpart in colonial Africa (Rodney, 2000:389).
Rodney (2000) discusses that some of the contradictions between the content of colonial education and the reality of Africa were really incongruous. On a hot afternoon in some tropical African school, a class of black shining faces would listen to their geography lesson on the seasons of the year spring, summer, autumn and winter. They would learn about the Alps and the river Rhine but nothing about the Atlas Mountains of North Africa or the river Zambezi. Rodney (2000) observes that:
To some extent Europeans thoughtlessly applied their own curricula without reference to African conditions () but very often they deliberately did so with intent to confuse and mystify. Whatever little was discussed about the African past in colonial schools was about European activities in Africa. The paradox was that whoever had an opportunity to be educationally misguided could count himself lucky, because that misguidance was a means of personal advance within the structure created by European capitalists in and for Africa Rodney, 2000:391f)
Rodney (2000) informs us that during the colonial epoch and afterwards, criticism was justly levelled at the colonial educational system for failing to produce more secondary school pupils and more university graduates. And yet, it can be said that among those who had the most education were to be found the most alienated Africans on the continent. Those were the ones who evolved and were assimilated. At each further stage of education, they were battered by and succumbed to the values of the white capitalist system; and, after being given salaries, they could then afford to sustain a style of life imported from outside. Access to knives and forks, three-piece suits and pianos then further transformed their mentality. Unfortunately, the colonial school system educated far too many fools and clowns, fascinated by the ideas and way of life of the European capitalist class. Some reached a point of total estrangement from African conditions and the African way of life, and they chirped happily that they were and would always be European. This way Rodney (2000) maintained that colonial education corrupted the thinking and sensibilities of the African and filled him with abnormal complexes. It
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followed that those who were Europeanised were to that extent de-Africanised, as a consequence of the colonial education and the general atmosphere of colonial life. According Rodney (2000), the small amount of education given to Africans was based on eliminating the use of local languages by the pupils and on instilling in their hearts the holy fear of God. Schools in colonial Africa were usually blessed with the names of saints or bestowed with the names of rulers, explorers and governors from the colonising power. Genuine technical education was ruled out, because the fundamental purpose of the colonial economy did not permit the development of industry and skills within Africa. Therefore, when educational advisers suggested agricultural education relevant to African needs this meant no addition to African knowledge. In many colonial schools, agriculture became an apology for a subject. It was part of the drudgery of the institution. The teachers received no agricultural education, and, therefore, they could not teach anything scientific. Children acquired nothing but distaste for the heavy labour of shamba work, and in fact it was used as a form of punishment. Rodney (2000:413) argues that educational systems are designed to function as props to a given society, and the educated in the young age groups automatically carry over their values when their turn comes to make decisions in the society. In Africa, the colonialists were training low level administrators, teachers, NCOs, railroad booking clerks () for the preservation of colonial relations; and it is not surprising that such individuals would carry over colonial values into the period after independence was regained. Rodney (2000) informs that:
The colonialists meanwhile took action wherever possible to ensure that persons most favourable to their position continued to man African administrations and assumed new political and state police powers ()colonial education called into questions the very humanity and essence of African people. Also called into question were many institutions and cultural practices. African religion, medical practice and the family as an institution were regarded as traditional and hence, were also regarded as backward. On the other hand, orthodox western medical practices, European ways of thinking, speaking, eating and dressing were regarded as modern or progressive. Generally, progress was defined by how closely traditional institutions and practices were adapted to the European ways of life (Rodney, 2000:413)
8. Colonial Education legacy From Mimiko (2010), we are informed that colonization distorted and retarded the pace and tempo of cultural growth and the trend of civilisation in Africa. The consequences of colonization have resulted in an unbridgeable cultural gap between the beneficiary nations and victims of the practice. The era of colonization pillage and plunder led to the relative stagnation and often decline of traditional cultural pursuits in the colonies. Mimiko (2010) asserts that the social fabric was completely devastated and a new culture of violence was implanted. Traditional African systems of conflict resolution were destroyed and, in their places, nothing was given. The democratic process, rudimentary though it was, but with great potential as accompanies every human institution, was brutally uprooted and replaced by the authoritarianism of colonialism. A new crop of elites was created, nurtured, and weaned on the altar of violence and colonialism armed with the structures of the modern state to continue to carry out the art and act of subjugation of the mass of the people in the service of colonialism. Arowolo (2010) noted that Western civilization was just another concept of domination and imposition of incoming new culture over traditional values in Africa. The forced acceleration of the black populations into the new world represented the sustained assimilation of western culture by Africans, the effectiveness of colonization in changing the sphere of life in African societies is not hard to establish.. Its political effects include western civilization being submerged and with the dismantling
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of indigenous institutions and cultures by instilling foreign rule. There was also the introduction of liberal democracy that did not necessarily work in Africa, not because Africa did not have its own pattern of democracy before the imposition of liberal democracy, but the typical democracy in Africa and its processes were also submerged by westernization.
8.1 Economic effects of colonialism

The economic effects of colonialism can be viewed as a progressive integration of Africa into the world capitalist system within which Africa functioned primarily as a source of raw materials for western industrial production. The colonial economy also caused agriculture to be diverted towards the production of primary products and cash crops, a situation that contributed to hunger and starvation in Africa. Africa concentrated on producing more of what was needed less and produced less of what was needed most. Africa was perpetually turned to the production of raw materials, a situation that caused unequal exchange in -- and balance of -- trade. Rodney (2000) suggests that the plunderage and systemically corrupt enterprises established in the colonies to expropriate natural resources in Africa to Europe have facilitated under-development of Africa while it engendered the development of Europe.
8.2 Social effects

According to Obadina (2010), the social effects of colonialism led to many challenges that included individualism of families in an otherwise close knit-family structures, fragmentation of family/social relations and rapid urbanization that has resulted into rural exodus and displacement of large segments of the population. Proficiency in African languages is declining in the continent because people are compelled to embrace western culture and civilization. This has caused alienation for people who cannot speak foreign languages as language has been used as a vehicle of culture which has literally created a dichotomy between the elite and the masses. Obadina (2010) argues that alien models imposed by colonialism laid seeds for a political crisis in Africa. By redrawing the map of Africa and grouping diverse people together, ethnic conflicts were created that are now destabilizing the continent. Some have argued that it was the allure of modernity with its promise of greater material benefit that subverted African societies during colonialism. Nyamnjoh (2012), argues that education in Africa is victim of a colonial and colonising epistemology. This epistemology takes the form of science as ideology and hegemony. With rhetoric on the need to be competitive internationally, the elite have modelled education in Africa after educational institutions in Europe and North America, with little attempt at domestication. This journey, endowed with the mission of annihilation or devaluation of African creativity, agency and value systems, leads to an internalised sense of inadequacy. It has compelled Africans to lighten their darkness both physically and metaphorically for the gratification of colonising and hegemonic others. The future of education in Africa can be hopeful through a meticulous and systematic creative process of cultural restoration and endogenisation, in tune with the negotiation and navigation of myriad possibilities in the lives of Africans small and big, poor and rich, rural and urban, and in between. If Africa is to be party in a global conversation on knowledge production and consumption, it is appropriate that it does so with the interests and concerns of Africans as guiding principle. According to Nyamnjoh (2012), education is the inculcation of facts as knowledge and also a set of values used in turn to appraise the knowledge in question. When the values are not appropriate or broadly shared, the knowledge acquired is rendered irrelevant and becomes merely cosmetic or even violent. In colonial Africa, the right of conquest of the colonists over Africans body, mind and soul meant real or attempted epistemicide the decimation or near complete killing and replacement of
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endogenous epistemologies in Africa with the epistemological paradigm of the conqueror. Nyamnjoh (ibid) says that:
The result has been education through schools and other formal institutions of learning in Africa largely as a process of making infinite concessions to the outside mainly the western world. Such education has tended to emphasise mimicry over creativity, and the idea that little worth learning about, even by Africans, can come from Africa. It champions static dichotomies and boundedness of cultural worlds and knowledge systems. And, introduced in colonial contexts, it serves forces with ambitions of dominance. It privileges teleology and analogy over creative negotiation by Africans of the multiple encounters, influences and perspectives evident throughout their continent. It thus impoverishes the complex realities of those it attracts or represses as students. To be relevant, education must recognise Africans as creative agents, who are actively modernising their indigenous ways and endogenising their modern ways Nyamnjoh (2012:1).
Nyamnjoh (2012), discusses that the values acquired during the colonial era that teach the superiority of the coloniser set the tone for the imbibing of knowledge and continue to dominate education and life in postcolonial Africa. The result is that the knowledge needed for African development is rendered irrelevant by a limited and limiting set of values. Hence, the need for Africa to revisit the dominant colonial epistemological underpinnings that persist and that are not sensitive, beyond lip service, to the predicaments and expectations of ordinary Africans and the endogenous epistemologies from which they draw.
8.3 Dominant and Dormant Epistemologies

According to Nyamnjoh (2012), to educate in postcolonial Africa in the 21st century, without making visible the dignity, creativity and humanity of Africans, is to perpetuate Joseph Conrads imagery of Africa as heart of darkness, where everything is very quiet and where visiting humans real humans from Europe, that is feel like wanderers on a prehistoric earth. The production, positioning and consumption of knowledge is far from a neutral, objective and disinterested process. It is socially and politically mediated by hierarchies of humanity and human agency imposed by particular relations of power (Bourdieu 2004:18-21 as quoted by Nyamnjoh, 2012:3). The colonial epistemology reduces science in Africa to the nineteenth and twentieth centuries preoccupation with theories of what the universe is, much to the detriment of theories of why the universe is. In the social sciences, it privileges scholarship by analogy and the ethnographic present hence the popularity of liberal anthropology as handmaiden of colonialism over and above historical ethnography and continuity in the lives of the primitive natives it seeks to enlighten(Wolfe 1999:43-68). From Hawking (1988), it is shown that by rendering science too technical and mathematical, this epistemology has made it difficult for those interested in questions of why to keep pace with developments in scientific theories and increased the risk of branding as intellectual imposture the appropriation of scientific concepts by philosophers and other non-scientists. Such a narrow view of science has tended to separate the universe into nature and culture, the physical and the metaphysical or religious, and to ignore the fact that people are ordinarily not content to see events as unconnected and inexplicable. In other words, this epistemology has little room for popular cravings to understand the underlying order in the world (Hawking 1988:1-13). Nyamnjoh, (2012), posits that this colonial and colonising epistemology has serious weaknesses, especially when compared with the popular and more endogenous epistemologies of the African continent. It tends to limit reality to appearances (the observable, the here and now, the ethnographic
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present, the quantifiable), which it then seeks to justify (without explaining) with meta-narratives claiming objectivity and a more epistemologically secure truth status. Nyamnjoh remarks that:
Under this kind of epistemology, reality is presented as anything whose existence has, or can be, established in a rational, objective manner, with universal laws operating only in perceived space and time. In the social sciences, such a perspective has resulted in an insensitive pursuit of a physique sociale, informed almost exclusively by what the mind (Reason) and the hierarchy of senses (sight, taste, touch, sound, smell) tell us about yet another set of hierarchies those of places, spaces and social relationships (Nyamnjoh, 2012:3).
The science (natural and social) inspired by such an epistemology has tended to celebrate dichotomies, dualisms, teleologies and analogies, dismissing anything that does not make sense in Cartesian or behaviourist terms, confining to religion and metaphysics what it cannot explain and disqualifying as non-scientific more inclusive epistemologies. The world is perceived and presented as dichotomous and in a hierarchy of purity: there is the real and the unreal, and the real is better. The real is the rational, the natural, the physical and the scientific; the unreal is the irrational, the supernatural, the religious, the metaphysical and the subjective. This epistemologys logic is simple and problematic: it sacrifices pluriversity for university and imposes a one best way of attaining singular and universal truth. Those who have seen the light are the best guides for the rest still in search of its universal truth(Nyamnjoh, 2012:4). Amin (2010) observed that in the social sciences, this dominant colonial epistemology has engendered theories and practices of social engineering capable of justifying without explaining almost everything, from colonialism and neoliberalism, to racism, imperialism, traditionalism and modernism. Whole societies, countries and regions have been categorised, depending on how these others were perceived in relation to Cartesian rationalism and empiricism. This epistemology has resulted in social science disciplines and fields of study that have sacrificed morality, humanity and the social on the altar of a conscious or implied objectivity that is at best phoney. Nyamnjoh expounds that:
It has allowed the insensitivities of power and comfort to assume the moral high ground, dictating to the marginalised and the disabled, and preaching salvation and promising development for individuals and groups who repent from retrogressive attitudes, cultures, traditions and practices. As an epistemology that claims the status of a solution, there is little room for introspection or selfscrutiny. Countervailing forces are invariably to blame for failure. Such messianic qualities have imbued this epistemology with an attitude of arrogance, superiority and intolerance towards creative difference and appropriation. The zeal to convert creative difference has not excluded resorting to violence, for the epistemology knows neither compromise nor negotiation, nor conviviality (Quoted in Nyamnjoh, 2012:4).
Moore and Sanders (2001) have argued that popular epistemologies in Africa are different just as popular epistemologies everywhere are different. They create room for why questions, and for magical interpretations where there are no obvious explanations to material realities. In them, reality is more than meets the eye. It is larger than logic. Far from subscribing to the rigid dichotomies of the dominant colonial and colonising epistemology, popular epistemologies build bridges between the so-called natural and supernatural, physical and metaphysical, rational and irrational, objective and subjective, scientific and superstitious, nature and culture, visible and invisible, real and unreal, explainable and inexplicable. Inherent in the approaches is the recognition of the impossibility for anything to be one without also being the other. Van Dijk and Binsbergen (2004) observe that:
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They constitute an epistemological order where the sense of sight and physical evidence has not assumed the same centrality, dominance and dictatorship evident in the colonial epistemology and its hierarchies of perceptual faculties. The real is not only what is observable or what makes cognitive sense; it is also the invisible, the emotional, the sentimental and the inexplicable (...). Emphasis is on the whole, and truth is negotiated. It is something consensual, not the result of artificial disqualification, dismemberment, atomisation or mutilation by a science of exclusion and binaries (Quoted in Nyamnjoh, 2012:5).
According to Mbembe (1997), in popular systems of knowledge, the opposite or complement of presence is not necessarily absence, but that which is beyond the power of the senses to render observable. Understanding the visible is hardly complete without investigating the invisible. Mbembe (1997) held that:
We misunderstand the world if we consider the obverse and the reverse of the world as two opposite sides, with the former partaking of a being there (real presence) and the latter as being elsewhere or a non-being (irremediable absence) or, worse, of the order of unreality. The obverse and its reverse are also linked by similarities which do not make them mere copies of each other, but which unite and at the same time distinguish themselves according to the African principle of simultaneous multiplicities. Rather than draw from these popular epistemologies, however, in constructing modern society, the wholesale adoption of the colonial epistemology has ensnared the dominant class elements of African society to the point that they treat it as some kind of invincible magic. Nowhere is this more evident than in African attitudes toward the educational systems and values of the European world as transplanted to and reflected on African soils. Mbembe (1997:152).
8.4 Education as cultural violence, self-hate and mimicry in Africa

According to Jagusah (2001), practices that are taken for granted as best practices elsewhere in education have little or no place in the educational policy and processes in Africa. Issues such as the role of culture, the role of languages of instruction, the role of indigenous philosophy and the role of the community in the education of its youth and citizens, are generally given little consideration. These aspects are usually dismissed as not necessary for the education of African children. This attitude miseducates rather than educates for personal, national and continental development. African educational policies are therefore carried out in a cultural and educational policy and developmental vacuum in terms of African peoples everyday lives. In Africa, the role of culture and its relationship to educational attainment as well as to socio-political and economic developments is more easily and readily dismissed (Makgoba, 1997). This strange phenomenon is at times very difficult to explain due to the deeply ingrained self-doubt in the African psyche and as has been the case also for African Americans in the United States of America. To educe (educate) from the conceptualization by Stanage (1987), is to bring forth what might be either innate or socialised in the individual to critical consciousness, not to bank the knowledge (Freire, 1998) in such learners. One educated in such an artificial context is only superficially at home with the self and the other, thus making good education impossible either to give or to receive. This is because all good educational theory posits progressively moving from the known to the unknown. Understanding the context of education and its planning within a psycho-social duality (Dewey, 1916, 1964) therefore becomes the key. This duality is not a matter of either/or, but of both, if effective learning and meaningful citizenship are to occur. Mudimbe (1988) noted that being unaware of their culture leads people to lack a consciousness of their own self in the educative process, or to be critically unaware of the other in their context. In the understanding provided by Gollnick & Chinn (1998), every cultural and educational process, along with
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its planning, has two key components: it enculturates children of all racial, ethnic and gender groups and it socialises its young. These two components operate culturally because of four other factors: (i) culture is learned, not biologically determined; the young must of necessity be introduced to their society, both formally or informally; (ii) culture is shared, and therefore embedded in human, technical, and scientific language; (iii) culture is adaptive to the challenges of context; and (iv) culture is dynamic, either taking an evolutionary or a revolutionary path. These components, characteristics and paths that culture takes are the same as or similar to those taken by educational processes and therefore by policy planning. Like culture, educational processes also target the enculturation and socialisation of the citizenry on both formal and informal levels. The aim of any education system is to prepare individuals to assume mature roles in a given society. At the heart of what is education, or educational, is the issue of whether it should be just about cultural transmission and more importantly whose culture is to be transmitted (Spring, 1997). In colonial Africa, education was a very superficial concern. It was left in the hands of the missionaries most of the time. The missionaries strove for the complete destruction of the African worldview, thus turning Africans into little Englishmen (Chanaiwa, 1980) or into subjects of another European nation. The mission-educated generally referred to as the new African, suffered from three forms of ambiguity: of the state, of nationalism, and of class and class consciousness (Marks, 1996). These three adventurous ambiguities came back to becloud the post-independent elites educational policy, especially in relation to the contextualisation of education in local African cultures. Jagusah (2001) explains that the Malinowskian-Skokian effect theory propounds that the African elite wants to become European at all cost. However when eventually realizes that legally this is impossible, such an elite returns with a vengeance to its African ways as a psychological retreat before European pressure. Provoked by ignorance and shame in local indicators of value and beauty, Africans so educated turned to foreign things. Jagusah (2001) wrote:
They proceeded not only to do as the white man prescribed, but to seek to impress and convert Africans still steeped in and proud of their ancestral ways and wisdoms () these approaches miss the key cultural questions about the first phase of African education. They still confuse the indigenous knowledge question with their epistemological ethnocentrism. While they deal with the conditioned behaviour of the African as he or she confronted Europe, concentrating the discourse on just this impact of Europe on Africa, or on the African reaction alone, does not explain the ease with which these Africans returned to their previous cultural ethos. This characterisation, while serving the epistemological ethnocentrism () of the proponents, does not address the question of the African gnosis () (Jagusah (2001:5).
Educational practice, according to Makgoba (1997) is either about cultural transmission or cultural transformation. Be such transmission or transformation of certain skills or a body of knowledge, the end result is to make one a good person and an effective member of ones society. The individuals so equipped have the power to transform themselves and their societies. The lack of a transformative theorisation (Strouse, 2000), however, leads to a deficit educational orientation, its effects being a population that is desperately undereducated and, in many respects, miseducated. These undereducated and miseducated individuals suffer from a lack of centredness (Asante, 1994). According to Fonlon (1965), colonialism is essentially a violent project. In Africa such violence took the form of brute force and hegemony through a particular form of education the simulacrum of an education system. It repressed where it should have fostered, tamed instead of inspired and enervated rather than strengthened. It succeeded in making slaves of its victims, to the extent that they no longer realise they are slaves, with some even seeing their chains of victimhood as ornamental and the best recognition possible (Fonlon 1965:21-28). Colonial education is full of cultural contradictions
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that exist between the informal education of family life, with its grounding in indigenous languages, customs, and social values, and the formal education of school systems, which is conducted in metropolitan languages, managed largely by the state, and oriented toward values and jobs that have little direct relation to life in local communities (Maclure: 1997). As Nyamnjoh (2012) puts it:
It puts Africans in contradiction with themselves. It is an education to mimic and celebrate white men who package and presented themselves as the future and their land and ways as having a glorious past and an enviable present. The colonial subjects recruited as students are commanded to uncritically ignore and disparage things held dear by the Africans they are groomed to insult, laugh at and term primitive and pagan and to unquestioningly champion and glorify the ways, deeds and dreams of white men and Europe (Nyamnjoh 2012:7).
Malusi and Mphumlwana (1996) argue that limited to an elite few colonial education was ultimately an education at bifurcation, dichotomisation, teleology, zero sum games and caricature. It was an invitation to Africans to empty themselves of their creativity, achievements, traditions and self confidence, and be filled afresh with European ideas, practices, traditions and prescriptions of what it meant to be human, and forced to accept a position as the scum of that humanity. In this regard, it was an education to belittle things African and to reproduce mediocrity and myopia, thereby further alienating the very masses colonial education was sought, in principle and rhetoric, to liberate). It was an education for self deprecation, pleasure and sterile consumption, which is no surprise, for colonial conquerors everywhere. Fonlon (1967:19) puts it that this inflationary investment in pleasure and mimicry by the emerging elite gives the impression of struggle merely as a vehicle for articulating elite interests and negotiating conviviality between the dominant and dormant amongst them. Nyamnjoh (2012) remarks that:
An education that transforms people into unthinking zombies, kills their sociality, and numbs their humanity even for their own children can hardly be relevant to social reproduction, let alone social transformation. It is an education for keeping up appearances, for self-delusion and self-belittlement, and for talking without listening. Those who embrace colonial education fully soon become like slaves, doing the bidding of capricious and whimsical masters, and looking ridiculously foolish in the eyes of those who have stood their ground in the face of the violence of conversion (Nyamnjoh 2012:9).
Fonlon (1967) argued that education in Africa has been and mostly remains a journey fuelled by an exogenously induced and internalised sense of inadequacy in Africans, and one endowed with the mission of devaluation or annihilation of African creativity, agency and value systems. Such cultural estrangement in the place of cultural engagement has served to reinforce in Africans self-devaluation and self-hatred and a profound sense of inferiority that in turn compels them to lighten their darkness both physically and metaphorically for the gratification of their colonial and postcolonial overlords. This culturally uprooting of Africans has been achieved literally by uprooting children of the well-off from their communities and nurturing them in boarding schools. In the long run, neither the children of the lowly and poor, who in effect cannot afford the same chance to excel in this type of xenophilia, nor the children of the well-off schooled in such appetites are in a position to contribute towards reflecting the complexity, dynamism and creativity in being African. As globalization, modernity and new technologies have reached all the parts of the world, Africa included, western education has not only managed to overtake any other form of education in Africa, but it has also become a building block for any developing country to improve its peoples living conditions through the knowledge students acquire throughout the process. In the current socioeconomic context, developing countries need an educated population which can understand the
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mechanisms that govern the global market and skilled labor in order to be more competitive and hopefully reach development at a faster pace. However, it is important to note that the adoption of western style education by African countries has been a direct consequence of colonialism and the introduction of the capitalist system. Children are no longer educated to become responsible community members but to find a job other than farming in most cases; and, above all, the contents of what is taught has thoroughly changed. Traditional values and socio-economic skills transmitted from fathers to sons, elders to youth, and mothers to children are replaced by general-knowledge teaching, specific knowledge such as mathematics, sciences, grammar, etc. and skilled knowledge basing more on foreigners culture, history and economics. Gradually, the pride gained through hard work on farms was replaced by degrees earned at school. 9. The 21st Century Educated African Person To discuss the Twenty-first Century educated African person, an understanding of the predecessor is necessary. In this regard, this section rolls out by making an analysis of the pre-twenty first Century educated African person. From this understanding, the ideals of African educated person in the 21st Century are endeavoured that in turn inform educational aspirations that could move the continent many steps forward into the future.
9.1 Pre-Twenty fist Century Educated African Person

From the literature reviewed in this paper, several descriptions of the pre-twenty first Century educated African person arise. In general such is someone in crisis, or even a rot., in new age primitivism and suffering from maldevelopment. This is an anti-thesis of the aspiration of the nations of Africa that have seen education as a tool for development. It follows that the pre-twenty first Century educated African person received knowledge, skills and attitudes (This adopted from the definition of education by R.S. Peters (1967 and Balogun (2008) that led to the acquisition of undesirable behavior. This way, and from the discontent among African Scholars a Pre-twenty first educated African person could have several descriptions: 10. Schooled This is to imply that pre-twenty first Century educated African person attended school without receiving any education. Analyzed in the light of the case against schools by Everett Reimer (1971), Ivan Illich (1970) and Paul Goodman (1964) the pre-twenty first Century educated African person is schooled to confuse teaching with learning, grade advancement with education, a diploma with competence and fluency with the ability to say something new. His/her imagination is schooled to accept service in place of value. Medical treatment is mistaken for health care, social work for the improvement of community life, police protection for safety, military poise for national security, the rat race for productive work. The pre-twenty first Century educated African person is a person whose childhood was extended from age twelve to twenty-five, suffers from effects of social stratification. By remaining schooled, the Educated African person of the pre-twenty first century could be seen as someone that instruction smothered the horizon of his/her imaginations and in whom, schools less and less represent any human values, but simply adjustment to a mechanical system thereby mis-educated. From the African case against schools, the Pre-twenty-first Century educated African person is decultured, accultured and seasoned to feel inferior to the white people. Such a person hates himself and has no admiration of others. The Pre-twenty-first Century educated African person is good for every
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other community but not the African community. The educated Africans are total strangers to their own African context and have been schooled (educated) for export, not for home development. Consequently, increasing numbers of African school leavers, graduates and professionals now imagine their futures away from their countries (Nsamenang 2009). As discussed by Herzog (2008), it appears that the Pre-twenty-first Century educated African person has received inadequate education to usher him/her into a productive and hopeful way of life. He or she is detached from the social thought, cultural traditions and livelihoods of African societies. 11. Negatively Emancipated Majasan (1967) points out that in the search for formal education, Africans naively acquired the wrong type of education. Most African nations were exposed to educational programs that maintained white superiority by distancing students from their own culture and history. From Rodney (2000:264), it emerges that the Pre-twenty first Century educated African person has been educated for subordination, exploitation; the creation of mental confusion and the development of underdevelopment. Therefore, rather than having a society full of educated and enlightened members, African society has a population who are illiterates as a result of cultural diffusion established by the colonial imposition. Conversely, today Africans are in a struggle to overcome depressed economies and antiquated class systems. Oluwole (2000) noted that Africans today do not know who they are because they never studied nor tried to discover who they were yesterday. Through Western education, African youth have been misled and in doing so, they have an inadvertently hopeless future designed for them. As discussed by Balogun (2008, the Pre-twenty first Century educated African person is conceptually decolonized into believing that it is only formal education that can afford a person to be successful, rather than emphasizing being a person of value, as successful. The values attached to Western model of education has encouraged Africans to uncritically embrace the idea of an educated person as one who is associated with being bookish, prowess, paper qualification focused and bestowed with academic appellations. 12. Underdeveloped and Mal-developed According to Walter Rodney (2000), the main purpose of the colonial school system was to train Africans to help man the local administration at the lowest ranks and to staff the private capitalist firms owned by Europeans. In effect, that meant selecting a few Africans to participate in the domination and exploitation of the continent as a whole. It was not an educational system that grew out of the African environment or one that was designed to promote the most rational use of material and social resources. It was not an educational system designed to give young people confidence and pride as members of African societies, but one which sought to instill a sense of deference towards all that was European and capitalist. Colonial schooling was education for subordination, exploitation, the creation of mental confusion and the development of underdevelopment. Africans were being educated inside colonial schools to become junior clerks and messengers. Too much learning would have been both superfluous and dangerous for clerks and messengers. 13. Socially deprived As observed by Lebaking and Phalare (2001) colonial education called into questions the very humanity and essence of African people. Also called into question were many institutions and cultural practices. African religion, medical practice and the family as an institution were regarded as traditional and
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hence, were also regarded as backward. On the other hand, orthodox western medical practices, European ways of thinking, speaking, eating and dressing were regarded as modern or progressive. Generally, progress was defined by how closely traditional institutions and practices were adapted to the European ways of life. From Mimiko (2010), we are informed that colonization distorted and retarded the pace and tempo of cultural growth and the trend of civilisation in Africa. The consequences of colonization have resulted in an unbridgeable cultural gap between the beneficiary nations and victims of the practice. The era of colonization pillage and plunder led to the relative stagnation and often decline of traditional cultural pursuits in the colonies. Mimiko (2010) asserts that the social fabric was completely devastated and a new culture of violence was implanted. Traditional African systems of conflict resolution were destroyed and, in their places, nothing was given. The democratic process, rudimentary though it was, but with great potential as accompanies every human institution, was brutally uprooted and replaced by the authoritarianism of colonialism. A new crop of elites was created, nurtured, and weaned on the altar of violence and colonialism armed with the structures of the modern state to continue to carry out the art and act of subjugation of the mass of the people in the service of colonialism. According to Obadina (2010), the social effects of colonialism led to many challenges that included individualism of families in an otherwise close knit-family structures, fragmentation of family/social relations and rapid urbanization that has resulted into rural exodus and displacement of large segments of the population. Proficiency in African languages is declining in the continent because people are compelled to embrace western culture and civilization. This has caused alienation for people who cannot speak foreign languages as language has been used as a vehicle of culture which has literally created a dichotomy between the elite and the masses. Obadina (2010) argues that alien models imposed by colonialism laid seeds for a political crisis in Africa. By redrawing the map of Africa and grouping diverse people together, ethnic conflicts were created that are now destabilizing the continent. Some have argued that it was the allure of modernity with its promise of greater material benefit that subverted African societies during colonialism. 14. Epistemologically dormant The colonial epistemology reduces science in Africa to the nineteenth and twentieth centuries preoccupation with theories of what the universe is, much to the detriment of theories of why the universe is. In the social sciences, it privileges scholarship by analogy and the ethnographic present hence the popularity of liberal anthropology as handmaiden of colonialism over and above historical ethnography and continuity in the lives of the primitive natives it seeks to enlighten. From Hawking (1988), it is shown that by rendering science too technical and mathematical, this epistemology has made it difficult for those interested in questions of why to keep pace with developments in scientific theories and increased the risk of branding as intellectual imposture the appropriation of scientific concepts by philosophers and other non-scientists. Such a narrow view of science has tended to separate the universe into nature and culture, the physical and the metaphysical or religious, and to ignore the fact that people are ordinarily not content to see events as unconnected and inexplicable. In other words, this epistemology has little room for popular cravings to understand the underlying order in the world (Hawking). Amin (2010) observed that in the social sciences, this dominant colonial epistemology has engendered theories and practices of social engineering capable of justifying without explaining almost everything, from colonialism and neoliberalism, to racism, imperialism, traditionalism and modernism. Whole societies, countries and regions have been categorised, depending on how these others were perceived in relation to Cartesian rationalism and empiricism. This epistemology has resulted in social
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science disciplines and fields of study that have sacrificed morality, humanity and the social on the altar of a conscious or implied objectivity that is at best phoney. It has allowed the insensitivities of power and comfort to assume the moral high ground, dictating to the marginalised and the disabled, and preaching salvation and promising development for individuals and groups who repent from retrogressive attitudes, cultures, traditions and practices. As an epistemology that claims the status of a solution, there is little room for introspection or self-scrutiny. Countervailing forces are invariably to blame for failure. Such messianic qualities have imbued this epistemology with an attitude of arrogance, superiority and intolerance towards creative difference and appropriation. 15. Educating the African Person for the 21st Century: Towards an African Educational Model This paper argues that from the literature reviewed and subsequent discussions, the Pre-twenty first Century educated African person could be seen as someone who is not authentic, lacks Attentiveness and Commitment to Principles. Further still, such an educated African person could be said to be prone to temptations hence lacks self-regulation and confidence. This paper maintains that the practice of education in Africa in the Twenty first Century requires a model that would promote the domains of authenticity, attentiveness and commitments as well as resistance to temptations in the African educated person. It is the thesis of this paper that the practice of Education in Africa before the onset of European influence failed to appreciate these domains. For this reason, the African person lost his educational identity and has been overtaken by Western civilization while failing in his/her own.
15.1 Authenticity
By not being authentic, the Pre-twenty first Century educated African person does not stick to his or her decisions. This implies that such a person lacks a quality of sticking to what he or she judges to be good. Sartre says that authenticity has to be earned by an individual. Sartre says that: I am my own authenticity only (...) under the influence of conscience. I launch out towards death with resolution and decisions, as towards my own particular possibility. (Sartre 1958, 246). An inauthentic person lacks the seriousness that would make him or her realize his or her potentialities. On the other hand, the authentic person heeds the voice of conscience. The inauthentic one does not heed the voice of conscience. After doing what is contrary to his or her principles, he develops self-blame (Njoroge 1988, 78). Inauthentic people do not believe in themselves. They do not stick to decisions because of selfdoubt. As such, they do not persevere in the face of difficulties. From the discussions of this paper, Zulu (2006) shows that Africa is not the historical or educational stepchild of Islamic or Western education as history verifies that an African process of education was transmitted and accumulated throughout the continent before the advent of invasion or colonialism. Olufowobi (2006) avers that Africans had developed their communal patterns which guaranteed consistency and peace in their societies before the coming of the Europeans. Through Western education the faculty theories of the Greeks, the Romans, the Germans, French and more lately the Americans are all taught to African youths as absolute truths. It is under this ideology that Africans both as scholars and youths remain mentally bound to Western intellectual culture. Africans today do not know who they are because they never studied nor tried to discover who they were yesterday. Through Western education, African youth have been misled and in doing so, they have an inadvertently hopeless future designed for them. From Pai & Aldler, (1997) it is shown that in schools in Africa students are required to spend an inordinate amount of time acquiring European languages and knowledges at the expense of real critical academics. Some of these European languages are basically useless outside of their immediate context.
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The most important aspect of education, that is, the enculturation of African student, is left unattended. This is because the first phase of African education, the pre-colonial phase, which should have tied the students to their respective communities as a basis for critique and reform, are eliminated or easily dismissed (Makgoba, 1997). This makes educated Africans good for every other community but not the African community. The educated Africans are total strangers to their own African context. It can be inferred from the preceding paragraphs that Africans abandoned their practice of education in favour of the Western. Whereas the blame for this has been put on colonial intentions, this paper argues that African education did not develop authenticity from their educational practice. It is the practice of Education in Africa that failed to develop uniqueness and originality in the people. Had authenticity been achieved, then Africans would have gone back to their educational practice soon after the achievement of independence. On the contrary, Africans developed a liking of the West and so abandoned their educational values. Africans did not develop further their system of writing which seem to have been in existence in some parts of ancient Africa before the onset of Western civilization. Educated or not, Africans lack authenticity that would facilitate their identity and contribute to development in the world today, a priority for Africans educational practice in the 21st Century.
15.2 Attentiveness and Commitment to Principles

This paper argues that the Pre-twenty first Century educated African person abandons his or her principles because of lack of attention in which other things easily distract him or her. This person lacks concentration on the task at hand, and is easily distracted through lack of self control. Attention with effort is all that any case of volition implies. The essential achievement of the will is to attend to a difficult object (James 1952: 814). These states are characterized by the presence of strong feelings that distract their will from proper judgment and consequent commitment to action, that is, from engaging in the action that is consonant with sound judgment. As discussed by Asante, (1994), Africans have been decultured and made to hate themselves, and feel that only that which is metaphysically, epistemologically, axiologically, (i.e., ethically and aesthetically) other, or outside of themselves, is worthy of respect and thereby of being learned. This deculturalisation goes as far as having students change their names, dress code and/or religious beliefs; punishing students for speaking their native language within the school premises; and pressuring students to avoid eating local delicacies or using African names. It has gotten to the point that some 'educated Africans' will not let their children speak any African language as a reinforcement of the schools conditioning mission. This simple linguistic act alone cuts these young ones off from a wealth of cultural capital needed for all contextual, personal and societal development. The illustrations given in the preceding paragraph clearly show that Africans have failed to be committed to their principles of what is their way of life. Indeed, going to the level of having children prohibited from speaking their native language is an aspect of hating ones own language in favour of the foreign. This emanates from the seeming way of life admired by the African person. As Rodney (2000) discussed, Africans who attended school during colonial times were punished for speaking their native language in school. Today, Africans deny their children to speak native language at home. It implies that Africans are not attentive over the role of language in education. Education is done through a medium of instruction; language, in which concepts are developed and transmitted. By abandoning native language, Africans have contributed to their own epistemological dormancy as education concepts and instruction is meaningfully developed in the native language. The Africans, like the African slaves, hate Africa, and lose pride in their heritage (Spring, 2000:199).
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15.3 Temptations
Although humankind is conceived of as rational, sometimes in the face of difficulties they have a tendency to opt for the easy course of action. If they find that the principle that they have enacted for themselves is difficult to live up to, they choose the easier course of action, rather than the hard course of action though perhaps with greater good. Aristotle says that a person who is weak goes through a process of deliberation and makes a choice; but rather than act in accordance with his reasoned choice, he acts under the influence of passion (Aristotle 2000, 1125). Coupled with the, the functionality of alternatives presenting themselves one could easily abandon commitment to principles. This could well be seen as an act of temptation. From the descending opinions of African scholars, it appears clear that the pathetic state of educated African is known, but the African is not ready to face the process and arrive at a meaningful end that will result in his identity. On the contrary, the pre-twenty first Century educated African person is tempted in even departing the continent and making himself or herself ready for European market. Herzog (2008) informs us that education in most African countries is more suitable for foreign than national labour markets. This is because it offers mainly incoherent chunks of Western knowledges and skills repertoires and is deficient in local wisdom and situated intelligences, which Africas agrarian economies require most. In fact, a good number of institutions in Africa can be seen actively advertising training programmes for Euro-Western employment agencies and labor markets. Nsamenang (2009) indicates that massive youth and expert exodus is depriving their countries of human resources and causing problems in recipient Western countries and beyond as many are part of brain drain statistics around the world, many of them illegal immigrants in very precarious conditions. School leavers and graduates are thus alienated from their cultural roots by dint of education and are mostly ignorant of their status quo because they have been educated not to reflect the factors that create and sustain their sorry state. From the preceding paragraphs, it emerges that the 21st Century educated African has been unable to resist the temptations of the seeming good life that the acquisition of European skills would lead to. It is gone to the extent that there is a trade of skills in which Africans train themselves for foreign market. Exporting human beings this way implies neo-slave trade as this involves a possible selling of human beings. It is all about the Africans notion of the seeming good life away from the continent. It is a situation where the African has failed to make his environment conducive and in turn gets a thought of the West being palatable. This may be seen either as conscious or intentional temptations. This paper argues that an education orientation that appreciates authenticity, attentiveness and commitment to principles as well resistance temptation domains would enhance Africans educational identity in the 21st Century and beyond. Such an orientation will make the practice of education relevant to the continent thereby making graduates of such a system suitable for home needs. It calls for a holistic dissemination and entrenchment of African knowledge and values in all institutions that form the society as illustrated in the diagram below. The proposed model of education for the 21st Century educated African person emphasizes the role of authenticity, attention, temptation and commitment to principles towards the identity and development of Africa. Underscoring the role of education, the model favours a bottom-up approach to the practice of education in which learning is to be founded in all the institutions of the society.
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The model advocates for formal learning that starts at the family and progresses through the rest of the institutions. In this model, the school is not to take prominence in transmission of knowledge, skills and attitudes, but to complement. All other institutions will create a system of teaching and learning that promote African desires with regard to education. For example, religious and health institutions should develop a system of teaching and learning just as the school does. According to Noddings (2002), each person has a set of ideals that guide his/her behaviour. People derive these ideals from experiences, encounters, and caring relations with others. It is in this regard that this paper calls for Afro-based practice of education that helps learners to identify and develop their ideals that would guide their behaviour. The proposed model emphasizes the need for Education to cut across all the social institutions, among which are the family, politics, religion, economy and health, with the aim of fostering the domains of authenticity, attentiveness and commitment to principles as well as resistance to temptations. 16. Authenticity Throughout the process of development, people adopt dispositions based on their experiences and societal norms, and their ideals are informed by these virtues. People attempt to live up to their ideals,
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but they are not always successful. Sometimes the habitual self takes precedence over the ideal self (Noddings 2002); sometimes the ideal self is obscured by the debased ideals of others around (Taylor 2001). Peoples ideals form part of their self or identity, and all are frequently changing, so it can be difficult to know whether their behaviour, self, identity, and ideals are consistent. The assumption underlying authenticity is based on the need to care and be cared for, and the desire to reciprocate others care which translates into self identity (Noddings 2002). This way, this paper argues that in the event that Africans develop dispositions to care for themselves, then their education orientation would be congruent to their needs. It has been demonstrated in this paper that educated Africans hate their continent, culture and fellow others. It has further been shown that the education Africans receive today is unsuitable for them and a worst scenario could that in which their educational institutions now train for foreign markets. Educated Africans have been sucked into brain drain and more so even in illegal immigration acts just to get out of the continent. This trend illustrates lack of ethics of care and concern on the part of Africans. In this sense, the development of African self is cornerstone. Taylor (1989, 35) notes that one is a self only among other selves. A self can never be described without reference to those who surround it. The self is under constant negotiation, development, and change based on experiences, critical reflection and evaluation. Noddings says, the self is a relationit is dynamic, in continual flux (Noddings 2002, 99). Therefore, the ideal self is a construct we strive to live up to in our quest to be authentic: it is that subset of the self regarded as best (Noddings 2002, 108). Noddings (2002) supports the importance of caring and authenticity in education on three counts. First, caring, authentic relations should encourage and cultivate dialogue, questioning, debate, and sound judgment, which are essential components of education. Second, teachers who base this type of encounter on an ethic of care do not attempt to wield power over students or coerce them into accepting certain points of view; rather, they are facilitators to the reflective process. It has been shown in this paper that Africans were coerced into adopting foreign cultures at the expense of their own. Further it was shown that Africans had Western education imposed on them in disregard of their own education practice. Whereas this forms a strong thesis, its anti-thesis rests on the observation that elite Africans today prohibit speaking their native languages in favour of foreign. This way, this paper argues that in order to develop authenticity, those on entrusted with the practice of education in Africa should facilitate learning by allowing students to think for themselves, question their own circumstances, and create their own interpretation of what is desired. Third, there are certain assumptions about what is desirable in this framework, and educators must take care to continually inspect, reflect upon, and revise their own practices and attitudes (Noddings 2002, 136), and aspire to be as authentic as possible in the light of their role as models for learners. Similarly, according to Noddings (2002), learning is most effective when educators and learners share the positions of carer and cared-for in the learning environment. Caring relations become paramount as each is called upon to trust the other, examine their own beliefs and actions, and support each other during this process. Just as caring relations are necessary to promote dialogue and selfreflection among friends or family, so are they necessary to promote the same actions between educators and learners of all ages. The fundamental aim of education is to help learners to grow in desirable ways. This is best accomplished by modelling, dialogue, practice, and confirmation. Modelling is very powerful, and it appears as a component in almost every form of education. To be effective it must be genuine; that is, an exemplar must not consciously exhibit one form of behaviour in the presence of the learners, and then - caught off guard - act in a way that contradicts what he or she has modelled. Modelling may be more effective in the moral domain than in the intellectual, because its very authenticity is morally significant (Noddings 2002, 287). Teachers who care about their students and model authentic behaviour make students feel respected, trusted and worthwhile. As a result, students may be more motivated to take part in the
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learning process, knowing that their participation will be recognized and appreciated. According to Vygotsky (1978), if learning is a social and cultural process, establishing a caring culture in a classroom would enable learning to occur more effectively. In certain situations, cooperative or mediated learning can often accomplish far more than individual learning: effective cooperation and mediation rely on trust and personal connection, which can be established more easily within an ethic of care. According to Bai & Chinnery (2000), the more strongly one is interconnected with the world, the more deeply and reliably one responds to it in showing compassion and good will. Thus the prerequisite for responsibility is cultivation and realization of inter-being. From inter-being, responsibility naturally emanates:
If we consider the world to be the relationship between the teacher and student, the stronger the connection between the teacher and student, the more likely the student is to respond in the educational environment. Similarly, we can consider the world to mean the classroom or learning environment, so that the student, through experiencing interconnectedness with other students, is motivated to show compassion and good will to classmates. With enough experiences like these, students may extend their compassion and good will habitually to others outside the classroom as well. This feeling of interconnectedness could only be fostered by an authentic educator (Bai & Chinnery 2000, 9).
In this regard this paper argues that in the quest to achieve educational identity, Africans should not remain aloof. They need to be aware of the world around them. The world being a global village is a reality that Africans cannot ignore. In being aware of the world around them, Africans will be able to selectively borrow what is common to all human kind while developing that which would inform their self-identity and contributions to the world development. Cultural influences happen anytime different communities begin interaction. In ancient Africa, communities came together during times of trade, migration and inter-marriages in which cultural influence occurred yet communities managed to maintain their self-identity. In the world today, many communities continue to interact from one generation to another and the African educators must not overlook this. What would be important in this situation is for the African educated person to remain authentic and this is a task of educating for the 21st Century Africans for Africa. To inculcate and cultivate authenticity, educators must demonstrate and encourage students to understand that we require fundamental connections in order to realize our selves and identities. This will encourage students to participate in the creations of the society, value the common good, and see themselves as part of African community. In this way, educators can discourage students from adopting undesirable character and the prevalent fixation with self-fulfillment and personal freedom. In this regard Bai & Chinnery (2000) note that:
( ) it is only through caring that requires self-reflective participation of the self in the other () that the self overcomes its private egoist intention and orientation (Bai & Chinnery, 2000 :7).
17. Attentiveness and Commitment to Principles This paper has shown that Africans have been decultured and made to hate themselves, and feel that only that which is metaphysically, epistemologically, axiologically, (i.e., ethically and aesthetically) other, or outside of themselves, is worthy of respect and thereby of being learned (Asante,1994). It has further been shown it has gotten to the point that some 'educated Africans' will not let their children speak any African language as a reinforcement of the schools conditioning mission an act that cuts these young ones off from a wealth of cultural capital needed for all contextual, personal and societal development.
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This paper has argued that this shows that Africans have failed to be committed to their principles of what is their way of life. This emanates from the seeming way of life admired by the African person. It implies that Africans are not attentive over the role of language in education. By abandoning native language, Africans have contributed to their own epistemological dormancy as education concepts and instruction is meaningfully developed in the native language. The Africans, like the African slaves, hate Africa, and lose pride in their heritage (Spring, 2000:199). Peter et al (2012) observed that an intention to stick to ones heritage is associated with actual efforts in the intended directions. However, the link between intention and behavior is modest, largely due to the fact that people, despite having formed strong intentions, fail to act on them. Given this predicament, one wonders what people can do to facilitate the translation of intentions into behavior. This paper argues that, the person who abandons his or her principles lacks attention: other things easily distract him or her. This person lacks concentration on the task at hand, and is easily distracted through lack of self control. For this reason, the practice of education in the 21st Century should underscore the need for Africans to achieve self-control. This self-control would be useful in ensuring that Africans remain committed to their values in the wake of other cultures overtures that occur in the course with human evolution and interaction. According to (Carver & Scheier, 1982) Control Theory postulates that self-regulation is a process of comparing the current rate of goal progress (input) against the desired rate of goal progress (reference value) and acting on discrepancies as and when they arise (output). Baumeister et al (1994), self-control is a product of (1) social norms and standards according to which individuals should behave, (2) self monitoring and attention to ones own behaviors (i.e. comparing oneself to the standards), and (3) the individuals ability to alter his or her own behaviors (i.e. the capacity to change ones behaviors and conform to the standards). Problems in one (or more) of these ingredients leads to low self-control. Specifically, Baumeister et al. (1994) contend that conflicting sets of standards, the inability to monitor self-behaviors, and inadequate strength of self-stopping (i.e. the ability to exert both mental and physical resources in order to override impulses, habits or some other tendency) contribute to an individuals low self control which results in an individuals inability to control the major domains of the self, and leads to crime. Elaborating on the causes of self control, Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) contend that low self control is a relatively stable trait established during childhood, and that it is the product of ineffective child rearing and ineffective socialization by parents. Specifically, these authors contend that in order to teach the child self control, someone must monitor the childs behaviors, recognize deviant behavior when it occurs and punish such behaviors. Thus, a parent who cares for his/her child supervises and monitors the childs behaviors, and corrects him when recognizing deviant or dangerous acts. Parents who fail to follow these child rearing practices encourage the development of the childs low self control. This paper contends that the practice of formal education should start at family level. Children/learners will have to learn community values at home and be required to demonstrate such an orientation. Instead of having learners begin formal education at school with simple writing and arithmetic skills, the exercise should start at the community level with learners undergoing instruction in community values, identity and pride. The focus should be on helping to exercise African values and develop such skills as to be able to exercise self-control when confronted with competing values. However, in order to ensure that people exercise self-control as discussed in this paper, there is need for paradigm shift and adopt a bottom-top approach in which education programmes should start from the family level to the government agencies. This way, parents should be empowered and encouraged to mould their children to self-control. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) observed that Self-control is best realized when there is a social control mechanism within the community. Social control theories suggest that the underlying process
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that narrows individuals tendencies to engage in crime are strong bonds to society. According to Durkheim (1897 [1951]), behaviors are the product of social integration and regulation. Social integration is the intensity of the collective life that circulates within a social aggregate. Accordingly, the more active and constant the intercourse among its members, the more powerful and unified is social integration. Regulation, on the other hand, is a social mechanism aimed at restraining the savage side in human nature. Societys inability to exert regulation upon its members may result in a breakdown of standards and values (Durkheim 1951). Hirschi (1969) propounded that all humans are motivated toward deviance but only those who are relatively free of the bonds of conventional order and social institutions actually translate their deviant motivation into illegitimate behaviors. Weak or broken social bonds to society are considered by Hirschi (1969) as the primary reason for individuals deviance and crime. According to Hirschi, members in society form bonds with one another (for instance parents, friends, co-workers) as well as with social institutions (churches, schools). These social bonds evolve due to social ties and affection that develop between individuals and key people in their lives; commitment to social norms of behavior; involvement in social activities; and belief in and respect for the law. By establishing social bonds, individuals generate higher levels of social capital and internalize the norms of society. Deviance and crime in this sense are perceived as the consequences of individuals failure to form social bonds and generate social capital. The educational model developed in this paper has called for the institutions of the society to work together. In particular, it emphasizes the place of the family, religious, health, political and economic institutions in the development and practice of formal education. This way, these social institutions will work as control mechanism against each other. For instance, the family may assess if the health sector is playing its part, while the school may assess the familys performance by checking learners being admitted. The proposed model takes note of the fact that approaches used in knowledge dissemination are not the same and therefore each of the institutions of the society need to develop a methodology suitable in the realization of its aspired values. This paper noted that although humankind are conceived of as rational, sometimes in the face of difficulties they have a tendency to opt for the easy course of action. If they find that the principle that they have enacted for themselves is difficult to live up to, they choose the easier course of action, even with its inherent evil rather than the hard course of action though perhaps with greater good. Aristotle says that a person who is weak goes through a process of deliberation and makes a choice; but rather than act in accordance with his reasoned choice, he acts under the influence of passion (Aristotle 2000, 1125). This implies that people may discount self-control in the event that they find sticking to the values they have enacted. According to (Loewenstein, 1996), people face a self-control problem when they perceive a conflict between the short-term and long-term outcomes of an action while Rachlin (1996) observed that in general, unfulfilled immediate wishes and desires are the short term costs of pursuing long-term goals. Short-term costs may thus pose a threat to long-term goals. This way, Counteractive control theory (CCT) posits that self-control efforts serve to overcome such threats. Yaacov and Fishbach (n.d) point out that this short-term costs affect action via two paths). Directly, these costs act to decrease the likelihood of acting according to long-term goals. Indirectly, however, short-term costs elicit counteractive control efforts, which, in turn, act to increase the likelihood of this action. As a result, the actual choice of a preferred action may remain unaffected by its short-term costs. According to Yaacov and Fishbach (n.d) CCT assumes that people exert counteractive control efforts as means to the end of achieving their long-term goals. Three hypotheses follow from this meansend assumption: First, counteractive control is goal dependent. People will exert more counteractive control when short-term motives threaten important rather than unimportant long-term goals.
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Furthermore, once a long-term goal is achieved, counteractive control will cease. Second, counteractive control is flexible. Counteractive control will be exercised when it determines whether or not long-term goals will be achieved. Little or no counteractive control will be exerted when short-term motives are weak and thus easy to resist or very strong and thus impossible to resist. Greater counteractive control will be exerted when the strength of short-term motives is at an intermediate level, because at this level counteractive control determines whether long-term goals will be achieved. Third, counteractive control is substitutable. Counteractive control will be exerted when it is necessary for achieving ones long term goals. When other, external means of control are in place, counteractive self-control will cease. The Afro Education Model proposed is tied on a wide range of self-control strategies. Yaacov and Fishbach (n.d) distinguish between strategies that change the choice situation and those that change the subjective meaning of the situation. People may change the choice situation in several ways: They may impose on themselves penalties (side bets) for failing to act according to their long-term goals (Ajzen, 1975; Becker, 1960). These self-imposed penalties may then serve as external deterrents against failure to pursue long-term goals. Yaacov and Fishbach (n.d) give the example below:
For example, one may be willing to pay a relatively large cancellation fee for missing a painful medical test. By itself, the expected pain increases the likelihood of failing to actually take the test and having to pay the cancellation fee. Simple economic considerations (minimizing expected monetary penalties) should therefore lead people to impose on themselves a relatively small fee to the extent that the medical test is more painful. CCT predicts, however, that the more painful a test is expected to be, the higher the cancellation fee people will be willing to pay. Yaacov and Fishbach (n.d:748)
Another way in which people may change future choice situations as argued Yaacov and Fishbach (n.d) is by making rewards contingent upon acting according to their long-term interests. Instead of receiving a reward unconditionally, people may prefer to receive it only if they act according to their long-term interests. For example, people may prefer to receive a bonus for actually completing a painful but subjectively important medical test rather than for merely agreeing to do it. By making penalties and rewards contingent on performing an activity, people pre-commit themselves to the activity People may pre-commit themselves more directly by eliminating action alternatives and thus making a decision to act according to their long-term interests irreversible(Brickman, 1987). Other counteractive control strategies change the psychological meaning of future choice situations (Yaacov and Fishbach, n.d). People may selectively attend to, encode, and interpret information about future situations so as to bolster the value of long-term goals and discount the aversiveness of short-term costs. According to Bandura (1989) the value of long-term goals may be enhanced by linking the attainment of these goals to self-standards. Failure to pursue long-term outcomes is then construed as a violation of ones values and a threat to ones sense of self-worth and determination. In addition, people may bolster the value of attaining long-term goals by elaborating upon what makes attainment of these goals important. Yaacov and Fishbach (n.d) give the example below:
In trying to decide whether to undertake a medical test, people may think of how undertaking the test may help them detect and prevent potential health problems. Counteractive control may also aim to discount short-term costs. People may try to attenuate the anticipated aversiveness of short-term costs by focusing on the abstract, cool properties of these costs rather than on their concrete, hot. People may also try to regulate their mood so as to improve their ability to cope with short-term costs. For example, people may seek mood-enhancing experiences to buffer the anticipated unpleasantness of a medical procedure Yaacov and Fishbach (n.d:749)
From the theorization on Self-Control, Social Control and Counteractive control, the proposed model of Education vitalizes the role of every institution of the society in facilitating its members to
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remain committed to their principles and being attentive when performing their moral tasks. In a situation where people do not have a capacity to have several control, hence not sticking to their principles or losing attention, such behaviour seems involuntary. It is an act emanating from a poorly developed person and so it is facilitated by lack of something and not the presence of something. 18. Dealing with Temptations From the conceptualization of the Pre-twenty first educated African person, this paper argues that the loss of Africans educational identity hence its values and meager contributions to world development is due to several alternatives that were an available. This paper argues that should there have been no other systems of education that seemed appealing to the Africans, then they would have retained their educational practice. It is a position of this paper that Africans were lured into accepting Western education by the promises of getting white color jobs, the pride of speaking foreign language and the seeming ability to use complex machines. These opportunities have been available; the African fell in the temptation of these new features and therefore discounted his/her education value practices. The more the African gets convinced that he or she could become better off than he or she is at present in terms of status, the more he or she deviates from his or her values. To this end, lessons may be taken from the Situational prevention approach. According to Clarke (1997), Situational prevention comprises opportunity-reducing measures that (1) are directed at specific forms of behaviour; (2) involve the management, design or manipulation of the immediate environment in as systematic and permanent way as possible, (3) make behaviour more difficult and risky, or less rewarding and excusable as judged by a wide range of offenders. Cornish and Clarke (1988), point out that Situational prevention has several features: First, it makes clear that situational measures must be tailored to highly specific categories of behaviour, which means that distinctions must be made between the different kinds of desires. Clarke (1997), argues that the need to tailor measures to particular situations should not be taken to imply that offenders are specialists only that the commission of specific kinds of behaviour depends crucially on a constellation of particular environmental opportunities and that these opportunities may need to be blocked in highly specific ways. In the analysis of Cornish and Clarke (1988), the second important feature of the definition of situational prevention is the implicit recognition that a wide range of offenders, attempting to satisfy a variety of motives and employing a variety of methods, may be involved in even highly specific offenses. It is further recognized that all people have some probability of committing crime depending on the circumstances in which they find themselves. The third point deriving from the definition is that changing the environment is designed to affect assessments made by potential offenders about the costs and benefits associated with committing particular crimes. These judgments dependent on specific features of the objective situation and determine the likelihood of the offense occurring. This implies some rationality and a considerable degree of adaptability on the part of offenders. According to Cornish and Clarke (1988), recognizes, fourth, that the judgments made by potential offenders include some evaluation of the moral costs of offending. We may all be prepared to steal small items from our employers, but few of us would be willing to mug old ladies in the street. Not all offenses are equally reprehensible, even in the eyes of the most hardened offenders. This means that making it harder to find excuses for criminal action may sometimes be an effective opportunity-reduction technique. It also means that differences in the moral acceptability of various offenses will impose limits on the scope of displacement. This framework could be adopted to make sure that those who may go against the wishes of adopting African values are handled.
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This paper notes that in the awake of human rights and democratic practices, making people to conform to certain values in the context of African needs could be challenged. However, this should be understood within the fact that rights and freedoms have limits. For example, whereas there is freedom of choice and association, those making choices that offend the law are punished. There are outlawed groups that those who associate with them are punished. So, the same be taken for all those who transgress values entrenched in the practice of education in Africa in the 21st Century. 19. Conclusion It is often taken for granted that an educated population is cornerstone for development and that education improves peoples quality of life. However, as it has been shown in this paper, this has not obtained on the African continent. It has been shown that education which is not embedded in peoples culture would be detrimental and anti-thesis of its very purpose. This has emanated from the observation that Western education was imposed on Africans who in this case have developed a sense of self-hatred and make dismal contributions towards the development of the African continent. The practice of education in the 21st Century in Africa will have to focus on the development of the domains of authenticity, attentiveness and commitment to principles as well as resistance to temptations. This would result in the development of African epistemology and value disposition that would define the identity of the 21st Century educated African person. References
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Instructional Assessment Practices of Science Teachers in Barbados: Pattern, Techniques and Challenges.
Babalola J. Ogunkola PhD
School of Education, Faculty of Humanities and Education, The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus, Barbados drbeejay@hotmail.com
Catherine Clifford PhD

Sir Arthur Lewis Community College, St Lucia. ekiwie@hotmail.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p313
Abstract This study investigated the instructional assessment practices pattern, techniques and challenges of science teachers in Barbados with a view to providing a baseline data on the state of the art of this important aspect of science teaching. A total of 55 science teachers drawn from 12 out of 22 secondary schools in Barbados constituted the participants in the study. The Self report data obtained by a survey questionnaire revealed that teachers use similar instructional assessment practices regardless of sex, teaching experience, professional qualification, and academic qualification. Teachers reported using collaborative and formative assessment practices most often although the techniques they reported to use did not greatly reflect this. Idiosyncratic solutions to their systemic challenges do not reflect the teachers claim of using collaborative assessment practices. Based on the findings, it is recommended that teachers will benefit from professional development activities that promote reflection and collaboration in addressing their instructional assessment challenges on a practical level. Further research is necessary to look into the influence of teacher beliefs and attitudes on their instructional assessment practices. Key words: Instructional Assessment Practices, Science Teachers, Barbados, Secondary school, Pattern, Techniques, Challenges.
1. Introduction Given the important role of assessment in teaching, it is essential that educators pay close attention to the process of assessment and the decisions that teachers make regarding their assessment practices (Chiappetta et al. 1998). The science teacher is in the position to both initiate and implement changes in classroom assessment and to make decisions regarding what assessment practices are significant and worthy to be used (Bell 2007). Assessments can provide information to potentially optimize teaching and learning (Nitko 2004), and can empower teachers to improve their teaching, motivate their students to learn, modify students study habits, change students attitudes, and stimulate students to develop new interests and directions for learning (Trowbridge et al. 2004). It is therefore worth investigating the instructional assessment practices of science teachers particularly in the Caribbean
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region. In Barbados and the Caribbean region, secondary school science teachers engage in teaching the science subjects Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Integrated Science, Agricultural Science and Human and Social Biology (HSB). These subjects (except HSB) are assessed by means of an SBA (School Based Assessment) component and paper and pencil tests at the CSEC (Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate) by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC). HSB is assessed only by paper and pencil tests. Science teachers are responsible for the SBA components while CXC sets the written components. In Forms one to three the teacher is solely responsible for his/her assessment practices with minimal guidance and support from CXC or the local Ministry of Education. Although teacher preparation programmes do introduce trainee teachers to a variety of assessment techniques, there is insufficient time for such programmes to allow teachers to develop expertise in using these techniques. Also, trainee teachers are mainly assessed by traditional techniques such as paper and pencil tests. Consequently, when teachers enter the classroom and are faced with myriad tasks and challenges they may resort to the techniques that they are familiar with and those that are easier to use in their classroom context. As time elapses, teachers may develop a routine which becomes their practice and teachers may then be unwilling to change their practice. Therefore, knowledge of good assessment practices does not automatically translate to good assessment practices in real life. This paper looks into what assessment practices science teachers report using and the reasons for their assessment practices. 2. Theoretical framework Although assessment forms an integral part of all teacher decisions and teaching (McMillan 2007), assessing student learning is no easy task. Assessment is inseparable from teaching and learning (Bass et al. 2009; Clymer and William 2007; Loucks-Horsley 1989; National Research Council 1996; Wiggins 1992), enhances instruction and promotes learning (Reynolds et al. 2009). In light of this connection between assessment and instruction, the term assessment in this paper refers to instructional assessment. The current hands-on, minds-on trend in science education require that assessments have the following characteristics: indistinguishable from instructional tasks (Atkin et al. 2005); emphasis on interconnections between knowledge, understanding and skills; focus on developing depth of understanding as well as mastery of knowledge; and emphasis on the process of obtaining answers as well as the accuracy of the answer or performance (Loucks-Horsley 1989). The suggestions that assessments move away from proving learning to improving learning, and focus less on measurement and more on judgment (Bell 2007) are worthy of consideration by Caribbean educators. Assessment is a multidimensional process of collecting and interpreting educational data which includes: data use, data collection, methods of collecting data and users of data (National Research Council 1996). Other writers for example (McMillan 2007) have assigned different names to the components of the assessment process. He describes the components of classroom assessment as including: purpose, measurement, evaluation and use. Another writer ( Popham 2008) asks the questions; why assess? What to assess? How to assess? Do Caribbean science teachers assessment practices reflect all these facets of assessment? When done before instruction, assessments can provide the teacher with information pertaining to students prior knowledge, motivation and interests which can be used to guide the planning of instruction. Teachers can use formative assessment to gauge students learning while the lesson progresses in order to modify their teaching plans and to give appropriate feedback to students. Assessment of student learning at the end of a teaching cycle or summative assessment (Sato and Atkin 2007) is important for teachers to establish how well the students have learned the material, whether they are ready for the next level, whether changes in instruction are necessary and what grades to
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assign students as well as reporting on students progress to administration and parents. The methods used to collect data commonly called instruments, tools or techniques include paper and pencil tests, performance tests, interviews, portfolios, performances, observations, transcript or student record analysis, and expert reviews of educational materials. The techniques used are guided by what is being measured and what decisions the data will inform. The techniques selected for measurement are also affected by the assessment strategy being applied (norm-referenced or criterion referenced). The current conceptualization of assessment as a multidimensional process has led to new trends in assessment. Instead of using a single method to measure student learning, all aspects of science achievement should be measured using a variety of data collection methods. In this context, the quality of the programme experienced by students is reflected in the assessments. There is also a drive towards using authentic assessment. Authentic assessment focuses on application of scientific knowledge and reasoning in real world situations. Additionally, in terms of validity, this new meaning of assessment has led educational measurement specialists to give more consideration to the social and educational consequences of data interpretation instead of being concerned only with the technical quality of educational data. 3. Assessment practices of teachers One major influence on teachers assessment practices and grading decision making is external pressures such as that exerted by high-stakes examinations (McMillan 2007; Osborne et al. 2003), grading policies, and parents demands. Teachers may decide to use items that are similar to those used in highstakes examinations in their classroom assessments. It has been suggested that heavy emphasis on highstakes assessment may reduce teachers use of formative assessments (Cowie and Bell 1999). Formative assessment practices can be useful to science teachers in helping students develop scientific habits of mind and to monitor students formation of misconceptions and concept development (Sato and Atkin 2007). The quality of the feedback is important if learning is to improve. Feedback that focuses on what the learner needs to do for improvement and how to go about achieving such improvement can result in considerable improvement in learning (Black and Wiliam 1998; Kluger and DeNisi 1996 cited in Clymer and Wiliam 2007). Teachers assessment practice should modify instruction to meet their students learning needs based on evidence from formative assessments as well as using that information to assign a final grade for a specific teaching period (Clymer and William, 2007). In support for formative assessment results being used for assigning grades, Clymer and William (2007) conducted a pilot study on grading in 8th grade physical science in 2005 - 2006. In this model of assessment, the grade is not final until the end of the marking period. The researchers report that the participants in the study focused more on learning and that students were more involved in monitoring their own learning. There was also an increase in seeking help from the teacher and peers. Understanding the content became more important than getting a high percentage (the opposite of the situation in the Caribbean region). Teachers may also assess student learning by using peer assessment and self-assessment. The use of peer assessment can provide students opportunities to explain their understandings to their peers and self- assessment forces the student to reflect on his or her own learning. Rubrics prepared by the teacher or teacher and students can be used to reveal the required expectations of students work. Other assessment practices that are useful to teachers include listening to students talk while they work in order to gain insight into students understanding and learning from the successes of other teachers (Sato and Atkin 2007).
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4. Attitude of teachers to assessment practices A major influence on teachers assessment practice decisions is their beliefs and values (McMillan 2007). The beliefs and values of teachers are reflected in their philosophy which in turn guides how they teach and assess student learning. However, the teachers philosophy and the curriculum aims and pressures are not always in harmony and conflicts arise. When teachers are faced with conflict between their philosophy of teaching and learning and the pressures they encounter, they may resort to giving in to the demands of the pressures at the expense of assessing students understanding. It is very difficult for teachers to change their attitude to classroom assessment practices (Sato and Atkin 2007). The authors note that such change may be facilitated only by careful reexamination of fixed routines and techniques and even the teachers self-image. Teachers may have great difficulty in giving up the familiar and comfortable practices. Their personal beliefs can greatly influence their assessment practices. While some teachers believed in giving students opportunity, regardless of the time taken to master major concepts and skills others felt that this practice was unfair to those who were able to complete their work to the desired standard in less time. Some teachers feared that the more able students would lose interest while other teachers wanted to reward those students who demonstrated care and precision (Sato and Atkin 2007). The authors noted that teachers were willing to adapt what worked for other teachers to match their own beliefs about assessment. 5. Changing teacher assessment practices The key to changing classroom practice is to allow teachers opportunities for reflecting on their practices and to question the purposes and uses of their practices through collaboration (Henze et al. 2007; Marx et al. 1994; Ratcliffe et al. 2005). However, admitting to the need for change and becoming willing to relinquish the comforts of familiarity can be an agonizing process for teachers (Sato and Atkin 2007). The authors proposed three guidelines which educators can use to provide support for practicing science teachers. It is suggested that teachers should be encouraged to pinpoint some of the assessment practices that interest them, scrutinize their teaching, and plan changes to reflect the practices of interest to them. Choice of practice has the advantage of allowing natural variations in teachers beliefs, values, interests, and comfort levels with change (Sato and Atkin 2007, 79). It is also suggested that the change process begin by looking at the teachers beliefs and practices instead of being guided by abstract best practices. Teachers need help in finding out what works for them, what they can change and how they can change. The authors conclude that teachers choice of practices is ultimately determined by their personalities and values, and their ideas of the kind of teacher they want to become. Thirdly, Sato and Atkin (2007) recommend that teachers collaborate in sharing expertise, exchanging practices and engaging in discussions to reveal new possibilities. They see the need for teachers to build trust and to develop reflective thinking. In order for these guidelines to be effectively used teachers need time to integrate the ideas into their classroom practices. Showing the teachers what is possible is not sufficient for effecting change. While Sato and Atkin (2007) suggest some commendable guidelines teachers need to understand the underlying assumptions of the curriculum and to compare these to their own assumptions guiding their teaching and learning when making decisions regarding their assessment practices (Blumenfeld et al. 1994). It could hereby be argued that formal teacher training in the Caribbean context inadequately mimics the real classroom and teachers (particularly in the Caribbean) do not have adequate professional support to address their assessment needs. Therefore science teachers in the Caribbean do not meet the important demands of instructional assessment.
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Literature in the area of assessment in science education that is contextual to the Caribbean is quite scarce. Very few Caribbean authors have explored this area and it is imperative that Caribbean educators realize and address this void. Griffith (2006) in an exploration of the practical difficulties resulting from the design of a course in classroom assessment in Jamaica suggests that assessment procedures and instruments must provide both teachers and students with feedback that is useful in improving student learning. Griffith (2006) notes that both assessment for learning and assessment of learning are important in constructivist classrooms. This implies that both summative and formative assessment practices are useful. The findings of Griffith (2006) suggest that such assessment practices increase students level of mastery of subject matter as well as related skills. However, this conclusion was based on limited data and there is need for further research into Caribbean teachers assessment practices in science. In light of the importance of assessment in science instruction, teachers role of decision - making regarding instructional assessment, and the need to provide information on the pattern, techniques and challenges confronting science teaching in Barbados with a view to making relevant suggestions concerning science teaching in the country, this study seeks to investigate the instructional assessment practices of secondary school science teachers in Barbados. Whether teachers are effectively assessing student learning and whether teachers are aware of good assessment practices, their various assessment practices, their knowledge and use of various assessment techniques and the challenges they encounter together with how they overcome their challenges are examined. 6. Research questions 1. What is the pattern of instructional assessment practices in secondary school science classes in Barbados? 2. Are there any significant differences in the instructional assessment practices of the science teachers in Barbados based on: i. Sex? ii. Teaching experience? iii. Professional qualification? iv. Academic qualification? 3. What are the instructional assessment techniques employed by secondary school science teachers in Barbados? 4. What challenges do secondary school science teachers in Barbados encounter in their instructional assessment practices? 5. How do secondary school science teachers in Barbados overcome challenges that they encounter in their instructional assessment practices? 7. Methodology This research employed a cross-sectional survey design. A survey administered on only one occasion is a cross-sectional study (Gay, Mills and Airasian, 2009). Each participant was asked the same questions in the same manner (a questionnaire) so that data collected is comparable. The population is all the science teachers at all the secondary schools in Barbados. Science teachers include teachers of Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Integrated Science, Agricultural Science, and Human and Social Biology. Twelve out of 22 secondary schools were randomly selected. All the science teachers at the twelve schools formed the sample for the study. Data were collected from fifty five secondary school science teachers (Table 1).
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A questionnaire with four sections was used for data collection. Section A sought demographic information such as sex, the number of years of teaching experience, academic qualifications, subject area of specialization and professional qualifications. Section B sought to garner teachers self report of their assessment practices by means of 39 questions in the form of a four point Likert scale, (strongly disagree, disagree, agree and strongly agree). Both positive and negative wording was employed in the construction of the items. The items were classified into eight categories or scales (Table 2). Section C of the questionnaire consists of a range of assessment techniques and teachers were required to identify each of the techniques that they use and to write the reasons for using the techniques. A similar format was used for Section D of the questionnaire where teachers were required to indicate from a list of challenges the ones which affected them and to write in the space provided how they overcome each challenge. Table 1: Characteristics of the Sample of Science Teachers (N = 55)
Characteristic of sample Sex Male Female Teaching experience 0 4 years 5 9 years 10 14 years 15 19 years 20 years and over Professional None qualification Associate degree in education Diploma in education Certificate in educational administration Academic Advanced level qualification Bachelors degree Masters degree Frequency 23 32 13 10 8 6 18 15 1 29 4 4 35 16
Table 2: Table of specifications for Section B of the questionnaire

Category General assessment practices Collaborative assessment practices Formative assessment practices Summative assessment practices Assessment of student knowledge Assessment of student skills Assessment of student attitudes Assessment development process Questions 3, 6, 9, 19, 29 4, 14, 20, 34, 38 10, 15, 23,26, 27 7, 11, 22, 30 2, 18, 28, 31, 36 12, 17, 13, 33, 37 8, 1, 32, 35, 39 5, 16, 21, 24, 25 Sample question It is not a good practice to review assessment questions before administering. I am aware of my colleagues assessment practices. I assess student learning while teaching. I give assessments only at the end of a lesson or unit. I place heavy focus on recall of factual details when I assess students. It is not possible for me to assess students use of science process skills. I contribute to the development of positive attitudes to science in students. When developing assessments, I clearly specify the learning outcomes.
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8. Evidence related to validity and reliability of the instrument The instrument was first internally reviewed for errors and for appropriateness to gather the data required by the research questions. A university lecturer in science education also reviewed the instrument for validity. The recommended changes were made before pilot testing the instrument. The instrument was pilot tested on twelve teachers at two schools with science teachers of similar characteristics as those forming the sample for data collection. From the responses, it was noted that most of the teachers did not complete section D which required teachers to write the challenges they encounter and to give how they overcome each challenge. One respondent suggested that the challenges should be listed so that teachers would just have to indicate whether or not they experience each challenge and give how they overcome it. This suggestion was adopted and the literature as well as the researchers experience as a teacher was used to develop a list of challenges for the final draft of the instrument. To establish internal consistency of the items in Section B, the data from the pilot study were subject to Cronbach-alpha reliability testing. The alpha value returned for the 39 item scale was 0.8622, however one item (item 33) had a large negative coefficient (- 0.7178). This item was removed and when the reliability analysis was run again, the alpha value returned was 0.8953. 9. Administration of the instrument and scoring The instrument was administered only to science teachers and was collected after one week. The positively worded questions in section B of the questionnaire were scored by assigning numbers to each of the options as follows: SD- 1; D- 2; A- 3; SA- 4. The negatively worded items were scored in the reverse order with SD being assigned 4 and SA being assigned 1. 10. Data analysis and main findings
10.1 Data Analysis

Data for research question one were analyzed by computing the total score for each of the assessment practice categories and recoding each score so that scores ranging from 0 -10 were classified as not being used (disagree) by teachers and scores ranging from 11-20 were classified as being used (agree) by teachers. The maximum score for each category except summative assessment practices was 20. For the category labeled summative assessment practices, scores ranging from 0 7 were classified as disagree and those ranging from 8 16 as agree. This was necessary since there were only four questions in this category and the maximum score was 16. Scores falling in the disagree category were scored as 1 and those falling in the agree category as 2. To test for significant differences in the instructional assessment practices of the science teachers based on: sex, teaching experience, professional qualification and academic qualification a t-test for independent samples was run. One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was run to test for differences between assessment practice and teaching experience, professional qualification and academic qualification. Further analyses using two-way analysis of variance were carried out for checking interaction and main effects of sex, teaching experience, professional qualification, and academic qualification on teachers assessment practices. Data pertaining to the instructional techniques employed by the science teachers and the challenges that science teachers encounter in their instructional assessment practices were analyzed by running frequencies for the various techniques and challenges respectively. Data regarding how science
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teachers overcome challenges they encounter in their instructional assessment practices were analyzed by categorizing the solutions given for each of the challenges identified. 11. Main findings
11.1 Pattern of instructional assessment practices of secondary school science teachers

All the teachers reported that they use collaborative assessment practices. Such practices include discussing assessments with peers before administering and learning from other teachers through sharing of ideas about assessment practices that work. Ninety-six percent of the teachers reported that they assess students skills and follow guidelines of the assessment development process. Overall the teachers agree that they use all the instructional assessment practice categories identified in the research (Table 3). Table 3: Percentage of teachers who reported using the various instructional assessment practices
Assessment Practice Category General assessment practices Collaborative assessment practices Formative assessment practices Summative assessment practices Assessment of student knowledge Assessment of student skills Assessment of student attitudes Assessment development process Percent 54.5 100 98.2 65.5 89.1 90.9 96.4 96.4
Differences in the instructional assessment practices of science teachers based on sex, teaching experience, professional qualification and academic qualification
T-test for independent samples revealed that there are no significant differences in the instructional assessment practices of the male teachers (mean = 105, SD = 7.084) and the female teachers (mean = 104.50, SD = 6.584); (t = 0.269; df = 53; p = 0.789). Both males and females use similar assessment practices. Table 4 provides a summary of the t values at the p (.05) level for each of the assessment practice categories. Table 4: Differences in assessment practice based on sex of teacher
Assessment practice General practices Collaborative practices Formative practices Summative practices Sex Male Female Male Female Male Female Male N 23 32 23 32 23 32 23 Mean 10.96 10.47 15.52 15.56 15.48 15.97 8.57 Std. Dev. 1.796 1.391 2.108 1.831 1.780 2.192 1.727 1.227 .703 .225 0.883 1.957 .381 0.076 1.397 .939 t value 1.135 F(1, 53) 1.638 P .261
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Female Assessment of knowledge Assessment of skills Male Female Male Female Assessment of attitudes Assessment development process Male Female Male Female
32 23 32 23 32 23 32 23 32
7.94 13.48 13.50 12.91 13.25 13.48 13.16 14.61 14.66
1.966 1.780 2.243 1.505 1.344 1.082 1.394 1.877 1.807 0.095 .004 .925 0.925 .451 .359 0.872 .110 .387 0.039 3.053 .969
One-way ANOVA also showed no significant differences in the teachers instructional assessment practices and their experience, professional qualification and academic qualification. However, when the Tukey HSD Post Hoc test was run, there was a significant difference in whether teachers with 5 9 years of experience and 10 14 years of experience reported using general assessment practices [F (4, 50) = 2.507; P = 0.054]; ( Table 5). These findings indicate that teachers with 5-9 years and 10-14 years of teaching experience are more likely to use general assessment practices. Table 5: Differences in Teachers Instructional Assessment Practice and Experience, Professional Qualifications and Academic Qualifications (N = 55 teachers)
Assessment Practice General practices Collaborative Practices Formative practices Summative Practices Assessment of Knowledge Assessment of Skills Assessment of Attitudes Assessment Development Process Between groups Within groups Between groups Within groups Between groups Within groups Between groups Within groups Between groups Within groups Between groups Within groups Between groups Within groups Between groups Within groups df 4 50 4 50 4 50 4 50 4 50 4 50 4 50 4 50 F 2.507 1.937 .552 1.029 1.213 .532 .516 .557 Sig. .054 .119 .698 .402 .317 .713 .725 .695
Two-way ANOVA revealed significant differences in teachers use of collaborative assessment practices and general assessment practices based on sex and teaching experience. There were five categories of teaching experience (0 4 years, 5 9 years, 10 14 years, 15 19 years, and 20 years and over). For the collaborative practice category, the interaction effect between sex and teaching
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experience was not significant [F(4, 45) = 2.455, P = 0.059]. There was no significant main effect for sex [F(1, 45) = 0.34, P = 0.855]. A significant main effect was found for teaching experience [F(4, 45) = 2.605, P = 0.048] but the effect size was small (partial eta squared = 0.188). While this difference may be statistically significant, it is not easily detected in practice. Post hoc comparison using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for teachers with 0 4 years of teaching experience (M = 14.85, SD = 1.864) was statistically different from teachers with 10 14 years of teaching experience (M = 17.13, SD = 1.959). For the general assessment practice category, the interaction effect between sex and teaching experience was not significant [F(4, 45) = 1.059, P = 0.388]. There was no significant main effect for sex [F (1, 45) = 0.602, P = 0.442]. No significant main effect was found for teaching experience [F (4, 45) = 1.795, P = 0.146]. Post hoc comparison using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for teachers with 5 9 years of teaching experience (M = 9.80, SD = 1.751) was statistically different from teachers with 10 14 years of teaching experience (M = 12.00, SD = 1.852). The results (Table 6) suggest that female teachers with 0 - 4 years of teaching experience are more likely than males with similar experience to use collaborative assessment practices; males with 10 14 years of teaching experience are more likely than females with similar experience to use collaborative assessment practices and general assessment practices; and males with 5 9 years of teaching experience are more likely than females to use general assessment practices. Table 6: Means and Standard Deviations for Collaborative Assessments Practice and General Assessment Practices Based on Sex and Teaching Experience
Sex of Teacher Collaborative Assessment Practice Male Female Male Female General assessment practices Male Female Male Female Teaching experience 0 4 years 0 4 years 10 14 years 10 14 years 5 9 years 5 9 years 10 14 years 10 14 years Mean 13.75 15.33 18.75 15.50 10.50 9.63 13.00 11.00 Standard Deviation 1.258 1.936 1.258 0.577 3.536 1.408 1.633 1.408
No other significant interaction or main effects between the assessment practice categories and sex, professional qualification or academic qualification were found. Therefore the results indicate that teachers assessment practices are not significantly affected by their sex, professional qualification or academic qualification. However, whether teachers use collaborative and general assessment practices is somewhat affected by their sex and their teaching experience.
I1.2 nstructional techniques employed by the teachers

The main instructional techniques used by the teachers are tests (52 teachers), home assignments (51 teachers), observations (43 teachers) and projects (41 teachers). A significant number of teachers (25) use checklists, a few teachers (12) use portfolios and concept maps and very few teachers (8 and 7) reported using questionnaires and interviews respectively.
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The main reasons for using the different instructional techniques are summarized in Table 7. The teachers most frequent reasons for using the assessment techniques are for gauging understanding, assessing cognitive skills, reinforcing concepts taught in class, in-depth research of topics, and assessing practical skills. Table 7: Main Reasons for Using Instructional Assessment Techniques (N = 55)
Assessment Technique Tests Home assignments Projects Observations Rating scales Checklists Interviews Portfolios Concept maps Reason To gauge understanding of a unit To assess cognitive skills. To reinforce concepts taught in class To develop research skills In-depth research of topics To develop research skills. To develop imagination and creativity. To assess manipulative/practical skills. To identify student strengths/ weaknesses To assess student interactions. To assess students practical skills To assess practical skills To identify student strengths/ weaknesses To assess organizational skills To assess creative skills To assess students ability to link concepts As an advance organizer Number of teachers 15 8 15 9 14 9 7 15 6 5 2 10 2 1 1 3 2
11.3 Science teachers challenges in their instructional assessment practices and methods of overcoming their challenges
The teachers identified four of the listed challenges as common to their instructional assessment practices. The challenges identified are; time constraints not allowing completion of syllabus objectives, assessment of practical skills not possible due to large classes and lack of materials, and not having time to carefully plan assessment procedures. None of the teachers experienced difficulty in constructing test items that test syllabus objectives or difficulty in developing marking schemes. The major methods given by teachers for overcoming specific instructional assessment challenges are shown in Table 8. Table 8: Teachers Instructional Assessment Challenges and how they overcome the challenges
Challenge Time constraint do not allow assessment of all syllabus objectives Classes are too large to assess practical skills Lack of materials and/or apparatus limit my assessment of the students practical skills I do not have the time to carefully plan assessment procedures. Method of overcoming challenge Use of projects Lunch time/ vacation classes Home assignments Selection of most important objectives Group work Purchasing or borrowing materials Using group work Demonstrations Use of inexpensive and recycled materials Use of the same procedure over and over
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The use of group work, lunch time/vacation classes and purchasing or borrowing of materials were the most frequent ways given for overcoming the challenges identified. Single teachers gave other methods of overcoming their instructional assessment challenges as; giving handouts, reducing the number of practical activities, and using stations when materials are lacking. 12. Discussion of results The findings of this study suggest that the assessment practices of science teachers in Barbados span general, collaborative, formative, and summative assessment practices while assessing students knowledge, skills and attitudes. Several implications arise from these findings. The finding that the teachers reported using collaborative assessment practices imply that they discuss assessment questions critically with their peers, they are aware of their colleagues assessment practices, they share ideas with other teachers and learn from each other. Wiggins (1992) also claims that teachers can help each other by sharing assessment task ideas. This claim is somewhat supported by the techniques that the teachers report using. The techniques used most often by the teachers are tests, home assignments, projects, observations and checklists. The majority of teachers used tests to assess cognitive skills however, it is purported by Wiggins (1992) that tests usually over-assess knowledge and under-assess know how with knowledge. Effective use of tests requires teachers to be familiar with diverse test items and to know how to use each type of test item for assessing a variety of cognitive processes (Chiappetta et al. 1998). The authors claim that tests tend to reveal what students do not know instead of what they know and can do and focus mainly on isolated facts whereas the focus of learning is directed towards relevant future oriented content. The only two reasons given by the teachers for using tests were to gauge understanding of a unit of work and to assess cognitive skills. These reasons may suggest that the teachers do not use a variety of tests as indicated by Chiappetta et al. (1998) and that these tests do not assess the psychomotor or affective domains. There is great demand for accountability (value for money) which tests do not necessarily achieve. A high test score is not a true measure of instructional effectiveness as there are many other influencing factors. Tests (paper and pencil) do not match learning theories which promote individual differences in learning style and do not actively involve students in the assessment process. These, among other factors contribute to the disadvantages of paper and pencil tests so commonly used in the Caribbean and indeed globally. On the other hand, tests provide teachers with opportunity to discuss test items with their colleagues as well as share ideas and learn from each other. Tests also provide teachers with an easily administered technique for assessing student knowledge. Given the multiple tasks of teachers, they would welcome an easily administered, less time consuming method of assessing student learning. Although the teachers did not report this, they may well be using tests to overcome the challenges of: insufficient time to complete the syllabus, large classes, lack of materials and insufficient time to plan a variety of assessment techniques. The use of projects in instructional assessment can: be authentic; integrate understanding, skills and strategies; involve students in self-assessment and independent learning; help students develop generalizable skills; foster collaboration among teachers and students; and motivate as well as challenge students (Gronlund 2006). None of these reasons were given by the teachers for selecting projects as a form of assessment. This suggests that teachers use projects predominantly as a method of overcoming the challenge of time constraints (Table 7) and may not be aware of the benefits of using projects to improve teaching and learning.
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Extensive evidence that formative assessment improves learning was provided by Black and Wiliam (1998). Formative assessment throughout instruction can provide feedback to help students improve their learning (Chiappetta et al. 1998). Teachers use of formative assessment practices suggests that they: provide opportunity for individual learning, assess student learning while teaching, give students feedback to improve learning, and use assessment results to reveal students weaknesses. The use of home assignments by many teachers (51) may promote individual learning, but the teachers gave reasons such as, to reinforce concepts taught in class and to develop research skills. Home assignments may not be fully effective in promoting individual learning as students may receive too much assistance and this can give the teacher a false impression of student learning. Despite this disadvantage, giving students home assignments can help students to: develop critical thinking skills, become self motivated to learn, share their knowledge with other family members and/or learn from other family members, and to be more creative. The finding that many teachers overcome their instructional assessment challenges by assigning group work (Table 8) can also hinder individual learning. Students attitudes, interests and values significantly affect their future behaviour and learning (Popham 2008).The science teachers in the study saw the importance of assessing students attitudes as well as their scientific attitudes. This contrasts the view of Popham (2008) that few teachers assess students attitudes and values. The teachers also clearly indicated that they specify the learning outcomes and match their assessments to the learning outcomes, develop assessments that provide meaningful information, develop clear scoring criteria and guidelines for administering assessments. Such practice reflects current trends in instructional assessment and the assessment standards developed by the National Research Council. The finding that teachers assess students skills implies that they: use hands-on experiences in their assessments, allow students opportunity to display their skills, assess students use of science process skills and see value in assessing students skills. The techniques of observations and checklists which are often used in assessing skills were used by many teachers, however rating scales which is more time consuming to develop and use were rarely used. Many teachers (43) reported using observations to assess students practical skills and to gain insight into students strengths and weaknesses. A systematic procedure is needed to keep track of observations and the process can be time consuming in addition to increasing test anxiety in some students (Good et al. 2008). More teachers reported using checklists than rating scales. While checklists are useful in assessing procedures, products, behaviours and as a self-evaluating tool (Gronlund 2006; Nitko 2004), they only indicate whether a step, property or action is present. Rating scales (not often used by teachers) on the other hand, are useful in both teaching and assessing, to show the degree a student has attained a learning target, and to help the teachers see the growth of each student (Nitko 2004). The reasons given by the teachers (Table 7) suggest that they either are not aware of these advantages of rating scales or they lack expertise in developing rating scales. One limitation of the instrument is that it was not possible to include skills such as communication, reasoning, and presentation. The use of interviews and observations would have provided richer data in terms of clarifying teachers conceptions of skills. Due to the quantitative nature of this research, the use of these instruments was not explored. The science teachers assess knowledge more than any other kind of learning outcomes and place heavy emphasis on the assessment of facts, concepts, principles, laws and theories. The findings do not indicate the nature of such assessments and further research is necessary to establish just what knowledge teachers assess and what value they ascribe to what they assess. Peer assessment, also used by the teachers is important as some students may be more willing to receive feedback from their peers than from
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teachers (Parkay et al. 2010). In addition, the authors report that self assessment is useful for allowing students to recognize factors that may promote or hinder their learning. The teachers practiced using summative assessments to quite a large extent. While summative assessments are useful in assessing a range of behaviours, skills and knowledge (Chiappetta et al. 1998), Trowbridge et al. (2004) caution that teachers should use a variety of assessment techniques. Although the assessment practices of the teachers are varied and reflect current trends in instructional assessment, it is important that teachers master the principles of appropriate classroom assessment for productive school improvement (Stiggins 1995). Achieving assessment literacy require teachers to know what, why, and how they assess, as well as anticipating and addressing problems that may arise in their assessment practices (Stiggins 1995). Interviews, portfolios and concept maps are rarely used by teachers despite the many benefits of these techniques. Interviews assess quality and extent of learning in science (Abdullah et al. 1997), and give teachers insight into student thinking and understanding (Chiappetta et al. 1998). Portfolio assessments foster in students the skills of selecting, organizing, synthesizing, summarizing, collaborating with others, and reflecting (Adams et al. 1992; Chiappetta et al. 1998; Good et al. 2008; Gronlund 2006; Trowbridge et al. 2004). Again, the challenges of time and large classes identified by the teachers may be the reasons why they rarely use these techniques. If teachers do not have the time to review multiple drafts of portfolios and provide individual feedback to students or small groups of students, then portfolios may not be the choice of assessment. The use of interviews is also time consuming and requires management skills on the part of the teacher. For instance, what happens to the rest of the class when the teacher is interviewing a student or group of students may be a major concern to the teacher. Concept mapping has proved particularly useful in both assessment and instruction in science education. It is surprising that very few science teachers use this technique. Concept maps are used to show meaningful relationships between science concepts, to reveal students conceptions before and after instruction and to indicate growth in understanding (Chiappetta at al. 1998; Trowbridge et al. 2004). Lack of teacher knowledge of these techniques could be responsible for their very scarce use in the classroom. This is indicated by the two reasons (to assess student ability, and as an advance organizer) given by the teachers for using concept mapping. The challenges in instructional assessment identified by the teachers are systemic in nature. While the methods that teachers employ to overcome their instructional assessment challenges may provide temporary solutions, it is necessary to approach these challenges at the institutional level. Teachers tend to devise ways of coping with their overload and multiple demands from policy makers, administrators, parents and students. However, the reasons indicated for using the various techniques suggest teachers lack of knowledge and experience in using these techniques. Teachers appear to attend to immediate practical and contextual challenges rather than theoretical or propositional knowledge (Marx et al. 1994). Brooks and Brooks (2001, 3) maintain that questions regarding understanding and meaning and the roles that schools play in encouraging or stifling the search for understanding are far more important to many educators than questions regarding achievement as measured by test scores. It is suggested that assessment practices be overhauled to make assessments more relevant to students. The finding that sex, teaching experience, professional status and academic performance do not significantly affect teachers instructional assessment practices seem to support the suggestion by Mc Millan (2007) and Sato et al. (2007) that teachers beliefs and attitudes highly affect their assessment practice decisions. Research into the assessment practices of the teachers previous teachers may provide insight into whether teachers assessment practices reflect how they were assessed as students. It is worth noting that female teachers with less teaching experience and male teachers with more teaching experience are more likely to engage in collaborative assessment practices. This finding implicate female
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teachers as being more open minded regarding collaboration with colleagues, however further research is necessary before drawing conclusions on this issue. The finding that males with 5 9 years of teaching experience are more likely to use general assessment practices may indicate the need for ongoing professional development activities to address teachers instructional assessment needs. 13. Implications Teachers instructional assessment practices were not significantly influenced by their sex, teaching experience, professional status or academic qualification; and the techniques used as well as the reasons for using the techniques did not reflect teachers application of theoretical knowledge. As other researchers (Anderson 2002; Blumenfeld et al. 1994; Bol et al. 1996; Marx et al. 1994; Osborne et al. 2003) have proposed, I suggest that science teachers instructional assessment practice reflect what is practical in their classroom contexts. Teachers should focus on what is practical in their classroom instead of applying theory to practice (Blumenfeld et al. 1994). In light of the potential benefits of science teachers instructional practices compared to the reasons that the teachers gave for using the various techniques, it appears that teachers do not realize that their assessment practices are incongruent to science instructional goals (Bol et al. 1996). The techniques should be appropriate for developing students science inquiry skills and for allowing students opportunity for constructing knowledge. From the findings, the teachers do know the appropriate instructional assessment practices for improving teaching and learning, and it is also clearly apparent that the reasons given for using the various techniques show their ineffectiveness in assessing student learning in science. It appears that the teachers select the most easily administered assessment techniques instead of the technique which will result in improved teaching and learning. The teachers gave idiosyncratic ways of overcoming their instructional assessment challenges although the challenges they identified were mainly systemic in nature and they reported a high degree of collaboration in their instructional assessment practice. This implies that teachers need help in addressing their instructional assessment needs from a systemic approach. 14. Recommendations Based on the findings of this research and previous research reported in the literature, the researcher recommends that more attention be directed towards providing professional support for practicing teachers to have opportunity for reflective and collaborative practice. Such opportunities should: focus on practical challenges that teachers face in their own classrooms (Anderson 2002; Osborne et al. 2003), be long term ( Henze et al. 2007; Marx et al. 1994), and benefit both teachers and facilitators (Blumenfeld et al. 1994). Teachers need opportunities to consider their practice and how they may improve their practice. This approach was successful in getting teachers to change their assessment practices as indicated in the Classroom Assessment Project to Improve Teaching and Learning (CAPITAL) (Atkin et al., 2005) References
Abdullah, A., and J. Scaife. 1997. Using interviews to assess childrens understanding of science concepts. School Science Review 78(285): 79 84. Adams, D.M., and M.E. Hamm. 1992. Portfolio assessment and social studies: collecting, selecting and reflecting on what is significant. Social Education February: 103 105.
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Anderson, R.D. 2002. Reforming science teaching: what research says about inquiry? Journal of Science Teacher Education 13(1): 1 12. Atkin, J. Myron, Janet E. Coffey, Savitha Moorthy, Mistilina Sato and Matthew Thibeault. 2005. Designing everyday assessment in the science classroom. New York: Teachers College Press. Bass, J.E., T.L. Contant, and A.A. Carin, 2009. Teaching science as inquiry. Boston MA: Allyn and Bacon. Bell, B. 2007. Classroom assessment of science learning. In Handbook of research on science education, edited by S.K. Abell. & N.G Lederman, New York: Routledge. Black, P. and D. Wiliam. 1998. Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education 5(1): 7 74. Blumenfeld, P.C., J.S. Krajcik, R.W. Marx, and E. Soloway. 1994. Lessons learned: How collaboration helped middle grade science teachers learn project-based instruction. The Elementary School Journal 94(5): 539 551. Bol, L. and A. Strage. 1996. The contradiction between teachers instructional goals and their assessment practices in high school Biology courses. Science Education 80(2): 145 163. Brooks, J.G. and M.G. Brooks. 2001. In search of understanding. The Case for constructivist classrooms. New Jersey: ASCD. Chiappetta, E.L., T.R. Koballa and A.T. Collette. 1998. Science instruction in the middle and secondary schools. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall. Clymer, J.B. and D. Wiliam. 2007. Improving the way we grade science. Educational Leadership December 2006/January 2007: 36 42. Cowie, B., & B. Bell. 1999. A model of formative assessment in science education. Assessment in Education 6(1): 102-116. Gay, L.R., G.E. Mills, and P. Airasian 2009. Educational Research competencies for analysis and applications. Columbus, Ohio: Pearson. Good, T.L. and J.E. Brophy. 2008. Looking in classrooms. Boston, MA: Pearson. Griffith, S.A., 2006. Where constructivism meets behaviourism. Issues in the design of a teacher education course in classroom assessment. Caribbean Journal of Education 28(2): 144 - 162. Gronlund, N.E., 2006. Assessment of student achievement. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Henze, I., J. Van Driel, and N. Verloop. 2007. The change of science teachers personal knowledge about teaching models and modeling in the context of science education reform. International Journal of Science Education 29(15): 1819 1846. Liu, K., 1995. Allowing students to assume responsibility for the quality of their work. Rubrics revisited. The Science Teacher 62(7): 49 51. Loucks-Horsley, S., 1989. Science Assessment: What it is and what it might be. Educational Leadership 46(7): 86. Marx, R.W., P.C. Blumenfeld, J.S. Krajcik, M. Blunk, B. Crawford, B. Kelly, and K.M. Meyer. 1994. Enacting project-based science: Experiences of four middle grade teachers. The Elementary School Journal 94(5): 517 538. McMillan, J. H. 2007. Classroom assessment Principles and practice for effective standards-based instruction. Boston: Pearson. National Research Council. 1996. National science education standards. Retrieved February 01, from http://nap.edu/catalog/4962.html. Nitko, A.J., 2004. Educational assessment of students. Upper Saddle River New Jersey: Pearson. Osborne, J., M. Ratcliffe, and H. Bartholomew. 2003. Teaching pupils ideas-about-science: case studies from the classroom. Paper presented at the Biennial Conference of the European Association for Research in Science Education, Amsterdam, August 20 23. Parkay, F.W., G. Hass, and E.J. Anctil. 2010. Curriculum leadership. Readings for developing quality educational programs. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Popham, J.W., 2008. Classroom Assessment What teachers need to know. U.S.A: Pearson. Radford, D.L., L.L. Ramsey, and W.C. Deese. 1995. Demonstration assessment: Measuring conceptual understanding and critical thinking with rubrics. The Science Teacher 62(7): 52 55.
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Ratcliffe, M. and P. Hanley. 2005. Evaluation of professional development strategies for bringing contemporary science into the classroom. Paper presented at European Science Education Association Conference, Barcelona. Reynolds, C.R., R.B. Livingston, & V. Willson. 2009. Measurement and Assessment in Education. Upper Saddle River New Jersey: Pearson. Sato, M. and M.J. Atkin. 2007. Supporting teacher change in classroom assessment. Educational Leadership, December2006/January 2007: 76-79. Stiggins, R., 1995. Assessment literacy for the 21st Century. Phi Delta Kappan 77(3): 238 245. Trowbridge, L.W., R.W. Bybee, and J.C. Powell. 2004. Teaching secondary school science. Strategies for developing scientific literacy. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. Wiggins, G. 1992. Creating tests worth taking. Educational Leadership 49(8): 26 33. Yin, R.K., 2003. Case study research: design and methods. Applied Social Research Methods series, Volume 5. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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Managing Human Resources in Albanian Public Administration

Gentiana Kraja
University Aleksandr Moisiu, Durrs email: gentianakraja@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p331
Abstract Main goal of this paper was to interpret theoretically the important presence of human resources practices in performance, including both individual and organizational performance. Then interpreting the results of the survey done through public organizations especially with human resources specialists. Identifying a bunch of best human resources management practices and show their application in our public administration in order to improve individual performance was another issue discussed in this paper. It seems that formality and law are the main pillars supporting the procedures of human resources management rather than finding an opertating mechanism that tend to identify, to fit and to improve performance as it is predicted.
1. Introduction Human Resource Management (HRM) encompasses all decisions and activities that affect the nature of the relationship between the organization and its employees, as it has been defined in 84 from Beer et al (p.1). In the recent years HRM has become a strategic, integrated and coherent approach to the employment, development and well-being of individuals working in an organization. The concept of the unit or the individual that deals with human resources in the organization has shifted from welfare officer to personnel manager and then to human resources manager. Nowadays, even the individual himself is approached differently in the organization: from being called employee, personnel, now he is considered and treated as a source, an asset or investment and not as an expense on the balance-sheet of the organization. Nevertheless this later definition of the individual as a source has raised criticism since treating the individual as an asset, thus like any other investment of the organization, removes an important part of ones being that is the spiritual and emotional aspect. However, the importance of human resource in the organization is perceived as one of its most significant competitive advantages, therefore the human resource is always at the center of attention in definitions related to its relationship with the organization. Human Resource Management is a process that is related to the whole organization in its every component without exception, due to the fact that it deals with people and people are everywhere in the organization, regardless of what position or hierarchy they have, or what activity they develop. Therefore, human resource management is of a particular importance in an organization because its effect is felt in every component of it. 2. Literature Review The human role in the services industry takes a special importance for two reasons, firstly, because the services are generally offered by an individual representative of the organization (point of contact), secondly, services have the characteristic of simultaneousness, so they are produced and consumed at the same time, which makes the service a delicate process because its quality is determined exactly when
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being consumed by the client, so, there is often no time for taking it back or corrections(Vermmeren, Kuipers and Steijn, 2009). Generally the public sector provides services that the entire public in need of them should benefit from. So, public services not only have the element of service offering, but also that of targeting pretty wide market, therefore providing them against cost, quality and proper time is a challenging process for public organizations, a process in which the Public Administrator has a key role. Public organizations must manage the public service delivery chain in the best way as the progress of public services and administration that offers them often mirrors the state and government to the general public. Public Administration links the state and civil society, so it is often spoken about the managerial state because it is intended to implement the managerialism as cultural formation and as a set of ideologies and practices, which form one of the major underpinnings of a political choice(Pollit and Bouckaert, 2004). Therefore, human resource management in public administration takes a supreme importance and it is worthwhile to study and draw relevant conclusions. In addition, all contribute to maintain the public administration through payment of taxes, and if we as the public do not receive the desired public service and close to the desired quality due to poor performance of the public administration then we pay twice, once through taxes and once through not receiving the desired service. Certainly, a poor performance public administration makes that all the public money going to human resource management practices be wasted, so costs against maintenance of public administration increase and all this affects the pockets of the public again. New Public Management Concepts require that the public sector exists to instill discipline and culture of orientation towards the performance of private sectors market practices within organizations of public sector in order to minimize costs of service quality as well as to increase the degree of responsibility through motivational strategies and competition (OFlynn., 2007). Support of this philosophy requires a big commitment of public organizations and expansion at all levels of public management, here including human resources management. So the new spirit of the public management and borrowing of private sector forms should be felt in the style of human resource management in public organizations. Human Resource Management accomplishes its primary goal through the design, conception, drafting, realization, supervision, feedback reception on the policies and practices used with and for human resources within an organization whether private or public, therefore practices of human resource management materialize, embody what is and what makes human resource management. So it is the duty of human resource management practices to prepare people in order to adapt themselves to all dynamics of reality and furthermore prepare public administrators to respond to the dynamics of reality under the direction of the government.
2.1 Debate on HR practices

In relation to human resource management practices there exists the debate about the three main issues dealing with the way how to put them in use as a tool for enhancing the performance of the individual in the organization in general and the public administrator's performance in public organizations in particular. First, human resource management practices are numerous, the more they are studied, the more opportunities are created for their separation and the creation of new practices. But this creates an ambiguous situation regarding human resource management practices and it seems as if it cant arrive at a common denominator as the determinant of that set of practices, which has the greatest impact on human resource management (Cobs, Liu and Ketchen, 2010). The impact of human resource management practices in the individual's performance at work is one of elements that help in selecting the set of practices, while another element is just finding out what are those practices that have synergies during practice. It is true that the general idea is to increase the performance of the individual, but there
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are some practices that have added impact when they are applied in group, for example trainings have an added value when carried out in group implying exactly the synergy effect brought by this practice. However, it can be arrived at a set of practices that can be called the successful set, which can vary from organization to organization, but have more in common than differences. The second point of debate related to human resource management practices is precisely the fact that to what extent do these practices respond on time and qualitatively to the organizational strategy, how flexible are these practices towards colorations of the organization's strategy (Kaufman and Miller, 2011). Certainly relationship among strategy, human resource management practices and organizational performance should function in the form of a cycle in which these elements interact and affect each-other, but often, in order to adapt to dynamics, the strategy is bound to change and human resource management practices should be fully prepared to do the same thing. Whereas the last point in this debate is characteristic only for public organizations and refers to the fact that contours of public administration and its management are welldefined by the law and human resource management practices need to perform their function within these boundaries, which are often quite tight. So in view of the two points discussed above, it is challenging to have flexibility of human resource management practices and, at the same time, to keep the individual in the center of attention when it comes to the public administration. The impact of human resource practices on the performance and the discovery of this mechanism, which is often labeled as "black box", motivates the work of human resources department and gives meaning to the investment made for this process, thats why the desire of practitioners of human resource management to demonstrate the value of what they do for the organization has a very long history. In his paper, Drucker (1993) notes that the human resource managers are concerned about "their inability to prove their contribution to the organization", so even though a day-to-day work is made by the department of human resource management, as in all other departments where planning, achievement, production, etc. are made, but still for this department it is difficult to determine the effectiveness and efficiency of their work. The above-mentioned idea goes even further by the authors Wright and Boswell (2002), an idea which is continuously raised in human resource management, and according to these authors human resource management practices do not stand separate from each-other, but they when applied, should be combined in an appropriate manner so as to increase the efficiency of their implementation and employees convenience and to avoid repetition, in this way their added effect can be achieved, i.e. an added value in achieving a higher performance. This idea was originally identified by MacDuffie (1995) who proposed a crystallization of some so-called best practices of human resources management and their combined application, but this author found it difficult to come up with an as much crystallized list of practices used because different groups had diverse lists. Pffefer (1994) is perhaps the most wellknown among the authors who studied this issue and managed to crystallize a set of practices. Initially, this author developed a list of 16 best practices which were reduced to 7 (1998). Seven practices are: employees security, selective hiring, teamwork, compensation, training, reduction differences among statuses and information exchange. What it is important in all these approaches is that that they have in common the same idea, which is the fact that in human resources management there cannot be employed a large set of practices, but a common set of human resource practices should be selected to be used successfully to any organization regardless its specifics. Such a research work to arrive at a list of these practices was met with mixed reviews. Although in principle agreed to the creation of a list of so-called best practices of human resource management there is always doubt whether the organization applying them needs all these practices just as they are, or this package still needs modifications to be adapted to the needs of the organization. Does the organization need the entire list of these practices or just some of them( Purcell, 1999)? But above it was said that increase of the effectiveness and efficiency of human resource practices application is made by using
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them in combination, and in this case the question is whether the policy or practice is effective if it is linked to another one? Most of the scientific research studying the effect of human resource management in performance usually separate their study in two distinguished levels, firstly they see the impact of human resources management on the individual performance and then in the second level in the organizational performance. As it was up mentioned human resources management researchers are still in search of a mechanism in which individual performance in better explained from human resources management practices, and this way the model shows the contribution of all elements in organizational performance. Several authors in similar studies identified as they called a bunch of practices that are more successful and effective on the individual performance. Based on the literature review this chronological studies Arthur, J. B., (1994); Guest, D. E., (1997); Huselid, M. A., (1995); MacDuffie, J., (1995); Becker. B., Gerhart. B., (1996); Delery, E. J., Doty, D. H. (1996); Pfeffer. J., (1998); Brewer. G. A., Selden. S., (2000); Wright, P. M., Boswell, W. R., (2002); Sudin. S., (2004); Williams. J.G., (2010) the most common mentioned and studied human resource management practices are recruitment and selection, training and development, performance appraisal, motivation, job security, career management, talent management and compensation. The intention of this studies was to prove the effect of human resource management practices on productivity and performance, but some of these studies intermediate this link including individual performance, specially studies that are related to public administration or public organization performance as Sudin. S., (2004); Williams. J.G., (2010); Brewer. G. A., Selden. S., (2000). To define individual performance in these studies were used two main elements individual inputs and outputs; regarding individual inputs the ability, motivation and opportunity (AMO) theory was used, while for the outcomes were used the job attitudes such as job satisfaction, turnover, commitment and involvment . This approach leaded this paper when links are verified practically through interviews. 3. Methodology and Data To realize this paper form the practical point of view a questioner was drafted and distributed in public organizations. Only head of human resources department were interviewed. This questioner was designed in 30 opened and closed questions that asked about the way that human resource practices are organized in the respective organizations, and how is managed the mechanism through which they identify and influence individual performance. Main hypothesis of this paper is that human resources management practices are positivly related or associated with individual and organziational perforamance. Main institutions and organizations where the questionnaire was distributed where representatives of central and local public organizations such as municipalities, prefectures, ministries (more details in table 1), and abort 100 questionnaires were returned back and were appropriate for the analysis. In order to have a better view of the information the questions were organized following the order of the human resource management practices and studying the procedure they have for some of these practices. At the end of this questionnaire were done some perceptual questions that tended to measure based on e 1 to 5 Likert Scale (1 I totally disagree to 5 I totally agree) about the percept contribution of human resources management practices in individual performance and then on organizational performance.
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Table. 1 Table of questionnaire distribution

Institution Municipality and Council of Region Tirana Municipality and Council of Region Durres Municipality and Council of Region Durres Municipality and Council of Region Shkoder Ministry of Interior Ministry of Culture Youth and Sports Central Election Commission Public Universities Ministry of Foreign Affairs Public Hospitals Percentage questionnaire 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 5% 20% 10% 5%
To represent the human resources practices were taken into consideration eight main practices recruitment and selection, training and development, performance appraisal, motivation, job security, career management, talent management and compensation. The questions for recruitment and selection were designed firstly to understand how the formal procedure is managed and then to explore how recruitment tends practically to influence performance as theoretically in meant to be. Regarding training and development main questions were laid to understand if this process is managed only formally, or it is a process that is managed in order to meet the needs of both public administrators and organizations. Other questions were made regarding performance appraisal to explore if this process is considered as a clue process from which depend the way other practices of human resources are managed. Motivation was explored mainly from the financial and career point of view. Since main objective are public organization and the political influence in hiring or promoting is present then job security was discussed from this perspective, so if indirectly this presence is percept form the respondents. Since the presence of career and talent management processes were identified theoretically then questions asking for the presence of this practices in our public administration. 4. Results and Discussions Main issue that came out from our analyses was that law is the main guiding to the way the human resources are managed. Albanian public administration functions based on the Civil Servant Legislation, Labor Code and special laws for professions. Then more details are administrated with internal regulatory. So main frame and limits in a certain way are decided from these instruments. The general opinion of all the respondents to the questions on how they try to discover the fit between job positions, organizational specifics, and characteristics during recruitment or performance appraisal of the public administrator was that is practically impossible to find the best or the perfect fit. Main reasons for that answers were firstly based on the fact that main practices of human resource management are based in well defined procedures supported from all these legal instruments, so all the process tends to lose flexibility effecting efficiency and quality of the all practices. When asked for the percept contribution on recruitment on individual performance the result was as in the graph 1
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Graph 1. Recruitment and performance The answer distributions were 1- I totally disagree and 2- I disgaree share about 30% of the respondents while 3- I agree and 2- I totally agree share about 65 % of the answers. So from the respondents recruitment is percepted as an important practice influencing individual and organziation performance, while at the first answers where the same respondets that showed up a lack of flexibilty in using this practice as an instruments to performance improvement. For performance appraisal were made more than a question, the first question was for the percepted contribution of performance appraisal on individual and organzational performance, the other question was about the percepted formallity and efefectivity on the way this practice is leaded and lastly if they percept the effects of this practice. The resulta as shown in the graph below. (q1-question 1, q2question 2 and q3- question 3)
Grapgh. 2 Performance Appraisal and performance The answer distributions were for the first question 1- I totally disagree and 2- I disgaree share about 32% of the respondents while 3- I agree and 2- I totally agree share about 43 % of the answers, the number of neutral respondets has incresead in this question and it is 15% the assumption in this case is that the respondets dont know well what performance appraisal is, and what is it for. For question 2 the answer distributions were 1- I totally disagree and 2- I disgaree share about 28% of the respondents while 3- I agre and 2- I totally agree share about 52 % of the answers, the number of neutral respondets has incresead also in this case and it is 20%. For the third question The answer distributions were for the first question 1- I totally disagree and 2- I disgaree share about 32% of the
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respondents while 3- I agree and 2- I totally agree share about 48 % of the answers and the neutral asnwers also in this case are 20%. In conclusion the respondents has shown a positive relationship in the contribution of performance appraisal in the individual and organizational performance but still the numbers of consedering it as a formal process and specially not percepting the effectiveness of this process or not considering it as a clue practices are too high. For motivation were made two questions the first was the classical one about its contribution on perforamnce and the next one was for the diversified thoeries and politics of motivation used practically in motivating the public administrators. The question on rewards was only if the organizations use diferiantiated schemes of rewads. The answers in the graph below. (q1-question 1, q2-question 2)
Graph 3. Motivation and performance The answer distributions were for the first question 1- I totally disagree and 2- I disgaree share about 22% of the respondents while 3- I agree and 2- I totally agree share about 64 % of the answers, and for question 2 were1- I totally disagree and 2- I disgaree share about 39% of the respondents while 3- I agree and 2- I totally agree share about 41 % of the answers. So as it can be understood still is a disacordance on the percepted contribution in perforamance and the way this process is practically managed, so the respondets feel a positive relation between performance e motivation but when asked about the diferentiated way this process is managed the number is too high. As for the reward system used as expected the most of the repondents disagree as it shown below.
Graph 4. Reward and performance
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The answer distributions were for the first question 1- I totally disagree and 2- I disgaree share about 56% of the respondents while 3- I agree and 2- I totally agree share about 28 % of the answers and about 16% were neutral. This answer distribution was expected for the simple reason that the reaward systemt in albanian public administration and the pay structure are fixed and are all the same for the same scale of hierarchy, so there is no enough flexibility to use reward system as a motivation instrument in order to improve perforamance. As for job security only one question was done regarding the influence of political issues in perceptues security for the job. The answers in the graph below.
Graph. 5. Job security The answer distributions were for the first question 1- I totally disagree and 2- I disgaree share about 40% of the respondents while 3- I agree and 2- I totally agree share about 20 % of the answers and about 45% were neutral. The interesting fact in this distribution is the great number of neutral respondents. As for the career management and talent management most of the asnwers of this secion were left unfullfilled so there is not enogh informatioan to get to a conclusion. In summary the main conlusion of this paper is that the human resources management practices are percepted as positivley related to performance, but there is a hesitation or somehow a chaotic situation when this pratices are treated and analysed in practice. The responteds often link the procedures only with law frame showing so a lack of flexibility in using human resource managemenet practices as instruments to performance improvment. Having such solid limits on playing with the human resources practices it is difficult to realise the relationship among strategy, human resource management practices and organizational performance and to make it function in the form of a cycle in which all elements interact and affect each other and specillay realise the known synergy effect within gorups and policies combination. So the mision of human resources departament itself is difficult to be relised in all of it colours. The main recomandation is in finding ways to more flexibility in manging human resources, so pople can be the added value to our public administration. References
Arthur, J. B., (1994): Effects of Human Resource Systems on Manufacturing Performance and Turnover. The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 37(3); 670-687 Beer, M, Spector, B, Lawrence, P, Quinn Mills, D and Walton, R (1984) Managing Human Assets, The Free Press, New York, p. 1.
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Brewer, G.A. and Selden, S/C. (2000) Why elephants gallop: assessing and predicting organizational performance in federal agencies. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory. 10:4 pp. 685-711. Becker, B. & Gerhart, B. (1996) The impact of Human Resource Managemenet on Organizational Performance: Progress and prospects. Special Research Forum on Human Resource Management and Organizational Performance. Academy of Management Journal, 39 (4), 770-80. Combs, J. Hall, Liu. Y., A. Ketchen, D., (2010) How much do high performance work practices matter? A meta analysis of their effects on organizational performance, Personnel Psychology, Blackwell Publishing Inc. 59, p. 505. p. 501-528. Delery, E. J., Doty, D. H. (1996). Modes of Theorizing in Strategic Human Resource Management: Tests of Universalistic,Contingency, and Configurational Performance Predictions, The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 39, No. 4 (Aug., 1996), pp. 802-835. Drucker, P., (1993). The practices of Management, Harper and Row Publishers Inc. p. 292. Guest, D. E., (1997). Human resource management and performance: a review and research agenda. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8(3), 263-276. Huselid, M., (1995). The impact of Human Resource Practices on turnover, productivity and corporate financial performance . Academy of Mangement Journal. Vol. 38. No. 3. Fq. 635 872. Kaufman B. E., Miller B. I., (2011). The Firm's Choice of HRM Practices: Economics Meets Strategic Human Resource Management ILR Review Volume 64, Nr. 3 Art. 6. p. 528. p. 526 557. Macduffie, J. P., (1995). Human Resource bundles and manifacturating performance: Organizational logic and flexible production systems in the world auto industry. Industrial an labor relations review, vol. 48, (2). p. 204. p. 197 221. OFlynn. J., (2007). From New Public Management to Public value: Paradigmatic change and managerial implication. The Australian Journal of Public Administration. Vol. 66. No. 3. p. 354. p. 353 366. Pollit. C., Bouckaert. G., (2004). Public Management Reform. A Comparative Analysis. Oxford University Press. Pfeffer, J. (1994). Competitive Advantage Through People: Unleashing the Power of the Workforce, Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Book. p. 53. Pfeffer, J., (1998). Seven practices of successful organization. California management review, vol. 40, no. 2. p. 96. p. 96 124. Purcell, J., (1999). Best practice and best fit: chimera or cul de sac? Human resource management journal. Vol. 9. No. 3. p. 33. p. 26 41. Sudin. S., (2004). Human Resource Practices and Organisationla Performance: Review, Synthesis and Research Implication. International Business Management Conference, fq 99-113. Vermeeren. B., Kuipers. B., Steijn. B., (2009). Human Resource Management and performance of public organizations. EGPA Conference. p. 5 Wright, P. M., Boswell, W. R., (2002). Desegregating HRM: A review and synthesis of micro and macro Human Resource Management Reseach. Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies. Vol. 28. Fq. 25. Fq. 1 48. William-Gould, J., (2010). The importance of HR practices and workplace trust in achieving superior performance: A study of Public sector organizations. The international Journal of Human Resource management, fq 2854.
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The Formative Values of 9-Year School Pupils in the subject "My Birthplace" (Fieri Schools Case)
Jani Sota Ph.D
"Aleksandr Moisiu" University of Durrs E-mail: jani_sota@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p341
Abstract In the entire operation of the school, the civic education of students occupies an important place, where the primary role for its realization is played by the history and geography of their birthplace, which together, via a broad activity, in and out the educational process, showing students concepts for the geographical area of the location of their birthplace; understanding of how geographic space is used in the service of human society; the connections and differences report of natural elements with the social community; for the relations in today's society, they show the long path of humanity, its history, its ceaseless struggle for development and progress; education and motivation and the feeling of love for their birthplace, etc.. Why should they recognize their birthplace? Firstly, all the cognitive activity of the child starts from the nearest to the farthermost. It starst with known and broadens its perspective to the mysteries of the universe. Secondly, recognizing the historic values of their own country, of their ancestors, they take great pride in and are enticed to do something, that their country and their city develop increasingly as the other European nations; and thirdly, recognizing their birthplace they are most likely to build their future life, to choose their path in life, you get used to exploit different sources and put them in the development of family service, of the community and of the entire society, etc.. Key words: History, geographical environment, industry, agriculture, culture, Fier.
1. Introduction In addition to the continuous work in the years of improving the quality of teaching, supporting social and economic development of the country, in accordance with the requirements of the market economy, there are presented long-term objectives to the Albanian society from the Ministry of Education and Science (MES). To achieve these objectives there has been a parallel movement to reform and improve the education system and curriculum. On the other hand, best efforts are made to improving the school infrastructure. All these lead naturally in enhancement of quality teaching and educational modernization. For a long time professionals have been working on the new 5 +4 +3 education. For this new curricula are designed, new textbooks with quality without excessive loads, in accordance with the country's economic directions. They aim to "ensure coherence and scientific level of a particular discipline." Through Native Program students can develop skills, values and attitudes that will influence their decisions and actions now and in the future. Regarding Native Program, it should include spiritual and moral dimension, must develop and implement it should be described by culture and patriotic spirit. An important aspect of this process is the drafting of the text "My Hometown Fier" for fifth grade. Particularities are based on program for
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the birthplace, while the text has undergone radical changes in content and form of conception, giving the opportunity for a dignified presentation of the texts, images and color photographs and specific resource materials as well as the contemporary standard methods used in the classroom." This creates the possibility of free competition, not only for native program texts but also for the work of teachers and especially students. 2. The role of native teachers in Fier schools The fact is that originally native birthplace has not had a specific text as it was impossible for municipalities, and in addition to specific villages, to prepare materials needed for class. In conversations with the teachers of this subject, despite the passion and commitment to working with students to conclude that they had a primary duty of collecting, gathering, processing and treatment of topics in the environment where the school is located on a model scale according to region. In this context, they collaborated with historians, geographers, sociologists, archaeologists, with the most experienced teachers and other intellectuals of Fier community, local government administration, businessmen, and immigrants and why not with their students. Thus, teachers through group work, managed to pile necessary information, to refine and adapt according to age-appropriate school grade. From the data collected in official way, in all schools of Fier, the subject of geography and history it is generally provided by the respective profile of teachers. But it also lacks specific cases, especially in rural areas where there are shortages of teachers of geography and history with appropriate education. However, the primary task for teachers is generally continuous self study training in the field of geography and history but also in other areas of study. With great interest were the qualifying activities for teachers that taught Native Program subject based according to schools, areas or district level. But it is important that all relevant qualifying activities are targeted to educational administrators or native teachers: - Develop and enhance the knowledge and skills to understand the development of geography and history, social contexts of education, principles of native geography curriculum; - Be able to prepare a lesson, a module of a course and a program previously given for the native area to involve students in gathering information from nearby sources and the media; - Have skill and ability to use native potential as an educational tool for personal development, to ensure the equality of the right to have all students for effective local geographical knowledge. 3. Some innovation to the Native Program reflected in the text of "My Hometown Fier" As a teacher and lecturer, textbook author and work booklet "My Hometown Fier", referring to the curricular structure approved by the Ministry of Education and Science (MES), we can say that the subject matter of the native program in all five classes took place from 2 hours a week. In 70 hours (35 weeks x 2 hours), it should be noted that 34 hours occupied new knowledge, combining knowledge of geography, history and social education; language, literature and knowledge of nature; visual education, music and physical ; on population, economy, education, sport, tourism, etc.. About the program, I thought that the program carefully crafted new feeds with clear demands of scientific objectives, methodology, practical implementation, integration and especially technical ones. Thus, in first place can create the impression of a busy program but in the textbook form it is clear that knowledge comes gradually more attractive for students. This escalation of knowledge aims to give not
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only the information necessary for the hometown but also "serve to promote more logical and creative thinking of students." In this context practical work hours (24 hours) also serve for important topics at home. In these classes the student is back at the center of work in the classroom and outside, being driven to give his contribution in teaching each topic. This helps them to work independently, to better apply theoretical knowledge obtained in classes. The class presentation and four basic colors figures, as well as other important elements, play a key role in the assimilation of rapid, accurate and meaningful new knowledge should be accomplished in about 87 pages. There were some reasons to undertake the drafting of the text. The long experience in graduate and undergraduate education, the pursuit of children and the difficulties that faced them in the case of 9-year-old native program, the lack of a text drafted by specialists forcing them to take teaching topics by notes (handwritten), had made these difficulties to be most vulnerable. The novelty of this program forced me to cooperate with renowned teacher researchers in the field of geography, history, archeology and other intellectuals of the community, local government administration, businessmen, immigrants and students, trying to made this text. However, while we are open to any feedback from teachers, students and their parents or from other readers who have in hand the text "My Hometown Fier". The program is divided with specific topics, beginning with the physical-geographical data of the birthplace; continues with natural resources (assets and underground water, forests, mild climate, living world, natural beauty, etc..) and human resources (population since antiquity, lifestyles, traditions of the people, their characteristic features such as: brave, patriotic, hospitable, cultured, love for education, etc.., lifestyle, material and spiritual wealth, urban or rural settlements, the organization of life in the past until today, etc..); regional economy (agriculture and livestock development, industry, transport, tourism, sports, etc..);-society relations and the environment in recent threads, the story of the territory (historical events, biographies of national figures and those people who are examples of human experience) and educational, cultural, health of past sports. What has changed in presenting scientific material in this text and how was it conceived? What is the structure of the text, although this structure does not change at all topics in the form? These are questions that arise naturally. Presenting scientific material according to support structure adopted by MES, the program is divided into several sections. Thus, students are presented with short and clear theoretical and practical work, additional reading columns or questions and theoretical or practical tasks after teaching in the classroom or at home. It should be noted that sections always begin with the theoretical material associated with the practical tasks of the notebook of the work, sustain, first, the concepts of space geographic location of the territory, on the particulars of the nature of it, population, economy and history of events. The most important of the past up to the present day is the diversity of cultural heritage. They create opportunities for teachers in classroom to organize and apply modern methods of teaching and learning with the students and also give students space to create and apply. Various applications start from aesthetic aspect to text or photo albums and the school museum. What we tried to achieve together with the choices in this text? Based on the experience of teachers in the district of Fier and pedagogical opinion of specialists in the field of education, especially the 9year-system, the underlying text "My Hometown Fier" is the relationship of theory and practice, enabling recognition of deep explorations made in the area of Myzeqe. Besides the chosen ones, in this article we have tried to achieve: 1. Scientific vocabulary and language to be clear, that "the book speaks your language."
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Content of the text and notebook exercises are in accordance with the closely related to the major developments of social sciences that currently have completely changed their formative core facility being considered more and more as cognitive studies, applied and critical human studies of the environment in which we live. 3. Efforts for not having parallels with other social subjects but be integrated with them with the same symbolism in all educational topics. 4. Placing a lot of work practice achievable by all students, understandable for their age, possible in terms of any school in the city or in the villages and moreover non-intrusive for the teacher. This makes the book interesting and acceptable to all 9-year-system schools. 5. Links to theory, practical work in the classroom or at home, additional readings, assignments for each lesson topic, excursions, etc.., making students to follow a rhythm in obtaining information in such a way that it is not in a monotonous pace. Such monotony is broken with different activities that can take place inside or outside the school. These are not simply the desire of teachers as they have been so far but tasks are given in the text to be completed. Such competitions, working with a collection of photographic and archaeological materials, presentations or photo albums works constructed by the students themselves, meeting with veterans of war and labor or personalities who have left their mark in the memory of the community, the organization of excursions near the historical and ancient sites etc.., that age itself is curious enough to create opportunities for the native program to become a subject dear to all without exception. 6. This presentation of knowledge makes it possible for the parents to be closer to their children because for them it is not difficult. In this context, this is a new innovation in this regard. 7. The uniqueness of this text is the introduction of scientific and informative material related to civic education, which deals with environmental issues in the district of Fier and beyond. Thus, when students are introduced to environmental problems, they are given the task in the text for the development of scientific debates or creating scientific essays, taken incentive by two photos, a green environment with flowers and another of a polluted environment of dumped waste or from car fumes. Here, there is space for teachers in organizing class, both for students and create space for the recognition of the legislation and its implementation. 8. When the text deals with historical values and environmental, archaeological, ethnographic, architectural, artistic and cultural activities, the student recognizes not only the cultural and natural heritage values but also with the Albanian and international part of which is to protect monuments of natural and cultural values. All work carried out has been in regard to the implementation of the program adopted by MES; modern teaching methods based for student and teacher in the role of a mastermind class; assessment of writing students with theoretical knowledge tests; students can gain practical skills and different applications. Similarly, the presentation of these works and the theoretical and practical interpretation is made evident in the practical skills, the development of scientific debate, as the tasks given in the text, like role-play, which can be done by using life personalities of the Albanian pantheon given in separate columns in the text, participation in learning, applying knowledge in new theoretical and practical situations. All of these play an important role in shaping citizen students, "a free democratic society to develop independent, critical, capable of living together with their environment and at the same time to change it creatively looking to the future. On the other hand, based on psycho-educational pedagogy, it is known that different types of students are present in class, therefore, this text provides an opportunity for all students to express
2.
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themselves in their own way and the teacher identifies and assesses the skills acquired by the student on practical and theoretical level. What is required from teachers according to the text is to work hard on students communication skills; use advanced teaching methods, change methods of evaluation only for theoretical knowledge and train them for scientific essays. Furthermore, in this text the student at the end of the school year will be clear about what they have learned. This is explained by the fact that in addition to the numerous sections, there is also an aesthetic appearance. Respective personalities for all occurrences or events are presented, as well as physical and geographical maps, administrative, historical, etc.., so that students are not tired to visualize what place occupied in the territory phenomena or historical events, geographical space or concepts learned.
By this text you learn that:

The student is the subject of teaching and learning; Teacher must use contemporary teaching method; The parent is able to orient and control the child regardless of the type of education he/she has. This presentation of scientific and methodical material pushes further to develop a different change, creating new spaces for students in the assimilation of new knowledge and applying them to life. In trying to help teachers who have chosen this text we present a curriculum guide for them: 4. Notebook "My Hometown Fier", a practical guide for students To the range of textbooks is added another book with scientific educational value, Notebook "My Hometown Fier" for fifth grade. By this notebook we have tried to boost creative thinking and the desire to seek and disclose better knowledge that students have about their home country. In it are combined questions in support of the text "My Hometown Fieri", which contains knowledge of geography, history and social education; Albanian language, literature and knowledge of nature; visual education, music and physical geogrpahy; knowledge about the population, economy, education, health, sports and tourism. The acquisition of this knowledge through the book and implementation through the notebook is a first step towards the promotion and development of the students' independent work. We can rightly say that the Notebook is a guide to the workshops and excursions that will take place in the context of educational development. Structuring them as learning topics, allows teachers to implement practical work in lessons and for excursions up to 5 hours each according to the program approved by the MES. This assignment allows students to exercise in practical work and use a variety of teaching tools, such as: map (physical and political), dumb map, atlases, albums, charts, educational films, videos, statistics, camera, barometer for measuring temperature, objects of family legacy, old maps etc.. Also in the implementation of EC regulation in their practical work, teachers should use a variety of modern methods, such as: explanation, demonstration, discovery learning, discussion, debate, group work, drawings, projects, essays, contests, excursions associated with practical activities etc. The subjects integration, the use of working papers, student research in community resources and professional culture dominate the object of native teachers, who work through it and the notebook text of "My Hometown Fier," is oriented towards a rich effective teaching. Moreover, their use will make it possible to promote logical thinking and creative students. -
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5. Native program interaction with other sciences Geography and history are central and independent subjects. They are a bridge between the natural sciences and social sciences. The problems of geography and history in the textbook are linked to other disciplines, such as: geology, biology, archeology, sociology, political science and economics, etc. Lessons of native program we think have become more interesting and attractive to students, especially when they are combined with interesting lesson topics developed with geographical, historical, cultural data, etc., coupled with graphical maps, diagrams and by judging and giving environmental development alternatives according to human interest. Also, very interesting was the dynamic development of the native program class when students were in practice class, when they thought and conceived about the region integrated with native program explanations on national, continental and global level, so when they go out with the wish to integrate their country in the big European family. 6. Conclusion All subjects, some more, some less, have the potential to educate students with love and pride for their nation but social subjects have a larger space in this direction. The subject of the native program lies in seats where almost every class teacher affects students' patriotic education. My hometown Fier is a discipline with significant national features. It relates to the study of the basic conditions of existence of societies in general and of the Albanian nation, especially the land where lives and works in the Fier community within and outside the region or neighborhood, as well as the development of the productive labor, their distribution and economy in its particular branches. Ways to implement patriotic education are numerous. In all this activity, along with the text program, the role of the teacher is very important. In all its activities, the teacher in charge through the object of native program should show to students multiple values of Fier territory and student, as sons and daughters of the people living there will be able to give their contribution in limiting inequalities of spatial development of cities in the distribution and welfare of the population, in order to increase confidence for exceptional skills and creative powers of human beings; becoming active members of society to maintain ecological values, to preserve the balance of natural interaction during human activity. Therefore schools of Fier were targeted step by step and learning about topics created the conviction to students that our fathers left us our homeland and work it that we can leave it more beautiful and richer for generations to come. Literature
Gjovalin Alia, "Aspects of the geography of the native (Puke school experience)", in: Curriculum and School History and Geography, Institute of Pedagogical Studies, no. 4, Tirana, 2003, p. 137. IKS, Integrated curriculum ideas, challenges, suggestions, Tirana, 2007. IKS, Students Assessment: A Teacher's Manual, Tirana, 2009. IKS, Interactive teaching methods, Tirana, 2007. ISP, School Curriculum (History and Geography), no. 4, Tirana, 2003. ISP, Pedagogical magazine, no. 4, Tirana, 2007. Kola, Bedri. "Module program" Homeland "(" local environment "): school-based curriculum ..., p. 138-147. Mato, Erleta. Gjedia, Robert, Dautaj, Astrit. (2006). 9-year education curriculum - social sciences (Civic Education, History, Geography), New York: "Kristalian-KH".
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Mehmeti, Ndriim. "The program for home education curriculum and innovation for 9-year-grade school", in: school-based curriculum ..., f. 113. Merita, Spahiu, Yllka. "The central curriculum development and school-based curricula in different educational systems", in: school-based curriculum - Modular Curriculum (hereinafter: School-based curriculum ...), curriculum and Standards Institute, Tirana, 2007, p. 10. Sota, Jani. (2011). My Hometown Fier - fifth grades 9-year-grade school, New York: "Erik". Sota, Jani. (2012). Working notebook - My Hometown Fier (fifth grades), New York: "Erik". Ziu, Trifon. (1999). Teaching of human geography, Tirana. Xhelili, Qazim, (2001) Teaching History, New York: SHBL.
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Ethno-Religious Conflict and Peace Building in Nigeria: The Case of Jos, Plateau State
Dr. Idahosa Osaretin
Email: thechurchofbelievers@yahoo.com
Emmanuel Akov
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p349
Abstract Nigeria has played host to different types of conflict, especially since the beginning of the Fourth Republic. Critical amongst these, is ethno-religious conflict, whose centrifugal tendencies potent dangerous vortex for the corporate existence of the country. The conflict in Jos, which has become interactable, is generally characterized as ethno-religious (mainly between majority Christian indigenes and minority Muslims settlers). The continual manipulations of these socially constructed categories trigger and drive violence in the city. Consequently, efforts at peace building within the ethno-religiously divided city have defied real and apparent solutions so far. One the one hand, government responses to the recurring conflicts have been widely perceived as ineffective, while on the other, the non-committal stance of the warring factions has given momentum to the collective destruction going on in the city. This study is an attempt to interrogate the intervening variables in the Jos crises. Aside its reliance on recorded data, the paper draws heavily on current reports of the crises in the city. After a carefully analysis of the available data, the paper recommends amongst others; a review of the 1999 constitutional provisions on citizenship, the strengthening of the security architecture not only in Jos but throughout the country, the prioritization of minority rights, the calvarisation of education in the country and the promotion of good governance.
1. Introduction Nigeria is a plural, highly complex, multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-cultural and multi-religions polity, with a diversity of ethnic groups. (Danfulani, 2009: Smyth and Robinson, 2001). This identity is played out in the way the country is bifurcated along the lines of religion, language, culture, ethnicity and regional identity, Osaghae and Suberu (2005:4). of the population of over 150 million people, the country is almost half Christians and half Muslims, aside other religions (Paden, 2008; Schwartz, 2010). In Nigeria, as in all of Africa, political competition, via the electoral process, embraces inevitably and inescapably, an uneasy tension between conflict and consensus (Diamond, 1982:630); violent identity conflicts have become, since 1999, a method of collective action by diverse ethnic and religious groups engaged in contestations for political power. The most prominent of these conflicts are those that have pitted Muslims against Christians in a dangerous convergence of religion, ethnicity and politics. Jos, the capital of Plateau State in Nigeria has, over the past decade, witnessed violent communal clashes across ethnic and religious fault lines. These clashes have claimed thousands of lives, displaced hundreds of thousands of others, and fostered a climate of instability throughout the surrounding
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region (Kwaja, 2011:1). While large scale violence has occurred periodically since 2001, in recent years attacks have become more frequent, widespread, and efficient. The conflict in Jos is often usually characterized as inter-religious or inter-ethnic, mainly between the majority but marginal Christian indigence (Anagula, Berom and Afrisare) and the minority but dominant Muslim Hausa Fulani groups (Adebanwi: 2005). As is often the case with identity conflicts in Africa, these are socially constructed stereo-types that are manipulated to trigger and drive violence in Jos (Aapengnuo, 2010; Kwaja, 2011). They veil deeper institutional factors within the Nigerian social fabric that are abused and exploited to deny citizens access to resources, basic rights, and participation in political process; factors that if unaddressed, have the potential to fan the embers of violence across the country. In the face of violent identity conflagrations, efforts at peace building become sisyphusean, or very daunting, to say the least. Over the years, government responses to the recurring Jos conflicts have widely been perceived as ineffective. At least, 16 public commissions have been launched to examine the conflict and proffer solutions but as yet, little gains have been made, owing to lack of the needed political will to act on the commissions findings. It is based on the foregoing, that this paper takes another critical look at ethnic and religious identity construction in Nigeria and its implications for national building in Jos, Plateau, State. In order to achieve this, the paper is divided into several parts which includes; abstract, introduction, theoretical perspective, overview of identity crises in Nigeria, the Jos crises, official responses, extant variables, the way forward, and conclusions. 2. Theoretical Perspective Countries where centrifugal and fissiparous tendencies exist are often victims of violent identity conflicts. More importantly, the patterns of social cleavages in any given society are an important determinant of the intensity and irreconcilability of conflict. These can best be situated within the theoretical framework of identity politics, which interrogates the origins of identity construction and their fundamentalisation, including their recourse to violent conflagrations. Identity politics is the political activity of various ethnic religious and cultural groupings in demanding greater economic, social and political rights or self determination (Osaghae and Suberu, 2005). It claims to represent and seeks to advance the interest of particular groups, the members of whom often share and unite around common experience of perceived social and economic injustice, relative to the society of which they form part and exist in (Ambe-Uva, 2010). This usually gives rise to a political basis ground which they may unite and begin to assert themselves in society (Zweri and Zahid, 2007). Identity politics means more than the sole recognition of ethnic religious or cultural identity. In fact, it seeks to carry these identities forward, beyond mere self-identification, to a political framework based upon that identity. Nigeria presents a complex of individual as well as cross-crossing and recursive identities of which the ethnic, religious, regional and sub-ethnic (communal) are the most salient and the main basis for violent conflicts in the country. This is both from the point of view of identities mostly commonly assumed by citizens especially for political purposes and the identities often implicated in day-to-day contestations over citizenship as well as competitions and conflicts over resources and privileges (Osaghae and Suberu, 2005:7). Two approaches aptly capture the nature of Nigerias identity diversity. One is Geertzs (1963) famous distinction between primordial ties, which are basically inscriptive and based on the givens of life (tribe, Kinship, ethnicity etc) and civil ties, which hinge on society type aggregations like class, political party affiliation, interest group membership and so on. According to Geertz (1963), the
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prevalence of primordial ties in Africa and Asia, has made it difficult, if not impossible for the integrative revolution, which entails the erosion of primordial ties by civil ties or what Oommen (1997:35) describes as the transition from exclusionary and inequality-generating ethnicity and nationality identities to inclusionary and equality oriented citizenship to take place. Many studies of identity based conflicts in Nigeria, including those of contested citizenship and national cohesion, take their theoretical cues from this formulation (Ekeh, 1975; Oyovbaire, 1984; Oyelaran and Adediran, 1997; Suberu, 2001). The second approach is more or less, a conflict based perspective in which only identities that form the basis of political demand, mobilization and action, or the so-called politicized identities, may be regarded as politically salient. Young (1976), Kasfir (1976) and Rothschild (1981) are some of the leading proponents of politicized identity. While this approach has the merit of focusing on active identities, it is mistaken in the exclusion of identities that are not politically salient such as gender and profession. This is because often times, identities tend to be situational and like volcanoes, identities that are dormant today can become active tomorrow. Thus, what is clear is that any examination of Nigerias identity would necessarily have to be inclusive of all identities, civil or primordial and the ways in which they are intricately linked. This is necessary to enable us situate the various identities, especially the more active and politically salient identities in their fuller, robust and recursive contents. Plateau, a state of plural ethnicity and religion, has had several cases of identity based conflicts. It is the second most ethnically diverse state in Nigeria after Adamawa (Alubo, 2006). Like elsewhere in Nigeria, this diverse population is seen as bearing two identities; indeperes and settlers. There are also two major religions Christianity and Islam. In its contemporary situation, most of the so-called settlers are Muslims, while the supposed indigenes are mostly Christians. Based on past experiences, particularly in Jos, conflict which begin as politically based frequently assume ethnic and religious dimensions (as in 2001 and 2008), in a telling conflation of religion and ethnicity (Alubo, 2009; Cesey, 2007). Identity conflicts in Jos are mostly between indigenes (Beron, Anaguta and Afrisarte and Settlers (Hausa/Fulani). In his research on communal violence in Plateau State, Bagudu (2004:314 316) reveals a count of over 62 identity driven conflicts within a decade, with 22 recorded in 2004 alone. Also while indigenes have different identities, these are neatly folded into a common umbrella (Best, 2007) for the purpose of uniting against a perceived common enemy. Thus, the recurring Jos conflict illustrates how identity is used as the basis to access opportunities and ultimately, inclusive citizenship. 3. Overview of Identity Crises in Nigeria Since the 1980s, identity conflicts have become a recurring decimal in Nigeria, especially in the countrys Northern region (Abdu, 2002:2). This, identity crisis is not peculiar to Plateau State. It has caused similar problems in Modakeke/Ife, Sabongari/Kano, Sabo/Ibadan, Zango/Kataf, Urhobo/Itsekiri, Jukun/Tiv, Kuteb/Jukun-Chamba and Hausa/Shagamu (Danfulani, 2006). Others include the Chamba Vs Kuteb, the Ogoni Vs Andom in Rivers State, the Sharia crisis in Kaduna State, the Tiv Vs Other ethnic groups in Azara of Nassarawa State in 2001, the Tarok Vs Hausa/Fulani in Plateau State in 2004, the Geomai Vs the Hausa/Fulani in Shandan local government of Plateau State in 2002, the Quan Vs Pan in Quanpan local government of Plateau State in 2006, the Hausa/Fulani and the Beron, Anaguta and Afizare in Jos North local government in 2001, 2002, 2004, 2008, and 2010 and the Boko Haram violence that has engulfed Borno, Yobe, Bauchi and Kano States since July 2009 (Kwaja, 2009:106).
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While, the roots of ethnio-religious and other identity conflicts have been linked to colonialism and the Cold War (Machava, 2008:2), other scholars argue that such conflicts are rooted in bad governance, politication of ethnic and religion identities, the competition and conflict for political power by the ethnic and religious communities respectively (Anafi, 2004; Conversi, 1999). Despite strong optimism that the enthronement of democratic rule in Nigeria in 1999 would avert or mitigate violent identity conflicts, the country has rather witnessed a resurgence in high level ethnic, religious, communal and citizenship conflicts with devastating consequences (Kwaja, 2009: 105). One of the claims for the enthronement of democracy as well as democratic consolidation in Nigeria lies in the fact that as a centripetal force, democracy is the only institutional arrangement that can guarantee the peaceful resolution or management of ethnic, religious and other identity conflicts (Olayode, 2007:134). According to Ibrahim (2000:69), ethno-religious and communal conflicts in Nigeria, are linked to citizenship within the context of identity, which is rooted in the politics of inclusion or exclusion. These are tied to claims and counter-claims over identity as a basis for determining who is excluded or included from decision making as well as access to opportunities and privileges under the we versus them clich (Kwaja, 2008; 2009). These identity conflicts have had far teaching implications for the state. According to Babangida (2002:11), the consequences have been; waste of enormous human and material resources in ethnically and religiously inspired violent encounter, clashes and even battles, threats to security of life and properties, the heightening of the fragility of the economy and political process. Thus, the ethnic, religious and communal groups that feet marginalized by the major ethnic groups (Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo) are forced to adopt constitutional and extra-constitutional means to challenge the hegemony of the major ethnic groups. The main cause of violent, identity conflict in Nigeria is that most minority groups have remained permanent minorities, while the majority groups are permanent majority, a trend which has serious implications for inter-ethnic and religious relations among the diverse ethnic and religious identities in Nigeria. In this way, the incentives for cooperation, consensus and compromise have been undermined thereby posing an enormous challenge for the task of peace-building, as diverse ethnic groups are forced to co-exist in an environment of mutual mis-trust, apathy and suspicion. 4. The Jos crises Situated on the northern edge of the middle belt in central Nigeria, where the countrys predominantly Muslim northern half blends with the generally Christian south, Jos is a relatively new city (Kwaja, 2011:2). Before its descent into violence the city was regarded by both Nigerians and foreigners alike, as a peaceful settlement with a temperate climate of magnetic attraction (Ambe-Uva, 2010; Higazi, 2011; Plotnicov, 1967, Gaya Best, 2007). While the serenity of the place lasted, it was reputed as the Home of peace and tourism. Today however, the city is being mockingly referred to as the Home of pieces and terrorism, (Jeadayibe and Kudu, 2010). Since the early 1980s and especially from 2001, Jos has witnessed long-running, even if understated, rivalry between the majority but marginal Christian indigenes (Anaguta, Berom and Afisare) and the minority but dominant settler Hausa/Fulani (Adebanwi, 2005). The result of these rivalries has been recurring ethno-religious and political violence. The Jos crisis is usually attributed to the polyglot nature of the city which resulted from the nineteenth century migrations of different ethnic groups to the area to work in the Tin mines (Danfulani and Twatshak, 2002:244). Today, is founding, or rather precisely who founded Jos city is part of the problem that sparked of the recurring violence (Gaya-Best, 2007). As such, the ownership of Jos is hotly contested among the
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three main indigenous ethnic groups (the Berom, Anaguta and Afisare) where traditional land meet on an unmarked border line in Jos town on the one hand and the descendants of Hausa-Fulani settlers, who initially settled in Jos as traders and Tin miners on the other hand. Signals pointing towards the manifestation of contentions issues between Muslim settlers and Christian indigenes started emanating in Jos in the 1990s (Danfulani, 2006), culminating in 1994 into open clashes mainly between the Berom indigenes and Hausa-Fulani settlers over farmland and chieftaincy issues. Abdu (2002:23) opines that the 1990s witnessed a resurgence in identity politics in Jos, this time centering around the control of Jos North Local Government carved from the former Jos local government in 1991, which enhanced the Hausa-Fulani hegemonic control of political powers in the local government. On April 12, 1994, the growing tension escalated into violent clashes when Sanusi Mato, a Hausa-Fulani man was appointed chairman of Jos North Local Government transition committee. The indigenes rejected the appointment because, as Sha (1998:57) observed, they interpreted the action as the confirmation of the fear that the federal government wanted to provide basis for the Hausa-Fulani to assume political hegemony in Jos. The ensuring violence led to the burning down and vandalisation of government properties (Abdu, 2002:13). Also, in March 16, 1996, electoral violence in Angwar Rogo, a predominantly Hausa Fulani settlement almost escalated to ethno-religious violence. The indigenes alleged that the Hausa-Fulani tried to rig election by smuggling into the polling stations Shagari voters from the Northern part of the country. This prompted the electoral officers to screen out the unknown faces thereby evoking anger and protest among Hausa-Fulani youths. The resulting violence left three people dead (Abdu, 2002:24). In September 2001 another devastating ethno-religious conflict broke out in Jos when Alhaji Mohammed Muktar, a Hausa-Fulani and a former chairman of Jos North Local Government was appointed as the coordinator of the Federal Governments National Poverty Alleviation Programme in Jos North. Indigenous Christian youths rejected the appointment on grounds that while he was chairman of the local government, he was indicted by a court ruling, which removed him from office for among other offences, falsification of birth records, perjury and falsehood (Ojukwu and Onifade, 2010). The Christian youths also felt aggrieved by the appointment of a person from the minority Jasawa group (Hausa-Fulani) to head such a sensitive office (Danfulani and Fwatshak, 2002). The resulting sectarian violence claimed as many as 1,000 lives (Human Rights Watch, 2009). In 2004, more than 1,000 people were killed in attacks against Muslim and Christian villages from February to May, and 250,000 were displaced, especially in the town of Yelwa (Human Rights Watch, 2009; Kwaja, 2011). These attacks revolved around contestations over land and chieftaincy. Table 1 below shows in chronological order large-scale communal clashes in and around Jos since 1994. Table 1: Large-scale communal clashes in and around Jos
Year 1994 2001 Proximate Trigger Appointments of lay leaders prompt protests and counter demonstrations. Appointment of local administrator of welfare allowances leads to weeks of demonstrations. Tensions rise, resulting in violence. National elections held but postponed in Extent of Violence Four killed. Several city markets, an Islamic school, and places of worship destroyed. An estimated 1,000 to 3,000 killed. Violence expands across plateau state. Attacks by youth groups in Muslim and Christian neighbourhoods, on mosques and churches, and at the university of Jos. Sporadic attacks continue through 2002-2003, killing hundreds and destroying 72 villages. More than 1,000 killed in attacks against Muslim
2004
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Plateau State. Local officials are appointed, resulting in disputes. 2008 Local government elections The first in Jos since 2002 Are scheduled then delayed three times. Disputes emerge over party nominees and results. A dispute over reconstruction of a home destroyed by clashes in 2008 leads to violence in January and reprisals in March and throughout the year. Disputes between farmers and herdsmen over farmland leads to wanton destruction of lives and property throughout the year and especially in September and December. Land-related communal conflicts between the predominantly Berom ethnic group and Hausa/Fulani Herdsmen continues to rear its ugly head in Jos, leading to a complex interplay of conflict factors.
and Christian villages from February to May, and 250,000 are displaced. Federal government removes state governor and appoints temporary replacement. Nearly 800 killed in gang attacks and riots from November to December.
2010
2011
January: up to 500 residents killed over 4 days in January. Many villages and homes destroyed. March: up to 500 killed in an oversight attack. December: nearly 80 killed following twin car bombs. Hundreds more die in frequent intermittent attacks. September: Over 100 residents killed in several days of fighting in and around Jos. December: over 20 people killed in coordinated attacks. February: Suicide Bomber Rams Car Into Church Of Christ In Nigeria (COCIN), instantly killing three, injuring 38 and damaging 30 vehicles. July: Gunmen Attack over 10 villages, kill over 300, including a serving Senator Gyang Dantong, and the majority leader of Plateau House of Assembly, Hon. Gyang Fulani.
2012
Source: Kwaja (2011:5): Researchers Fieldwork, 2012.
Again, two days of inter-communal violence on November 28 to 29, 2008, followed a disputed local government election in Jos north local government on November 27, 2008. The violence pitted predominantly Christian indigenes from the Berom, Afisare and Anaputa ethnic groups who were largely in support of the Christian candidate from the ruling Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) against Muslim non-indigenes primarily from the Hausa-Fulani ethnic group, who backed the Muslim candidate from the opposition, All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP) (Human Rights Watch, 2009). The PDP Chairmanship aspirant, Timothy Buba Polled 92,907 votes to beat his closest rival from ANPP, Aminu Baba with 72,890 votes (Ambe-Uve, 2010). It was the declaration of Timothy Buba, as winner of the election that sparked off the chain of events that led to the crisis. During the crisis, rampaging youths burnt down many vehicles, churches, mosques, filling stations and private houses. In all more than 700 people were reported dead while thousands were displaced and took refuge in several locations (Ojukwu and Onifade, 2010: Humana Rights Watch, 2009). In January 2010, violence quickly broke out when a Hausa-Fulani man attempted to reconstruct his home which was destroyed during the 2008 clashes. Christians youths in the area vehemently opposed the reconstruction of the building and soon, the matter resulted in serious ethnic and religious disputes that left over 1,000 people dead (Kwaja, 2011). In December of the same year, nearly 80 people were killed in twin car bomb attacks. Since 2010, several hundreds of Muslims and Christians have died in Jos in coordinated bomb attacks in worship centres and other public places. The dreaded Boko Haram sect has claimed responsibility for some of these killings as the security situation continues to depreciate in Jos. At the
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times of doing this research, violent ethnic and communal clashes are still a recurring phenomenon in Jos and environs. 5. Official Response There have been several commissions and strategies set up to study the causes of violent identity conflicts in Jos and proffer workable solutions. Unfortunately, until the present moment, government responses to the conflict are widely perceived as ineffective (Kwaja, 2011:2). At least 16 public commissions have been launched to examine the conflict and indentify solutions and many other studies have been conducted by independent groups. As noted by Kwaja (2011), there is little political will to act on these findings. Federal and State governments have regularly worked at cross-purposes, sharply disagreeing on the measures to mitigate conflict in Jos, while the involvement of civil society groups has more or less had a polarizing effect in most cases. In the aftermath of the 1994 crisis, a seven-member judicial commission of enquiring headed by Justice Aribiton Fiberesime (Rtd) was constituted by the then military administrator of plateau state, to look into the causes as well as possible solutions to the crisis. However, the report of that commission since 1994 is yet to be made public by the government and no white paper has been produced (Abdu, 2002: 24). The commission made several recommendations to the government, including sanctioning all individuals, groups and organizations indicted, but these were never implemented. The governments inaction led to sporadic communal clashes for the next five years, culminating in the September 7, 2001 violence, which led to wanton loss of life and properties. On October 18, 2001, the then Plateau State Governor, Joshua Dariye, also inaugurated a 10member commission headed by justice Niki Tobi to look into the 2001 disturbances. In its findings the commission noted that the 1994 and the 2001 crisis were very similar and that had the 1994 Fiberesime recommendations been implemented, the 2001 crisis could have been averted. Unfortunately the Niki Tobi commission suffered the same fate as the Fiberesime commission. In November, 2008, there were disagreements over whether it was the federal or state government that had explicit powers to set up probe panels. A major fallout of this disagreement was the setting up of different probe panels (Ambe-Uva, 2010). The Federal Government panel was led by General Emmanuel Abisoye, while that of the state was chaired by Justice Bola Ajibola, both houses of the National Assembly also set-up their own panels. These needless contestations and muscle-flexing tended to exacerbate the conflict (Ambe-Uva, 2010). In the end, no white paper was produced for any of the panels and none of the recommendations have been implemented, thereby, creating the basis for the continuation of crisis in Jos. 6. Extant Variables It has been amply stated, in scholarly literature and debates, that Nigeria is a plural society. It is a deeply divided state in which major political issues are fiercely, some would say, violently contested along the lines of the complex ethnic, religious and regional divisions. (Osaghae and Suberu, 2005). Obviously, the issues that generate the fiercest contestations are those that are considered fundamental to the existence and legitimacy of the state, over which competiting groups tend to adopt exclusionary, winnertake-all strategies i.e. the control of state power, resource allocation and citizenship. It is noteworthy that the diversity in a countrys ethnic, communal, religious and racial configuration is not necessarily the determinant of conflict. Rather, it is the fundamentalisation of these diverse identities that exacerbates restiveness. According to Fearon and Laiton (2003), such conflicts are associated with conditions that favour insurgency, including poverty, which marks financially and
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bureaucratically weak states. Clearly, the institutional fragility of the state, in terms of its ability to manage diversity, corruption, rising inequality between the rich and poor, gross violation of human rights, land contestations and cut-throat electoral competitions; have been some of the underlining causes of violent conflicts in Nigeria since the enthronement of democratic rule in 1999 (Kwaja, 2009:107). These have been worsened by the inability, or unwillingness of the state to deliver on its core functions necessary to meet citizens basic needs and expectations. In Jos, prevalent Poverty and perceived socio-economic and political marginalization have heightened primordial alignments which have provided the historical ferment for violent conflict. Added to this, widespread unemployment and illiteracy have bred frustrations which have often been given an ethno-religious vent. Weak state capability, which is summarily underscored by the inefficiency of security institutions (the Police, Army, State Security) to effectively mitigate, or at least, reduce the scale of violent conflict, in a society profoundly characterized by deep frustrations, is another reason why crises may continue unabated. Also, in Jos, as elsewhere in Nigeria, beneath citizenship are conflicts deeply entrenched questions of disproportionate access to power, resources and land. The inability of the state to guarantee better life for its citizenry by making resources amply available and accessible for all is the major explanation for the fundamentalisation of ethnic, religious and regional identities. Clearly, in the competition for the values of society to be realized politically in Jos, religion and ethnicity have become powerful means of claiming special place, recognition and advantage (Ibrahim, 2000; Osaghae, 2007). What can be gleaned from the analysis above is that an appropriate policy option for mitigating conflicts in Jos and indeed other parts of Nigeria, must inevitably incorporate mechanism for reducing poverty, inequality and alienation. This is because in reality, they are the main precursors of violent conflict. Ethnicity and religion only serve as the platforms for the exhibition of deep seated frustrations and hardships. 7. The Way Forward It is obvious that entrenched resource control factors are at the heart of the growing distrust and violence in Jos. Left unchecked, this pattern is likely to spread to other parts of the country. Accordingly, fundamental changes will be required to reverse, or at least, attenuate the incentives fanning the violence. In this regard, the following policy options are imperative:
7.1 Review of Constitutional Provisions on Citizenship:

Clearly, there are fundamental flaws inherent in Nigerias 1999 constitution with regards to the citizenship question. There is a sense in which contradictions in certain provisions of the constitution has promoted the indigene-settler conflict. For instance, the provision in section 147 which requires a minister to be an indigence of a state conflicts with the constitutions notion of citizenship which section 25 (1a) attempts to articulate. It is therefore expedient for these provisions and other relevant provisions to be reconciled through a constitutional reform process that should be undertaken with due consideration with the Nigerian people. This will enable the Nigerian state to permanently relegate indigeneship/citizenship contestations to the backwaters of history.
7.2 The Strengthening of the Security Architecture:

The inefficiency and ineffectiveness of security institutions in Jos and Nigeria generally is underscored by the scope, magnitude and persistence of violent identity conflicts throughout the country.
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Strengthening security forces capacity to proactively detect early warning signs and respond to intercommunal tension can help better contain outbreaks of violence. This will require capacity building and efficient intelligence gathering mechanisms, including the provision of state of the art weaponry, necessary for combating unrest in the twenty-first century. In doing this, means for investigating allegations of security sector complicity in ethnic and religious violence are required to ensure accountability. Also, measures that prevent political elites from manipulating security personnel for parochial aggrandizement should be firmly in place.
7.3 The Prioritization of Minority Rights:

In order to reconcile the polarized ethno-religious identity groups in Jos, and galvanize support for peace building initiatives, all the groups must have confidence that basic rights will be protected and that institutional means to investigate alleged violations is available (Kwaja, 2011:7). In this way, the engagement of a trusted, independent, external actor, such as the National Human Rights Commission is required. Its capacity, budget and authority should be broadened in order to fulfill this broader mandate of enhancing social reconciliation. The commission should be granted authority to initiate and conduct investigations, issue subpoenas, access state and national leaders, pursue charges and order prerogatives so as to cut through political strolling. This arrangement can facilitate better cooperation from citizens who are more inclined to report violations and abuses to the trusted Human Rights Commissions, rather than the security forces.
7.4 Promotion of Good Governance:

There is no gain-saying that the promotion of good governance at all levels of governmental authority remains the greatest antidote to the problems of democratic sustenance in Nigeria. In the absence of good governance, the ruling elite recourse to ethnic, religious and regional appeals, thereby inflaming primordial identities of the masses. As such, only a transparent and accountable leadership that rises above primordial considerations will be able to enhance the peaceful co-existence of autochthons and settlers in Jos.
7.5 The Expansion of the Political Space:

One of the major causes of violent civil conflicts in Nigeria, since independences, has been the restriction of the political space. In Jos, there were instances when the political space was so narrowed that it became a one ethnic/religious group enclave. This has in no small measure famed the embers of discord on the plateau. Accordingly, the enlargement of the political space to ensure that all stakeholder in Jos are given equal right to aspire, contest and win elections, irrespective of their ethnic or religious extraction could be very potent in the attempt at nipping ethnic and religious violence in the bud in Jos. A more proactive and result-oriented civil society can be a very useful platform for the articulation of this agenda.
7.6 The Initiation of Poverty and Inequality Reducing Policies and Programmes:
The fact that poverty and socio-economic marginalization often leads to aggressive behavior that can take on etnnic and or religious connotations cannot be overemphasized. In Jos, as elsewhere in Nigeria, members of some ethnic groups who feel alienated or deprived often rationalize their hardship as resulting from the control of politics and society by members of rival ethnic groups. This scenario has
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whipped up primordial sentiments which have often resulted into violent conflicts. It is therefore imperative that government and other relevant institutions should design poverty reduction schemes that will be inclusive of all identities and thereby, help reduce the level and scope of poverty and inequality, which are often the real causes for violent civil conflicts.
7.7 Calvarising Education:

Much of the violence on the plateau and in several other parts of Nigeria has resulted largely from ignorance and illiteracy. The fact is that a substantial population of Nigerians are still illiterate, which makes them easy instruments of manipulation by unpatriotic elites. This is very much the case in Jos. It is therefore necessary to promote and encourage education by way of making it mandatory and free, especially at primary and secondary school levels. This will help groom a new breed of citizens that are conscious of the implications of the manipulation of primordial identities or mutual co-existence and development. Through education, people can be exposed to the several other peaceful means for resolving conflicts, rather than resorting to violence. This will help reduce the scale of violent conflicts in Jos. 8. Conclusion The task of national building can be very daunting, especially in countries that are deeply polarized along ethnic and religious fault lines. This paper has clearly demonstrated that ethnic and religious identities, in themselves, do not ferment or conduce violent conflicts. Rather, beneath conflicts that are often always regarded as ethno-religious, are questions of disproportionate access to power, scarce resources and opportunities. Moreover, the issues that generate the fiercest contestations are those that are considered fundamental to the survival and reproduction of the state, over which competing groups tend to adopt exclusionary, do-or-die approaches. These include control of state power, resource allocation and land. In particular, factors such as poverty, socio-economic marginalization, weak state capability and lack of good governance were all implicated in the Jos conflicts and have contributed in large measure to the politicization of ethnic, religious and citizenship identities, thereby leading to their fundamentalisation and political salience. Such identities tend to become problematic when access to opportunities in the political system in terms of power and resources are dependent on membership of a particular ethnic or religious group as well as when the state is weak in terms of its capacity to protect its citizens and provide for their welfare. In the final analysis, this paper has alluded to the role of identity construction and their fundamentalisation, in accentuating ethno-religious and political conflicts. It has focused on the development, diversity, density and trajectories of identities and identity conflicts in Nigeria while centering its analytical praxis on the recurring Jos conflicts. It is plausible that the goals and interests that all the groups in Jos pursue are rooted in the quest for access to power and opportunities via patronage and clientelism which can only be gotten through the use of state machinery. In the process, the privatization of violence and the manipulation and mobilization of ethnic religious and citizenship sentiments are often freely employed by the competing groups. References
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Abdu, H. (2002) Ethnic and religious crises in northern Nigeria: issues in informal repression. Accessed November 14th 2012, from http://www.conflict Nigeria.com Adebanwi, W. (2005) Contesting exclusion: the dilemmas of citizenship in Nigerian the African anthropologist. Vol. 12, no. 1. Alubo, O. (2009) Citizenship and identity politics in Nigeria. In citizenship and identity politics in Nigeria: conference proceedings. Lagos: CLEEN Foundation. Ambe-Uva, T.N. (2010) Identity politics and the Jos crisis: Evidence, lessons and challenges of good governance. African Journal of History and Culture vol. 2(3), pp. 42 52. Anarfi, J. (2004) From conflict to conflict: migration, population displacement and refugee flows: whither Africa. Accessed November 9th, 2012 from http://www. barcelona 2004, org/esp/banco_del_conocimento/ docs/ po_44_ANARFI.pdf. Babangida, I.B. (2002) Ethnic Nationalities and the Nigerian state: The dynamics and challenges of governance in a plural Nigeria. Distinguished Annual Lecture, National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies, Kuru, Nigeria. Bagudu, N. (2004) Recrudescent civil disturbances and human rights: The Jos and State-wide crisis, Jos: League of human rights. Casey, C. (2007) Marginal Muslims: politics and the conceptual bounds of Islamic, authenticity in northern Nigerian Africa today. India University Press vol. 54, no. 3. Converse, D. (1999) Nationalism, Boundaries and violence Millennium Vol. 28, no. 2. Danfulani, U.D. (2006) The Jos Peace Conference and the indigene/settler Question in Nigerian politics. Retrieved November 12th 2012 from http://www.ascle= den.n//pdf/papdanfulan.pdf. Danfulani, U.D. and Fwatshak, S.U. (2002) Briefing: The September 2002 events in Jos, Nigeria. African affairs 101, 243 255. Diamond, L. (1982) Cleavage, conflict and anxiety in the Second Nigerian Republic. The Journal of Modern African Studies 20(4) pp. 629 668. Ekeh, P.P. (1975) Colonialism and the two publics in Africa: A Theoretical exploration. Studies in society and history. Vol. 17, no. 1. Geertz, C. (1963) The Integrative Revolution: Primordial sentiments and civil patriots in the new states. In Geertz, C. (ed) old societies and new states: The quest for modernity in Asia and Africa. New York: The Free Press, pp. 105 157. Human Rights Watch (2009) Arbitrary killings by security forces: submission to the investigative bodies on the November 28 29, 2008 violence in Jos, Plateau state, Nigeria. New York: Human Rights Watch, July. Ibradim, J. (2000) The transformation of ethno-religious identities in Nigeria in Jega, A. (ed) identity transformation and identity politics under structural adjustment in Nigeria Stockolm Elanders Gotab. Idahosa, O. Akov, E. (2012) The Researchers Field Work. Department of Political Science and Public Administration, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. Je adayibe, G.D. and Kudu, A.A. (2010) Sliding towards Armageddon: revisiting ethno-religious crisis in Nigeria. Accessed November 8th 2012 from http://www.Jos conflict. ethnicity 002 religion.com. Kasfir, N. (1976) The shrinking political Arena: participation and ethnicity in African politics, with a case study of Uganda Berkeley: University of California Press. Kepel, G. (1994) The Revenge of God: The resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the modern world: Cambridge Polity Press. Kwaja, C.A. (2008) Ethnic and religious conflicts in Wase LGA, Plateau State, Nigeria. In best, S.G. (ed) causes and effects if conflicts in the southern zone of plateau state, Nigeria. Ibadan: John Archers Publishers Limited. Kwaja, C.A. (2009) Strategies for [Re] building state capacity to manage ethnic and religious conflict in Nigeria. The journal of Pan African studies. Vol 3, no. 3 September. Kwaja, C.A. (2011) Nigerias pernicious drivers of ethno-religious conflict Africa security brief no. 14 July. Machava, A. (2008) Towards a better conflict management framework: the role of national, regional and continental organizations. Unpublished paper. Ojukwu, C.C. and Onifade, C.A. (2010) Social capital, indignity and identity politics: the Jos crisis in perspective: African Journal of Political Science and International Relations. Vol 4(5) pp. 173 -180.
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Accounting and Theories of Management, One Important Support of Albanian Reality to Distinguishing Financially Business Development in EU Countries
Prof Ass Dr. Alba Robert Dumi1 Ma Lorena Alikaj2
1
Prof As Dr, Dean of Graduated SchoolIsmail Qemali Vlora University Albania, Management Department Management Department, Economy Faculty, Tirana University Email:besi.alba@yahoo.com 2 Finance Department, Ismail Qemali Vlora University Albania, lorenaalikaj@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.v2n1p361
Abstract: The preceding discussion of risk management strategies has neglected the possibility that a bank might simply have more equity so as to have a larger buffer against the risks that it faces. This is of course the strategy that underlies the Basle Committee's thinking about capital adequacy regulation. The problem is that as given it is not a well defined strategy at all. If we think of a bank faced with repeated risks in a dynamic context, the question is how equity can be adjusted over time. In the banking literature the arguments have generally been phrased in terms of capital regulation. Thus, for instance managers incentives to gamble for resurrection at some point could be contained by prescribing some level of capital. Other, non-capital instruments to control risk might however be just as effective. One could think of, for instance, direct supervision instead. Generally, such measures can be accommodated within the existing, capital-focus literature. Key words: Albanian non profitable sector, General finance theory, Firm wide risk, Products and markets, EU financing reforms, EU standards. World tariffs have never been this low and the EU already offers very favorable market access to poor countries. What will make a difference are non-tariff issues - such as standards, services, intellectual property rights, public procurement, and infrastructure and packaging facilities. None of this can work without political governance." said EU Trade Commissioner Karel De Gucht.
1. Introduction Another motive for cross-sector consolidation is that financial segments are melting into one another, as financial institutions venture into diverse product markets (banks now also sell insurance products, for example, and insurance firms sell unit-linked products) or offer innovative, mixed products (such as investment-based mortgages). Why should there by any prudential regulation of bank equity at all? The standard argument is that depositors need to be protected against the possibility of bank failure. From a welfare theoretic perspective, the merit of this argument is unclear. First, it is not clear why statutory
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regulation is needed to protect depositors. If depositors are concerned about bank safety, won't banks have an incentive to have high equity and advertise this fact? From a public-choice perspective, I can understand that well capitalized banks may want to call for statutory regulation to eliminate the competition from under-capitalized banks. From a welfare theoretic perspective though, we should need an additional argument to establish that unregulated quality competition on the basis of bank safety provided by bank equity would involve a market failure that needs to be corrected. In the discussion we will, for brevity, use supervision to denote both regulation and supervision. A number of arguments have been put forward why financial firms are special and would thus merit regulation and supervision. One argument is for instance that banks are prone to bank runs, because of the nature of demand deposits. Another argument is that the general public has difficulty in assessing the viability of insurance companies, similar to banks, because they are opaque institutions. Regulators are not the only stakeholders interested in the risk profile of financial firms. This research paper is compounded by three main parts. In the first part a general picture of the Albanian economy (without standing on monetary and fiscal issues) will be made while in the following two parts we will analyze main pillars of the Albanian financial system, trying to analyze in more details the sub-sectors of the non-banking pillar, such as capital market, insurance market as well as collective saving & investment schemes.
a. Discussion of general concepts of Management Theories to Distinguishing Financially Business Development in foreign countries
Many firms commit sizable resources themselves to monitor and manage risk. However, received wisdom is that in the absence of market imperfections, risk management does not add any value. The reasons for managing risk are thus based on violations of the assumptions of the Modigliani-Miller irrelevance theorems. Trade has long been considered as vital for a countrys development. One needs only to look at the rise of emerging economies like India, China and Brazil to see the impact that tradedriven development can have. Millions have been lifted out of poverty. Yet, while showing positive growth and increased trade, some other developing countries have been further marginalized in an increasingly competitive global landscape. The development and good financial position of the financial system in general and the banking sector in particular is a prerequisite for carrying out a successful financial intermediation activity. In fact, over the last decade, the banking sector has experienced a rapid development. Well-known European banking groups have entered the market, bringing about knowledge and best technologies, as well as enhancing competition in the interbank market. Also, the banks with Albanian capital have expanded their network and have properly utilized the advantages of better recognition of the domestic market.
b. The loans in private sector. Management Theories and Financially Business Development
As a result of active business development policies, the banking sector has experienced a steady growth of deposits and credit expansion. It suffices to say that at end-2004, total loan accounted for only 7% of GDP, while today it accounts for approximately 40%. About two-thirds of loans are extended to the private sector, while the rest to households and individuals. In business sector, loans are extended to the most important and fast-growing sectors, such as trade, other services, transport and construction. Almost all business loans are extended to private sector, though recently an increase in loans for public sectors projects / investments is registered.
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They are often held back by lack of productive capacity, difficulties in diversifying their economy, poor infrastructure and export conditions. The Communication "Trade, growth and development", redefines how the EU's trade and development policy will work for the development of those poorer countries - in particular, Least Developed Countries (LDCs) - ensuring they can increasingly enjoy its benefits. Nowadays, Albanian financial system evolved considerably, despite the financial shock caused in the market by the collapse of the pyramid schemes in mid 90s. Its main pillar is banking sector with many foreign and domestic capital banks operating all over the country. We discuss the most important digressions in turn. Given that both management and regulators are interested in the risk profile of financial firms, they have a shared interest in accurate measurement and, consecutively, management of risk. We then briefly outline measurement methods, primarily to discuss the most important hurdles that have to be taken before a firm-wide risk management system can be implemented adequately. 2 Literature Review and Hypotheses Secondly, if we accept the need for statutory regulation of bank equity to protect depositors, it is not clear why we should stop short of a 100% equity requirement. This would provide perfect protection to depositors. However, there would be no depositors left. Shall we suppose that the 8% fixed in the Basle Agreement is a compromise between the notion that 100% would provide perfect protection and the notion that perfect protection is useless if there is nobody left to be protected? The full extent of the problem is not always appreciated. This is mainly because traditional concepts of risk in banking stand in the way of a proper risk perception. Specifically, the traditional distinction between credit risks and market risks tends to induce an underestimate of the risks assumed when a bank holds non fungible loans and mortgages. Since interest rate risks are subsumed under market risks, the distinction between credit risks and market risks frequently leads to the view that non fungible loans and mortgages are not subject to interest rate risk. As the American S&L's found out to their chagrin, this view is mistaken
Tab 1. The cycle economic developments, Source WEF-Policy 2008 In spite of weathering the direct impact of the crisis, important challenges lay ahead of the banking sector and the Bank of Albania. First, the performance of credit quality should be monitored prudentially, aiming to timely identify non-performing loans, assess them correctly according to possibilities of their repayment and pursue proper policies, in order to recover the loan value within an appropriate time. Second, during this phase, it is necessary to strengthen the banks internal audit systems, not only related to credit risk but also to provide a higher standard of management. Third,
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banks should assess their expectations about the performance of their activity and take measures to strengthen their capital position in advance, in case of need. Despite the low level of banking sector intermediation to the economy comparing the region, it still remains the most developed sector of the Albanian financial system. Nonetheless, on our opinion, it is a wrong perception the fact that in all country or evaluation reports made by domestic or international financial institutions, the soundness of the whole financial system is based mainly on the performance of banking sector. For this reason, this paper is an attempt to see the development Albanian financial system as a whole, focusing more on non-banking sector and analyzing the present situation together with the reasons why it remained underdeveloped. Analyzing of financial systems quantitative and qualitative performance is not subject of our study
Graph 1. The development Albanian financial system, source: MJSS 2011,Vol 3 It is also argued that combining banking and insurance within one organization might lead to contagion risks between sectors. These and many other arguments will be discussed: a general conclusion is that because of these arguments, supervisors are interested in the riskiness of a financial firm. A similar concern emerges from the theory on risk management, both from a market and a firm perspective. Management and the supervisor thus have a common interest in the risk profile of the firm and its management. We conclude with a discussion of the following question: How can a supervisor devise a framework of supervision that does justice to a financial conglomerates own responsibility and, at the same time, safeguards the general publics interest? Input in this discussion will be our joint work with the industry concerning economic capital, a commissioned study about legal firewalls, and the discussions within the supervisory community.
2.1 Management Theories to Distinguishing Financially Business and Financial Innovations

The discussion is based on the assumption that competitive pressures on intermediation margins are not likely to disappear, i.e., that the mechanisms which made for bank safety in the fifties and sixties are
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unlikely to be reinstalled in the foreseeable future. Financial Innovation, international financial integration, improvements in communication - all these forces, which have made for more competition since the seventies, are still at work. If anything, I should expect the intensification of competition to continue, eventually attaining also the sectors and countries that have so far remained immune. New distribution channels, including the provision of financial services through the Internet, reinforce this effect. Hence, financial institutions activities are becoming more varied and generally more complex in nature. As their organizational structures are adapted to these developments, they too become more complex.
Tab 2 Remittances augment the recipients incomes and increase their countrys foreign exchange reserves. 2.1.1 Cultural constraints in economy theories (risk of borrower and risk of equity) The Bank of Albania deems that in the periods ahead the Albanian banking sector and the economy need to determine and pursue more suitable development policies, which should include: setting realistic development objectives; setting more competitive prices for banking products and services; and increasing lending in the national currency. About overall economy, a more sustainable development should be ensured, relating mainly to better control on trade deficit, supporting the sectors that actually contribute or may contribute to increasing exports in the country. A typical feature of banks is that the contracts on both sides of the balance sheet have different maturities: funding is of a short-term nature, whereas lending is generally long-term. This creates both liquidity risk which is often the immediate cause of a bank run, and interest rate risk, possibly damaging solvency. Therefore public authorities must act to monitor these risks and safeguard the public interest. Finally, banks have a pivotal role in the financial system in the clearing and settlement of transactions and - above all - providing finance, in particular to small and medium-sized enterprises. or European consumers: 1.Lower prices removing trade barriers produces healthy competition on the EU market and lower prices for consumers 2.More choice exotic new produce from Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific
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Tab 3 Financial system and settlement of transactions Public authorities should strengthen their commitment to developing the non-bank financial market, which gradually leads to reduction of economic dependence on the banking sector condition and improves access to financing of a higher number of private entities. In this way, a greater opportunity would be provided to the financial system to finance projects in the agricultural sector, which has a high potential for ensuring competitive advantages in the Albanian economy. (Fatos I, Albanian bank 2011)
2.2 The science of economics and general Smith concepts

2.2.1 Regulatory policies Regulation of financial conglomerates is changing as well. In the European community, community law supersedes national law. Once a law has been passed in the European parliament, national authorities have to enact these European laws in national legislation. Presently, the European Commission has proposed new regulation for supervision of financial conglomerates which will supplement regulation covering banking, securities, and insurance (EC (2001) Finally, we discuss the interplay between the objectives of supervisors and the goals of financial conglomerates. Are these objectives in line with each other, or are there areas in which opposite interests are evident? In what way can supervisory regulation support the developments of firm-wide risk management systems, and is this beneficial to the industry? The main issue addressed is what the framework for coming to an adequate risk management process, and thus a satisfactory level of capital, should look like. The central tenet here is the supervised institution's responsibility in this area. The concluding section summarizes our findings. As a small business develops it moves through five growth stages, each with its own distinctive characteristics. Because the transition from one stage to the next requires change, it will be accompanied by some crisis or another. 3. Methodology and Research Goal
3.1 Risk Management in financial conglomerates, effects with banking insurances.
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Why manage risk? After outlining the developments that have led to the formation of large, complex, and diversified financial firms, or in other words financial conglomerates, we discuss the reasons that have been cited, mainly in the academic literature, for regulatory intervention, covering banking, insurance, and financial conglomerates in turn. In the stylized Modigliani-Miller world of corporate finance textbooks, neither the capital structure nor corporate risk management affects the value of the firm. Investors are able to diversify their invested wealth and a firm will therefore not be rewarded for taking on (or shedding) firm-specific risk. Only the remaining, non-diversifiable systemic risk carries a return. There is thus no reason for a firm to ever alter its risk profile. If market inefficiencies are introduced, however, managing risk and capital structure matter and (may) add value. Five major driving forces can be identified behind firms risk management: (1) flow of information, (2) taxes, (3) bankruptcy costs, (4) distortions due to contracting problems between firms and investors, and (5) distorted incentives for management due to imperfect contracting between management and shareholders.
Tab 4 Five major driving forces can be identified behind firms risk management
3.2 Literature and Development concept

Let us discuss these driving forces in turn. Crises tend to be disruptive and the problems of change can be minimized if managers are proactive rather than reactive. Prior knowledge of what generates crises and what to expect in each stage will smooth the process of change. This article proposes a model of small business growth to enable managers of small businesses to plan for future growth. The model has been successfully tested and used by the authors in analyzing and solving the problem of growing small businesses. The model isolates the five growth stages, the sort of things that will precipitate crises and the major strategies that should be considered at each stage. Its main purpose is as a diagnostic tool in analyzing the firm's present position and in planning what will be required as it progresses to the next stage of its development.
3.3 Albanian financial system and its contributes in economy activity

The main factor threatening the soundness of the Albanian financial system is the high level of informality in the countrys economy. In Albania, about half of total economic activity is considered informal. The predominance of such informality contributes to low levels of credit from the formal
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banking sector and wipes out any possibility to use capital markets as an financing alternative, as enterprises seek to avoid drawing attention to themselves from tax and other regulatory authorities. Also, governance and management remain weak in the real sector. Private companies are often subject to poor standards of governance and management, and therefore represent serious credit risks. Business accounting practices are particularly weak, reducing bank capacity to assess creditworthiness and, consequently, their willingness to lend. The lack of professional capacity in the accounting and audit fields means full movement to IAS standards is still several years away. Strengthening internal audit functions at enterprises, ensuring the independence of auditors, enforcing a code of conduct that is consistent with international standards, and observing more open standards of transparency and disclosure would contribute to more and better information for market purposes (see Sherif at al, 2000).(Gjergji A 2006) The new varieties of familiar goods like coffee, cocoa, mangos, pineapple etc.3.Good quality and good value tropical products grown in tropical climates4.Jobs in the long run, trade will help ACP countries become more prosperous. In turn, that will generate more demand for European products and expertise, which will be good for employment.5. Ethical choices many thousands of small-scale, family-run businesses in ACP countries will benefit from being able to sell their produce in the EU.6.no quotas, no duties on exports to the EU free access to the EU market of half a billion people for all ACP products, providing plenty of scope for economies of scale 6.no shocks EPAs will be implemented in a way that avoids unnecessary shocks
Tab 5: Identify of the indicators of the EU Market. (Gjergji A 2006) Duties will be phased out over a period of 15 (and up to a maximum of) 25 years, with safeguards and support on offer for ACP countries that encounter problems. In this paper we are trying to identify the indicators like this: 1. Coverage of services and foreign investment EPAs dont just deal with trade in goods but with issues relating to development too because trade is development. 2. Wider reforms EPAs are part of the wider development agenda for ACP countries, to strengthen the law, attract local and foreign investment and create the conditions for greater prosperity.
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Avoided while local industries and consumers benefit from cheaper inputs and consumer goods. Albania is one of the countries with a very high share of the foreign capital banking market. Foreign banks here, were generally welcomed because it was shared a common feeling that they will play an important role in providing financial services essential to modernize the banking system. Foreign ownership in Albanian banks started with Banka di Roma, which was co-owner at ItalianAlbanian Bank (BIA), and then continued with prestigious foreign banks, such as: IFC, EBRD, Raiffeisen Bank (which privatized Savings Bank in April 2004), San Paolo IMI, National Bank of Greece, Bank of Piraeus etc. Banking sector in Albania is almost totally privatized. Currently, Albanian state holds only 40% of the UBA bank (relatively small bank), but as Albanian Parliament passed the law on privatizing the state share in this bank, Albanian banking system will be will be soon totally private capital owned. The preceding discussion of the changing nature of un-diversifiable risk in banking should make us suspicious of any rigid quantification. At the very least we should have an argument as to the guiding principles underlying the choice of numbers.
3.
Any discussion of risk in banking must start from the observation that a bank's obligations to its depositors are mostly independent of the returns which the bank earns. Low realizations of returns do not reduce the bank's obligations towards its depositors. Risks are born by shareholders; to the extent that equity is insufficient, bank failure is a possibility. Certain risks in the bank's operations may be negligible because they are subject to the law of large numbers. This may, e.g., be the case for borrowerspecific default risks in small loans or for depositor-specific withdrawal risks in demand and savings deposits. It is not the case for correlated risks such as interest-induced valuation risks on long-term assets, interest-induced refinancing risks on short-term liabilities or the business cycle component of default risks on loans. In any given period these risks are not subject to the law of large numbers and there is no smoothing across customers. In the absence of contractual arrangements shifting them to another party, these risks have to be born by the bank. (Helluig M 2011) 3.3.1 Financial stability and growing indicators of economy However, some financial stability arguments remain or even become of growing importance. First, insurers have become increasingly more intertwined with the banking sector, taking on significant amounts of credit risk. A failing insurer could thus suddenly shift sizeable amounts of risk back to the banking sector, possibly causing instability. Second, in particularly life and pension insurers have material equity holdings. Failure could imply unwinding of these positions, putting downward pressure on equity prices. In particular the expectation of a sell-off could have a relatively quick impact. Third, the stability of the insurance sector is crucial for the general confidence in the financial system and thus for economic growth. Since insurance firms supply a product with a long lifetime, disturbance of this market would have pronounced external effects (cf. Bencivenga and Smith (1991).
H1: The reasons cited for banks are the possibility of bank runs, systemic crises, and moral hazard due to a lender of last resort and concerns regarding consumer protection. For insurance firms, the main reasons are concerns regarding consumer protection and, more generally, financial stability. H2:What can be done, to improve the risk match between returns and obligations and to reduce the risk of bank failures and banking crises?
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Tab 6: Cumming, C. M., and B. J. Hirtle (2001): "The Challenges of Risk Management in Diversified Financial Companies, "Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Economic Policy Review, 7, 1-17. In principle, three types of strategies can be distinguished. Banks can try to shift un-diversifiable risks to their borrowers, e.g., by making variable-rate loans and mortgages. - Banks can try to shift undiversifiable risks to their lenders, e.g., by financing fixed-interest loans with fixed-interest obligations of similar maturities. Banks can try to shift un-diversifiable risks to third parties, e.g., through interest rate swaps or other derivative instruments. These strategies can of course be used in combination as well as separately. For the purpose of the analysis though it is easier to look at each of them in isolation H3: The interest rate risk exposure of the system as a whole is not visible to the individual institution unless it knows that it is but an element of a cascade and that credit risks in the cascade are correlated.
Tab 7: Chen, Y. (1999): "Banking Panics: The Role of the First-Come, First-Served Rule and Information Externalities," Journal of Political Economy, 107, 946-968. 4. Conclusion Financial firms have their own reasons to care about their risk profile. In the classical world of a Miller and Modigliani textbook, the capital structure of a firm is irrelevant. If investors are interested in less risk they can reduce risk by diversifying their portfolio. The firm is thus only rewarded for that part of a firms risks that is not diversifiable (i.e. systemic risk). Firms, however, do care about their risk profile because reality deviates from the perfect world assumed by Miller and Modigliani. Information flow, taxes, bankruptcy costs, information and incentive imperfections all supply motives for managing risk.
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Tab 8 Management transfer to poor countries, Source: Jon Stuart Mill, 1989 Although the insurance industry is less affected than the banking industry, the credit crisis has revealed room for improvement in its risk management and supervision. Based on this observation, we formulate ten consequences for risk management and insurance regulation. Many of these reflect current discussions in academia and practice, but we also add a number of new ideas that have not yet been the focus of discussion. Among these are specific aspects of agency and portfolio theory, a concept for a controlled run-off for insolvent insurers, new principles in stress testing, improved communication aspects, market discipline, and accountability. Another contribution of this paper is to embed the current practitioners discussion in the recent academic literature, for example, with regard to the regulation of financial conglomerates. References
Boot, A. W. A., and A. Schmeits (2000): "Market Discipline and Incentive Problems in Conglomerate Firms with Applications to Banking," Journal of Financial Intermediation, 9, 240-73. Brunetti, A., G. Kisunko, and B. Weder (1998): "Credibility of Rules and Economic Growth: Evidence from a Worldwide Survey of the Private Sector," World Bank Economic Review, 12, 353-84. Bryant, J. (1980): "A Model of Reserves, Bank Runs, and Deposit Insurance," Journal of Banking & Finance, 4, 335-344. Chen, Y. (1999): "Banking Panics: The Role of the First-Come, First-Served Rule and Information Externalities," Journal of Political Economy, 107, 946-968. Cumming, C. M., and B. J. Hirtle (2001): "The Challenges of Risk Management in Diversified Financial Companies, "Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Economic Policy Review, 7, 1-17. Cummins, J. D., R. D. Phillips, and S. D. Smith (1998): "The Rise of Risk Management," Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta Economic Review, 83, 30-40. Diamond, D. W., and P. H. Dybvig (1983): "Bank Runs, Deposit Insurance, and Liquidity," Journal of Political Economy, 91,401-419. DNB (2002): "Structure of Financial Supervision," Quarterly Bulletin of de Nederlandsche Bank, March, 37-42. Dowd, K. (1994): "Competitive Banking, Bankers' Clubs, and Bank Regulation," Journal of Money, Credit & Banking, 26, 289-308. EC (2001): "Towards an EU Directive on the Prudential Supervision of Financial Conglomerates," Brussels: European Commission. Edwards, F.R. and M.S. Canter (1995). The Collapse of Metallgesellschaft: Unhedgeable Risks, Poor Hedging Strategy, or Just Bad Luck?, Journal of Applied Corporate Finance 8, 86-105. Gehrig,T. (1995). Capital Adequacy Rules: Implications for Banks' Risk Taking, Discussion Paper, University of Basle, mimeo.
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Greenwald, B. and J. Stiglitz (1990).Macroeconomic Models with Equity and Credit Rationing, in: R.G. Hubbard, ed., Asymmetric Information, Corporate Finance, and Investment, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 15-42. Hellwig, M. (1994a). Liquidity Provision, Banking, and the Allocation of Interest Rate Risk, European Economic Review 38, 1363-1389.
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Socio-Culture Factors Responsible for Crimes Committed by Females of Adiala Jail, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Asma Zafar
Sociology & Anthropology Department, PMAS Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi
Muhammad Asim
E. Mail. I. D: masim202@gmail.com M. Phil Scholar, Department of Sociology, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan
Nazia Malik
Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, G.C University Faisalabad, Pakistan
Muhammad Iqbal Zafar

Dean faculty of social sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.2n1p373
Abstract The present study was designed to determine the socio-cultural factors responsible for crimes committed by females. The data was collected from Adiala Jail situated in Rawalpindi district by interviewing a sample of 100 female respondents. The data was collected by a well designed interview schedule and by using statistical techniques. As per research achievements of the project, it was concluded that 51% of female offenders were predominantly from rural areas which denotes poor education and income condition of the people. Majority i.e. 87% of the females were not affected by any circumstances like any psychological change due to imprisonment. Significant association between income and socio-cultural factors responsible for crimes conducted by females was noted. Key Words: Crime, Socio-cultural factors, Adiala Jail, Rawalpindi
1. Introduction Crime and criminology is identified item of genetic composition for instance; male crime, juvenile delinquency and women crimes (Smith, 1995). Crime is relative concept. This is important since an act is a crime only in a particular social setting and period of time. Just as criminal law varies from area to area, it can change from time to time within the same area as well. Crime is an act which breaks the criminal law. However, criminal law is not fixed or static; it varies overtime and from area to area (Marsh, 1986) Crime an d criminology is very vast field so the difference is identified item of genetic
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composition for instance male crime, juvenile delinquency and women crime. Female criminality is one of the major social problem of all the country, which needs attention of the state and the social scientists. Criminality is simply not something people do and others do not, crime is merely a matter of who can pin the label on whom and under line this socio political process is the structure of social relation determined by the political economy (Chambliss, 1975) to study female crime or criminality in Pakistan one must understand the cultural definition of women and the male of their sexuality, which steams from it. The extreme dichotomization between the sexes which exists in most Islamic and Middle Eastern culture (Pastner, 1974) The reporting of female crimes is not so efficient due to various sociocultural factors for instance. For instance female criminality is mostly ignored and their crimes are not reported to police (Chaudhry, 1984) Women are physically weak, legally and economically inferior to men. Their honor their property and their lives are therefore susceptible to exploitation by the arbitrary whims of males. This is particularly true since men are by nature aggressive and women are by protected the function of modesty code is to offer this protection (Antoun, 1982) Differences in the types and patterns of crime by women result from gender socialization. It is difficult to commit a major crime. Such as burglary or armed robbery. The types of crime in which women are involved include prostitution; vagrancy, and domestic violence committed by women are closely tied to their roles as mother,, wives and lovers. Traditional roles still dominate the lives of both offenders male and female (Macions, 1993) The study of female crime is interesting but it has some problems. Crime may go unobserved, unnoted or unrecorded and because of this the official statistics may not indicate the real crime. In the present study the crimes committed by women are discussed within the context of Pakistani society and socio-cultural factors responsible for crimes committed by females. 2. Methodology The micro-level study was based on primary data collected from field survey. By using the purposive sample technique a random sample of 100 female criminal respondents involved in different crimes i.e. zina, drugs, murder, theft and others were considered. The study was conducted in Adiala Jail, Rawalpindi District. To explore study objectives, a well designed interviewing schedule was prepared. Data thus collected was analyzed statistically. 3. Results and Discussion: The present study revealed; that majority of the respondents were between 15-25 years of age, this indicated that most respondents had committed crime at a young age.
50 45 40 N o .o fo f f e n d e r s 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 15-25 26-35 36-45 46-55
Age Group
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Figure 2: Age group of respondents

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Illiterate Primary M iddle
M atric
Above
Figure 3: Education Level of respondents 30% of the respondents were illiterate which shows that these females lack higher education, a very less number of females were educated.
51 50.5 50 49.5 49 48.5 48 Rural Area of residence Urban
Figure 4: Residential Background of respondents Majority of respondents belonged to rural background. This shows that women residing in rural areas committed more crimes than those residing in urban areas.
70 60 50 No. of respondents 40 30 20 10 0 Joint Family set-up Nuclear
N o .o fr e s p o n d e n ts
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Figure 5: Family system of respondents 64% of females belonged to joint family system which is less as compared to females committing crimes in nuclear family system.
60 50 40 No. of 30 respondents 20 10 0 Below 2000 2000-5000 5000-7000 Above 8000 Monthly Income in rupees
Figure 6: Monthly Income of respondents The economic class of the respondents was determined on the basis of family income and occupation of respondents family. 50% of the offenders had income less than Rs1000/month. 69% of offenders are serving imprisonment due to major crime. Most of the respondents have said that it is their first conviction whereas 55% said that they do not feel any guilt about committing the crime. According to study 87% do not feel any psychological change in them due to imprisonment, which shows that criminals have a hard and cruel nature which cannot be affected by any hurdle. Economic conditions such as poverty and unemployment forced 39% of the offenders to commit the crime. 45% of these females complained about the bad attitude of Jail staff with them. While talking about the future planning of these female offenders 76% said that they would start a new life away from the hardships and cruelty of society. On the other hand there were many women who did not have any courage to face the society; they would rather spend their life within the safety of the jail. Most of these unfortunate women were victims of circumstances which were not created by them, but forced upon them by whims of their elders. 4. Conclusions and Recommendations In a male dominant society like Pakistan the code of conduct is defined by the dominant group. But this does not mean that these rules of behavior are not violated. There may be disparity between an acknowledged norm and actual practice. Women may rebel and manipulate against such a socio-cultural set-up. The major causes of these crimes in our society are poverty, unemployment and lack of education. These factors compelled the offenders to use illegal means for their survival. The study revealed that the deviant women defied the conventional norms of behavior. When these norms are floated the social control exercised in a patriarchal society becomes evident. Deviancy among women highlights how women are defined and controlled in the society as a whole. Total prevention of crimes is impossible as disorganization to some extent is present in every society. The only measure possible foe prevention is to provide offenders with better chances and opportunities for their adjustment in society
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as normal members. The creation of healthy brotherhood, true followers of religion in its real spirit and a healthy society, culture and personality can solve the problems in the long run. References:
Antoun, A.B. 1982. A study in the accommodation of traditions by American Anthropologist on modesty of women in Arab Muslim villages. American journal of Sociology. Vol. (5): 671-697 Chambliss, W. J. 1975. Toward a political economy of crime: theory and society. Bull Publishing Company, California, U.S.A pp. 149-170 Chaudry, M. I. 1984. Social theory: research and problem, Aziz Book Depot, Lahore, Pakistan. Pp.369-371 Macions, D. 1993. The family: from institution to companionship 3rd edition American Book Company, New York, USA Marsh, L.1986. Sociology in focus. Longynan and New York. Vol.3. p.289 Pastner, A. B. 1974. Accommodation to purdha: the female perspective. Journal of Marriage and the Family. Monarch, New York, USA. 6:75 Smith, D. 1995. Criminology for social work. Macmillan Press Limited, Malaysia. P 31
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The Importance of the Price Factor in the Development of E-Commerce. Case Study B2C in Albania
PhD Candidate Azeta Tartaraj
Head of Marketing Department, Faculty of Business, Aleksander Moisiu University, Durres, Albania e-mail: azetatartaraj@yahoo.co.uk
PhD Candidate Ervin Myftaraj

Managment Department, Faculty of Business, Vitrina University, Tirane, Albania e-mail: ervin.myftaraj@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.2n1p379
Abstract The purpose of this paper is to find out the significant factors that influence the demand for goods online for the B2C market in Albania and how to build customer loyalty in this type of market. The main assumptions are: 1. The price of products are very important for the development of the demand in electronic commerce in Albania, in the B2C market. 2. There is a statistical significance of sociodemographic variables in the price of products and services in e-commerce? Methodology used: A sample of 500 questionars were used. Each questionere had 13 question. Have been used 100% of the questionnaires. The first question of the questionnaire survey excluded those who had made purchases online. The choice was made on an occasional grouping of the participants for age, sex and education. The questionnaires were completed in the two main cities of Albania, Tirana and Durres. The work is based on primary and secondary data for the case of Albania. Using the regression analysis, we have built a multi-pattern econometrics model, emphasizing the importance of price in the development of the online market in Albania. The results and conclusions of this paper are significant. Albania marks the highest growth in terms of Internet usage in the region, which means an enormous potential for the development of electronic commerce in Albania. The price factor is still the main factor influencing the tendency of buyers to make their purchase online. Keywords: Price, E-Commerce, Internet, Marketing, demographic factors.
1. Introduzione L'emergere del commercio su Internet come un ottimo modo di fare business, ha creato un ambiente in cui le esigenze e le aspettative dei clienti commerciali e dei consumatori sono in rapida e in continua evoluzione. Questa situazione rappresenta un nuovo compito per i marketing manager, nella loro sfida per individuare nuovi spazi commerciali che stanno emergendo. Fino a qualche anno f alcuni manager pensavano che per promuovere lazienda ed i suoi prodotti o servizi, sarebbe stato sufficiente fornire una semplice pagina Web. Con lo sviluppo rapido della tecnologia in questi ultimi tempi, lweb non si limita
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pi solo nel realizzare una delle 4P del marketing, che la promozione dei prodotti ed i servizzi, ma viene uttilizzato anche per realizzare la vendita (Place) che unaltra delle 4P del marketing per fornire informazioni sulla societ e i suoi prodotti. Mentre alcuni altri hanno idee e modi di marketing opposto, dicendo che tutto sta cambiando e nulla rimane lo stesso , e i siti web di posta elettronica sono rimasti semplicemente come un riferimento di imprese. Ma una visione equilibrata suggerisce che le persone sono fondamentalmente gli stessi, quello che cambia la tecnologia che st cambiando molto dall'acquisto andando al negozio nel modo di acquistare on-line. Questo articolo intende studiare l'importanza del prezzo nella trasformazione del comportamento dei consumatori, l'importanza del prezzo nella rivitalizzazione del mercato on-line B2C, l'impatto dei fattori socio-demografici del trend degli acquisti on-line e l'importanza del prezzo nella fidelizzazione del cliente e della crescita della redditivit della propria azienda. Sono due le principali ipotesi che abbiamo assunto nel presente studio. 1. Il Prezzo del prodotto importante nello sviluppo della domanda del commercio elettronico nel mercato B2C in Albania? 2. Influenzano sul prezzo le variabili socio-demografiche per lo sviluppo del commercio elettronico? Il prezzo lelemento del marketing mix che produce reddito. Gli altri elementi "producono costi". Il prezzo il pi semplice elemento del marketing mix per quando riguarda ladattamento, perch le caratteristiche del prodotto, i canali di distribuzione e anche la promozione, richiedono pi tempo per adattarsi. Al giorno d oggi, le aziende affrontano una serie di compiti difficili per quanto riguarda la decisione sui prezzi. LInternet sta cambiando in parte la tendenza verso la definizione dei prezzi. Al Price.com i clienti annunciano il prezzo che loro vorrebbero pagare per un biglietto aereo, per lalbergo o per altri prodotti ancora ed il Priceline cerca venditori disposti a soddisfare questi clienti. Vari siti internet raccolgono gli ordini dai clienti ed esercitano pression sui fornitori per garantire uno sconto. 2. Metodologia Lo studio stato costruito in due parti. Nella prima parte teorica, abbiamo consultato in modo ampio la letteratura per i fenomeni oggetto del nostro studio. In questa sezione abbiamo esplorato nelle diverse pubblicazioni e studi. Tutte le pubblicazioni prese in considerazione sono state analizzate, dopo di ch siamo arrivati a delle conclusioni riguardo limportanza del prezzo nel comportamento dei consumatori, nel mercato online. La seconda parte stata costruita sulla base di un sondaggio su un campione di 500 intervistati. Il questionario contiene 13 domande.
Interviste secondo let 14 - 18

Frequenza Percentuale Frequenza 50 10% 19 - 23 Frequenza 210 42% 24 - 30 Frequenza 170 34% 31 - 40 Frequenza 60 12% Mbi 40 Frequenza 10 2% Totale Totale 500 100%
Tabella 1. Gli intervistati secondo let
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La scelta viene effettuata in modo occasionale. Le persone intervistate sono state raggruppate per et, sesso e istruzione. I questionari sono stati completati nelle due principali citt dell'Albania, Tirana e Durazzo.
Interviste secondo listruzione Diploma delle scuole medie
Frequenza Percentuale Frequenza 72 14.40% Diploma delle scuole superiori Frequenza 124 24.80% Diploma Bachelor/Master Frequenza 304 60.80% Totale Frequenza 500 100%
Tabella 2. Gli intervistati secondo listruzione La metodologia di ricerca utilizzata per rispondere a queste domande una valutazione dell'impatto della "mid-range". Diversamente dalle metodologie "accademiche" che sono molto rigoirose, le metodologie della "mid-range" sono incline ad accettare in modo chiaro un ridotto livello di validit statistica, al fine di contenere i dati raccolti sul campo e le limitazioni delle risorse, per soddisfare le esigenze del programma riguardo lefficienza e l'utilit.
Interviste in base al sesso Maschi
Frequenza Percentuale Frequenza 223 44.60% Femmine Frequenza 277 55.40% Totale Frequenza 500 100%
Tabella 3. Gli intervistati in base al sesso A seguito delle migliori pratiche per lo svolgimento delle indagini o delle interviste, la scelt del campione di studio stata fatta prima, selezionando le persone provenienti da diversi gruppi di et (le quali coincidono con le fasi dello sviluppo in Albania) e con diversi livelli di istruzione, i quali ancora una volta vanno in proporzione allo sviluppo tecnologico e l'utilizzo di Internet o del computer. Un totale di 500 consumatori distribuiti nelle citt di Tirana e Durazzo, sono stati intervistati per questo studio, che stato condotto nel periodo dal 20 maggio al 15 novembre 2012. Usando l'analisi di regressione abbiamo costruito un modello econometrico multiplo ed abbiamo attraverso questo modello messo in evidenza l'importanza del prezzo nella fase dello sviluppo del mercato online. 3. I risultati e discussion
3.1. Letteratura utilizzata

3.1.1. Prezzi fissi e prezzi variabili Nello scenario della "definizione dei prezzi" il venditore semplicemente fissa un prezzo ed aspetta un acquirente che lo accetta oppure lo rifiuta. La discussione per il prezzo in questo caso, non semplicemente un'opzione: "prendere o lasciare". Questo meccanismo ha alcuni lati positivi: - lo scambio a basso costo,
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- la percezione della giustizia (visto che ogni acquirente dovrebbe pagare lo stesso prezzo). Molti rivenditori online, tra cui AMAZON.COM e Toys.com, hanno adottato un meccanismo di prezzo fisso. Questi due tipi di venditori attraverso le vendite in internet spesso si distinguono per dei prezzi fissi, inferiore rispetto ai loro avversari nel mondo reale. A causa di saggezza convenzionale, lInternet tende a ridurre i prezzi ancora di pi, perch i consumatori online hanno un migliore accesso alla raccolta dell'informazione sul mercato. Nei mercati tradizionali di vendita, spesso succede che la mancanza dellinformazione da parte degli acquirenti spesso una fonte di profitto per il venditore (lazienda). Molte aziende approfittano dai prezzi alti, perch alla maggior parte degli acquirenti non piace consumare tempo ed energie per confrontare i prezzi sul mercato. Ora i potenziali acquirenti hanno la possibilit di non perdere del loro tempo per girare da un negozio allaltro per confrontare i prezzi del mercato. Questo lo possono fare dal computer di casa comodamente, confrontando gli acquisti sui diversi siti internet. Il grande numero di strumenti di ricerca on-line, ha fatto si che gli acquisti diventano pi efficienti. Questi agenti ricercatori (detti anche spider) possono confrontare i prezzi e le caratteristiche dei prodotti riguardo qualsiasi potenziale venditore su Internet. 3.1.2. La responsabilit dei siti internet nel confronto dei prezzi. I diversi siti internet come: MySimon.Com, Compare.Net o DealTime.com realizzano un confronto automatico dei prezzi e le delle caratteristiche in brevissimo tempo (centesimi di secondo). I potenziali acquirenti possono semplicemente visitare un sito, scrivono in questa pagina ci che a loro interessa e gli agenti ricercatori fanno la scansione delle informazioni sui prodotti e sui prezzi, costituendo un elenco di centinaia di venditori on-line che lo offrono. Molti di questi siti internet chiedono ai commercianti un pagamento per i loro servizi da operatori di ricerca. Ci sono ancora altri siti internet come MySimon.com che definiscono una commissione ogni volta che un acquirente entra nel loro sito web del commerciante. Immaginate una persona che entra in un mercato enorme e spiega alle persone che stanno facendo acquisti, quanti soldi possibile risparmiare se lo stesso prodotto lo acquistono in un altro mercato. Alcune aziende, tra cui ClickTheButon, DealPilot e RU Sure hanno sviluppato una nuova linea di agenti cercatori online, che fanno proprio questo: forniscono agli acquirenti le condizioni migliori su qualsiasi prodotto che potrebbe vedere sul sito web. Quando un utente ha installato il programma di uno dei servizi dell'agente, questultimo viene attivato ogni volta che ilweb dell'utente aperto. Un cliente che visita Amazon.com, puo automaticamente sul sito stesso confrontare informazioni sui prezzi forniti da un altro concorente di Amazon.com. Alcuni venditori online sono diventati cos trasparenti riguardo il confronto dei prezzi, tanto da offrire ai loro clienti informazioni sui prezzi dei concorrenti, come mezzo per conquistare la loro fiducia. La teoria classica delleconomica insegna che se i mercati elettronici fanno si che i loro consumatori siano in grado di confrontare pi facilmente il prezzo degli articoli, il risultato finale sar un prezzo pi elevato per i prodotti dei concorrenti. Questo porter a fare pressione sui prezzi. Il Business che si svolge su internet a "margine zero" sembra opporsi a questa teoria. Per esempio, Buy.com, pioniere della strategia di vendita dei prodotti di basso costo, intende guadagnare attraverso la vendita degli spazi pubblicitari sul suo sito web. Il relativo programma lavora 24 ore su 24, raccogliendo milioni di prezzi per libri, CD, computer ed altri prodotti da centinaia concorrenti. Attraverso questa tecnologia, queste aziende intendono mettere in evidenza i prodotti pi economici on-line. Loro assistono le imprese di distribuzione faccendo a loro la pubblicit che l permette di avere "i prezzi pi bassi"
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I critici hanno descritto il modello di business della Buy.com come "vendita di banconote da un dollaro per 99 centesimi" e in unanno il costo dei prodotti venduti Buy.com ha superato la quantit di vendite generate da diversi milioni di dollari. Ma la crescita fenomenale della societ fece aumentare il numero dei business che hanno imitato il margine zero. La societ daste online Onsale.com, ha recentemente messo su un modello AtCost, aplicando una strategia di prezzi simili. Anche se abbiamo citato questi esempi, non siamo giunti alla concusione che i prezzi online sono pi bassi rispetto a quelli dei mercati reali. In effetti ci sono stati risultati differenti sul concetto della definizione dei prezzi su Internet. Questo si nota da ci che stato descritto in precedenza, sugli studi fatti a questo proposito. 4. I risultati
4.1 L'importanza del fattore prezzo per lo sviluppo della domanda dei consumatori nel commercio elettronico in Albania.
Sulla base delle risposte alla domanda "chi il fattore principale che spinge a comprare online e ad abbandonare le tradizionali modalit di acquisto?" sono stati calcolati indicatori, che ci offrono i dati sulle frequenze e le rispettive percentuali dei motivi che spingono i consumatori a fare la scelta di acquistare on-line . Il primo indicatore stato elaborato per analizzare come determinare la scelta del fattore che motiva gli acquisti secondo let deli consumatori. I risultati sono presentati nella Tabella 4:
Risposte secondo gruppi di et
19 - 23 24 - 30 31 40 Mbi 40 Totali Freque Percent Freque Percent Freque Percent Freque Percent Freque Percent Totale % nza uale nza uale nza uale nza uale nza uale Migliore qualit 19 38 23 11 29 17 18 30 3 30 92 18.4 Il prezzo pi 10 20 134 63.8 88 51.8 12 20 4 40 248 49.6 basso Facilit (si risparmia 12 24 36 17.1 42 24.7 24 40 2 20 116 23.5 tempo) Privacy 9 18 14 6.7 8 4.7 4 6.7 1 10 36 7.20% Altri motivi Totale % secondo gruppi di et 0 50 10% 0 100 3 210 42% 1.4 100 3 170 34% 1.8 100 2 60 12% 3.3 100 0 10 2% 0 100 8 500 100% 1.60% 100%
14 18
Tabella 4. Risposte degli intervistati secondo gruppi di et Nella fascia di et dai 14-18 anni, la maggior parte dei consumatori che comprano online, sono attirati dalla qualit migliore. Precisamente il 38% dei consumatori. Nella fascia di et tra 19-23 anni e tra 24-30 anni, il motivo dellacquisto online il prezzo pi basso. Nella fascia di et tra 30-34 la facilit nellacquistare i prodotti il motivo principale dellacquisto per il 40% degli intervistati.
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Per la fascia di et superiore ai 40 anni il motivo dellaqcuisto online ancora il prezzo pi conveniente. Per valutare se vi una differenza tra i sessi sono stati calcolati tabelle di raffronto del motivo di acquisto e del sesso. Abbiamo ottenuto i seguenti risultati:
Risposte secondo il sesso M
Frequenza Migliore qualit Il prezzo pi basso Facilit (si risparmia tempo) Privacy Altri motivi Totale % secondo sesso 28 130 51 9 5 223 44.60% Percentuale 12.55% 58.30% 22.90% 4% 2.25 100% F Frequenza 64 118 65 27 3 277 55.40% Percentuale 23.10% 42.60% 23.50% 9.75% 1.05% 100% Totale Frequenza Percentuale 92 248 116 36 8 500 100 18.40% 49.60% 23.50% 7.20% 1.60% 100%
Tabella 5. Risposte degli intervistati secondo il sesso Poi si vuole valutare se vi una differenza nel motivo di acquisto sulla base del livello di istruzione. I risultati sono presentati nella seguente tabella:
Risposte secondo listruzione
Diploma delle scuole medie Frequen Percentu za ali 2 2.80% 66 1 0 3 72 14.40% 91.50% 1.40% 0 4.30% 100% Diploma delle scuole superiori Frequen Percentu za ali 14 11.30% 82 23 4 1 124 24.80% 66.10% 18.55% 3.20% 0.85% 100% Diploma Bachelor/Master Freque Percentu nza ali 76 25% 100 92 32 4 304 60.80% 32.90% 30.3 10.50% 1.30% 100% 100% Totale Freque nza 92 248 116 36 8 500 Percentua li 18.40% 49.60% 23.50% 7.20% 1.60% 100%
Migliore qualit Il prezzo pi basso Facilit (si risparmia tempo) Privacy Altri motivi Totale % secondo listruzione
Tabella 6. Risposte degli intervistati secondo il loro livello distruzione Nel sondaggio svolto in base alla formazione abbiamo suddiviso listruzione in tre categorie: le scuole medie, le scuole superiori e bachelor/master. Per le tre categorie motivo principale di acquisto online la convenienza nel prezzo. Notiamo che aumentando il livello di istruzione, il prezzo come attributo principale che motiva l'acquisto on-line inizia a scendere. Cresce limportanza dei fattori quali: qualit, risparmio di tempo e privacy. Anche se il motivo dellacquisto on-line direttamente legato al
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livello di istruzione, si evidenzia che anche sui livelli di istruzione avanzata, inclusi nello studio, il prezzo ancora una volta, rimane il motivo principale dello shopping online. Possiamo concludere che nella motivazione dellacquisto online, limpatto dei fattori demografici come l'et e le differenze di livello di istruzione, significativo. Le differenze sono molto insignificative invece nel fattore genere. Con i dati di cui sopra che sono anche le risposte dettagliate alla domanda "chi il fattore principale che spinge a comprare online ed ad abbandonare le tradizionali modalit di acquisto?" abbiamo calcolato gli indicatori statistici necessari per l'identificazione della rilevanza dei vari fattori e soprattutto di prezzo, secondo gli intervalli di et. Secondo la tabella 7.
Simboli Et media Intervallo moda Me Quartili Q Quartili Q Dispersione empirica Lo squarto quadratic medio Coefficiente della variazione Varianza Intervalli intraquartilar Deviazione standard x Mo Me Q Q S s Cv Var (x) IQ Dev (x) Migliore qualit 26.117 25.38 24.827 19.695 29.586 54.452 7.379 29% 55.051 ]19.7 ; 29.6[ 587.28 Il prezzo pi basso 23.991 19.086 22.402 20.552 26.863 23.604 4.858 20.20% 23.7 ]20.5 ; 26.8[ 644.432 Risparmio tempo 25.965 25.5 25.428 20.888 29.571 41.446 6.437 24.70% 41.807 ]20.9 ; 29.6[ 568.985 Privacy 23.305 20.818 21.571 18 27 46.712 6.834 29.30% 48.046 ]28 ; 27[ 679.775 Altri motivi 26.75 23 , 24 26 21.666 30 29.437 5.425 20.20% 33.642 ]21.66 ; 30[ 549.81
Tabella nr.7. Distribuzione statistica della risposte degli intervistati, secondo i gruppi di et Lindicatore dellIntervallo (Mo), con l'importanza del fattore prezzo, Mo = 19086 dimostra che il prezzo il fattore dominante per l'intervallo di et tra 19 -23 anni e come notato nella Tabella 4, si vede che per il fattore prezzo hanno risposto che sono dipendenti dal prezzo il 63,8% degli intervistati appartenenti a questo intervallo. Il prezzo lelemento pi importante anche per l'intervallo di et tra 24-30 anni e per il gruppo di et superiore ai 40 anni. Mentre dallintervallo intracurtilar notiamo che solo il 50% degli intervistati sono dellet compresa tra i 21-27 anni. Nel totale degli intervistati, come possiamo vedere nella tabella 4, 5 e 6, quasi il 50% di essi, sono influenzati dal fattore prezzo nella realizzazione o meno di un acquisto online.
4.2. Tipi di acquirenti on-line

Principalmente i consumatori non hanno il pieno sostegno ed il confort necessario, durante gli acquisti attraverso Internet. Alcuni pensano che devono consumare solo pochi minuti online e poi avranno subito i prodotti spediti a casa, mentre altri gioiscono allacquisto online. Una delle domande del nostro sondaggio era la classificazione degli intervistati da parte di loro stessi, secondo le categorie teoriche di Harris Interactive, the Consumer Direct Cooperative, le quali hanno identificato alcune categorie di acquisti on-line dei clienti, differenziate secondo la motivazione di acquisto ed il comportamento del consumatore presentato:
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In quale delle seguenti categorie lei personalmente si include come acquirente online
Clienti desiderosi per il tempo libero Clienti che evitano lo shopping (acquisto fisico): Clienti ai qulli piace usare la nuova tecnologia I tradizionalisti (esclusi dal sondagio) Fedeli della marca (acquirenti online per definite marche) Single shoppers Totale
Totale Frequenza 107 30 118 0 37 208 500
Percentuale 21.4 6 23.6 0 7.4 41.6 100
Clienti desiderosi per il tempo libero (21.4% degli intervistati): Spesso ci sono persone che sono disposte a pagare pi tasse e prezzi pi elevati per risparmiare tempo per l'acquisto. A loro piace l'acquisto on-line. Clienti che evitano lo shopping (acquisto fisico): (6% degli intervistati): Loro non amano lo shopping e utilizzano lInternet per i loro acquisti, per evitare il caos ed il traffico. Clienti ai quali piace usare la nuova tecnologia (23.6% degli intervistati): Spesso i giovani che seguono le tendenze della tecnologia, acquistano on-line proprio perch "cool". I tradizionalisti (0% degli intervistati): A loro piaciono solo i negozi comuni e probabilmente non si adatteranno mai agli acquisti on-line. Come abbiamo spiegato nella metodologia, per quanto riguardo la selezione e la distribuzione del campione preso in esame, le persone i quali non usano gli acquisti online, sono escluse dalle indagini, dalle interviste e dalle analisi condotte. Questo studio stato svolto solo tra queli che applicano gli acquisti on-line. Fedeli della marca (acquirenti online per definite marche) (37% degli intervistati): consumatori che acquistano online per alcune marche. Single shoppers (41.6% degli intervistati): circa il 41,6% degli acquirenti online preferiscono acquistare on-line non solo per lacquisto dei prodotti, ma anche per i diversi servizi, come per esempio servizi bancari, di comunicazione, giochi, notizie e di altre attivit. (Il margine di deviazione alto, perch oltre il 50% del totale degli intervistati sono di giovane et, tra i 14 24 anni)
5. Conclusioni e raccomandazioni Linternet e il Web hanno fatto s che aumentasse notevolmente la quantit dellinformazione a disposizione dei consumatori e dei commercianti. Prima della diffusione di massa nellutilizzo di Internet, per i consumatori era molto difficile ricercare informazioni dei diversi prodotti. La ricerca di solito comprendeva l'acquisto di alcuni libri o riviste e quindi il costo doveva essere calcolato sulla base di varie fonti. Inoltre, la capacit dei venditori o produttori per coprire le spese che davano a loro la possibilit di ottenere maggiori profitti fissando prezzi pi elevati per i prodotti o per i servizi venduti. Con l'invenzione di internet, ora i clienti possono cercare le informazioni facendo semplicemente qualche clic. Oggi, i prezzi non sono pi un segreto da nascondere. Molto spesso sono trasparenti per i
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consumatori, i quali possono determinare se per l'acquisto che faranno, stanno ottenendo o meno i prezzi pi bassi del mercato. La trasparenza dei prezzi pu avere effetti negativi sulla societ stessa in modi diversi. 1- i commercianti possono avere difficolt ad ottenere maggiori margini di profitto. Quando i consumatori conoscono i prezzi dei concorrenti, raramente sono disposti ai pagare un prezzo pi alto per un prodotto o per un servizio. Quasi il 50% degli intervistati dice che il motivo principale che porta a concretizzare lacquisto, il prezzo. 2- quando i consumatori sanno che ci sono prezzi pi bassi per lo stesso prodotto o servizio, spesso prendono decisioni basate solo al livello di prezzi. Questa tendenza trasforma il prodotto o il servizio in un prodotto o servizio che viene acquistato unicamente sulla base della convenienza del prezzo. Questa concorenza dei prezzi, porta le aziende che commerciano online, verso la problemi di sopravivenza. 3- La conoscenza dei prezzi riduce l'impatto del buon nome dellazienda difronte ai consumatori, sopratutto quando non c' molta differenza tra marche commerciali dalle pi popolari a quelle pi costose. I consumatori possono ora determinare pi facilmente le informazioni sulla qualit dei prodotti attraverso i siti Web in base alle esigenze dei clienti oppure attraverso la comunicazione con altri clienti. La condivisione di questo tipo di informazioni pu vietare l'applicazione di prezzi pi elevati, semplicemente sulla base della marca che essi rappresentano. 4- se i consumatori possano essere in grado di determinare i prezzi e la qualit dei prodotti o servizi attraverso il Web, possono avere delusioni molto rapidamente con una azienda che si pensa che impone prezzi non giusti (onesti). Data la velocit con cui le cattive notizie si diffondono sul web, appena un cliente si rende conto che il prezzo non giusto, milioni di altri consumatori avranno queste informazioni in brevissimo tempo. La trasparenza dei prezzi incide sul rischio dellefficienza per le imprese, rendendo cosi pi difficile per loro, essere inefficienti. Quando i clienti hanno una buona conoscenza dei prezzi, le imprese inefficienti saranno a rischio della perdita di reddito, se i clienti passano ai concorrenti che offrono prodotti simili a prezzi inferiori. Siamo giunti alla conclusione che il prezzo il fattore pi importante che influenza e stimola la domanda nel commercio elettronico, per i gruppi di et 19 - 23 anni, 24 - 30 anni e oltre 40 anni di et. Mentre quasi dominante la sua influenza nella realizzazione di unacquisto elettronico nella fascia di et tra i 19 - 23 anni. Mentre non trascurabile limportanza del prezzo negli altri intervalli. Nel totale degli intervistati, circa il 50% di loro, sono influenzati dal prezzo nel momento in cui rispondono allacquisto on line. Unazienda non pu nascondere le proprie inefficienze dietro prezzi elevati. Se le aziende che vogliono rimanere ancora sul mercato, hanno bisogno di trovare delle soluzioni per essere pi efficienti oppure devono scoprire modi originali per ridefinire i prezzi dei prodotti o servizi da essi offerti. Bibliografia
Anderson, C. (2006) The Long Tail: why the future of business is selling less of more . Hyperion. Balakrishnan, A., Kumura, T. and Sundaresan, S. (1999), "Manufacturing in the Digital Age: Exploiting Information Technologies for Product Realization", Information Systems frontiers. Barkham, P. (2000), New Media: Why Tunbridge Wells matters. Net talk is all about building global communities..." The Guardian, February 14th. Bickerton , P. , Bickerton , M. and Pardesi , U. ( 2000) CyberMarketing.Chapter 6 Exploiting your global niche the best marketing mix .Butterorth-Heineman,Oxford.Chartered Institute of Marketing series. Bron, S. (1995), Postmodern Marketing, London, Routledge.
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Chaffey , D., Mayer , R., Johnston , K. and Ellis-Chadwick, F (2003) Internet Marketing: Strategy, Implementation and Practice.Chapter 5 The Internet and the marketing mix. Financial Times/Prentice Hall ,Harlow, Essex . Chaffey D. et al, (2000), Internet Marketing, London, FT Prentice Hall. Chatterjee, P. and Narasimhan, A. (1994), "The Web as a Distribution Channel," Owen Doctoral Seminar Paper. David, P.A. (1991), Computer and dynamo: the modern productivity paradox in a not-to-distant mirror in Technology and Productivity The Challenge for Economic Policy, OECD, Paris. DaveChaffey and PR Smith (2008). E-Marketing e-Xcellence, Planning and optimizing your digital marketing, Chapter 2 Remix Durlacher (2000), "Business to Business ECommerce: Investment Perspective", Durlacher Research Ltd. Dutta, S. and Segev, A. (1999), "Business Transformation on the Internet", European Management Journal, pp. 466-476. Economides, N. (1996), "The Economics of Networks", International Journal of Industrial Organisation, pp. 673699. Economist (2001), Survey: Webbed wings, March 10th. Evans, P. B. and Wurster, T. S. (1999), Blown to Bits: Ho the New Economics of Information Transforms Strategy, Boston, Harvard Business School Press. Forrester Research Report (2000), "E-Marketplaces Boost B2B Trade", February. Franke, R.H. (1987), Technological Revolution and Productivity Decline: The Case of US Banks Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Vol 31. Fraser (1880), quoted in "Special Report on the Ne Economy", (2000) www.economist.com Fullerton, R.A., (1988), Modern Western Marketing as a Historical Phenomenon: Theory and Illustration, in Newett, T. and Fullerton, R.A. (eds), Historical Perspectives in Marketing, Lexington Books, pp. 73 - 89. Gilfillan, S.C. (1935), The Sociology of Invention, London, Follett. Glazer, R. (1991), "Marketing in an Information-Intensive Environment: Strategic Implications of Knowledge as an Asset," Journal of Marketing, 55(October) 1-19. Godin, S. (1999), Permission Marketing, Ne York, Simon and Schuster. Gordon, R. (2000), Does the New Economy match up to the great inventions of the past? Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol 3, No 2, pp. 16 - 23. Gulati, R. (1999), "Network Location and Learning: The Influence of Netork Resources and Firm Capabilities on Alliance Formation", Strategic Management Journal, pp. 293-317. Gulati, R., N. Nohria, N. and Zaheer, A. (2000), "Strategic Networks", Strategic Management Journal, pp. 203215. Hagel, J. III and Armstrong, A.G. (1997), Net Gain: Expanding Markets through Virtual Communities, Boston, Harvard Business School Press. Hoffman, D.L. and Novak, T.P. (1997) A new marketing paradigm for electronic commerce. The Information Society, Special issue on electronic commerce, Vol. 13, JanMar, pp. 4354. Hamel, G. (2000), Leading the Revolution, Boston, Harvard Business School Press. Hamel, G., Doz, Y. and Prahalad, C.K. (1989), "Collaborate ith your Competitors and Win", Harvard Business Review 67(1) pp. 133 - 9. Hanson, W. (2000), Principles of Internet Marketing, Ne York, Thomson Learning. Harris, L. (1999), Building Inter-Firm Netorks: A Case Study of EMC, Journal of New Product Development and Innovation Management 1(3) pp. 211-218. Harris, L. (2001), Ne Organisational Structures: the Marketing Challenges, in Jackson, P. and Suomi, R. (eds) eBusiness and Workplace Design, London, Routledge. Hoffman, D. and Novak, T. (1997), A new Paradigm for Electronic Commerce, The Information Society, Special Edition on Electronic Commerce, 13, January March, pp. 45-59. Hughes, T. P. (1979), The Electrification of America: the System-Builders, Technology and Culture, 20, University of Chicago Press. Introduction to the Marketing Mix ( http://www.thetimes100.co.uk/theory/theory--mar-keting-mix-(price-placepromotion-product)--243.php ). The Times 100 a student and teacher business studies resource centre has a basic introduction to the marketing mix.
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Jardine, L. (1999), The Future Began in 1455, The Spectator, 16th October. Kalakota, R. and Robinson, M. (1999), e-Business: Roadmap for Success, New York, Addison Wesley. Kanter, R. M. (2001), Evolve!: succeeding in the digital culture of tomorro, Boston, Harvard Business School Press. Keith, R. J., (1960), The Marketing Revolution, Journal of Marketing, 24 (January), pp. 35-38. Kogut, B. (2000), "The Netork as Knoledge: Generative Rules and the Emergence of Structure", Strategic Management Journal, pp. 405-425. Kumar, N. (1999), Internet distribution strategies: dilemmas for the incumbent, Financial Times, Special Issue on Mastering Information Management, No 7. (www.ftmastering.com) Leibovich, M. (1999), "Service Workers Without a Smile", Washington Post, 22nd November. Luengo-Jones, S. (2001), All to One: The Winning Model for Marketing in the Post Internet Economy, London, McGraw Hill. Mackenzie, D. and Wajcman, J. (Eds) (1985), The Social Shaping of Technology, Milton Keynes, Oxford University Press. Nadler, D. and Tushman, M. (1999), The Organisation of the Future: Strategic Imperatives and Core Competencies for the 21st Century, Organisational Dynamics, v27, p. 45. Newell, F. (2000), Loyalty.Com: Customer Relationship Management in the Ne Era of Internet Marketing, McGraw-Hill, Ne York. Ogburn, . F. and Thomas, D. (1922), Are Inventions Inevitable? Political Science Quarterly, 34. Parker, R. (2000), Relationship Marketing on the Internet, Holbrook, MA, Adams Media Corporation. Peppers, D. and Rogers, M. (1997), Enterprise One to One, London, Piatkus. Rayport, J. and Sviokla, J. (1996), Exploiting the virtual value chain, The McKinsey Quarterly, 1, 20- 37. Renton, J. (2000), Shirtmaker measures up for selling over the Internet Sunday Times, February 13th. SciVisum (2007) SciVisum: Lost Online Sales Study 2007 UK eCommerce sites riddled with invisible errors http://www.scivisum.co.uk/report/lost_sales_2007/index.htm#summary. Savitt, R. (1980), Historical Research in Marketing, Journal of Marketing, Fall. Seth, J.N. and Sisodia, R.S., (1999), Revisiting Marketings Lawlike Generalisations, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Volume 27, No.1, pp. 71 - 87. Shapiro, C. and Varian, H.R. (1999), Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy, Boston, Harvard Business School Press. Sha, A.. (1916), An approach to Business Problems, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press. Sheldon, R. and Arens, E., (1932), Consumer Engineering: A Ne Technique for Prosperity, New York and London, Harper. Siegel, D. (2000), Futurize Your Enterprise: Business Strategy in the Age of the E-customer, New York, Wiley.
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Translation Shifts in the Persian Translation of a Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens
Department of Linguistics and Foreign Languages, Payame Noor University, I.R. Iran hosseinimasum@pnu.ac.ir
Azadeh Shahbaiki
Department of English, Quchan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Quchan, Iran azadehshahbaiki@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.2n1p391
Abstract Translators use different strategies and approaches in the process of translation. One of these approaches is shift in translation. This study intends to find the realization of Catfords shifts in the Persiantranslation of Charles Dickens A Tale of Two Cities by Ebrahim Younesi. The aim of this study is to find which types of shifts the translator uses, to compare the SL and the TL versions, and to investigate how faithful the translator is to the original text. Furthermore, it intends to find the problems translators face during the translation process. This paper analyses different kinds of category shifts which Catford divides into four subgroups: structure shifts, class shifts, unit shifts and intra-system shifts in translation. To this end, forty sentences ofthe first six chapters of the novel were selected randomly and compared with their corresponding parts in the Persian translation. This study shows that among forty sentences that include forty-three shifts, unit shift is the most frequent type of shift. 37.5% of shifts are unit shifts, 30% class shifts, 12.5% structure shifts and 27.5% intra system shifts. It also shows that shifts are inevitable in some places in the translation process and this is because ofdifferent natures of languages and variations that exist among them, so the translator is forced to deviate from the source text. Key words: Catfords shift, level shift, category shift, structure shift, class shift, unit shift, intra system shift
1. Introduction Translation is an effective phenomenon in everyday life. The role of the translator in this activity is of special importance. In transferring meaning from source language to target language, the translator faces many problems and to make amends for these problems he/she uses different strategies. Scholars analyze the translation process based on different theories. They may take into account the cultural aspects of the source language and target language or a linguistic-based approach proposed as translation shifts by Catford. One of the unavoidable phenomena in translation is translation shift. Shifts are changes that occur during the process of translation from SL to TL. In contrasting texts in different languages translation shifts are observable everywhere. Newmark defined shifts (Catfords term) or transposition (Vinay and Darbelnet) as a translation procedure involving a change in the grammar from SL to TL (1988,p. 85). Shifts are first introduced by Catford (1965) as 'departures from formal correspondence in the process
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of going from the SL to the TL' (p. 73). He presented two main types of translation shifts: Level shifts and category shifts. Categoryshifts are divided into four subgroups: structure shifts, class shifts, unit shifts and intra system shift. This article attempts to investigate the last three types of shifts in Persian translation of *A Tale of Two Cities by Ebrahim Younesi. 2. Review of literature: According to Nida "Translating consists in reproducing the receptor language, the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, firstly in terms of language and secondly in terms of style"(1982, p. 12). In addition, Catford defined translation as "the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)". He further stated that we do not transfer meaning from one language to another, but we replace a source language meaning by a target language meaning- one that can function in the same or a comparable way in the situation. According to Catford, one of the central tasks of translation theory is that of defining a theory of equivalence. (1965, p. 2021) Catford considers equivalence as the basis upon which source language textual material is replaced by a target language textual material. In Catfords model, this can be achieved through either formal correspondence or textual equivalence. Formal correspondence implies a comparison between the language systems but not of specific source text-target text pairs. When formal correspondence is not possible, Catford suggests aiming for textual equivalence, which can be carried out through the translation shifts (ibid, 73). The role of the translator stands as the most recognizable factor. Translators play an active and important role in the process of translation. Newmark (1988) stated that:
A translator, perhaps more than any other practitioner of a profession, is continually faced with choices, for instance when he has to translate words denoting quality, the words of the mental world (adjectives, adverbs, adjectival nouns, e.g. 'good', 'well, 'goodness'), rather than objects or events. In making his choice, he is intuitively or consciously following a theory of translation, just as any teacher of grammar teaches a theory of linguistics.La traduction appelle une theorie en acte, Jean-Rene Ladmiral has written:Translation calls on a theory in action; the translator reviews the criteria for the various options before he makes his selection as a procedure in his translating activity. (p. 8)
The translator may use a variety of procedures that differ in importance according to the contextual factors of both the ST and the TT. One of the unavoidable phenomena in translation is the application of shifts in translation. Shifts were first introduced by Catford (1965) as 'departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL' (p. 73). Hatim and Munday (2004) define shifts simply as the small linguistic changes that occur between units in a STTT pair and propose an example: On some international trains in Europe, there is or used to be, a multilingual warning notice displayed next to the windows:
French: Ne pas se pencher au dehors German: Nichthinauslehnen Italian: Pericoloso sporgersi English: Do not lean out of the window.
The English warning, theonly one to actually mention the window, is a negative imperative,while the Frenchand German use a negative infinitive construction (not to lean outside) and the Italian is a
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statement ([it] is dangerous to lean out). Form is different in the four languages but they transfer the same sense. The structures of the words are different, even when thegrammatical structures are the same (as in the French and German examples).The umber of word forms varies from six (ne pas se pencher au dehors) to two (nichthinauslehnen) (p. 26). Popovic (1970) believes that each individual method of translation is determined by the presence or absence of shifts in the various layers of the translation (p. 78). According to Catford (1965), there are two main types of translation shifts: Level shifts and Category shifts. Level shifts where the SL item at one linguistic level (e.g. grammar) has a TL equivalent at a different level (e.g. lexis), and Category shifts which are divided into four sub-types: - Structure-shifts, which involve a grammatical change between the structure of the ST and that of the TT; - Class-shifts, when a SL item is translated with a TL item which belongs to a different grammatical class, i.e. a verb may be translated into a noun; - Unit-shifts, which involve changes in rank; - Intra-system shifts, which occur when the 'SL and TL possess approximately corresponding systems , but where the translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system' (p. 80). Different studies have been done in this issue and scholars named the phenomenon differently. Larson (1984) named this phenomenon skewing. Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) used the term transposition as one of the four procedures of oblique translation and define it as a change of one part of speech for another without changing the sense.(Vinay and Darbelnet, 2000 as cited in Baker, 1998).They see this phenomenon as probably the most common structural change undertaken by translators. According to Newmark (1988), shift consists of four types: The first type of shift is the change from singular to plural. A second type is required when a SL grammatical structure does not exist in the TL. Here there are always options. Thus for the neutral adjective as subject, there is a choice of at least: 'What is interesting is that', 'The interesting thing is that...', 'It's interesting that, The interest of the matter is that.The third type of shift is the one where literal translation is grammatically possible but may not accord with natural usage in the TL. The fourth type of transposition is the replacement of a virtual lexical gap by a grammatical structure (pp. 86- 87). Newmark (1988) stated that transpositions illustrate a frequent tension between grammar and stress. Usually, the word order is changed unnecessarily, and it is sometimes more appropriate to translate with a lexical synonym, retain the word order and forgo the transposition in order to preserve the stress. For example, it is not appropriate to translate completely false as There is absolutely no truth. Transposition is the only translation procedure concerned with grammar, and most translators make transpositions intuitively. However, it is likely that comparative linguistics research, and analysis of text corpuses and their translations, will uncover a further number of serviceable transpositions for us (p. 88). Different scholars have been working on various aspects of this issue. Cyrus (2006) in his paperdescribes an interdisciplinary approach, which brings together the fields of corpus linguistics and translation studies. It presentsongoing work on the creation of a corpus resource in which translation shifts are explicitly annotated. The resource described inhis paper contains English source texts (parliamentaryproceedings) and their German translations. The shift annotation is based on predicate-argument structures and proceeds in two steps: First, predicates and their arguments are annotated monolingually in a straightforward manner. Then, the corresponding English andGerman predicates and arguments are aligned with each other. Whenever a shift mainly grammatical or semantic has occurred, thealignment is tagged accordingly.
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Retnomurti and Imran (n.d.) in their work compare the translation of Indonesian Noun Phrases into English and describe the types of equivalence and shift in theEnglish translation of Indonesian noun phrases. They classify the data intotwo main categories: the equivalence and shift. The equivalence is subcategorized intoTextual equivalence: SL subject-NP is translated into TL subject-NP; SL predicateNPis translated into TL predicate-NP; SL object-NP is translated into TL object-NP,Linguistic equivalence: SL plural-NP is translated into TL plural-NP; SL singular-NP istranslated into TL singular-NP, and Dynamic equivalence. The result of this research shows that the shift occurs more than the equivalence, with the percentage of 58 % *and the equivalence with the percentage of 42 %. Al-Zoubi and Al-Hassnawi (2001) in their article attempt to construct a workable eclectic model for shift analysis and provide a sound machinery to analyze various types of shifts in translation at various levels of linguistic and paralinguistic description. They concluded that the phenomenon of 'shift' should be redefined positively as the consequence of the translator's effort to establish translation equivalence (TE) between two different language-systems: that of the SL and that of the TL. Sadeghi Ghadi (2010) in his studyclassifies the cohesion shift of expression based on the theory proposed by Blum-Kulka (as cited in Venuti, 2000) about Shifts of Cohesion and Coherence in Translation'. This theory is supported by Larson (1998) for the analysis of meaning components of a concept of expression, for the translation equivalent. This paper intends to find the realization of level and category shifts in Persian translation of A Tale of Two Cities by Ebrahim Younesi. 3. Methodology This paper investigates the realization of Catfords category shifts in Persian translation of A Tale of Two Cities by Ebrahim Younesi. For this purpose, forty sentences wereselected randomly from first six chapters of the novel and compared with corresponding parts in Persian translation to analyze the types and extent of shifts the translator had used. 4. Data Analysis In this paper,40 sentences wererandomly selected and compared with their corresponding part in Persian translation. The type of shift in each sentence has been defined within Catfords model. 1. which, strange to relate, have proved more important to the human race than any communications yet received through any of the chickens of the Cock-lane brood. . Class shift: Adjective to Noun 2. In England, there was scarcely an amount of order and protection to justify much national boasting. : Unit shift: Word to Group 3. the mall was waylaid by seven robbers . structure shift: Passive to Active 4. nobodythought any of these occurrences much out of the common way. . Class shift: Verb to Noun 5. denying that the coach could be got up the hill. . structure shift: Passive to Active
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6. the guard got down to skid the wheel for the descent, and open the coach-door to let the
passengers in. . Class shift: Noun to Verb 7. The stillness consequent on the cessation of the rumbling and labouring of the coach, added to the stillness of the night, made it very quiet indeed. . Unit shift: Word to Group 8. Our booked passenger showed in a moment that it was his name. . Unit shift: Word to Group 9. not because they had theleast relish for walking exercise, under the circumstances . Unit shift: Word to Group 10. I belong to Tellsons Bank. . Class shift: Verb to Noun 11. every one of those darkly clustered houses encloses its own secret . Unit shift: Word to Group 12. andthe mud, and themail, were all so heavy Unit shift: Word to Group 13. With drooping heads and tremulous tails, Unit shift: Word to Group 14. but evincing a tendency to keep his own counsel . Class shift: Noun to Verb 15. Bed, sir? Unit shift: Word to Group 16. loaded with heavy dark tables . Intra system shift: Plural to Singular 17. the two tall candles on the table in the middle of the room . Intra system shift: Plural to Singular 18. Miss Manette to be, for the moment, in some adjacent room, . Intra system shift: Singular to plural 19. Mr. Lorrys thoughts seemed to cloud too. . Class shift: Verb to Adjective 20. Itwastoldme by the Bank that the gentleman would explain to me the details of the business.
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. Structure shift: Passive to Active 21. I naturally have a strong and eager interest to know what they are . Unit shift: GrouptoWord 22. as if with an involuntary action she caught at, or stayed some passing shadow. . Class shift: Adjective to Verb 23. There appearing to be no other door on that floor, . Class shift: Verb to Adverb. 24. The garret, built to be a depository for firewood and the like, was dim and dark. . Class shift: Noun to Verb 25. The faintness of the voice was pitiable and dreadful. . Unit shift: Word to Group 26. It was like the last feeble echo of a sound made long and long ago. ... Unit shift: Group toWord 27. Some minutes1 of silent work had passed2 Intra system shift: Plural to Singular1 Intra system shift: Past perfect toSimple past2 28. and the haggard1 eyes had looked up2 again . Unit shift: Word to Group1 Intra system shift: Past perfect to Simple past2 29. The opened half-door was opened a little further Structure shift: Passive to Active 30. various scraps of leather were at his feet and on his bench. Intra system shift: Plural to Singular 31. When he had stood, for a minute or two, by the side of Defarge, ... . ... Intra system shift: Past perfect to Simple past 32. The look and the actionhad occupied but an instant. . Intra system shift: Past perfect to Simple past 33. He glanced at the shoe with somelittle passing touch of pride. . Class shift: Noun to Adjective
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34. Is that all?

Unit shift: Group to Word 35. and I have made shoes eversince.
""
. ... Intra system shift: Plural to Singular 36. some long obliteratedmarks of an actively intent intelligence in the middle ofthe forehead ... Class shift: Adverb to Noun
37. gradually forced themselves through the black mist that had fallen on him.
. Unit shift: Word to Group 38. They1 were overclouded2 again .2 1 Intra system shift: Plural to Singular Structure shift: Passive to Active 39. He looked atthe two, less and less attentively, Class shift: Adverb to Noun 40. Andresumed his work. . Unit shift: Word to Group 5. Conclusion This study intended to find the realization of Catfords shifts in the Persian translation of A Tale of Two Cities by Ebrahim Younesi. This paper analyzesdifferent types ofshifts in translation. For this purpose, forty sentences of the first six chapters of the novel were selected randomly and compared with their corresponding parts in the Persian translation. The resultsindicate that among forty sentences that include forty-three shifts, unit shift is the most frequent type of shift. The extent to which each of the different types of shiftsis used is as follow:
Type of shift Number Percent Structure shift 5 12.5% Class shift 12 30% Unit shift 15 37.5% Intra system shift 11 27.5%
The investigation also shows that shifts are inevitable in some places during the translation process and this is because of different natures of languages and variations that exist among them, so the translator is forced to deviate from the source text. References
Al-Zoubi, Mohammad Q. R and Ali Rasheed Al-Hassnawi (2001). Constructing a Model for Shift Analysis in Translation. Translation Journal.5, (4).Retrived October 22, 2010, from http://accurapid.com/journal/18theory.htm.
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Catford, J. C. (1965).A Linguistic Theory of Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cyrus, Lea. (2006). Building a resource for studying translation shifts.ArbeisbereichLinguistik.27, 148149.University of Munster Hufferstrae. Hatim, Basil and Jeremy Munday. (2004). Translation: An advanced resource book.London and New York: Routhledge. Larson,L.(1984). Meaning Based Translation: A guide to Cross-Language Equivalence. University press of America, Lanham. Munday, J (2001). Introducing Translation Studies; theories and applications. Routhledge. Newmark, Peter. (1991). Approaches to Translation. Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd. Nida, Eugine. (2000). Principles of Correspondence. In The Translation Studies Reader. 126-140. London: Routledge. Popovi, A (1970). "The concept 'shift of expression' in Translation,". Holmes, J. (ed.) The Nature of Translation. Mouton: The Hague. Retnomurti, AyuBandu and Indiyah Imran (n.d.). The Equivalence and Shift in the English Translation of Indonesian Noun Phrases. Universitas Gunadarma Jl. Margonda Raya no: 100 Depok. Sadeghi Ghadi, Alireza (2010). Shift In Translation Or Translation Shift. Retrieved November 3, 2010, from http://www.articlesbase.com/non-fiction-articles/shift-in-translation-or-translation-shift-2116778.html. Vinay, J.P. and J. Darbelnet (1995). Comparative Stylistics of French and English: a Methodology for Translation. (J. C. Sager and M. J. Hamel, Trans.) Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
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A General Overview on the Nominal Predicate in English and Albanian Languages

MA Suzana Samarxhiu Gjata
Lecturer Aleksander Moisiu University, Durres e-mail smrxh@yahoo.com tel: 00355 69 24 57 734
Anisa Koci
Email: anisakoci@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.2n1p399
Abstract The aim of this paper is to make a comparison of the nominal predicate in two different languages, English and Albanian. We have tried to make a general analysis of this part of speech, studying it from the semantic, morphological and syntactical point of view. Key words: nominal predicate, subject, object, noun, adjective
1. Introduction To treat a theme on nominal predicates, includes a wide scope of knowledge, recognition practices. However, in this paper we tried to present it in more detail and objective uses of predicates nouns in English and Albanian compared with each other. It presents a variety of uses, so linguists make the nominal predicate occasionally the object of their studies in order to go up to the meaning of any uncertainty regarding its operation, competition with other parts of the speech as well as its segregation in some of its uses. From the semantic point of view we say that through nominal predicates appear multiple shades affective expression, it represents a process through the lens of speakers giving his personal attitude towards a person or thing. From the morphological point of view complex nominal predicates is formed from a copular verb and from another part of speech, noun or adjective. From the syntactic point of view it enters into relationship with the subject or the object in order to form what we call the complex object. Predicate nominative formed by the copula and the nominal part is a subdivision of the classification made to compound predicates. 2. Copular verb The notion of the copular verbs is a very important research. In English the notion of the copular verb is broader than it is generally accepted in Albanian language. In defining this notion, copular verbs should
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be analyzed according to its semantic and syntactic features. In both languages,copula which serves as a connector between the subject and the nominal part is meaningless. It is classified into: a). verbs indicating state and b). verb indicating a change of state. Besides its meaningless, there has been noticed full lexical meaning of these verbs so in this case we have to do with semi- copular verbs. These kinds of verbs were not mentioned ever in today's stage of Albanian language.
"He came home tired".( English) Ai erdhi i lodhur. (Albanian)
The verb used in this clause implies two meanings, the fact that he came and his conditions when he came as well. Tired is the nominal part which comes after the verb. A further analyses is done on the nominal part of the clause. We have tried to reflect the common and different features of this part of speech in two languages, English and Albanian. 3. Nominal predicate In both languages the nominal predicate is expressed by a noun to give characteristics on the subject or the object. This noun might be indefinite to show identifying quality or definite to show classifying quality. When the noun is used definitely, it can change its position in the clause and it can be placed before the predicate in both languages. The difference between the two languages stands on the use of the noun indefinitely. The indefinite noun in English cannot change its position, whereas the indefinite noun in Albanian language can change the position due to the nature of this language whose elements adapt easily. The nominal part in English expressed by a noun adapts with the subject in number and rarely in gender, whereas in Albanian it adjusts with the subject in gender, number and case. In both languages, in the function of nominal predicate are used even the pronouns like: interrogative pronouns and indefinite pronouns. The main difference between English and Albanian stands on the personal pronoun. In English language after the copula, the pronoun is mostly used in its objective case whereas in Albanian language, the pronoun is used in its nominal case. In both languages adjectives have a wider use in the position of the nominal part. In Albanian the adjective is used with or without a knot. In English the adjectives dont adapt with the subject or the object, whereas in Albanian they adapt with these parts of speech in number and gender. The position of the adjectives in both languages is not fixed. Their position is conditioned by stylistic and expressive-emotional factors; in the neutral literary discourse they stand after the predicate, in literary discourse, especially in spoken expressive-emotional coloration discourse they are used before the predicate. Adverbs are often used in the function of the nominal part in both languages. They enter into discourse as a phrase logical unit, lose their original meaning and location show a quality of the subject. Some adverbs used in English are: well, alive etc. in Albanian these are called reliktor adjectives. The nominal part enters into relationship even with the object. The object in this case is the socalled the complex-object. The subject in a clause shows quality of the object through the predicative.
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The predicative o the object is expressed by a noun, adjective or noun with preposition. In both languages, the noun in the function of predicative adapts in number. In Albanian language it adapts in gender, but it rarely happens in English. Ex:prince princess. When the range of homogeneous parts, there is an object expressed by masculine nouns and pronouns, the predicative expressed by the adjective is used in masculine as the representative gender. As a conclusion, we may say that the predicative is classified as compulsory or optional in the clause. It is compulsory when it cannot be removed from the sentence as she cannot stand grammatically and semantically. The predicative is optional when it can be easily removed from the sentence without destroying its grammatical structure, but its semantic meaning remains the same. References
Akademia e shkencave t Shqipris, (1997) Gramatika e gjuhs shqipe II, Tirane Dhrimo. A. (1969).Mbi disa shtje t klasifikimit morfologjik t mbiemrave Studime filologjike Nr.1 page 4969 Prnaska. R. (1973) Gramatika e gjuhs shqipe II pr shkolln pedagogjike, 1973, page. 72 Rrota .J. (1943) Sintaksa e gjuhs shqipe,page 8 Rrushi. Th. (1987) Disa shtje t gjymtyrve t dyta t fjalis n gjuhn shqipe Studime filologjike Nr. 3, 1987 page.123 Sheperi I. (1927) Gramatika dhe sintaksa e gjuhs shqipe,page 149 Totoni. M. (1976) Prcaktori Kallzuesor,.Studime Filologjike. Nr. 3 page 87-112 Bernd Kortmann( 2004 ) Dialectology meets typology: dialect grammar from a cross-linguistic perspective, 2004 page 61. Walter de Gruyter&Co Berl Den Dicken (2006) Relators and linkers: the syntax of predication, predicate inversion, and copulas. page 44. Massachusetts Harvey. M. (2003) The Nuts & Bolts of College writing. page. 15-16 Hackett Publishing Company, Inc USA Harrie Wetzer (1996) The typology of adjectival predication page 165-166 Mouton de Gryter Berlin Heycock , Kroch (2006) Relators and linkers: the syntax of predication, predicate inversion, and Copulas, page.44. Pullum Cambridge Higgings (1979) Copular clauses, page 204-293 Jespersen. O.( 2006) Essentials of English Grammar,. page 89-95. George Allan&Unwin Ltd UK Laurie Rozakis (2003) The complete idiots guide to grammar and style,page.37 McGraw Hill Company United States of America Leon Stassen 2003 Intransitive predication, page 62. Oxford University press. Mikkelsen (2005) Copular clauses: specification, predication and equation, page. 118 John Benjamins Publishing company O'Dwyer. B. ( 2006) Modern English Structures: Form, Function, And Position, page. 64 Broadview Press Canada Quirk. (1985) A Comprehensive grammar of the English language, page 171. Longman Rodney D. Huddleston, Geoffrey K. Pullum (2005) A student's introduction to English grammar page 77 Simon C. Dik, Kees Hengeveld (1999) The theory of functional grammar, Volume 1, page 193- 202 Walter de Gruyter&Co Berlin
The predicative expressed by an adjective, in English, does not adapt with the object. In Albanian language, the predicative adapts with the object in number, gender, case.
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Assessing the Pedagogical Competences of Teacher Educators in the Teacher Education Institution of Pakistan
Tariq Mahmood
PhD Research Fellow University of Education, Division of Education College road Town ship, Lahore Corresponding author +923014981592 Email: tariq_903@hotmail.com
Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed

Regional Director (Gujranwala), Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad
Muhammad Tanvir Iqbal

PhD Research Fellow University of Education, Division of Education College road Town ship, Lahore
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.2n1p403
Abstract The study is designed to investigate the prevailing situation of teachers pedagogical competencies according to four indicators (subject knowledge, teaching strategy, resource material and assessment criteria) at higher education level. The main objectives of this study were to: assess the teachers performance using identified indicators, and compare the quality control system among different institutions and departments of the same institution. The sample of this study was 700 students in the 11 institutions and 636 students responded to this questionnaire hence the response rate was about 90%. A questionnaire was developed to collect data from the sample, and the validation of questionnaire was also ensured. The overall reliability of this questionnaire was established at 0.87 (Chronbachs Alpha) which shows that the research instrument was reliable. The collected data was analyzed by using inferential statistics (T-Test) through SPSS Software. Data was analyzed to assess the difference in the use of pedagogical skills and techniques by the teachers of different universities. Comparisons inter university and among the different departments of the same university were done. Both significant as well as non-significant results were found among the different departments of universities.
1. Introduction Importance and necessity of any education system is vital for the prosperity of any country or nation. Teachers are the heart and soul of any education system and quality of that education system would be based on many factors but most crucial is quality of teachers. Since higher education caused the socioeconomic and moral development of the nation, therefore at this level, would be high expectations with teachers performance.
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Teacher abilities play a vital role in students achievements and performance at all levels of education. Teachers performance can be assessed through students achievement. In this regard, Ackerman et al, (2006) concluded that the greatest determinate of student achievement is the teachers characteristic such as: teacher training, teaching experiences, pedagogical practices, and professional development. In this respect, Darling, (2000) founded that teachers abilities to structure material, ask higher order questions, use student ideas, and probe student comments are important variables in what students learn. According to Miller, (2003) Student characteristics, School characteristics, and teacher characteristics accounting for Variance in Student Achievement are 80%, 7%, and 13% respectively. Marzano, (2003) reviewed a study which reveals a 39 percentage-point difference in student achievement between students with most effective and least effective teachers. On the other side, Hawley, (1985) focused on rewards for teachers and pointed out that for high performance, economic rewards are important; in order to keep higher levels of pay and status, teachers carry on showing high performance; there should not be any competitive rewards which can discourage peer interaction and social approval, important to effective teaching. Teachers practices and abilities play a dominant role in students achievement and performance. According to Darling-Hammond, (1999), the ability of teachers is one of the most powerful determinants of student achievementmore influential, in fact, than poverty, race, or the educational attainment of parents. Pedagogy or methodology is considered as any conscious activity by a person designed to enhance learning of another (Watkins and Mortimore, 1999). Teaching methodology is a useful element in an education process which enhances the teachinglearning process. Thus it is the heart of students learning. If a teacher has an ocean of knowledge, it might be useless without proper teaching methodology. In this connection, Perry, et al (1995) for instance, uses the observation of differences in teaching methods that are assumed to be correlated to learning outcomes. Muijs & Reynolds (2005), discussed that most effective teaching strategies are at the disposal of teachers is direct instruction. This teaching method was found to be effective in a large number of studies that linked findings from classroom observation to measures of pupil outcomes. Miller (2003) identifies nine instructional strategies that enhance student achievement. These are: Identifying similarities and differences, Summarizing and note taking, Reinforcing effort and providing recognition. On the other side when we see other studies related to subject material of teachers such as Kerr & Berliner (2002), states that studies often either evaluate: 1) whether a major or minor in a subject area, e.g., mathematics, effects student achievement); 2) Whether certification of teachers affects student achievement 3) Whether advanced degrees, e.g., master's degree, or professional development increase student achievement. Each of these areas of evidence will be reviewed separately. Monk & King (1994) also evaluated subject-matter preparation and student performance. In an earlier analysis Monk (1994) had found that there was a "positive relationship between the number of subject-related courses in a teacher's background and subsequent performance gains of these teachers students within the indicated subject area. Regarding the attitude of teachers, Hoogeveen, et al (2009), mentioned that knowledgeable teachers, with a positive attitude toward accelerated students, should be alert about possible prejudices of classmates and should aim for an accepting, tolerating climate in the classroom. It would be concluded that teachers performance consists of teachers academic qualification, quality of teacher training, teaching experiences, pedagogical practices, professional development, structuring the material, ask higher order questions, use student ideas, and probe student comments, empathy, mentoring, coaching, subject knowledge, dedication, commitment, ability to communicate, and class management ability etc. According to Ubben & Hughes (1992), effective teachers are those that provide pupil with maximum opportunities to learn. If a teachers role is to help others to develop their learning capacities, it follows that management activities, organizational structures, systems and
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processes need to intersect to maximized teaching and learning opportunities. The manifest propose of the teachers role performance is to produce learning in students. The teachers authority ultimately rests in the authority of his subject. For such a teacher his subject expertise is absolutely central to his identity. Subject knowledge of teacher is important but assessment strategy and criteria of teacher is also at the key position to check teaching level of teachers. The collection of student ratings is not the only way or the best way but rather one way to evaluate instruction. Professionals in the field of teacher evaluation advocate a multiple-source and multiple-method approach to evaluating teaching effectiveness. The collection of student ratings should be combined with data collected from different sources using various methods such as peer review, teaching portfolios, classroom-observations, or self-evaluation. Educational assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs. Assessment can focus on the individual learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or other organized group of learners), the institution, or the educational system as a whole. The main purposes of educational assessment are to provide teachers with feedback about pupils progress, Provide pupils with educative feedback, Motivate pupil, provide a record of progress, Provide a statement of current attainment, Assess pupils readiness for future learning. The teacher performance appraisal provides the opportunity in a systematic and structured way outside of every-day working routine, to discuss matters that support and advance target-oriented cooperation. The main objectives of this study were to: identify the indicators of teachers performance, Assess the teachers performance using identified indicators, Compare the quality control system among different institutions and departments of the same institution. A questionnaire was developed and administered for the collection of data. The collected data was analyzed through SPSS software. The overall reliability of this questionnaire was established at 0.87 (Chronbachs Alpha) which shows that the research instrument was reliable. The results of data collection were as under: Table 1 comparison of PU and UE across four major indicators
Aspect S.K T.S R.M AC University UE PU UE PU UE PU UE PU N 412 187 410 187 412 184 411 184 Mean 24.54 24.57 33.09 33.01 19.49 21.82 23.13 22.62 Standard Deviation 5.045 4.722 5.216 5.287 5.470 4.722 4.458 4.307 Sig. .953 .850 .000 .189 t- Value -.059 -.060 .189 .188 -5.010 -5.299 1.314 1.331
*S.K = Subject knowledge *A.C = Assessment criteria
*T.S =Teaching strategy *N = Number of respondents
*R.M = Resource material *Sig. = Level of significance.
Table1, indicates that the significant levels of subject knowledge(S.K.), teaching strategy(T.S.), and assessment criteria(A.C.) are 0.953, 0.85, and 0.189 respectively which are greater than the value of p=0.05. This show that there is no significant difference regarding competency of subject knowledge, use of teaching strategy, and use of assessment criteria by both universities teachers i. e. University of Education and Punjab University. On the other side significant level of resource material (R.M) is .000 < 0.05, which highlights that there is significant difference regarding proper and effective use of
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resource material (R.M) between the teachers of both universities. This difference may exist, because UE is newly established university and might be their teachers have scare resources but the results show high degree in UE teachers. This can be shown in graph as under.
Graph I Comparison of four indicators between PU and UE Table 2 Inter-Departmental Comparison of F.C.College about four indicators
Aspect Department N Mean Std. Deviation Sig. t- Value
S.K T.S R.M AC
Dept. of Eng. Dept. of Math. Dept. of Eng. Dept. of Math. Dept. of Eng. Dept. of Math. Dept. of Eng. Dept. of Math.
19 10 19 10 19 10 19 10
25.74 24.40 35.21 34.20 21.11 21.10 26.16 26.00
2.353 2.459 3.645 4.894 4.067 3.929 3.060 3.127
.164 .534 .997 .897
1.432 1.412 .630 .574 .003 .003 .131 .130
*S.K = Subject Knowledge. *A.C = Assessment Criteria
*T.S = Teaching Strategy *N = Number of Respondents
*R.M =Resource Material *Sig. = Level of significance
Table 2, indicates that the significant levels of subject knowledge(S.K), teaching strategy(T.S), resource material (R.M), and assessment criteria(A.C) are 0.164,0.534, 0.997, and 0.897 respectively which are greater than the value of p=0.05. This shows that there is no significant difference regarding competency of subject knowledge, use of teaching strategy, proper use of resource material (R.M) and effective use of assessment criteria of teachers of English and Mathematics departments of F.C. College Lahore. This is more clear in the Graph II as shown below.
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Graph II Mean values of two departments of F. C. College Table 3 Inter-Departmental Comparison about Four Indicators within PU
Aspect S.K T.S R.M A.C Department Dept. of Eco. Dept. of IER Dept. of Eco. Dept. of IER Dept. of Eco. Dept. of IER Dept. of Eco. Dept. of IER N 56 131 56 131 56 128 56 128 Mean 23.79 24.90 32.38 33.27 20.88 22.23 22.96 22.47 Std. Deviation 4.670 4.723 5.633 5.131 3.673 5.072 3.390 4.657 0.419 0.043 0.288 Sig. 0.140 t- Value -1.484 -1.490 -1.066 -1.027 -1.808 -2.045 .717 .810
Table 3, indicates that the significance level of subject knowledge(S.K), teaching strategy(T.S), and assessment criteria(A.C) are 0.140, 0.288, 0.419 respectively which are greater than the value of p=0.05. This shows that there is no significant difference regarding competency of subject knowledge, effective use of teaching strategy, and proper use of assessment criteria (A.C) of Economics and IER departments of PU teachers. And significant level of resource material (R.M) is 0.043 < p=0.05. This highlights that there is significant difference regarding proper use of resource material (R.M) of Economics and IER departments of PU teachers. It may be clear with the Graph III.
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Graph III Comparison of two departments of Punjab University Table 4 Comparison of departments of University of Education w.r.t. four aspects
Aspect S.K T.S R.M A.C Department Bank Road Campus Div. of Edu. Campus Bank Road Campus Div. of Edu. Campus Bank Road Campus Div. of Edu. Campus Bank Road Campus Div. of Edu. Campus N 84 58 84 58 84 58 83 58 Mean 23.70 23.07 32.62 29.71 20.54 15.17 21.98 21.90 Std. Deviation 6.430 4.400 6.872 5.694 6.931 3.830 6.251 4.455 0.930 0.000 0.009 Sig. 0.487 t- Value .652 .697 2.658 2.750 5.352 5.906 .083 .088
Table 4, indicates that the significant levels of subject knowledge (S.K), and assessment criteria (A.C) are 0.487 and 0.930 respectively which are greater than the value of p=0.05. This show that there is not significant difference regarding competency of subject knowledge, and properly use of assessment criteria (A.C) of teachers of Bank Road Campus, and Division of Education Campus of UE. And significant level of teaching strategy (T.S), and resource material (R.M) are 0.009, and 0.000 < p=0.05. This highlights that there is significant difference regarding proper use of teaching strategy (T.S), and resource material (R.M) of teachers of Bank Road Campus (BRC), and Div. of Edu. Campus (DEC) of UE. Their mean depicts that the teachers of Bank Road Campus properly and effectively use teaching strategy (T.S) and resource material (R.M) than the teachers of Div. of Edu. Campus. This might be due to lack of resources and teaching training of teachers of Div. of Edu. Campus.
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Graph IV Comparison of two departments of University of Education Table 5 Comparison of departments of University of Education w.r.t. four aspects
Aspect S.K T.S R.M A.C Department Bank Road Campus Div. of Arts Campus Bank Road Campus Div. of Arts Campus Bank Road Campus Div. of Arts Campus Bank Road Campus Div. of Arts Campus N 84 20 84 20 84 20 83 20 Mean 23.70 28.20 32.62 37.65 20.54 22.30 21.98 25.85 Std. Deviation 6.430 2.262 6.872 2.621 6.931 4.566 6.251 5.050 .012 .282 .000 Sig. .000 t- Value -3.073 -5.200 -3.209 -5.286 -1.082 -1.389 -2.574 -2.932
Table 5, indicates that the significance level of resource material (R.M) is .282> p=0.05. This shows that there is no significant difference regarding proper use of resource material (R.M) of teachers of Bank Road Campus, and Division of Arts Campus (DAC) of UE. And significance level of subject knowledge (S.K), teaching strategy (T.S), and assessment criteria (A.C) are .000, .000, and .012 < p=0.05 respectively. This highlights that there is significant difference regarding proper use of subject knowledge (S.K), teaching strategy (T.S), and assessment criteria (A.C) of teachers of Bank Road Campus, and Div. of Arts Campus of UE. Their means depict that the teachers of Div. of Arts Campus use subject knowledge (S.K), teaching strategy (T.S) and assessment criteria (A.C) more properly and effectively than the teachers of Bank Road Campus. This difference might be due to availability of more qualified teachers, and more teachers training programs for the development of the teachers of Div. of Arts Campus.
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Graph VI Comparison of two departments of University of Education Table 6 Comparison of departments of University of Education w.r.t. four aspects
Aspect S.K T.S R.M A.C Department Div. of Edu. Campus Div. of Arts Campus Div. of Edu. Campus Div. of Arts Campus Div. of Edu. Campus Div. of Arts Campus Div. of Edu. Campus Div. of Arts Campus N 58 20 58 20 58 20 58 20 Mean 23.07 28.20 29.71 37.65 15.17 22.30 21.90 25.85 Std. Deviation 4.400 2.262 5.694 2.621 3.830 4.566 4.455 5.050 .001 .000 .000 Sig. .000 t- Value -4.978 -6.682 -6.003 -8.361 -6.826 -6.262 -3.306 -3.109
Table 6, indicates that the significance level of subject knowledge (S.K), teaching strategy (T.S), resource material (R.M) ,and assessment criteria (A.C) are .000, .000, .000 and .001< p=0.05 respectively. This highlights that there is significant difference regarding proper use of subject knowledge (S.K), teaching strategy (T.S), resource material (R.M), and assessment criteria (A.C) of teachers of Division of Education and Division of Arts Campuses of UE. Their means depict that the teachers of Div. of Arts Campus properly and effectively use subject knowledge (S.K), teaching strategy (T.S), resource material (R.M), and assessment criteria (A.C) than the teachers of Div. of Edu. Campus. The reason of this difference may be the qualification of the teachers, competence in pedagogy and reasonable availability of resources in Div. of Arts Campus.
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Graph IV comparison of three departments of University of Education. Table 7 Inter-GCET Comparison about Four Indicators in UE
Aspect S.K T.S R.M A.C Institution GCET Chiniot GCET Jhelum GCET Chiniot GCET Jhelum GCET Chiniot GCET Jhelum GCET Chiniot GCET Jhelum N 20 14 20 13 20 14 20 14 Mean 25.35 23.64 35.05 32.15 24.40 18.71 25.55 22.57 Std. Deviation 2.661 3.795 2.064 4.811 2.393 5.090 1.959 3.368 .008 .001 .058 Sig. .132 t- Value 1.545 1.452 2.390 2.051 4.372 3.889 3.257 2.976
Significance level of subject knowledge (S.K), and teaching strategy (T.S), is .132 and.058 > p=0.05 respectively (Table 7). This shows that there is no significant difference regarding proper use of subject knowledge (S.K), and teaching strategy (T.S), of teachers of GCET Chiniot and GCET Jhelum, while the significance level of resource material (R.M) and assessment criteria (A.C) are .001and .008 < p=0.05 respectively. This highlights that there is significant difference regarding proper use of resource material (R.M) and assessment criteria (A.C) of teachers of GCET Chiniot, and GCET Jhelum. Their means depict that the teachers of GCET Chiniot use more properly and effectively resource material (R.M) and assessment criteria (A.C) than the teachers of GCET Jhelum. This difference may be due to better adaptation of better mechanism of assessment of the students by teachers of GCET Chiniot.
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Graph VII Comparison of two GCETs of Chiniot and Jehlum Table 8 Comparison of two GCETs of Punjab province w.r.t. four aspects
Aspect S.K T.S R.M A.C Institution GCET Kamalia GCET Kot Lakhpat GCET Kamalia GCET Kot Lakhpat GCET Kamalia GCET Kot Lakhpat GCET Kamalia GCET Kot Lakhpat N 60 20 60 19 60 20 60 20 Mean 23.47 23.10 32.55 31.37 19.33 15.70 22.67 20.95 Std. Deviation 4.156 2.245 5.034 3.166 4.653 4.219 3.433 1.605 Sig. .620 .339 .003 .004 t- Value .376 .499 .962 1.212 3.092 3.249 2.152 3.010
Table 8, indicates that the significance level of subject knowledge (S.K), and teaching strategy (T.S), is .620 and.339 > p=0.05 respectively. This shows that there is no significant difference regarding proper use of subject knowledge (S.K), and teaching strategy (T.S), of teachers of GCET Kamalia, and GCET Kot Lakhpat, while significance level of resource material (R.M) and assessment criteria (A.C) is .003and .004 < p=0.05 respectively. This highlights that there is significant difference regarding proper use of resource material (R.M) and assessment criteria (A.C) of teachers of GCET Kamalia, and GCET Kot Lakhpat. Their means depict that the teachers of GCET Kamalia use more properly and effectively resource material (R.M) and assessment criteria (A.C) than the teachers of GCET Kot Lakhpat.
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Graph VIII Comparison of two GCETs of Kamalia and Kot lakhpat Table 9 Comparison of two GCETs of Punjab province w.r.t. four aspects
Aspect S.K T.S R.M A.C Institution GCET Lalamusa GCET Mianwali GCET Lalamusa GCET Mianwali GCET Lalamusa GCET Mianwali GCET Lalamusa GCET Mianwali N 20 30 20 30 20 30 20 30 Mean 26.60 26.80 36.00 32.93 21.75 17.23 25.60 23.73 Std. Deviation 1.875 9.785 2.077 4.495 3.059 4.423 2.521 3.352 Sig. .929 .002 .000 .039 t- Value .929 .914 .006 .002 .000 .000 .039 .030
Table 9, indicates that the significance level of subject knowledge (S.K) is .929 > p=0.05. This shows that there is no significant difference regarding proper use of subject knowledge (S.K) of teachers of GCET Lalamusa, and GCET Mianwali. And significance level of teaching strategy (T.S), resource material (R.M) and assessment criteria (A.C) are .002, .000.and .039 < p=0.05 respectively. This highlights that there is significant difference regarding proper use of teaching strategy (T.S), resource material (R.M) and assessment criteria (A.C) of teachers of GCET Lalamusa, and GCET Mianwali. Their means depict that the teachers of GCET Lalamusa use more properly and effectively teaching strategy (T.S), resource material (R.M) and assessment criteria (A.C) than the teachers of GCET Mianwali.
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Graph IX Comparison of two GCETs of Lala musa and Mianwali Table 10 Comparison of two GCETs of Punjab province w.r.t. four aspects
Aspect S.K T.S R.M A.C Institution GCET Narowal GCET Pasrur GCET Narowal GCET Pasrur GCET Narowal GCET Pasrur GCET Narowal GCET Pasrur N 30 27 30 27 30 27 30 27 Mean 24.33 25.85 32.57 36.22 19.07 23.33 23.27 24.11 Std. Deviation 3.231 2.741 2.373 2.913 4.571 4.985 3.279 4.560 Sig. .062 .000 .001 .422 t- Value -1.902 -1.919 -5.215 -5.159 -3.371 -3.356 -.809 -.795
Table 10, indicates that the significance level of subject knowledge (S.K) and assessment criteria (A.C) is .062 and .422 > p=0.05 respectively. This shows that there is no significant difference regarding proper use of subject knowledge (S.K) and assessment criteria (A.C) of teachers of GCET Narowal, and GCET Pasrur. And significant level of teaching strategy (T.S), and resource material (R.M) is .000. and .001 < p=0.05 respectively. This highlights that there is significant difference regarding proper use of teaching strategy (T.S), and resource material (R.M) of teachers of GCET Narowal, and GCET Pasrur. Their means depict that the teachers of GCET pasrur use teaching strategy (T.S), and resource material (R.M) more effectively and properly than the teachers of GCET Narowal.
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Graph X Comparison of two GCETs of Narowal and Pasrur Table 11 Comparison of two GCETs of Punjab province w.r.t. four aspects
Aspect S.K T.S R.M A.C Institution GCET Sahiwal GCET Pasrur GCET Sahiwal GCET Pasrur GCET Sahiwal GCET Pasrur GCET Sahiwal GCET Pasrur N 29 27 29 27 29 27 29 27 Mean 25.72 25.85 35.21 36.22 20.69 23.33 24.76 24.11 Std. Deviation 2.202 2.741 3.331 2.913 2.740 4.985 2.996 4.560 Sig. .848 .231 .019 .530 t- Value -.193 -.191 -1.210 -1.216 -2.483 -2.435 .632 .623
Table 11, indicates that the significant levels of subject knowledge (S.K), teaching strategy (T.S), and assessment criteria (A.C) are .842, .231 and .530 > p=0.05 respectively. This shows that there is no significant difference regarding proper use of subject knowledge (S.K), teaching strategy (T.S), and assessment criteria (A.C) of teachers of GCET Sahiwal, and GCET Pasrur. And significant level of resource material (R.M) is .019 < p=0.05. This highlights that there is significant difference regarding proper use of resource material (R.M) of teachers of GCET Sahiwal, and GCET Pasrur. Their means depict that the teachers of GCET Pasrur use up to date resource material (R.M).
Graph XI Comparison of two GCETs of Sahiwal and Pasrur
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References
Ackerman, T., Heafner, T., & Bartz, D. (2006). Teacher Effect Model for Impacting Student Achievement. Paper presented at the 2006 annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California. Darling, H. L. (2000). Teacher Quality and Student Achievement: A Review of State Policy Evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8 (1). Available at: http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v8n1/ Accessed on 10/05/2009 Darling, L. (1999). Educating teachers: The Academys greatest failure or its most important future? Academe 85 (1). Available at: http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v8n1/ Accessed on 10/05/2009. Hawley, W. D. (1985). Designing and Implementing Performance: Based Career Ladder Plans. Educational leadership, 43(3), 57-61. Hoogeveen, Lianne, Hell, V., Janet, G., Verhoeven, Ludo, (2009). Gifted Child Quarterly, 53 (1). 50-67 available at http://www.ferris.edu/htmls/academics/center/Teaching_and/Learning_Tips/Research%20on%20 Students'%20Evalution%20of%20Faculty%20Teaching/EvalTeachEffec.htm Kerr, L. I., & Berliner, D. C. (2002). The effectiveness of "Teach for America" and other under-certified teachers on student academic achievement: A case of harmful public policy," Education Policy Analysis Archives, 10 (37). Available at http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n37/ Accessed on 2/4/2009 Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Miller, K. (2003). Policy Brief: School, Teacher, and Leadership Impacts on Student Achievement. Available at www.mcrel.org Accessed on 10/05/2009 Monk, D., & King, J. (1994). Multi-level teacher resource effects on pupil performance in secondary mathematics and science. In R. G. Eherenberg (Ed.), Choices and Consequences . Ithaca, NY: ILR Press. Muijs, D. & Reynolds, D. (2005). Effective Teaching Evidence and Practice. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Perry, Patricia, Chapman, David, Snyder, & Conrad, (1995). Quality of Teacher Work life and Classroom Practices in Botswana. International Journal of Educational Development. 15(2), 115-125 Ubben, G. C., Hughes, W. L.(1992) The Principal Creative Leadership for Effective Schools. Boston: Allen and Bacon. Watkins, C., & Mortimore, M. (1999). Pedagogy: what do we know? In M. Mortine (Ed.), London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
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Wealth Creation Through Real Estate Investment in Ekiti State

Olajide S. E.
Dept. of Estate Management, Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State Tel: +234(0)8038552016 E-mail: (sundayolajide2012@gmail.com)
Alabi, O. Titilayo
Dept. Of Estate Management, Yaba College Technology, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria Tel: +234(0)8023430725. E-mail: woletborn@yahoo.com
Onakoya, B. O.
Dept. Of Estate Management, Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro, Ogun State, Nigeria. Tel: +234(0)8125098064 E-mail: tundeonakoya@yahoo.com
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.2n1p417
Abstract Wealth creation has been described as a strategic implementation of policies meant to contribute to poverty eradication and thereby focusing on self-empowerment and wage-employment. This goes a long way in boosting the economy. The writers therefore look into real estate investment as one of the major ways of creating wealth in Ekiti State, Nigeria. This was done by x-raying the various facets of real estate where wealth could be created like land titling and registration, rating and taxation, property development and management among others. Challenges associated with the effective and efficient exploration and exploita tion were examined with frantic effort towards tackling them. Keywords: Ekiti Estate, Investment, Poverty, Real Estate, Wealth Creation.
1. Introduction The subject Wealth creation came to being as a result of much clamoring of the word poverty in the developing and Third World Countries. Enough evidences had emerged to prove that most of these nations are wallowing in abject poverty which extends to almost every facet of the economy. Poverty is a household word in Nigeria and has been defined in diverse ways by various authorities. According to Olajide and Onifade (2011), Poverty is seen as a state of being poor., lack of something. Akagha (2006) asserted that poverty is an imposition from an external force as nobody has chosen to be poor. It is only a matter of circumstance that one is poor. Essentially, poverty environment in Nigeria represents a paradox, if one takes into consideration that quality of human resources as well as the extent of material endowments of the country. The countrys demographic feature, as containing about twenty percent of the total population of Africa as well as the contributions of its crops of intellectuals in global affairs, coupled with its strategic
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significance as the sixth largest oil producer in the world, ranks it as a major global player. Olaifa (1988) described Nigeria as black Africas richest state which once reveled in oil boom, and ended up with a massive debt as a result of mismanagement of economy, neglect of agriculture and numerous political upheavals. Wealth creation has been proffered as the only antidote to poverty. It is a general belief that creating wealth and prosperity is the way forward to a better life. This will naturally witness dramatic growth in the standard of living and it is easily evident that much development has brought much wealth and prosperity to the people. However this specious belief has been severally criticized especially in the developed nations in that wealth creation in the recent past has transpired in good number of advanced countries that wealth has mostly been created for the upper echelon of society, by gross indulgence in acts of cheating and corruption. Ekiti State has been seen as one of the youngest states to be created in Nigeria and funny enough a civil servant state. There is no evidence of industrial developments or presence in the state, hence, the economy of the state had been at the lowest ebb. However evidence has shown that the State is blessed with a good array of resources that can transform the State from its abject poverty to a more prosperous one. Overdependence on the Federal Allocation has not helped matter. Hence, it is the intention of this paper to critically look at real estate investment as one of the major avenues available for Ekiti State to create wealth that will bring about sudden economic transformation. 2. Concept of Real Estate Olajide and Alabi (2012) opined that real estate is synonymous with real property as well as land and landed property. They submitted that real estate can take the form of land and / or landed property, that is, any development in land. Olajide and Alabi (2012) defined real Estate or property as any personal belonging with title which can be conveyed and reconvened at law with a distinguishing characteristic of immobility. Examples of real estate include land and buildings. To define Land Akomolede (2009) believed that the definition of land would generate controversies as he believed that LAND means different thing to different people. For instance, to the geographer, land is the solid surface of the earth not covered by water but to the economists, land is one of the factors of production. The others being labour, capital and entrepreneur. To the kings or governments, land is seen in terms of a territorial domain. The meaning of land can even become more complex if one looks at the law which says quic quid plantatur solo solo credit which means whatever is permanently attached to the land is part of land and whosoever owns the land owns everything on, over and under it. But we do know that under the Nigerian constitution, it is not entirely so as mineral found in ones land does not belong to the owner but to the Government. To an Estate Surveyor and Valuer, Land refers to the subtotal of both the natural and man-made resources on the land surface over which possession gives control. From the above, one can see that land could be given so many meanings depending on who is speaking and the occasion. Akomolede (2009) went further to examine the various uses of land to man to include: We need land for agricultural purposes. Without agriculture, we shall not be able to feed and without food, we cannot live. It does not matter whether the food is produces locally or imported. All houses are built on land whether one will want to build a sky-scraper or otherwise, no building can stand except on land. All our transportation requires land. Roads and rail lines are built on land while the air and sea ports without which we cannot travel by air or sea are also built on land.
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All our recreational activities take place on land. It could be outdoor like football, lawn tennis, swimming or golf or indoor like badminton, squash, snooker, dancing, etc are rooted on land. All commercial activities like market places, shopping centres, plazas and supermarkets are located on land All industrial activities are also located on land. Factories with their plants and machineries are all fixed to the surface of land. He argued that effective and efficient use of land as well as its resources would in no small measure transform to wealth creation to individuals, families, cities and the nation at large. 3. Concept of Wealth Creation Ojo (2009) Posited that the issue of wealth creation could be viewed within the threshold of selfemployment (empowerment), wage employment. The two jointly referred to as welfare and poverty reduction (Adebayo, 2005). Mutabwire (2008) described wealth creation as strategic implementation of policies meant to contribute to poverty eradication, focusing on: Improving local governance for sustainable local economic growth; Employment creation; increased production and productivity of enterprises; increased incomes; and broadening of tax base for local governments to deliver the mandated services. It is a strategy towards the enhancement of local economic development in order to increase local incomes and expand local revenue bases. Zanzibar Household and Budget survey (2004) explained that wealth creation entails national efforts to accelerate growth and create employment by empowering the poor and vulnerable groups to participate in and benefit from emerging opportunities. Wealth creation as put by Ojo (2009) entails empowerment as a fundamental goal to help individuals within the society to improve the quality of their own lives and share equitably in the benefits of economic growth. Empowerment is about helping people to unleash their creative and productive energies to achieve sustainable growth and continuous improvement in their living standards. The concept goes beyond the notions of democracy, human rights and participation, to include enabling people to understand the reality of their environment (social, economic, political, ecological and cultural) and to take necessary actions to improve their well-being. Adebayo (2005) further described wealth creation in terms of welfare. Encarta Encyclopedia (2005) referred to it as social security programmes. Within the same context, improvement in welfare was considered synonymous with reduction in poverty. Poverty alleviation is supposedly the main thrust of wealth creation. Wealth creation or prosperity is purely an economic phenomenon. In Nigeria, various programmes as highlighted below had been inaugurated toward the betterment of living and wealth creation (Ariyo 1997, Adebayo, 2005). Between 1986 1993, Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), was formulated to embark on the tasks of constructing feeder roads, electrification of communities, provision of potable water and empowerment of people. Between 1987-1993, there was establishment of a programme called Better Life Programme with the following tasks: agricultural programme, development support programmes, market support services, establishment of cottage industries and clinics. Between 1997-1999, Family Economic Advancement programmed (FEAP) was formulated to financially support society. With the above enumerated developmental programmes, the symptom of poverty still persists in the society. Against the foregoing, real estate is perceived as a potential avenue to create wealth and eliminated poverty in the country.
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Wealth creation from the public perspective can be referred to as the effort of government to generate revenue for public infrastructural (Adebayo 1970, Diejomaoh, 1976, Emenuga, 1993, Ariyo, 1997). 4. Housing Needs in Nigeria According to Olotuah and Adedeji (2009), the pooled effect of high population upsurge and urbanization in a declining economy has thrown Nigeria into serious housing problems. Ironically, the low income groups who constitute the majority in the Nigeria society are the most affected by the housing menace. The problems of housing shortage grow worse by the day in many developing nations including Nigeria. Conceivably, a major trait of housing crisis notable in urban centres in most developing nations is that of inadequate supply relative to demand (Olotuah, 2000). Using various assumptions of urbanization rates, Onibokun (1990) estimated the following figures as summarized in figure one below Table 1: Estimated Housing Needs Between The Period Of 1990-2020
Income Group Low income Medium income High income 1990 8,413,980 7,770,005 7,624,230 2000 14,372,293 13,273,291 12,419,068 2020 39,989,286 33,573,900 28,548,633
Sources: Onibokun, 1990
Shortage of adequate housing virtually abounds in every country, particularly in the developing and third world countries. The shortage in both quantitative and qualitative terms is more acute in the urban centres. Omojinmi (2000) observed that people that sleep in indecent houses in urban Nigeria are more than people who sleep in decent houses. Thus, it is assertive that there is inadequacy in housing to cope with the ever-increasing population in Nigeria (Arayela, 2003). This in essence opens a good avenue for real estate investment in Nigeria in general and Ekiti State in particular. 5. The Study Area Ekiti State is a state in Southwest Nigeria declared a state on October 1, 1996 alongside five others. The state carved out of the territory of old Ondo State covers the former twelve local government areas that made up the Ekiti zone of old Ondo State. On creation, it took off with sixteen (16) Local Government Areas (LGAs) having had an additional four carved out of the old ones. Historically, Ekiti was an independent state prior to the British conquest. It was one of the many Yoruba States in what is today Nigeria. Ekiti as a nation and districts of Yoruba race had her progeny Oduduwa, the father and progenitor of Yoruba race. Ekiti land is surrounded by hills where it derived it name. initially Ekiti was known as Ile Olokiti mean land made up of hills. Therefore the Okiti later blended to Ekiti, so, Ekiti derived her name through hills. Geographically, the state is mainly an upland zone, rising over 250 meters above sea level. It lies on an area underlain by metamorphic rock. It is generally undulating with a characteristic landscape that consists of old plains broken by step-sided out-crops that may occur singularly or in groups exist mainly at Aramoko, Efon-Alaaye, Ikere-Ekiti, Igbara-Odo, and Okemesi Ekiti, The state enjoys tropical climate with two district seasons. These are the raining season (April October) and the dry season (November March). Temperature ranges between 210 and 280 C with high humidity. Ekiti is estimated in 2005 to be about 2, 737, 186 ranks 29th of 36 States. Ekiti is located within the coordinates of 70 40 N and 50 15 E.
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From the foregoing, there is no gainsaying that Ekiti is rapidly growing in population and requires other sources of revenue for economic stability. Hence the need for this research work which tends to recommending real estate investment as a veritable source of wealth creation. 6. Research Methodology Both primary and secondary data were made used of in carrying out the research work. Primarily, structured questionnaire were administered on different professionals in the Building industry. A total number of 50 copies were served but 45 were retrieved. Direct interview and observations were also employed. The bulk of the data came through review of relevant literature. Also, the purposive sampling was adopted in that professionals that have stake in the real estate investment were directly interviewed on the subject matter. The method of data analysis is by the use of tables and simple statistical analysis.
6.1 Data Presentation of Analysis

Having in mind the intention of determining the degree of government participation in real estate development in Ekiti State, effort is made below to analysis in simple form some of the data collected. Table 2: Percentage of NHF Beneficiary
Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 No of Contributors 1,285,157 1,857,279 1,863,995 1,900,126 1,728,222 No of Beneficiary 349 2,043 2,286 2,079 2,081 No % of Beneficiary 0.027 0.110 0.123 0.109 0.120
Sources: FMBM Status Report, 2005
Table 2 above shows a very low response of the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria as well as the Primary Mortgage Institutions (PMIs) to the yearning of intending real estate developers to having access to affordable real estate finance system. Table 3: Application and Approval of Land Allocation Granted Between 2002 to 2011
Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 TOTAL Application Received 376 701 986 1218 1539 672 522 341 716 857 7928 Allocation Granted 95 47 192 31 247 15 11 19 28 206 891 Percentages of Allocation Granted 25.27% 6.70 19.47 2.55 16.05 2.23 2.11 5.57 3.91 24.04 11.24
Sources: Ekiti State Bureau of Lands, 2012
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Table 3 above shows that the highest percentage that had so far been granted is 25% of the total application for government land in a year. For the last ten years, a total of 7,928 applications were submitted with only 891 approved for allocation. This represents a total parentage of 11.24%. This seems to be grossly inadequate. Table 4: Quantum of Agricultural Land in Ekiti
Land use type Agric land Non Agric Land Total Area of land in Km2 4560 1,793 6,353 Percentage 71.78 28.22 100.00
Source: Ministry of Physical Planning and Urban Development (2012)
Table 4 above shows that 71.78% of the entire land area of Ekiti is ripe and good for Agricultural uses. Findings also showed that not up to 15% of the 4560 km2 of the total area available for agricultural is currently utilized notwithstanding the benefit derivable from Agricultural Land like abundant food production, provision of raw materials for industries and increased foreign exchange among others. Table 5: Existence of a Standard Land Tax System
Item Yes No Indifferent Total Frequency 5 36 4 45 Percentages 11.11 80.00 8.89 100.00
Sources: Field Survey by Authors 2012
From table 5 above, it can be seen that there is no evidence of a standard land tax system in Ekiti. This is not good enough. Table 6: Sources of Real Estate Finance for Intending Developers
sources Personal savings Bank loan ( Mortgage) Credit society (cooperative) Communal Effort Total Frequency 4 3 35 3 45 Percentages 8.88 6.67 77.78 6.67 100.00
Sources: Field Survey by Authors 2012
Table 6 above shows the reality on ground in the area of developers access to Bank loan to aid development. The table evidences that less than 7% of the sampled population had access to bank loan while majority depend of credit societies (77.78%). This implies that Ekiti State has a lot to do in the area of strengthening real estate finance system.
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7. Significance and Justification of Real Estate for Wealth Creation This is best discussed under the following headings.
7.1. Land Taxation:

Property Valuers, the world over, use variables reflecting collective services, including proximity to public transport, quality of infrastructure, local schools, etc as key determinants of property values. It is common cause that a significant component of land value is not earned by the effort of land owner or occupant, but result directly from collective action, even from the mere presence of an organized community, regardless of the quality of services it currently provides for its members (Childress et al, 2007). As such, the incumbent owner of the land has, in the neo-Georgist view, no moral right to claim increments in the value of his or her own, nor any cause for complaint if a tax on land value is instituted to capture such value for the benefit of the entity that was responsible for its creation; community; government and its partners. Essentially, land taxes have been used for a wide variety of reasons. Among the reasons are: Ensuring productive use of restituted land. Land taxes have been imposed to ensure the productive use of restituted land in Estoma (Childress et al, 2007). Creation of property rights. In most of the transitional countries there had been no welldefined property rights in land for several decades. The land tax and property tax, based on clear assessment and valuation processes, was seen as a mechanism that would consist in the development of local land markets and a local brokering and property based lending industries both in the rural and urban areas (Hopfer, 2003) Creation of land valuation capacity. The need to conduct formal, well organized valuations requires a cadre of trained officials who have knowledge and active understanding of the markets. This provides a mechanism of transmitting an understanding of the transformation which will be a core requirement of the development of urban and agricultural property market. Buildings on existing taxation system. According to Childress et al (op cit) in Armenia, the fiscal system was shifted away from business income taxes to an enhancement of the existing property tax system, which was based heavily on land values. Discouraging foreign absentee ownership. In Australia, land taxation has been used to discourage foreign absentee land ownership (Land Institute, 1974). Wilk (1973) suggested that land tax could be used to discourage the vacant holding of land by foreign buyers. Saving on assessment costs. Childress et al (2007) revealed that saving on assessment costs was one of the reasons for the adoption of a land taxation system in Kenya and South Africa (before the recent shift away from land only to land and improvements). In general, land valuation is much cheaper than the valuation of buildings, both in the urban and rural areas, requiring less data and fewer site visits by valuers. Land taxation can be used to manage political tensions around land. Malme and Youngman (1997) established that in China and the transitional states of the former Soviet Union, the once dominant rights of the state are being dismantled in favour of individual property rights. In fact, the land tax offers an effectual bridge across this public policy divide, as it can address a number of the concerns on both sides. Land taxes can thus present a combination of state and personal rights in the land heritage of the nation.
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7.2. Wealth creation through efficient use of land

The Oxford English Dictionary describes the word effective as producing the result that is wanted or intended; producing a successful result while efficient is described as doing well and thoroughly with no waste of the money or energy. From these definitions, it is clear that we are looking for a system of land use that will produce the wanted or intended result as well as do well without any waste. That will be an effective and efficient use of land. Our mission here is therefore simply to discuss how we can use this Gods limited gift to produce the desired results without any waste. Obviously, the first major aim or intended result of land use is to produce a harmonious and orderly use of land. And this can only be done if we avoid haphazard development. This therefore brings us to the fore of land use planning. For the use of land to be effective and efficient, we must plan the use of land to produce an orderly and harmonious development. To this end, the following aspects of land use must be handled with care to enhance productivity. This includes zoning, compatibility land use, best and highest use to mention a few.
7.3. Wealth creation through land reform

Much have been said and written about the need for adequate land titling in all states of the federation. It is a statement of fact that Government has a lot to gain from land titling especially in the area of boosting its IGR. Statistics show that less than 10% of the land situated within Ekiti has legal title. This, if well effected will assist the land owners to carryout productive transactions on their land that will boost their economic stability.
7.4. Wealth creation through the exploitation of agricultural lands

Findings had shown that the Agricultural Land in Ekiti State is enormous but it is sad to note that less than 20% of this landmass is being made use of. Much is derivable from effective exploitation of Agricultural lands. The state can become exporter of cassava, palm oil, cocoa and the likes which will in turn change the economic position of the state for better. 8. Threats to Real Estate Investment Prosperity in Ekiti-State
8.1. Poor Real Estate Financial System.

Unlike what operates in the developed nations of the world like U.K, U.S.A and Canada to mention a few where there are standard real estate financial systems, the case is negatively different in Ekiti State in particular and Nigeria in general. Findings revealed that commercial banks are not ready to give long term loan and where loans are advanced at all, they are usually advanced at unbearable interest rate between 23-28%. The National Housing fund and Bank of Industries that are supposed to be of help are unreachable to the low and medium classes.
8.2. Political Interest

Findings revealed that successive governments were interested in short time projects, hence, seem not to believe in continuity. Investing in real estate as a long enduring projects like development of rental housing and Agricultural land have not been addressed with the seriousness they deserve.
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8.3. Absence or lack of developable land.

Research showed that the volume of developable land within the metropolis of Ado-Ekiti which forms the commercial and administrative nerves of Ekiti State is drastically limited viewing it from Ilawe, Ikere, Ijan, Iyin or Iworoko. Ado-Ekiti seems not to have enough land meant to create wealth for its ever increasing population.
8.4. Low Federal Allocation and IGR.

It is a statement of fact that the onus of land development rests solely on the government. However, findings showed that the Internally Generated Revenue (IGR) of Ekiti State is generally low. It has also been variously argued that Ekiti is the 2nd lowest Federal Allocation receiving state. This in most cases tends to cripple the Government in rolling out programmes that will encourage real estate investment.
8.5. Poor Integration.

It has been declared that activities and attitude of government has made its critics to believe that only two cities exist in Ekiti State, that is, Ado-Ekiti and others. In the area of physical development, too much attention is seen to be concentrated in Ado Ekiti at the detriment of the development of other parts of the state. This in turn has increased the rural - urban drift.
8.6. Absence of reliable property data bank.

It is variously argued that much have been said about the need for proper and efficient land administration in Nigeria through comprehensive Land information system but little or nothing has been put in place in Ekiti State. Land administration in the area of proper titling and recording seem to be at the lowest ebb.
8.7. Poor land Infrastructure.

Essentially, in most cases where government cannot dabble into physical land development, the option of making available service lands is usually adopted. In Ekiti State in general and Ado-Ekiti in particular, provision of infrastructure is generally poor and far below standard. 9. Recommendations In order to fully harness the residual value and benefits embedded in real estate investment as a veritable source for wealth creation, the following are recommended toward efficient and effective land administration in Ekiti thereby enhancing land resource appreciation and productivity. 9.1 Allocation of land should be liberalized and transparent. A system whereby people in government only and their cronies have access to land allocation cannot ensure effective and efficient use of land. They secure the allocations and keep the land undeveloped for years waiting for the price to go up before they sell. The result is that undeveloped plots exist side by side with fully developed ones creating underutilization of amenities and facilities. Ekiti State Government does not have any Land Use and Allocation Committee as prescribed by the Land Use Act. The governor alone therefore handles the allocation of land to whoever pleases them. This cannot lead to an effective and efficient use of land!
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9.2 Simplify the process of transfer to title land. A situation whereby it takes six months to one year to obtain governors consent to transfer land cannot guarantee effective and efficient use of land. It can delay or even kill many good projects. 9.3 Acceleration and simplification of the process of obtaining planning approval for developments. In most cases, it takes too long to get approval to develop your property even though your design conforms with all the necessary rules and specifications. The process is riddled with so much corruption that designs which do not meet all the rules are the ones that get approval first while the legitimate ones suffer if the owner is not ready to settle the officials. Government can reduce this by selling model designs to the public with room for slight modifications. This can reduce or remove completely the rigors people go through before their building lands are approved. 9.4 Enforcement of approved building plans. Again, a lot of people design correctly only to secure approval but turn round to build something else why the officials responsible for the monitoring turn their eyes elsewhere. This has been responsible for many building collapsing all over the country! We cannot have effective and efficient use of land if buildings are not built according the approval 9.5 There is also the need to upgrade decaying areas and if need be carry out redevelopment of slums and derelict areas. It is expedient to assert that most of our cities have emerged by a process of growth by accretion, that is, without prior plans! For effective and efficient use, there may be need to open up areas where there are no access. Construct centres where there are none. 9.6 Need for improved mass transportation. People do not just move about. They are either moving from residence to work or vice versa or to recreation areas. Therefore good transportation system must be synchronized with the pattern of land use. We can redirect the movement of people by relocation of the target of their movement. Essentially, the growth of sub-centres should be encouraged in a city rather than the idea of a town centre where everybody goes to whenever they need something. This will not only reduce traffic congestion, it will reduce man hours wasted in such traffic and petrol consumption. It will also reduce accidents and health hazards. 9.7 Beautification of open places. Whoever has been to Lagos prior to the last two years can attest to what government has done with spaces that hitherto constituted eyesores and abode for area boys and thieves. These places are now cleared and planted with grass and flower giving beautiful scenery. The planting of the grass and flowers and maintenance of them are sources of employment. This is a very good example of effective and efficient use of land. This can also be replicated in Ekiti State. 9.8 There is need for comprehensive land reform in the area of land titling. Government must put necessary machinery in motion to ensure that every land within the state has title. The ground rent that will accrue to the coffers of Government will go a long way in defraying public expenditure. To the land owner it will upgrade the instrument on the land. The Land Use Act needs to be reviewed and / or removed from the constitution to pave way for the implementation of laudable land related initiatives. 9.9 There is need to establish a functional real estate finance system. Government can float a primary Mortgage Institution in order to assist individual and group to benefit immensely. The housing loan disbursed currently is nothing to write home about. 9.10 Need to establish a virile legal framework for the efficient and effective of property tax system. The four cannons of Taxation must be followed. The executive must try as much as possible to involve professionals rather than contracting them to political friends who know little or nothing about property taxation. 9.11 Need for efficient and prudent use of Rural Land for Agricultural purposes. Findings had shown that successive governments had not been doing enough in this respect. Ekiti state has enough land for different types of cultivation. Apart from providing food for all and foreign exchange, it will also assist in curbing the rural-urban drift.
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10. Conclusion It is clear from this discourse that an effective and efficient land administration in Ekiti in particular and Nigeria in general will inter alia lead to better use of land resources, improved revenue for Government, wealth creation and its improved distribution, efficient rural and urban management and improved rural and urban quality. This will also provide conducive environment for private developers to operate. Land is a natural resource that existed before mankind came to being. Land values are created by the whole community because of our need to use land for housing, education, public services, agriculture, mining, business, transport and recreation. Land owners do not create land values. It is the efforts of others that generate land values. Expenditure on public services usually leads to an increase in land value. The policy framework which includes legal for effective administration of land and landed property must be carefully taken care of. This would go a long way in ensuring land appreciation as well as other subsisting resources. Real estate without prejudice if well managed will foster economic prosperity in Ekiti State in particular and Nigeria in general. References
Akomolede, K (2009): Effective and efficient use of land for wealth creation. MCPD, Ondo State Branch of NIESV Aluko, B.T (2005): Building urban local governance fiscal autonomy through property taxation financing option. International Journals of Strategic Property Management 9, 201-214 Arayela (2003): Panacea for increasing housing stock at reduced cost in Nigeria. African Journal of Development Studies 3(1) pp 12-16 Ariyo, A (1997) Productivity of the Nigeria Tax System: 1970-1990 AERC Research paper 67 Africa Economic Research Consortium, Nairobi - Kenya Bichi K.M (2002): Housing the Nigerian population: Problems and prospects. Journals of the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria 1(5) pp 30-31 Childress M.D, Hansen P., Solomon D and Brink R (2007): Taxing Agricultural Land: A Policy Instrument for Land Use Intensification. Local Development and Land market reform Background paper on WBI/SADC workshop on land redistribution (ebourguignon@wolrdbank.org) Deininger K. (2005): Land policies for growth and poverty reduction: Key issues and challenges ahead. European Union (EU) Task force on Land Tenure (2004): EU Land Policy Guideless Guidelines for support to land policy design and land policy reform processes in developing countries Land Institute (1974): Site Value Rating. The Land Institute, London Ogedengbe, P,S (2004): Formulating a good urban land policy for Nigeria. Jhum.ecol 15(2): 91-96. Kamla-Raj Ojo O. (2009): The Nigeria Tax System: The challenges of decentralization and local government autonomy. Paper presented at a workshop on property tax system and local government financing. Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. 2nd July Ojo, O (2009a) Effective Land Taxation and Administration for Wealth Creation. MCPD, Ondo State Branch of NIESV Ojo, O (2009b): Community Development: Issues and Challenges. Lecture Delivered at the Self Help Fund raising programme at Kuta, Osun State, Nigeria 11th April Olaifa K (1988): Nigeria Debt tops in Africa. National Concord Newspaper, June 4 Olajide S.E and Alabi O.T (2012): Elements of Estate Management and Property Valuation, Abisam Prints, Lagos, Nigeria. Olajide, S.E & Onifade F.A (2011): Empirical study of Housing poverty in Ado-Ekiti. Environ-Link Journal, Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti. Volume 3 No 1 pp 11-20
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Olotuah A.O (2000): Housing low income civil servants in an emergent state capital-The case study of Ado-Ekiti, unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria Olotuah A.O and Adedeji Y.M.D (2009): An evaluation of accessibility of low income earners to housing finance in Nigeria, published in The Nigeria Housing Perspective Omojinmi I.O. (2000): SINA Technical Workshop on Housing Cooperatives, Nairobi, 6-17th October Onibokun A,G (1990): Urban population, urban Housing in Nigeria, Onibokun A.G (Ed) NISER, Ibadan pp 3957 Wilks H.M (1973): Site Rating: A Practical exercise. Estate Gazette 228EG249, 251-2
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Effecting Community Efforts in Drug Abuse Control: A Study of Delta State Nigeria
Ogbebor Godwin Gideon
Guidance and Counselling Department Delta State University, Abraka Delta State, Nigeria. E-mail: ggogbebor@yahoo.com Phone: +234 7038317959
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.2n1p429
Abstract The study investigated the effectiveness of some efforts that are made to control hard drug abuse and excess use of alcohol in Delta State Communities in Nigeria. The control efforts investigated were those of psychotherapists, community rules against drug and alcohol usage and efforts related to enforcement of these rules. Also investigated were efforts in the use of extra-curricular activities to control drugs use and efforts to check availability of the illegal drugs. The intention was to find out how much efforts are in place against drug usage and whether illegal drug and excess alcohol usage are effectively controlled in these communities. The purpose was for the research to have basis for making suggestions and recommendations for effective control where necessary. It was a descriptive study that used a survey design guided by six research questions. Data was collected through questionnaire and the chi-square method of data analysis was adopted. The result indicated that the various control measures were available in the three communities although their effectiveness was not significant. The researcher recommended that awareness education should be introduced while law enforcement agencies need to become more effective in their duties to control against illegal hard drug usage and use of excess alcohol. Key Words: Drug Abuse-Control-Community Efforts-Effectiveness
1. Introduction
1.1 Study Background

The study investigated community efforts made to control drug and alcohol abuse in Delta State Nigeria. The study was intended to find out relative effectiveness of some identified ways of control in practice in different communities in the State. The efforts investigated include counselling, psychotherapy, school health talk, community rules and sanctions, parental control, religious efforts, peer group and family efforts, sports and recreation efforts. In Nigeria, Africa community life is practised. Here members of a particular community come together to confront a problem situation whenever it arises. Every members of the community is bound to get involved in such efforts to solve an emerging problem, and sanctions are invoked against any community member that defaults. Since the 19th Century when Nigeria witnessed British colonisation and incursion of Western civilization, drug abuse got introduced in the various communities. Before now, the use of drugs was never a way of life. However, since the advent of this abnormal practice, the
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effects of drugs have been very devastating. There have been various cases of psychological problems, drug related illnesses, and even cases of death as a result of drug use. Different efforts have been introduced in order to find solutions to these drug problems, yet the efforts cannot be said to be effective. Many young people are found roaming the urban and rural streets aimlessly while some even go naked. Efforts to control the situation from different levels of governance are scarce and ineffective. Hospitals, schools, and some government establishments practise western civilisation and orthodox method of control, while some communities attempt traditional methods. It has, therefore, become necessary to research on these different efforts so as to determine their relative effectiveness for the benefit of the health of people in these communities.
1.2 Literature Review

The issue of drug abuse involves knowing the meaning, its effects, control and ways drugs are abused. It also involves knowing signs and symptoms of drug effect and why people abuse drugs. Donaldson, Sussman and Tobler (2000) explained that if your drug use is causing problem in your life, such as at work, school, home, in your relationship, you likely have a drug abuse or drug addiction. They explained the difference between drug abuse and drug addiction. According to them, the difference is not that great but it is important to understand when a person goes from abusing drugs to being addicted to drugs. Drug abuse is when a person uses a drug for something other than a medically prescribed purpose; and it is when a person takes a drug to get high or feel better. When a person takes drugs, more than the prescribed amount or for recreation, have a mood change; it is the taking of drugs that are addictive and harmful to a persons health (Donalson, Sussman and Mackinnon et al., 1996). They added that when a person goes into addiction, their choice to take drugs is either severely limited or taken away entirely. The person has no choice but must take the drug. It is when the drugs take over, when a persons life is all about getting the drug and taking the drug, when nothing but the drug matters, that is addiction (Dakes, Ullman and Stain, 1996; Newcomb and Earlyman, 1996; and Potraitis, Fray and Mill, 1995). Australian Queensland Health (1996) explained some effects of drug abuse and addiction. This health organisation states that repeated use of drugs can alter the way the brain functions, causing the feelings of pleasure, so the brain remembers this and wants some more. It causes the rate of eating and drinking, so that the brain is unable to think clearly, exercise good judgement and control behaviour and feel normal without drugs. There is craving to use more, and the drug becomes more important than anything else; and the individual rationalises its use. The works of Deboral et al. (2001), Botvin (1990) and Jenks and Raymond (1990) show some of the effects of drugs on those who abuse them, and those that are addicted. Sedative hypnotic drugs result in impaired judgement, incoordination and unsteady gait. These drugs are central nervous system depressants and have considerable potentials for psychological problems. The use of amphetamines can result in violent behaviour, agitation and exhilaration, increased energy and alleviation of fatigue; that the use of cocaine cancels hunger while giving the feeling of overestimation of ability, making poor judgements, agitation and rapid speed. Lawson (1993), Miller, Beth and Mark (1991) and Reid, Douglas, Dele and Andy (1990) identified some drugs and their effects. These include hallucinogens and phencyclidine. These result in perceptual changes, hallucination, dilated pupil, blurred vision, tremors, poor coordination, euphoria, agitation, anxiety, grandiosity and disturbed judgement. As for marijuana and tobacco, the National Cancer Institute states that they cause psychological problems, result in euphoria and intensifies disorientation, and that tobacco results in more than 300,000 deaths per year in America.
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It is the opinion of Shimp and Frank (1988), Stoller and Rachel (1994), Thomas (1979) and Vogt (1992) that those involved in drug problems should see the therapist and also take self-direction, and that they should get people they can lean on for encouragement, comfort and guideline. Apart from what these persons can do, the community has some roles to play in drug control. Support can come from family members, close friends, therapists and counsellors, other recovering addicts and people from your faith and communities (Wilcox, David and Steffie, 1994; Yee and Gayle, 1984; Ascione and Leslie, 1988; Bandy and Patricia, 1983). These people suggest that the community can lay down rules and state consequences, monitor youths involved in drugs and encourage other interests and social activities. They suggest also that the community can talk to the young ones about underlying issues, and let the young ones hear from different authorities, figures and so on. Other efforts may include use of sports coaches, family doctors, therapists or drug counsellors. But what are the ways drugs are abused in any community? The works of Coons, Jon and Sharon (1988), Des, Don Herman and David (1985), Finlayson (1984) and those of German and Lynda (1989) state that those who use these drugs feel good and they stop them from feeling bad, and that drug users do not know when they become addicted. Also, they use the drugs in company of friends, when they feel bad and uneasy. They are used to fulfil a valuable need. 2. Signs and Symptoms of Drug Abuse The works of Glantze (1985), Gomberg (1990) and Gottheil et al. (1985) reveal certain signs and symptoms seen among those who abuse drugs. These include taking risks, falling into legal troubles and having problems in relationship. The lives of such users revolve around drug use, they abandon activities they used to enjoy and use drugs even when they know it is hurting them. Such drug users have bloodshot eyes, their pupils appear larger or smaller than usual, and they deteriorate in physical appearance and personal grooming habits. Unusual smells on breath, body or clothing may be noticed. They may have tremors, slurred speech or impaired co-ordination. They stated also that such drug users may have sudden mood swings, irritability, or energy outburst, unusual hyperactivity, or angry outburst, unusual hyperactivity, agitation, or giddiness. They may also lack motivation, and appear fearful or paranoid, with no reason. 3. Help for Drug Abuse With the right treatment and support psychologists counteract the disruptive effects of drugs in order to regain control of the users life. Guttman (1978) said that support can come from family members, close friends, therapists or counsellors, other recovering addicts, health care providers, and other members of the individuals religious body and people in the community. Huffine, Folkman and Richard (1989) added that attempt should not be made to punish, threaten, bribe or preach. Emotional appeals should be avoided, no cover-up for the drug users or take over their responsibilities. Attempt should not be made to hide or throw out drugs, argue with the people when they are high or take drugs with the drug user (Inciardi, Daune, Brain and Karen, 1978; Kail, 1989). Therapists and counsellors have tried to investigate reasons why people engage in drugs. The works of Botvin, Baker and Dusenbury et al. (1990), Botvin, Baker and Dusenbury (1995), Schinke, Epstain and Diaz et al. (1995) and Johnson, Malley and Rachman (1995) gave the following reasons: unhappiness, crime, divorce, major illness and death of loved ones. Johnson, Mallay and Rachman said that people take drugs to relieve pain or illness. Kayak and Soo (1992) said that people try drugs out of curiosity, to have good time, or because friends are doing it; or in an attempt to improve athletic performance. Others do so to ease another problem such as stress, anxiety or depression. Lamy (1988)
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states that drug use can be as a result of genetic and inherited factors. If your parents smoke and drink alcohol, chances are that you will do the same. If parents were alcoholic, one is likely to have predisposition to abusing that drug. The tendency for one generation to pass it to another is there. Maddox (1988) said that some people have a personality that is more likely to become dependent on drugs such as when a person is curious, and that people may abuse drugs when they want to feel good or when they are depressed, stressed up, when having anxiety in life, lack of confidence and poor selfesteem. Also peer and social pressure, easy access, race, ethnicity and loneliness may predispose individuals to taking drugs. 4. Research Problem In Nigeria communities, the use of illegal drugs and excessive consumption of alcohol has become rampant. It is common to see young men openly smoking marijuana. Other hard drugs are taken secretly by those who can afford them. The psychological effects of these drugs are noticeable among these youths both male and female. It is common to see these persons roaming city and rural streets as lunatics. Middle age adults and the aged are commonly seen lose their poisity as a result of excess alcohol. The problem of this study, therefore, was to investigate how much control measures are in place in the communities to check hard drug abuse and excessive consumption of alcohol. The researcher wanted to see the types of control available and how available and effective these control measures are.
4.1 Research Questions

The following research questions were formulated to guide the study. (i) Are there psychotherapists, psychologists and counsellors in the communities that attend to drug users? (ii) Are there community rules put in place against use of illegal drugs in your community? (iii) Is there legal enforcement of the rules against illegal drug use in the community? (iv) Are there control measures against excess alcohol usage in the communities? (v) Are there extracurricular activities such as sports, recreation and seminar aimed at reducing illegal hard drug usage in the communities? (vi) Are there measures put in place to check availability of hard drugs in the communities?
4.2 Purpose of Study

The research intended to ascertain how much efforts the Nigeria community makes to reduce illegal drug usage, how much those already in drug usage are helped out of it and how much effort is made to prevent others engaging in drug. The purpose was to know how much effort is made in the communities to control drug and alcohol usage. This knowledge will indicate whether drug control is adequate and whether additional efforts are needed to make drug control more effective. The situation observed by the researcher is that illegal drug usage and excessive indulgence in alcohol have become of concern. If the issue is left uninvestigated and recommendations not made for effective control, the situation may grow worse. The knowledge of how much control is in place and its effectiveness will help community counsellors to plan and contribute in making drug control more effective.
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4.3 Research Method

4.3.1 Participants The participants in this study were counsellors in secondary and primary schools; teachers, civil servants, literate community leaders and health workers who were used for the study. The convenience sampling method was adopted. This sampling method was adopted to ensure that persons with some knowledge in the subject areas of the research were used as participants. They were instructed on what the research was about. A total of 348 people were used as participants; and a copy of the research questionnaire was issued to each of them to respond to. These participants were sampled from each of the three senatorial districts of Delta State, each one taken as a community entity.
4.4 Research Instrument

A questionnaire of 15 items was used to collect information that was analysed. This was drawn up by the researcher to investigate the existence of drug control measures, the spread of these measures and their effectiveness in the three communities. The information supplied was summarised for each of the drug control measures before analysis was made.
4.5 Procedure
The research was a descriptive study that used a survey design. The responses returned for each of the control measures were summarised and fitted into each of the research questions. It was these that were analysed that enabled the researcher to answer the research questions earlier formulated to guide the study. It was this analysis that enabled the researcher to arrive at conclusion whether the control measures were available, if they were well spread, adequate and effective. 5. Results The research investigated efforts put in place in the Delta State communities against drug usage. Six research questions were formulated to investigate this. The result showed that there were measures in place in the three communities that make up Delta State of Nigeria; Delta North, Delta Central and Delta South. However, the respondents indicated that the measures put in place against the use of drugs were not significant. Research question (i) wanted to know if there were psychotherapists, psychologists and counsellors in each of the 3 communities. The (yes) response for the 3 communities was 151, while the (no) response was 188. There were 9 invalidated responses. The chi-square analysis showed that the availability of these specialists was not significant as measures against use of drugs. The chi-square analysis showed that x2 calculated of 2.231 was less than the x2 critical of 9.49 at the 0.05 level of significance. Research question (ii) wanted to investigate if there were rules put in place against use of illegal drugs in the 3 communities being studied. The (yes) response for the 3 communities was 131 while the (no) response was 202 and invalidated responses was 15. The x2 calculated of 2.790 was less than the x2 critical of 9.49 at the 0.05 level of significance. This indicated that although there were rules put in place against use of illegal drug usage, these rules were not significant. Research question (iii) investigated if there were legal enforcement of the rules against illegal use of drugs in the communities. The (yes) response was 111 while the (no) response was 215 with 22
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invalidated responses. The x2 calculated of 2.178 was less than the x2 critical of 9.49 at the 0.05 level of significance. This indicated that although there was legal enforcement of the rules against illegal use of drugs, the enforcement of these rules was not significant. Research question (iv) investigated if there were control measures against excess usage of alcohol in the communities. The (yes) response was 140 and the (no) response was 199 with 9 responses invalidated. The x2 calculated of 2.885 was less than the x2 critical of 9.49 at the 0.05 level of significance. This indicated that there were control measures against excess usage of alcohol in the communities, but these control measures were not significant. Research question (v) investigated if there were extracurricular activities such as sports, recreation and seminars put in place aimed at reducing illegal hard drug usage in the communities. The (yes) response was 148 and the (no) response was 184 with 16 invalidated responses. The x2 calculated was 6.906 and was less than the x2 critical of 9.49 at the 0.05 level of significance. This result showed that these measures are available in the communities although the response shows that the measures were not significant. Research question (vi) investigated if there were measures put in place to check availability of hard drugs in the communities. The (yes) response was 133 and the (no) response was 209 with 6 responses invalidated. The x2 calculated of 0.025 was less than the x2 critical of 9.49 at the 0.05 level of significance. This indicated that although there are measures put in place to check availability of hard drugs in the communities, those measures were not significant. 6. Discussion The study set out to investigate efforts put in place to control drug abuse in the communities in Delta State, Nigeria. The study covered the three communities of Delta North, Delta Central, and Delta South. The intention was to evaluate the effectiveness of the efforts in the 3 communities. The evaluation was to be based on the instrument as suggested by Shimp and Frank (1988), Stoller and Rachel (1994), Thomas (1979) and Vogt (1992). They suggested support by therapists, psychologists and counsellors as efforts against drug abuse. Other efforts include laying down rules and consequences against drug use in the communities as suggested by Wilcox, David and Steffie (1994), Yee and Gayle (1984), Ascione and Leslie (1988) and Bandy and Patricia (1983). They also suggested use of recreation and sporting activities; seminars and talks to the young ones about danger of drug abuse and use of family doctors, therapists and counsellors. A survey of the use of these efforts against drug usage was made in the 3 communities. This was done through administration of questionnaire (Appendix 1). The finding was that these efforts are available in all the communities in Delta State, Nigeria. However, the respondents showed that the efforts were not significant. This was interpreted to mean that although the measure to control drug abuse are there in the communities, they were not effective efforts to control illegal drug usage and excess use of alcohol. This situation can be assumed to be the reason for the situation the researcher had observed: that the adverse effect of drug abuse is noticeable everywhere and on the streets of Delta State. Even a casual observation by any passer-by will reveal young men and women roaming aimlessly along the streets and some of them taking these drugs openly without any challenge from law enforcement agencies. Adults of various age grades are seen staggering on the streets obviously as a result of excess consumption of alcohol. The results of this research showed that even though there are some measures and efforts to control illegal drug usage and excess alcohol consumption, these efforts are not enough and so they are not effective. This in turn may be responsible for the observation the researcher made that necessitated
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this investigation. This resultant consequence of insufficient efforts to control illegal usage of drugs agrees with those of Deboral et al. (2001), Botvin (1990) and Jenks and Raymond (1990). They observed that if efforts are not in place to control illegal usage of drugs and excess use of alcohol, users can become addicted and these result in impaired judgement, incoordination and unsteady gait. That the drugs cause psychological problems such as violent behaviour and agitation, euphoria, anxiety, grandiosity and distorted judgement. The works of Botvin (1990) relate to what the situation can be when there are insufficient control measures to check drug abuse. Botvin states that the consequences include hallucination, euphoria, intensified disorientation and even death. This was what the researcher observed that necessitated this study. 7. Implication The results of this research indicated that there were some efforts put in place in the various communities in Delta State, Nigeria to reduce illegal drug usage and excess consumption of alcohol; although these efforts were observed not to be sufficient to be effective. This result emphasises the need to intensify these efforts so that they can become more effective. Counsellors are not commonly found in the various communities except in schools and university campuses. The communities are not well informed of the adverse effects of illegal use of drugs. Because of the poor living standards, people do not engage in leisure hour and recreational activities and sports. People only recreate sitting around and consuming alcohol and going to the dark corners to take drugs. The law enforcement agencies do not show seriousness in their duties, so they are not effective in the drug control efforts. These could be the reasons why drug control efforts have been observed not to be effective. In the face of these situations, the following implications have arisen from this study. (i) There is the need to include drug issue in health education courses in the secondary schools and in the universities. (ii) Guidance counsellors should be encouraged by the governments at the state levels to establish offices in the communities where counsellor can give counselling services to the citizens including drug users and alcohol consumers. (iii) Health talks and seminars need to be organised at the community level so that people will become well informed about the adverse effects of illegal drug usage and excess consumption of alcohol. (iv) Another implication of the findings of this study is how to ensure that law enforcement agencies become more effective. More studies on how to make this possible should be carried out and the result of such studies implemented. 8. Recommendations Informed by the results obtained from the research, it is recommended that community newspapers and information bulletins pay more attention to drug and alcohol issues. Electronic media houses need to organise debates on drug and alcohol related matters. This will help to promote more information relating to dangers of illegal drug usage. Law enforcement personnel to mix up with the people in the various communities for them to detect how drugs enter the communities and how these drugs are made available to people who use them. This will make drug control efforts to become more effective. If these recommendations are implemented, a lot of improvement will be observed in the communities in drug control efforts.
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References
Ascione, F.J. and Leslie, A.S. (1988). Helping Patients to reduce Medication Misuse and error. Generations, 4(12): 52-55. Australia Queenland Health (1996). Alcohol and other drug use and people from a non-English speaking background. Policy discussion paper (Queenland Health, alcohol, drug and tobacco services). Bandy, P. and Patricia, A.P. (1983). Recent literature on drug abuse prevention and mass media: Focusing on Youth, patient, women and the elderly. Drug Abuse Prevention and Mass Media, 3(13): 255 267. Botvin, G.I. (1990). Substance abuse prevention: Theory, practice and effectiveness. In Drug and Crime ed. by Tommy and J.Q. Wilson. Chicago, III: University of Chicago. Botvin, G.J., Baker, E. and Diaz, J. (1995). Long term follow up results of a randomized drug abuse prevention trial. Journal of American Medical Association, 273, 1106 1112. Botvin, G.J., Baker, E. and Dusenburg, L. et al. (1990). Preventing adolescent drug abuse through a multimodal cognitive behavioural approach: Result of a 3 year study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58(4): 437 446. Botvin, G.J., Shinke, S.P., Epstain, J.A. and Diaz, T. (1995). Effectiveness of culturally focused and generic skills training approaches to alcohol and drug abuse prevention among minority adolescents; Two-year follow-up result. Psychology of Addictive Behaviours, 9(3): 183 194. Coons, Jon and Sharon, S.L. (1988). Drinking in retirement communities. Generations, 4(12): 58-62. Dakes, R., Ullman, J. and Stain, J. (1996). Three year follow up of drug abuse resistance education (DARE). Evaluation Review, 20, 49-66. Deboral, S. et al. (2001). Delivering drug services to black and minority ethnic communities (Home office, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland). Des, J., Don, C., Herman, J. and David, T.C. (1985). Old age and addiction: A study of elderly patients in Methadone Maintenance treatment in The Combined Problems of Drug Addiction and Aginig. Springfield, EL; Charles C. Thomas. Donalson, S.I., Street, G., Sussman, S. and Tobler, N. (2000). Using meta-analyses to improve the design of interventions. In S. Sussman (ed.) Handbook of Program-development for health behaviour research. Newbury Park, C.A. Sage, pp. 449-466. Donalson, S.I., Sussman, S. and Mackinnon, D.P. et al. (1996). Drug abuse prevention programme: Do we know what content works? American Behavioural Scientists, 39, 869 883. Finlayson, R.E. (1984). Prescription drug abuse in old persons. Alcohol and Drug Abuse in Old Age. Washington, D.C. American Psychiatric Press, Inc. German, P.S. and Lynda, C.B. (1989). Clinicians, the Elderly and Drug. The Journal of Drug Issues. 19:221 243. Glantze, M.D. (1985). The Detection, Identification and differentiation of elderly drug misuse and abuse in a Research Survey in the combined problems of alcoholism, drug addiction and aging. Springfield, II: Charles C. Thomas. Gomberg, E.I. (1990). Drugs, alcohol and aging. In Research Advances in Alcohol and Drug Problems. ed. by L. Koziowaki, H., Annis, H. Cappell, F. Gbser, M. Goodstadt, Y. Israel, H. Kalat, E. Sellers, E. Vingilis. New York: Plenum Press. Gottheil, E., Keith, A.D., Thomas, E.S. and Howard, M.W. (1985). The Combined Problems of Alcoholism and Aging. Springfield II: Charles C. Thomas. Guttheil, E.K.A., Druly, T.E.S. and Howard, M.W. (1985). The combined problems of alcoholism, drug addiction and aging. Springfield, H: Charles C. Thomas. Guttman, D. (1978). Pattern of Legal Drug use by Older American. Addictive Disease: an International Journal (3): 337 - 356. Huffine, C.S., Folkman, R.S. and Richard, S.L. (1989). Psychoactive Drugs, Alcohol, and stress and coping processes in Older Adults. American Journal of Alcohol Abuse (15): 101 113. Inciardi, J.A., Daune, C.M., Brain, R. and Karen, S.W. (1978). Acute Drug Reactions among the Aged: A Research Note. Addictive Disease: An International Journal, 3(3): 383 388.
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Jenks, M.J. and Raymond, R.R. (1990). A profile of alcohol and prescription drug abuse in a high-risk community-based elderly population (DICP). The Annels of Pharmacotherapy (24): 971-975. Johnson, I.D., Maley, P.M., Rachman, J.G. (1995). National Survey results on drug use from the monitoring the future study, 1975 -1994, Vol. 1. Secondary School Students. Washington D.C. U.S.A. Department of Health and Human Services. Kail, B.L. (1989). Family, Friends and Neighbours: The Role of Primary Groups in Preventing Misuse of Drugs. The Journal of Drug, 19:261 - 281. Kayak, H.A. and Soo, B. (1992). Coping with chronic illness and disability, in Aging, Health and behaviour (Ed) by M.G. Org. R.P. Abele. PD. Lipman. Newbury Park C.A. SAGE. Lamy, P.P. (1988). The Aging: Drug use and misuse. In the combined problems of alcoholism, drug addiction and aging. Springfield, II: Charles C. Thomas. Lawson, A. (1993). Alcoholism and substance abuse in special population (ed) Gary W. Lawson, San Diego, C.A.: United States International University. Maddox, G.I. (1988). Aging, drinking, and alcohol abuse. Generations, 4(12): 14-16. Miller, N.S., Beth, M.B. and Mark, S.G. (1990). Alcohol and drug dependence among the elderly: Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Treatment. Comprehensive Psychiatry. 2(32): 153 165. National Career Institute (1991). Strategies to control tobacco use in the United States: A blueprint for public health action in the 1990s. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, NIH Publication No. 92 3316. Newcomb, M. and Earlywine, M. (1996). Intrapersonal contributions to drug use: The willing host. American Behavioural Scientist, 39, 823 837. Petraits, J., Fray, B.R. and Mill, T.Q. (1995). Reviewing theories of adolescent substance abuse: organizing pieces of the puzzle. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 67-86. Reid, L., Douglas, D.B., Christensen, A.S. (1990). Medical and psychosocial factors predictive of psychotropic drug use in elderly patients. American Journal of Public Health, 11(90):1349-1353. Shimp, L.A. and Frank, J.A. (1988). Causes of medication misuse and error. Generation, 4(12): 17-21. Stoller, E.P. and Rachel, P. (1994). Affecting the frequency of health enhancing behaviour by the elderly. Public Health Report, 3(109):377-388. Thomas, D.L. (1979). Clinical and administrative aspect of drug misuse in nursery homes in Drug and the elderly: Sp issues. P.II. Vogt., T.M. (1992). Stress and illness: Psychobiological linkage. An Aging, Health and Behaviour (ed) by M.G. Ory, R.P. Abele, P.D. Lipman, Newbury Park. CA: SAGE. Wilcox, S.M., David, H.H. and Steffie, W. (1994). Inappropriate drug prescribing for the Community dwelling elderly. Journal of the American Medical Association, 4(272): 292 317. Yee, B.W. and Gayle, D.W. (1984). Ethnic minority and health promotion: Developing a culturally competent agenda. Generations Spring, 1994:39-44. Tables Research Question I: Table 1: Chi-square analysis of whether psychologists, psychotherapists and counsellors that attend to drug users are available in the three Senatorial Districts in Delta State. Are there psychotherapists, psychologists and counsellors in the communities that attend to drug users? Communities Delta North Delta Central Delta South Total Yes Response 52 49 50 151 No Invalidated Response Response 62 2 65 2 61 5 188 9 Total 116 116 116 348 Df X2 Calc. X2 Crit. Level of Decision Sig. 4 2.231 9.49 0.05 Not significant
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Research Question II: Table II: Chi-square analysis of Research Question II. Are there community rules put in place against use of illegal drugs in your community? Communities Delta North Delta Central Delta South Total Yes Response 43 47 41 131 No Response 68 62 72 202 Invalidated Response 5 7 3 15 Total 116 116 116 348 Df X2 Calc. X2 Crit. Level of Sig. 4 2.780 9.49 0.05 Decision Not significant
Research Question III: Table III: Chi-square analysis of Research Question III. Are there legal enforcement of the rules against illegal drug use in the community? Yes Response Delta North 38 Delta Central 35 Delta South 38 Total 111 Research Question IV: Communities No Response 73 74 68 215 Invalidated Response 5 7 10 22 Total 116 116 116 348 Df X2 Calc. X2 Crit. Level of Decision Sig. 4 2.178 9.49 0.05 Not significant
Table IV: Chi-square analysis of Research Question IV Are there control measures against excess alcohol usage in the communities? Communities Delta North Delta Central Delta South Total Yes Response 46 48 46 140 No Response 69 65 65 199 Invalidated Response 1 3 5 9 Total 116 116 116 348 Df X2 Calc. X2 Crit. Level of Decision Sig. 4 2.885 9.49 0.05 Not significant
Research Question V: Table V: Chi-square analysis of Research Question V. Are there extracurricular activities such as sports, recreation and seminar aimed at reducing illegal hard drug usage in the communities? Communities Delta North Delta Central Delta South Total Yes Response 52 46 50 148 No Response 58 61 65 185 Invalidated Response 6 9 1 16 Total 116 116 116 348 Df X2 Calc. X2 Crit. Level of Decision Sig. 4 6.906 9.49 0.05 Not significant
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Research Question VI: Table VI: Chi-square analysis of Research Question VI. Are there measures put in place to check availability of hard drugs in the communities? Communities Delta North Delta Central Delta South Total Appendix 1 Questionnaire Drug Control Efforts in the Community Yes Response 44 44 45 133 No Response 70 70 69 209 Invalidated Response 2 2 2 6 Total 116 116 116 348 Df X2 Calc. X2 Crit. Level of Decision Sig. 4 0.025 9.49 0.05 Not significant
Instruction: Tick the box () where appropriate

1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Indicate type of Community: Rural [ ] Urban [ ] Do you notice drug abuse among people in your community? Yes [ ] No [ ] Do you notice drug related ailment in your community? Yes [ ] No [ ] State if it is: Hard drug [ ] or alcohol [ ] both [ ] Are there therapists, counsellors or psychologists in your community? Yes [ ] No [ ] Are there association of persons recovering from drugs in your community? Yes [ ] No [ ] Do family members, or close friends of drug abusers help against use of drugs? Yes [ ] No [ ] Do you notice religious bodies that help those involved in drug abuse? Yes [ ] No [ ] Are there community rules and sanction against hard drug use in your community? Yes [ ] No [ ] Are there community rules and sanctions against excess alcohol usage in your community? Yes [ ] No [ ] Are there bodies set up by the community to check illegal drug usage in your community? Yes [ ] No [ ] Are there sporting activities set up by the community to redirect youths interest from drug usage? Yes [ ] No [ ] Are there Seminars, talks, lectures organised where issues related to drug abuse are discussed? Yes [ ] No [ ] What are types of illegal drugs commonly accessible to the drug users? Marijuana [ ] LSD [ ] Cocaine [ ] heroine [ ] Are the control measures against drug use reducing their usage? Yes [ ] No [ ]
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Assessing the Quality of Examination System; Aseessment Techniques Employed at Higher Education Level in Pakistan
Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed
Regional Director (Gujranwala), Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad
Tariq Mahmood
PhD Research Fellow University of Education, Division of Education College road Town ship, Lahore Corresponding author +923014981592, Email: tariq_903@hotmail.com
Muhammad Amin Ghuman

PhD Scholar International Islamic University Islamabad Senior Subject Specialist GHSS Eminabad (Gujranwala)
Khalil Ur Rehman Wain

PhD Research Fellow University of Education, Division of Education College road Town ship, Lahore
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.2n1p447
Abstract Examination system in any institution is the main source to judge the academic level of that institution. On the other side, we can say that the quality of any institution depends upon the quality of examination system. Therefore, a survey type study was conducted to see the effectiveness of different types of assessment techniques employed in higher education institutions. A questionnaire at five point rating scale was developed and administered by personal visits of the researchers and by post of the questionnaires to collect data from students. On the other side a semi-structured interview scale was developed to collect data from teachers. These both scales are the two ends of a continuum of quantitative and qualitative aspects because questionnaires are the most structured tools while interviews are the least structured tools (Gillham, 2000). The response rate remained almost 80%. Data collected from students was analyzed by using SPSS Software while the responses of teachers were analyzed manually through crystallization. T-test was used to see the comparison of different types of assessment techniques. Major findings were: nearly all the teachers have the point of view that quality is an essential component of every education system particularly at higher education level. They were of the view that budget for education should be more for better performance. While discussing the quality in assessment as well as in education they also recommended that there should be a quality assurance wing in each department of the university.
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1. Introduction
1.1 Background of Higher Education in Pakistan

Higher Education is the infrastructure for future prosperity. The greatest treasure and asset of a nation are its educational institutions, because they build future nation. The purposes of higher education are multi-dimensional and may be termed as personal, social, economic and cultural. In the context of Pakistan, it has ideological meanings attached to its purposes as well. Religious, moral, historical and cultural ethos permeates through the fabric of the educational system of a country particularly higher education. The purpose of higher education is also to meet the socio-cultural and educational needs of the country. Higher education provides an opportunity of empowerment to an individual. It is responsible for high-level manpower needs of the country. The objectives of higher education are thus closely related to the needs of the society. (Isani & Virk, 2005). Assessment is necessary for all institutions, programs and projects for success and improvement. Different terms are used for the assessment processes i.e. measurement, test, assessment and evaluation. Measurement means assigning marks to students. Test is a set of questions used for the assessment of students. Assessment is a comprehensive term for the judgment of students performance but mostly covers quantitative position. Evaluation means the overall complete judgment of students performance. It covers both the quantitative as well as qualitative position (Linn & Gronlund, 2000). Faculty or teachers can assess students achievements and skills by using different methods. Multiple assessment methods and multiple raters ensure a variety of perspectives about the students performance that are included in the final evaluation of competence; thus decisions regarding promotion and graduation can be made with certainty. Because multiple directions of assessments help to investigate the quantitative as well as qualitative aspects of students performance. Assessment plays an important part in the teaching-learning process at all levels of education. Since assessment plays a significant role in upholding students future, there is no doubt that any assessment system will determine what students learn and the way in which they do this. Assessment also determines the way in which we teach and what we teach. Assessment is not just about grading and examinations; it is also about getting to know our students and the quality of their learning and to use this knowledge and understanding to their benefit. It is one of the major 'drivers' of the teachinglearning process. It is thus important for teaching staff to be familiar not only with the technical aspects of the many different forms of assessment currently in use but also with their advantages and limitations and about assessment issues and concerns. (http://www.city.londonmet.ac.uk). Pakistans Education Policy (2009) states that improving quality requires actions in the areas of teacher quality, curriculum and pedagogy, textbooks, assessment approaches, in learning environment and facilities. Assessment systems are quality measures that cater to a number of requirements of the education system. These can be used to measure overall system efficiency as well as individual students performance for movement in the education system. A comprehensive assessment design would provide feedback for improvements at all tiers starting from changes in the classroom to improvements in the national systems. Classroom Assessment is a simple method faculty can use to collect feedback, early and often, on how well their students are learning what they are being taught. Teachers also use informal observations to assess students perception. Teachers depend heavily on their impressions of student learning and make important judgments (Angelo & Cross, 1993). The mental transformation that we call learning on the part of the student could be facilitated by a combination of the following means on the part of the teacher who has the freedom to choose what he regards as the best curriculum design: appropriate objectives, syllabuses, reading lists, and modes of assessment. The true curriculum design includes
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preparation of teaching materials, classroom activities in lectures and tutorials, design of exercises, assignments, projects, and quizzes, feedback to students, and final examinations. Assessment is a systematic process that plays a significant role in effective teaching. It begins with the identification of learning goals and ends with a judgment concerning how well those goals have been attained. Students assessment and evaluation is central to every classroom at school, college and university level. It is how teachers find out what students are learning, how they are progressing, and how teachers can make improvements for their future development Many people think of evaluation as taking a snapshot of outcomes at the end of a program to confirm to a feedback about the effectiveness of the program. Some people dont hold evaluation in much regard; they believe they are getting too little information too late in the day, especially if their program fell short of expectations or made no difference at all. However, evaluation can, and should, be used as an ongoing management and learning tool to progress an organizations efficiency. Evaluation refers to a periodic process of gathering data and then analyzing it in such a way that the resulting information can be used to determine whether your organization or program is effectively carrying out planned activities. An evaluation can also illustrate the extent to which your organization or program is achieving its stated objectives and anticipated results. Basically there are four types of assessment techniques according to there consequences i.e. placement, formative, diagnostic and summative (Linn & Gronlund, 2000). Placement assessments are conducted at the start of any program or project. Formative and diagnostic assessments are same according to time but there is difference for there interpretation because diagnostic assessments are used to dig out some specific deficiencies or efficiencies of the particular individual. Diagnostic testing is the most important according to the learning point of view. Diagnostic testing is to identify the strengths and weaknesses of pupil learning and to pin point specific problems as precisely as possible (Stones, 1994). As formative assessments are used to know the results of continuous achievement levels of students so assigning marks are more suitable to develop competition among students. Smith & Gorard (2005) reported that when some teachers put comments but no marks on students work (a key feature of formative assessments), these students made less progress than others given marks. Summative assessments are used to see the overall performance of students at the end of the semester or year or program. Summative assessments will be more effective if they were developed and conducted by some external body with uniformity among the all the province or country students. For this purpose standardized test are most suitable to have equal view about all students. But the information or test will be gathered by some external body there will be pressure on teachers and ultimately teachers will guide there students how to get only good marks even through cramming which is wrong activity in teaching learning process (Harlen & Deakin Crick, 2003). Managers can and should conduct internal evaluations to get information about their programs so that they can make sound decisions about the execution of those programs. Internal evaluations should be conducted on an ongoing basis and applied carefully by managers at every level of an organization in all program areas. In addition, all of the program's participants (managers, staff, and beneficiaries) should be involved in the evaluation process in appropriate ways. This cooperation helps guarantee that the assessment is fully participatory and builds commitment on the part of all involved to use the results to make critical program improvements. Wiggins (1998) has used the term 'educative assessment' to describe techniques and issues that educators should consider when they design and use assessments. His message is that the nature of assessment influences what is learned and the degree of meaningful engagement by students in the learning process. While Wiggins contends that assessments should be authentic, with feedback and opportunities for revision to improve rather than simply audit learning, the more general principle is understanding how different assessments affect students. Will students be more engaged if assessment
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tasks are problem-based? How do students study when they know the test consists of multiple-choice items? What is the nature of feedback, and when is it given to students? How does assessment affect student effort? Answers to such questions help teachers and administrators understand that assessment has powerful effects on motivation and learning. Just as assessment impacts student learning and motivation, it also influences the nature of instruction in the classroom. There has been considerable recent literature that has promoted assessment as something that is integrated with instruction, and not an activity that merely audits learning (Shepard, 2000). When assessment is incorporated with instruction it informs teachers about what activities and assignments will be most useful, what level of teaching is most suitable, and how summative assessments can also provide diagnostic information. For instance, during instructional activities, informally, formative assessment helps teachers know when to move on, when to ask more questions, when to give more examples, and what responses to student questions are most appropriate. Standardized test scores, when used appropriately, help teachers understand student strengths and weaknesses to target further instruction. There are three distinct but inter-related purposes for classroom assessment: assessment for learning, assessment as learning, and assessment of learning. 1. Assessment for learning is designed to give teachers information to modify and differentiate teaching and learning activities. 2. Assessment as learning is a process of developing and supporting metacognition for students. Assessment as learning focuses on the role of the student as the critical connector between assessment and learning. 3. Assessment of learning is summative in nature and is used to confirm what students know and can do, to demonstrate whether they have achieved the curriculum outcomes, and, occasionally, to show how they are placed in relation to others. Assessment for learning, assessment as learning, and assessment of learning all serve valuable, and different, purposes. It is not always easy, however, getting the balance right. If we want to enhance learning for all students, the role of assessment for learning and assessment as learning takes on a much higher profile than assessment of learning. Traditionally, the focus of classroom assessment has been on assessment of learningmeasuring learning after the fact, using the information to make judgments about students performances, and reporting these judgments to others. Teachers traditionally have also been using assessment for learning when they built in diagnostic processes, formative assessment, and feedback at various stages in the teaching and learning process, though it was often informal and implicit. Systematic assessment as learningwhere students become critical analysts of their own learningwas rare. Although some teachers have incorporated selfassessment into their programs, few have systematically or explicitly used assessment to develop students capacity to evaluate and adapt their own learning. (Western and Northern Canadian Protocol, 2006) Researchers, policymakers, parents, and even teachers themselves agree that education level in its qualitative aspect is deteriorating in Pakistan. Assessment is a basic tool and way to diagnose the efficiency and effectiveness of any program. In Pakistan up to intermediate level the autonomous bodies which assess and assign certificates are Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education, while from bachelors and upward levels/degrees universities are the autonomous and authoritative institutions to assess and award degrees. Assessment system in Pakistan is focused on assessing the memorization or retention level of students even at masters level which is alarming situation in our education institutions. Tests are used as the basic and major assessment tools to diagnose the learning level of students. Due to these and other reasons it was observed that a study to see the qualitative aspects of assessment tools used in Pakistan is highly necessary.
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2. Methodology of the Study Survey type study was conducted to see the effectiveness of different types of assessment techniques employed in higher education institutions. A questionnaire at five point rating scale was developed and administered by personal visits of the researchers and by post of the questionnaires to collect data from students. At the end of this scale two open ended questions were also added two ask about what is quality and to get suggestion for improvement. On the other side a semi-structured interview scale was developed to collect data from teachers. Five point rating scale was developed to see the convergent point of view of students, while interview schedule was developed to know the divergent views of teachers. These both scales are the two ends of a continuum of quantitative and qualitative aspects because questionnaires are the most structured tools while interviews are the least structured tools (Gillham, 2000). The response rate remained almost 80%. Data collected from students was analyzed by using SPSS Software while the responses of teachers were analyzed manually through crystallization. As a whole the collected data was analyzed by using both descriptive as well as inferential statistics. Ttest was used to see the comparison of different types of assessment techniques and them again the percentage answers of the respondents about different types of assessment techniques was used to see the extent of use these techniques at higher education level. Results of t-test are shown only in tables while the results of percentages are shown both in table and graph. As data was collected through interview schedule from teacher so their responses were crystallized and it was found that nearly all the teachers have the point of view that quality is an essential component of every education system particularly at higher education level. In detail they said that quality in assessment techniques means the quality in whole teaching learning process. But this point of view is against the Edward demings sixteen quality indicators. He says reduce the need of testing. When teachers were explaining that quality is necessary, in the mean while they were also saying that we are not providing with such equipment so that we cannot produce quality in education. They were of the view that budget for education should be more for better performance. While discussing the quality in assessment as well as in education they also recommended that there should be a quality assurance wing in each department of the university. In Pakistan HEC is also taking some initiative steps in developing quality in different aspects of university education. 3. Discussion and Interpretation of Results Table # 1: Results of T-test of assessment techniques
Assessment Technique Objective type questions Essay type questions Mean 3.8049 3.9164 1.49642 .208 -1.262 St. Deviation Sig. Value t-value
Results of t-test show that according students point of view multiple choice questions (MCQs) as well as essay type questions are of equal level to assess the learning achievement of students at higher education level. On the other side teachers point of view is different from students counterpart. Teachers are of the view that MCQs are not up to the mark in assessing proper higher order learning of students because the very basic purpose of MCQs is uniformity and objectivity in scoring (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). But according to teachers point of view essay type questions are more appropriate in assessing the learning achievement as well as higher order thinking of students. Kobiszyn & Borich (2004) also narrates essay type questions are most effective technique in assessing the complex learning
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outcomes. Students responses are also shown in tables as well in graphs. Graph # 1 shows that 70% students are in favor of objective type questions while 76% are in the favor of essay type questions.
Graph # I: Comparison of Objective type and Essay type Questions Table # 2: Results of T-test of assessment techniques
Assessment Technique Assignments Research projects Mean 4.1463 3.7979 1.36022 .000 -4.340 St. Deviation Sig. Value t-value
According to new theories which base on students centered education system; focus on the self work done by the student. At higher education level normally research becomes the more important than theory. Assignments and research projects are research oriented activities. Students responses show that assignment are more important and effective in assessing the students learning achievement level because in assignments there are two aspects, one preparation, and second is presentation of that assignment. Teachers also have the same view with slight difference that research projects are more important for M. Phil and Ph. D programs while assignment are more feasible for Masters level programs. Graph # II also show that almost 10% more students are in the favor of assignment as a good assessment tool than research project. This difference between students and teachers responses may be due to the majority of maters level students rather than that of M. Phil or Ph. D programs.
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Graph # II: Comparison of Assignment and Research Project Table # 3: Results of T-test of assessment techniques
Assessment Technique Presentations Class/group discussions Mean 4.5192 4.2334 .90177 .000 5.368 St. Deviation Sig. Value t-value
An other interesting and practice oriented work at higher education level is participation in the classroom setting. Presentation in front of class fellows or discussion in the classroom is also participative activity. Students have the view that presentation is more effective tool than group discussion. In presentation student has to build his confidence once at the start of presentation then the presenter becomes dominant in the classroom. But in group discussion all the students have equal chance to participate and share ideas. Here in this regard teachers also have the same view that presentation is more effective technique because it provides multi directional aspects of students. Graph III also show that 92% students are in favor of presentation while 83% students think that group discussion is more appropriate.
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Graph # III: Comparison of Presentation and Group discussion Table # 4: Results of T-test of assessment techniques
Assessment Technique Group projects Quiz programs Mean 4.2160 4.1707 .96152 .425 .798 St. Deviation Sig. Value t-value
Group projects and quiz programs are also important for brain storming which is an essential component of critical thinking development. Mean values as well as percentages shown in the graph # IV depict that students are highly interested to participate and assessed through group projects because they are completely related to self work. Students are in favor of group project and quiz programs 84.8% and 85.7% respectively. This aspect was not put inform of teachers to get their views.
Graph # IV: Comparison of Group projects and Quiz programs
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Table # 5: Results of T-test of assessment techniques

Assessment Technique Continuous assessment Summative assessment Mean 4.3728 3.9930 St. Deviation 1.24822 Sig. Value .000 t-value 5.155
There are basically to forms of assessment i.e. during the program and at the end of the program. As universities are autonomous bodies and follow the internal assessment system. Universities conduct tests during the program as well as at the end of the semester which are called formative and summative tests respectively. When students were asked about these two types of assessment students were more in favor of only continuous (formative) rather than summative. Graph # V also shows that 89.2% students were in favor of continuous assessment system while 77.7% students were in favor of summative system. On the other side teachers were also in favor of formative and diagnostic assessment system as well as summative assessment system. But the difference is only that teachers say that 70% focus should be on formative and diagnostic assessment and only 30% focus should be on summative exam.
Graph # V: Comparison of Continuous assessment and Summative assessment Table # 6: Results of T-test of assessment techniques
Assessment Technique Continuous assessment Comprehensive exam Mean 4.3728 2.9965 St. Deviation 1.55703 Sig. Value .000 t-value 14.975
Almost all universities have internal as well as a little bit external assessment system. Summative test is a part of internal assessment system while comprehensive exam is totally external in some universities of Pakistan while in some universities it is partially external. Either it is totally external or partially external students greatly reject this system of examination. T-test shows that there is significant difference in the views of students about the use of comprehensive exam. This view looks appropriate because I personally know that students who have passed with A grade in continuous assessment failed
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in comprehensive exam. Graph # VI that 89.2% students are in favor of continuous assessment system and only 41.8% students responded in favor of comprehensive exam. Teachers were more rigorous in rejecting comprehensive exam particularly those universitys teachers which have totally external system in comprehensive exam. They say that this comprehensive exam means teachers assessment process is not reliable.
Graph # VI: Comparison of Continuous assessment and Summative assessment Open ended questions which were added at the end were analyzed manually and shocking results found. Almost all the students do not know about what is quality in assessment system. While in the second question about suggestion a few students responded. The focus of these suggestions was there should be fair and objective marking. Also some students suggested that continuous assessment should be in a very stream line with proper feedback. Teachers were also emphasized that at higher education level formally assignments and tests are the basic assessment tools to measure students performance level. 4. Major Findings Teachers are greatly in favor to focus on qualitative aspects of education but they are not provided with required sufficient resources. Almost all the teachers are in the favor to establish a fair working quality assurance wing in all the departments in universities. One contrasting thing is that majority of the students are in favor of MCQs in examination but teachers were favor of essay type questions because they are related to qualitative aspects. Majority of the students greatly reject comprehensive exam or UQE which is conducted at the end of the program. Above discussion show that majority of the students are interested in activities that are related to self work.
5. Recommendations Teachers should be fair in their marking without any subjectivity.
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Proper feedback to students in continuous assessment system enhances students comprehension and learning level. More focus should be on self work or practical instead of theory. Comprehensive exam or university qualifying examination (UQE) should be redesigned or finished. It is strongly recommended that studies on every assessment tool (assignment, test, project etc.) should be conducted separately to investigate in more depth.
References
Anastasi, A. & Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological Testing. 7th (Ed.) Delhi: Pearson, Prentice Hall. Angelo, T.A., & Cross, K.P. (1993). Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Gillham, B. (2000). Developing a Questionnaire. New York: Continuum. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, National Education Policy, 2009, Islamabad. Harlen, W., & Deakin Crick, R. (2003). Testing and Motivation for Learning. Assessment in Education. 10 (2). http://www.city.londonmet.ac.uk Isani, C.U.A.G. & Virk, M. L. (2005). Higher Education in Pakistan. Islamabad: National Book Foundation. Kubiszyn, T. & Borich, G. (2004). Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom Application and Practice. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Inc. Linn, R. L. and Gronlund, N. E. (2000). Measurement and Assessment in Teaching. 8th (Ed.) Delhi: Pearson Education. Memon, G. R. (2007). Education in Pakistan: The Key Issues, Problems and The New Challenges. Journal of Management and Social Sciences. Vol. 3, No. 1 pp. 47-55. Shepard, L. A. (2000). The role of assessment in a learning culture. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Access at 20-04-2007 from: http://ericae.net/scripts/ft/ftget.asp?want=http://www.aera.net/meeting/am2000/wrap/praddr01.htm Smith, E., & Gorard, S. (2005). They Dont give us our marks The role of formative feedback in Student progress. Assessment in Education. 29 (1). Stones, E. (1994). Quality Teaching: A Sample of Cases. New York: Routledge. Western and Northern Canadian Protocol, (2006). Available at www.wncp.ca Wiggins, G. (1998). Educative assessment: Designing assessments to inform and improve student performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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The Determinants of Real Exchange Rate Volatility in Nigeria

Ajao, Mayowa G. Ph.D
Dept of Banking and Finance, Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Benin, Benin-City, Edo-State, Nigeria. E-mails: mayourwah@yahoo.com, ajao.mayowa@uniben.edu
Igbekoyi, Olushola E., M.sc ,ACA

Dept of Accounting, College of Social and Management Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti Ekiti-State, Nigeria.
Doi:10.5901/ajis/2013.2n1p459
Abstract The naira exchange rate depreciation and volatility is among the vast macroeconomic maladjustments which have unfolded in the Nigerian economy in the recent past. This paper investigates the determinants of real exchange rate volatility in Nigeria from 1981 through 2008. Having obtained the volatility of exchange rate through the GARCH (1,1) techniques, the ECM was used to examine the various determinants of exchange rate volatility in Nigeria, while the co-integration analysis reveals the presence of a long term equilibrium relationship between REXRVOL and its various determinants. Our empirical analysis further shows that openness of the economy, government expenditures, interest rate movements as well as the lagged exchange rate are among the major significant variables that influence REXRVOL during this period. This study recommends that the central monetary authority should institute policies that will minimize the magnitude of exchange rate volatility while the federal government exercises control of viable macroeconomic variables which have direct influence on exchange rate fluctuation.
Key words: Exchange Rate, Volatility, GARCH, ECM, Co integration
JEL Classification: F21, F31

I. Introduction
Most economies (developed and developing) of the world have experienced high real exchange rate volatility, which translates into high degree of uncertainty in the attainment of major macro-economics and monetary policy objectives in the area of price stability and economic growth. Volatile real exchange rates are associated with unpredictable movements in the relative prices in the economy. Hence, exchange rate stability is one of the main factors influencing foreign (direct and portfolio) investments, price stability and stable economic growth.
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Ever since the breakdown of the Bretton-Woods system in 1973, the exchange rates of many countries have been fluctuating considerably overtime, and there has been more interest in predicting exchange rates. Research related to exchange rate management still remains an area of interest to economists and finance experts, especially in developing countries, despite a relatively enormous body of literature in this area. This is largely because the exchange rate is not only an important relative price of one currency in term of other that connects domestic and world markets for goods and assets, but it also signals the competitiveness of a countrys exchange power with the rest of the world in a global market. Besides, it also serves as an anchor which supports sustainable macroeconomic balances in the longrun. There is, therefore, no simple answer to what determine the equilibrium real exchange rate, and estimating the degree of exchange rate volatility and misalignment remains one of the most challenging empirical problems in macroeconomics (Williamson, 1994). The effect of real exchange rate misalignment on economic decisions has received considerable attention in the literature, not only because of its significant impact on other macroeconomics variables, but also because there has been a number of significant developments in recent time, with substantial contributions being made to both the theory and empirical understanding of exchange rate determination. Important developments in econometrics, together with the increasing availability of high quality data, have also stimulated a large output of empirical work on exchange rate (Botha and Pretorius, 2009). Exchange rate traditionally played a crucial role in Nigeria monetary policy because of its crucial impact on the country trade relation with other countries, first, as a mono-product (oil) export dependent economy and second, as an import dependent (developing) nation; besides the countrys competitiveness and overall economic growth. Therefore, the monetary authorities (Central Bank of Nigeria) on several occasions in recent past had engaged in different exchange rate adjustment policies (fixed and flexible) for the main purpose of attaining the macro-economic objective of price stability. However, in line with major industrial economies, greater flexibility of the exchange rate is much needed to allow the real exchange rate to converge easily with its equilibrium level and to contain the real shocks associated with the transition to a market economy and the depletion of oil production, which is considered to be the main source of external and government revenues. The fundamental difficulty is that the equilibrium value of the exchange rate is not observable. While the exchange rate volatility refers to a situation in which a countrys actual exchange rate deviates from such an unobservable equilibrium, an exchange rate is said to be undervalued when it depreciates more than its equilibrium, and overvalued when it appreciates more than its equilibrium (Aliyu, 2008). The issue is, unless the equilibrium is explicitly specified, the concept of exchange rate volatility remains subjective. There is growing agreement in the literature that prolonged and substantial exchange rate volatility can create severe macroeconomic disequilibria and the correction of external balance will require both exchange rate devaluation and demand management policies. The main intuition behind this is that an increase in exchange rate volatility leads to uncertainty which might have a negative impact on trade flows. Baldwin, Skudelny and Taglioni (2005) discover that effect of exchange rate volatility on trade in the European Union (EU) countries is negative; trade increases as volatility falls and gets progressively larger as volatility approaches zero. While numerous studies were conducted on the extent of naira exchange rate volatility impact on foreign trade in Nigeria (Soludo and Adenikinju, 1997; Obaseki, 2001 and Aliyu, 2008), this paper seeks to build on these previous studies by quantitatively measuring the determinants of real exchange rate volatility in Nigeria from 1981 to 2008..
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2. Literature Review Currency, like any traded goods, has a price. This price can undergo dramatic changes over a short period of time, as was the case for the Thai baht, which lost 56% of its value in about six months during the Asian financial crisis in 1997. Alternatively a countrys currency may remain stable relative to other currencies over a long period. The explanations for sudden extreme currency volatility or prolonged stability are not always so esoteric. However, an understanding of the factors influencing exchange rate daily is more difficult to come by. The foreign exchange market, with roughly 200 participating countries and US $2 trillion in daily turnover is far too complex to be described neatly by a set of theories or formulas (Federal Reserves, 2005). Underscoring the evasiveness of the foreign exchange market, Former U.S. Federal Reserve Board Chairman Alan Greespan once said, there may be more forecasting of exchange rates with less success than almost any other economic variable. For decades, the Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) hypothesis has remained a focal point of policy discussions, models and empirical work. the hypothesis postulates an underlying tendency for changes in the nominal exchange rate to be fully offset (at least after some period of time) by changes in the ratio of foreign to domestic price levels. Therefore, even if PPP does not hold at all times, any deviations from it should be eliminated eventually, thus implying that the real exchange rate should be meanreverting (Gelbard and Nagayasu, 2004). Empirical studies have produced little evidence in favour of this hypothesis, and in those that supported it, the speed of convergence of the actual exchange rate to its PPP level has been found to be very low, with half-lives of three years or more (Phylaktis and Kassimatis, 1994; Macdonald, 1995). Such slow convergence has been attributed to nominal price rigidities, either related to price-wage stickiness or to market segmentation and pricing to market policies. A well known blend of PPP with the monetary model contends that, since nominal rigidities prevent a quick adjustment of prices and wages in goods markets, monetary innovations are the cause of the temporary deviations from PPP (Dornbusch, 1976). This view, however, which implies that there should be minimal persistence in the real exchange rate (i.e. it could not follow a random walk), is supported mainly by the analysis of high-inflation episodes, where movements in prices appear to dominate other factors that could lead to deviations from PPP (Zhou, 1997). There are many factors contributing to real exchange rate volatility. Among these factors are: the level of output, inflation, the openness of an economy, interest rates, domestic and foreign money supply, the exchange rate regime and central bank independence (Stancik, 2007). The degree of the impact of each of these factors varies and depends on a particular countrys economic condition. Thus, the countries that are in the transition process (such as Nigeria) are more vulnerable to being affected by these factors, which in turn affect the monetary policy decisions. In a different line of research, attempts were made to model and test for deviation from PPP, as a more permanent phenomenon, by highlighting those real exchange rate movements might be caused by changes on the real side of the economy (Neary, 1988). These models vary depending on the factor that are considered to affect the behaviour of the real exchange rate. Models based on productivity differentials were highlighted by Balasa (1994) and Obstfeld (1993), while Chinn and Johnston (1996) analysed the effect of real interest rate differentials and demand shocks respectively. Exogenous changes in terms of trade have also been found to play an important role in determining the real exchange rate behaviour (Edwards, 1994; Ostry 1988). Recently, Juthathip (2009) results for developing Asia showed that real exchange rate is determined by the five key fundamental variables that are medium to long run fundamentals. Productivity differentials, openness, terms of trade, net foreign assets, and government spending. Other variables such as output gap may be included in some countries where such factors play an important role in determining real exchange rate. Moreover, it can be argued that real exchange rates in developing or rapidly transforming countries are likely to be particularly dependent on these real shocks, and that
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the extent to which different shocks affect the behaviour of the real exchange rate depends on countryspecific factors. In this respect, there is a consensus on the fact that real exchange rate behaviour at medium to long time horizons can at least be partly explained by fundamentals. Ricci, Ferretti and Lee (2008) introduce the Fundamental Equilibrium Exchange Rate (FEER) which considers one of the most broadly used concepts in determining equilibrium real exchange rate. The FEER is defined as the real exchange rate that simultaneously achieves internal and external balances. Internal balance is reached when the economy is at full employment output and operating in a low inflation environment. External balance is characterized as a sustainable balance of payments position over the medium term ensuring desired net flows of resources and external debt sustainability. The FEER tends to abstract from the short-run cyclical and speculative forces in the foreign exchange market. 3. Exchange Rate Policy in Nigeria The most important themes that emerge in the discussion of exchange rates and their management in Nigeria include the high volatility, real exchange rate overvaluation albeit in the context of continuous nominal depreciation, and the search for mechanism for market-determined rate where government is the dominant supplier of foreign exchange. Exchange rate stability is one of the goals of monetary policy in Nigeria, and over the years exchange rate policy has been driven mostly by an obsession to keep the nominal exchange rate stable. For the general public, the health of the economy is gauged by the nominal exchange rate where a depreciating rate is synonymous with a weakening economy. Table I presents some selected exchange rate indices and highlights the extent of distortions in the exchange rate regimes. Table I: Selected Exchange Rate Indices 1980-2008
Period 1980-1985 1986-1990 1991-1995 1996-1999 2000-2008 Nominal Exch. Rate N to US$1 0.70 5.20 18.61 21.89 105.50 Nominal Eff. Exchange Rate (1985=100) 108.27 19.24 3.32 0.80 0.20 Nominal Exchange Rate Premium (%) 164.24 41.22 114.73 289.78 9.83 Real Effective Exchange Rate (1985=100) 87.81 100.86 89.66 140.50 79.95 Parallel Market Exchange Rate 1.97 6.91 42.73 85.31 114.31
Source: Central Bank of Nigeria, Annual Report and Statement of Accounts, various issues
Another key feature of the exchange rate regime is the huge premium which indicates the extent of distortions in the market. This has been due to the fixed regime until the mid 1980s, the managed float of the SAP era, the re-fixing of the official rate during the Abacha regime (1994-1998) and thus the large disparity between the official and the parallel (free) market rates. Given the huge demand for foreign exchange for imports and sundry reasons, and also the fact that forex at the official rate was rightly regulated with strict documentation requirements, the parallel market boomed (Soludo, 2008). Real exchange rate (RER) volatility is another feature of the regime. The standard deviation in real exchange rate growth for 1961-70 was 4 per cent. For the period 1991-2000 a period of greater liberalization, the standard deviation was 35 per cent, with Nigeria having one of the most volatile RER regimes among developing countries. The RER was more stable during the fixed nominal exchange rate regime (1961-1985), and wide volatility started with the emergence of major oil earnings and fiscal imprudence, surging domestic price inflation, and futile efforts to manage the nominal exchange rate.
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RER uncertainty (proxied by volatility) is of major concern because it inhibits private sector investment. A critical issue faced by policymakers is how to avoid RER overvaluation and exchange rate premia through a market determined nominal exchange rate regime, especially where the government is the major supplier of foreign exchange. The Central Bank tried all manner of experiments in determining the official nominal rate which is essentially a managed float. Between 1999 and 2001, the CBN reverted to the pre-reform system of selling foreign exchange in the interbank foreign exchange market (IFEM) at a predetermined rate, and the interbank market split into the IFEM and the open inter-bank market where banks traded among themselves at freely negotiated exchange rates (the NIFEX). The Bureau de Change and the parallel market for foreign exchange constitute the free markets where no documentations are required for transactions in foreign exchange. In 2000, the exchange rate depreciated in all markets. At the IFEM, the Naira depreciated on the average by 6.5 per cent to N101.65 to one US$. This was caused principally by a significant increase in import-driven demand for foreign exchange following the increased government expenditures: total demand for foreign exchange at the IFEM during the year was $6.9 billion compared with $4.9 billion in 1999. The parallel market depreciated by 30 percent between December 1999 and May 2001, and the differential with the IFEM rate widened to 20 percent. Following the excess liquidity triggered off by fiscal expansion, a foreign exchange crisis emerged in April 2001 when the CBN made a small adjustment of the IFEM rate before it had effectively mopped up the excess liquidity. The government sold large amounts of foreign exchange to deal with the crisis thereby depleting foreign reserves. As a consequence of this measure and other tighter monetary policy measures, the parallel market exchange rate appreciated from N140 to an average of N133 throughout the remainder of 2001, with the gap between the official and parallel market rates at 21 percent. In 2002, the Central Bank reintroduced the Dutch Auction System (DAS) a system which had been tried at the introduction of SAP in the mid 1980s but which later collapsed. Since the current civilian government abolished the fixed (nominal) exchange rate of the Abacha era, the premium between the parallel and the official rates fell sharply from 28.98 per cent to only 9.83 per cent. With the introduction of the DAS, the premium has further reduced to about 7.8 per cent. This is still high compared to the rates in many other developing countries where they are below 2 per cent. Hopefully, the DAS (if allowed to stay and work properly) could significantly reduce or eliminate the exchange rate premium. But the obsession with the stability of the nominal exchange rate by policymakers is a possible constraint in allowing the rate to find its true market value (Soludo, 2008). Based on the recent developments in exchange rate policy in Nigeria, the average rate of the naira to US appreciated with an average rate of #128 to a dollar at Dutch Auction System (DAS) in 2006. Exchange rate was generally stable from 2006 until December 2008. Stability and mild appreciation was sustained throughout 2007 and most of 2008 due to large foreign exchange inflows and deliberate policy not to allow rates to appreciate massively, thereby accumulating huge reserves. For the first time there was a convergence of rate among various segments of the foreign exchange market. The exchange rate regime will continue to be a key shock absorber for the economy to keep internal and external balance (Soludo, 2009). 4. Data and methodology
4.1 Data and the Explanatory Variables

The following key variables have been found to play a theoretical key role in explaining the movement of real exchange rate. These determinants variables vary between economies according to economic and financial conditions of each economy.
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Table 11: Definitions and Sources of Variables used in Regression Analysis

Variable Nominal Exchange Rate Real Exchange Rate Volatility of Nominal Exchange Rate Productivity Trade Openness Government Expenditure Real Interest Rate Money Supply Definition and Construction Bilateral Exchange rate of Nigeria Naira to US Dollar Nominal Exchange Rate/Consumer Price Index Standard Deviation of the log differences of real exchange rate Real Gross Domestic Product OPN =Import+Export/Real GDP Government total expenditure (recurrent and capital) Prime Lending Rate/Consumer Price Index Total Monetary Liabilities (M2) Source Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) CBN CBN CBN CBN CBN CBN CBN
Source: Authors compilation

5. Empirical Design (a) Volatility Estimate This study focused on the determinants of real exchange rate volatility in Nigeria. The frequency of data is kept at annual level with the time scope taken from 1981 to 2008. Having generated the real exchange rate from the nominal exchange rate, we derived the real exchange rate volatility (REXRVOL) with the aid of the Generalised Autoregressive Conditional heteroskedasticity (GARCH 1, 1) which belong to the family of ARCH as introduced by Engle (1982) and Bollerslev (1986). The jointly estimated GARCH (1,1) model is given as:
t2 = 0 + 1 t21 + t21 + t .............................................................(i )

Which says that the conditional variance (2) of at time t depends not only on the squared error term in the previous time period (as in ARCH (1)) but also on its conditional variance in the previous time period. (b) Stationarity Test: Since the data used in this study are time series, there is need to check the stationarity of the data. The stationarity properties of our data was checked using the Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) test (Dickey and Fuller 1979, 1981) and the Phillips Perron (PP) test (Phillips and Perron, 1988). The general form of these tests is estimated in the following forms: Yt = b0 + Yt-1 + 1Yt-1 + 2Yt-2 + + pYt-p + et (ii) Where Yt represents time series to be tested, b0 is the intercept term, is the coefficient of interest in the unit root test, is the parameter of the augmented lagged first difference of Yt to represent the pth order autoregressive process and et is the white noise error term.
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(c) Cointegration Analysis: In order to solve the spurious regression problem and violation of the assumptions of the classical regression model; cointegration analysis was used to examine the longrun relationship between real exchange rate volatility (REXRVOL) and its various determinants. As part of the empirical design the basic estimating equation is specified as follows:
REXRVOL = 0 + 1GEXP + 2MS + 3OPN + 4PROD + 5REXR + 6RINTR + et(iii)

Where REXRVOL is the Real Exchange rate volatility, GEXP is the government expenditure, MS is money supply, OPN is the openness of the economy, PROD is the productivity index, REXR is the Real exchange rate, RINTR is the Real interest rate while et is the stochastic error term. To test for cointegration in order to know the disequilibrium error, equation (iii) is rewritten as:
et = REXVOL - 0 - 1GEXP - 2MS - 3OPN - 4PROD - 5REXR 6RINT... (iv)

The presence of cointegration is tested using the Johansen (1988) approach. In this method, the number of cointegrating relations is tested on the basis of trace statistics and maximum Eigen statistics. Once the presence of cointegration is established, we estimate an error correction model (ECM) that includes both the longrun and short run dynamics. Then the disequilibrium errors in equation (iv) form a stationarity time series and have a zero mean, the et should be stationary, I(0) with (et) = 0. The longrun equilibrium may be rarely observed but there is a tendency to move towards equilibrium. Thus, Error Correction Model (ECM) is used to represent the longrun (static) and shortrun (dynamic) relationships between REXRVOL and other variables. Accordingly ECM is suitable to estimate the effect of other variables on REXRVOL. Besides, the purpose of ECM model is to indicate the speed of adjustment from the short run equilibrium to the long run equilibrium state. The greater the coefficient of the parameter, the higher the speed of adjustment of the model from short run to long run. Considering our base equation (iii), the ECM model is specified as follows: Thus, equation (v) represents the error correction model
REXRVOL = 0 + 1 GEXP t 1 + 2 MS t 1 + 3 OPN t 1 + 4 PROD t 1 +

t =1 t =1 t =1 t =1
5 REXRt 1 + 6 RINTRt 1 + ECM (1) + t........................(v)

t =1 t =1
Where t is the error term, ECM (-1) is the error correction term, captures the long run impact. The short run effects are captured through the individual coefficients of the differenced terms () while the coefficient of the ECM variable contains information about whether the past values of variables affect the current values. The size and statistical significance of the coefficient of the ECM measure the tendency of each variable to return to the equilibrium. A significant coefficient implies that past equilibrium errors play a role in determining the current outcomes. 6. Results and findings Since the application of cointergration technique requires that all the variables should be integrated of
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the same order, we start the analysis by examining the unit root properties of the variables. The result of both methods (ADF and PP tests) as shown in Table III shows that GEXP, MS and PROD are stationary at level under both methods while OPN, REXR and RINTR are non-stationary at level under both method. As a result, all the variables have been differenced once to check their stationarity. At first differencing the calculated ADF and PP test statistics clearly reject the null hypothesis of unit root when compared with their corresponding critical values hence the ADF and PP tests decisively confirm stationarity of each variable at first difference and depict the same order of integration I (1) behaviour. Thus we can apply Johansen cointegration approach to examine the long run relationship among the variables. Table III: Stationarity Test of the Variables
Variable Unit Root Tests ADF PP 7.75195* -3.01527** 9.51936* 8.00283* 4.923353* -4.63112* 3.411539** -6.82531* -2.29462 -4.61624* -1.59491 -8.93096* -3.69987 -2.97626 -2.62742 I(1) I(1) I(1) I(1) I(1) I(1) Conclussion
Level
GEXP MS OPN PROD REXR RINTR Critical Value
6.456987* 2.777591*** 6.595822* 4.709117* 2.027181 -4.63518* 1.511465 -6.83425* -2.16613 -4.61502* -1.86364 -3.23366** -3.771146 -2.98104 -2.62991
First Diff Level First Diff Level First Diff Level First Diff Level First Diff Level First Diff
1% 5% 10%
Source: Authors computation
NB: *,** & *** represent significant at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively
The cointegration results are given in table IV and V. From these tables, it can be observed that the trace statistics and maximum eigen values are greater than the critical values at 5% significant level; while we have four cointegrating factors in the trace statistics, we have two cointegrating factors in the maximum eigen values. Hence we reject the null hypothesis that there is no cointegration relationship among these variables. In other words, there is unique long run equilibrium relationship among GEXP, MS, OPN, REXR and RINTR.
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Table IV: Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Trace)

Hypothesized No. of CE(s) None * At most 1 * At most 2 * At most 3 * At most 4 At most 5 At most 6 Eigenvalue 0.980929 0.804045 0.681087 0.58692 0.529047 0.237446 0.000503 Trace Statistic 224.6661 121.7165 79.33992 49.62613 26.63916 7.06122 0.013086 0.05 Critical Value 125.6154 95.75366 69.81889 47.85613 29.79707 15.49471 3.841466 Prob.** 0 0.0003 0.0072 0.0338 0.1108 0.5705 0.9087
Trace test indicates 4 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level * denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level **MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values Table V: Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Maximum Eigenvalue) Hypothesized No. of CE(s) None * At most 1 * At most 2 At most 3 At most 4 At most 5 At most 6 Eigenvalue 0.980929 0.804045 0.681087 0.58692 0.529047 0.237446 0.000503 Max-Eigen Statistic 102.9496 42.37657 29.71379 22.98697 19.57794 7.048134 0.013086 0.05 Critical Value 46.23142 40.07757 33.87687 27.58434 21.13162 14.2646 3.841466 Prob.** 0 0.0271 0.145 0.174 0.0813 0.4835 0.9087
Max-eigenvalue test indicates 2 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level * denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level **MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values
The main output from ECM estimation is divided into two sections as shown in Table IV, the upper part provides the standard output of the mean equation, while the lower part contains the coefficients of variance equation. The lower part of the output indicate that the sum of the ARCH parameters correspond to I and the GARCH parameters correspond to is very close to one, as shown in equation 1 above, indicating that the volatility shocks of Nigeria real exchange rate are quite persistence. The long run coefficients of the determining variables have different signs and magnitude in term of relationships with REXRVOL. DGEXP positively influence REXRVOL and is also significant, DOPN was although significant determinant of REXRVOL but has a negative impact on REXRVOL. Also DREXR (-1) has a positive and significant relationship with REXRVOL, while DRINTR has a
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negative but significant impact on REXRVOL during this period. Among all the explanatory variables, Money Supply (DMS) and Productivity Index (DPROD) are found to be statistically insignificant determinant of REXRVOL so in explaining the shocks of real exchange rate volatility in Nigeria, Money Supply by Central Bank of Nigeria and the indices of the productive sectors cannot be considered relevant in terms of magnitude and directions during the period covered by this study. The result of ECM as given in Table VI indicates that the model seems to be good as it satisfies the diagnostic test and also has a high Adjusted R-Squared (AR2) value of 0.803, which indicate that only about 20% of the total systematic variation in REXRVOL is not accounted for by the explanatory variables all taken together. The Durbin Watson (DW) statistics value of 2.206 shows that there is no serious problem of serial correlation and heteroskedasticity. The error term is also found to be normally distributed. The coefficient of the error correction term with one period lag [ECM(-1)] is negative as expected with a value of -0.592793 and is also statistically significant in terms of its associated Z-value (-4.168728). This signify that the long run relationship of the estimated model is stable and any disequilibrium created in the short run will be temporary and will get corrected over a period of time. Table VI: Error Correction Model (ECM) Results
Dependent Variable: DREXRVOL GARCH = C(16) + C(17)*RESID(-1)^2 + C(18)*GARCH(-1) Variable C DREXRVOL(-1) DGEXP DGEXP(-1) DMS DMS(-1) DOPN DOPN(-1) DPROD DPROD(-1) DREXR DREXR(-1) DRINTR DRINTR(-1) ECM(-1) Coefficient -0.028844 0.464569 0.000593 -3.69E-05 -3.15E-08 -9.72E-08 -0.026044 0.007663 -7.79E-07 4.46E-07 -0.040407 0.139827 -0.034093 0.000293 -0.592793 Std. Error 0.014176 0.336875 0.000191 0.000186 8.49E-08 1.53E-07 0.006353 0.00816 7.70E-07 9.81E-07 0.03021 0.030656 0.010115 0.019594 0.382081 z-Statistic -2.034683 1.379054 3.101569 -0.199138 -0.371117 -0.63555 -4.099603 0.939165 -1.011673 0.454901 -1.337526 4.561107 -3.370696 0.014932 -4.168728 Prob. 0.0419 0.1679 0.0019 0.8422 0.7106 0.5251 0 0.3476 0.3117 0.6492 0.1811 0 0.0007 0.9881 0
Variance Equation
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C RESID(-1)^2 GARCH(-1) R-squared Adjusted R-squared S.E. of regression Sum squared resid Log likelihood Durbin-Watson stat
0.000196 0.144545 0.599974 0.913481 0.803366 0.039591 0.017242 57.74087 2.206272
0.001669 0.667087 2.379858 Mean dependent var S.D. dependent var Akaike info criterion Schwarz criterion Hannan-Quinn criter.
0.117614 0.21668 0.252105
0.9064 0.8285 0.801 -0.004777 0.089283 -3.05699 -2.186 -2.806176
Source: Authors computation

7. Conclussion
Exchange rate shocks and instability is a common feature of emerging economies especially the import dependent one like Nigeria, this is because there will always be an increasing demand for foreign currencies in exchange for imported goods by the teeming populace. It is in this perspective that this paper seeks to examine the determinants of real exchange rate volatility in Nigeria using the Generalised Autoregressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity (GARCH) and Error Correction Model. Based on the extant literatures, we identify relevant variables that influence real exchange rate volatility (Government Expenditure, Money Supply, Real interest rate, productivity index and openness of the economy), which we include in our model estimation. The empirical results of the cointegration analysis shows that there is long run equilibrium relationship among the variables, while our error correction model coefficients from the estimated short run dynamic model showed reasonable speed of adjustment towards the long run equilibrium. Analyzing the direction and magnitude of the explanatory variable coefficients, we observed that government expenditure, openness of the economy, real exchange rate and real interest rate are significant determinants of real exchange rate volatility during the period 1981-2008, though they all have different magnitude of influence on the volatility of exchange rate. While money supply and productivity index have no significant influence on real exchange rate volatility during this period. These findings is partly consistent with the findings of Aliyu (2008); and Al-Samara (2009) who investigated the determinant of exchange rate volatility in Nigeria and Syrian economy respectively. The strive by central monetary authority to ensure a stable exchange rate regime and policy will continue to exist as there continue to be openness of Nigerian economy to foreign trade especially as an import dependent economy. Therefore this paper recommends that the monetary authority should institute a policy that will ensure the limit within which exchange rate can fluctuate within a given time period. Besides, government should exercise direct control of viable macroeconomic variables (inflation rate, interest rate and GDP) which have direct influence on exchange rate. Success in this regard will further limit the fluctuation of exchange rate in the economy.
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References
Aliyu, S.U.R. (2008). Exchange Rate Volatility and Export Trade in Nigeria: An Empirical Investigation. An MPRA Paper No.13490. Al-Samara, M. (2009). The Determinants of Real Exchange Rate Volatility in the Syrian Economy Centre dEconomie de la sarbonne, universite Paris. Balassa, B. (1964). The Purchasing Power Parity Doctrine: A Reappraisal. Journal of Political Economy72(6) 584-596. Baldwin, R., Skudelny, F. and Taglioni, D. (2005) Trade Effect of the Euro: Evidence from Sectoral Data. European Central Bank Working Paper Series (February) No.446. Bollerslev, T. (1986) Generalised Antrogressive Conditional Heteroscedasticity. Journal of Econometric. 31: 307327 Botha, I. and Pretorius M. (2009) Forecasting the Exchange Rate in South Africa: A Comparative Analysis Challenging the Random Walk Model. African Journal of Business Management. 3(9) 486-494. Chinn, M. and Johnston, L. (1996) Real Exchange Rates, Productivity and Demand Shocks: Evidence from a Panel of 14 Countries National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Working Paper 5709 Cambridge, Mass. Dickey, D.A. and Fuller, W.A. (1979) Distribution of the Estimators for Autoregressive Time Series with Unit Root. Journal of American Statistical Association. 74:427-431. Dickey, D.A. and Fuller, W.A. (1981) Likelihood Ratio Statistics for Autoregressive Time Series With a Unit Root Econometrica 49: 1057-1072. Dornbusch, R. (1976) Expectations and Exchange Rate Dynamics Journal of Political Economy 84(6) 11611176. Edwards, S. (1989). Real Exchange Rate, Devaluation and Adjustment. The MIT Press, Cambridge. Engle, R.F. (1982) Autoregressive Conditional Heteroscedasticity with Estimates of the Variance of United Kingdom Inflation, Econometrica. 50:987-1008 Federal Reserves (2005) Federal Reserve Statistical Release Foreign Exchange Rates U.S. Federal Reserve website; http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/H10/Hist/ accessed November 2005. Gelbard, E. and Nagayasu, J. (2004). Determinants of Angolas Real Exchange Rate, 1992-\2002 The Developing Economies XLII (3), 392-404. Hau, H. (2002). Real Exchange Rate Volatility and Economic Openness: Theory and Evidence. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking. 34(3) 611-630. Imed, D. and Christophe R. (2001). The long-run determinants of real exchange rate: New evidence based on Panel data, Unit root and Cointegration tests for MENA countries, Sorbonne University. Juthathip, J. (2009). Equilibrium Real Exchange Rate Misalignment and Export Performance in Developing Asia ADB Economics, Working Paper No.15. MacDonald, R. (1995). Long-run Exchange Rate Modeling: A Survey of the Recent Evidence. IMF Staff Papers 42(3): 437-489. Neary, P. (1988). Determinants of the Equilibrium Real Exchange Rate American Economic Review.78(1) 210-215. Obaseki, P.J. (2002) The Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) Measure of Nairas Equilibrium Exchange Rate CBN Economic and Financial Review 36 (1) 1-21. Obstfeld, M. (1993). Model Trending Real Exchange Rate Centre of International and Development Economics Research, Working Paper C93-011, Berkeley California, University of California. Phillips, P.C.B and Perron, P. (1988) Testing for a Unit Root in Time Series Regressions Biometrica LXXV: 335-351. Phylaktis, K. and Kassimatis, Y. (1994). Does the Real Exchange Rate Follow a Random Walk? The Pacific Basin Perspective. Journal of International Money and Finance 13(4) 476-495. Ricci, L.A., Forretti, G.M. and Lee, J. (2008). Real Exchange Rate and Fundamentals: A Cross- Country Perspective, IMF Working Paper. Soludo, C.C. (2008) Nigeria: Macroeconomic Assessment and Agenda for Reforms. Being a Publication of African Institute for Applied Economics
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Soludo, C.C. and Adonikinji, A.F. (1997) Exchange Rate Misalignment and Investment in Nigeria Being a Paper presented to OECD Development Centre, Paris. Stancik, J. (2007). Determinants of Exchange Rate Volatility: The Case of the New EU Members Czech Journal of Economics and Finance. 57(9&10) 56-72. Williamson, J. (1994) Estimates of FEERs in Estimating Equilibrium Exchange Rate by J. Williamson (ed): Washington, Institute of International Economics. Zhou, S. (1997). Purchasing Power Parity in High-Inflation Countries: A Cointegration Analysis of Integrated Variables with Trend Breaks. Southern Economic Journal. 64(2) 450-467
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Anastasia Christodoulou, Eleni Kartsaka, Argyris Kyridis

Applying Critical Discourse Analysis in Translation of Political Speeches and Interviews .. 35

Alba Robert Dumi, Zamira Sinaj

Babalola J. Ogunkola Stephen Ntim

Hussainatu Abdullahi, Yahya Zakari Abdullahi Batjar Halili

Etnicit e Sviluppo Economico in Europa Centro-Orientale .............................................................. 155

Cost Management in Translation .... 161

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The Determinants of Real Exchange Rate Volatility in Nigeria..459

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Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies

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What do EFL Students Think and Feel About Concordancing?

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Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies

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Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies

Vol 2 No 1 March 2013

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Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies

Vol 2 No 1 March 2013

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Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies

Vol 2 No 1 March 2013

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Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies

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I. Perceptions of concordancing tool for vocabulary learning

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II. My attitude toward the concordancing tool for vocabulary learning

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Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies

Vol 2 No 1 March 2013

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Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies

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Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies