9 Low rise open frame construction

9.1 Forms of open frame construction 9.1.1 Scope Open frame construction can be used for a variety of building types such as offices, schools, assembly areas and sporting arenas. Domes and grid shells also come into this category but are outside the scope of this Manual. Most open frame structures are single storey, but two- and occasionally three-storey structures are also built. Single storey buildings can have roof spans up to 80m (see Table 4.6) whilst two- and three-storey buildings can have floor spans up to 10m. The spacing of frames may be limited by the economic span of secondary members such as floor joists and purlins. 9.1.2 Construction principles Open frames can be constructed as: pin jointed structures relying on horizontal bracing systems or diaphragms to transfer lateral and instability forces to vertical bracing systems or vertical timber shear walls and thence to the foundation stiff jointed structures capable of resisting lateral and instability forces, e.g. portal frames a combination of pinned and stiff jointed frames together with the appropriate bracing systems. Modern machining techniques allow steel plates to be set within deep timber members thus giving the facility for concealed stiff joints. 9.1.3 Selection of type of frame and materials The selection of the framing method and the types of components and materials used can depend on the required appearance, aesthetics and economics of the completed structure. Table 4.6 gives typical limiting dimensions and the timber-based materials for various components that can be used in open frame construction. The list is by no means exhaustive. The components illustrated can also be incorporated in concrete, masonry and steel structures. The dimensions of an open frame building may be dictated by the available sizes and appearance of the materials proposed. The length and weight of components can be limited by fabrication and transport restrictions, with site conditions occasionally being a further constraint. Solid timber, structural timber composites and stock sizes of glulam are generally used for straight elements, since shaping or profiling can be costly and wasteful. Glulam and built-up components such as thin web box beams, trusses etc., can be more easily formed to predetermined profiles and shapes. It is quite common to specify large sections of solid timber for frame construction, but reference should be made to Section 2.17.3 in relation to the effects of drying out.

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9.2 Design 9.2.1 Principles Open frame constructions, members and connections should be designed in accordance with the principles set out in this Manual. In addition plane frames and arches should be separately checked for prescribed dimensional imperfections arising from deviations from the assumed geometry of members and fabrication and erection tolerances. With open frame construction particular attention has to be paid to robustness and disproportionate collapse as the uses of the buildings often come within critical occupancy categories e.g. single storey educational buildings and assembly buildings (see Section 2.10.1). 9.2.2 Frame imperfections Frame imperfections are allowed for by defined rotations of members and frames of z (in radians) and curvatures between points of contraflexure corresponding to an eccentricity e (EC5 5.4.4): Where z e = = = 0.005 for h G 5.0m where h is the storey or building height 0.005 5 h for h > 5.0m

0.0025l where l is the distance between points of contraflexure

The effects of these imperfections should be assessed by a second order (PD) analysis with the normal design loads applied. In this assessment, the design values of the stiffness properties, Ed and Gd should be used (see EC5 2.2.2(1)P and 2.4.1(2)P) without adjustment for duration of load (i.e. without creep): E mean Where Ed = cM and G mean Gd = c M

For checking stresses the value of kmod for the relative duration of load should be used. Figure 9.1 shows some examples of assumed initial deviations in the geometry of a portal frame and an arch, and Figure 9.2 shows some similar examples for a rectangular frame. For rectangular frames the sway imperfection and local bow imperfection may be replaced by equivalent horizontal forces as shown in Figure 9.3, where Nd is the design axial load for the relevant load duration. If the magnitude of applied horizontal forces due to, say wind, is greater than the equivalent horizontal force (Figure 9.3d) then the equivalent horizontal force may be neglected. 9.2.3 Stability and bracing For stability principles see Section 2.6. For the bracing of compression members and beam systems, see Section 5.8.

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Assumed geometry l h

Symmetrical deformations

l1 0.0025l1

az

az

Asymmetrical deformations 0.0025l l2 l1

az

az

0.0025h

0.0025l1

0.0025l2

Fig 9.1 Examples of assumed deviations in geometry of a portal frame and arch

Nd

z Nd
e=0.0025h

zNd

z
Nd

Rectangular stiff jointed frame

Storey height frame within a pin-jointed or stiff-jointed frame

Fig 9.2 Examples of assumed deviations in the geometry of a rectangular frame

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Nd

Nd

Nd

zNd
h e

0.01Nd

z zNd
Nd a) Nd b)

N 0.02 hd unit length

0.01Nd

c)

d)

Fig 9.3

Equivalent horizontal forces for rectangular frames

9.2.4 Base connections Usually the connection to the foundation or supporting structure is assumed to be pinned. If there is a risk of water collecting at the foot of the frame it is essential it is kept clear of moisture and in particular that any form of shoe connection will not collect water. 9.3 Construction details 9.3.1 Situations to be avoided Problems of splitting and possible loss of strength of timber members can be avoided by careful detailing. Specified spacings, edge and end distances of fastenings must always be maintained and undue restraint of any moisture movements of timber and wood based products should be avoided. Wood-based materials have low strength in tension perpendicular to the grain, and adhesives have low strength perpendicular to the glue line, so no reliance can be placed on members stressed in these directions. Figure 9.4 shows three ways to end-join timber members loaded in shear. The first method is deprecated because it can cause the timber to split as it is loaded in tension perpendicular to the grain.

Split

Bolt

Shoe

Fig 9.4

Half lap end connections

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Moment resisting Grain Shear resisting

Moment resisting

Fig 9.5

Slotted holes in deep steel plates

Site gluing is not recommended because, to produce adequate load-carrying joints, the same care and attention must be exercised as would be needed in factory conditions. So consideration of facilities for storage and mixing of adhesives; control of glue spreading; open and closed assembly times; application of some form of pressure to achieve close contact between surfaces; maintaining a minimum ambient temperature (10C) of the timber and the glue line for a number of hours and then ensuring time for curing of the adhesive before loads are applied, will be difficult to achieve on most sites. If necessary reference should be made to TRADAs Adhesively bonded timber connections79. Where deep steel plates are used in connections, care must be taken that they do not cause splitting of the timber if cross grain shrinkage of the timber occurs. This risk can be avoided by the appropriate slotting of holes to allow timber movement, as shown in Figure 9.5. 9.3.2 Base details The foot of a plain frame is usually carried in some form of shoe. For external use this should provide at least 150mm clearance above the surrounding ground. Frames can sometimes bear on a sole plate being retained in position by brackets, provided that the sole plate is isolated from ground contact by a permanent damp proof membrane (see Figure 10.6a). 9.3.3 Pin jointing techniques The simplest kind of connection is the direct bearing of one component on another, with dowels, gussets or housing in a mortice serving mainly to locate the members in position. This type of joint does not generally create eccentricity of loading. Alternatively pinned joints can be obtained by joining components together with mechanical fastenings such as bolts which are confined to a relatively small area. The use of extended brackets or shoes (either proprietary or specially designed) can create eccentricities that must be allowed for in design. Stability must be provided by means of triangulation or diaphragm action.

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9.3.4 Stiff jointing techniques Large gusset plates fastened with nails, screws, bolts dowels or adhesive can be designed to give stiff joints. Gussets can be external plates of either timber, wood based material or steel. Alternatively with modern machining methods, single or multiple steel plates can be slotted into the members to be joined and secured with mechanical fastenings. In portal frames the haunch can be formed with gussets or fin plates as above, or else by means of mechanically fastened moment-resisting lap joints (Figure 9.6a), large finger joints (Figures 9.6b and 9.6c) or curved laminates (Figure 9.6d). Each method has its advantages and limitations. 9.4 Movement See Sections 2.8 and 10.11.

Dowel ringsa

Single full-width finger jointb

Two full-width finger jointsc

Tightly curved laminatesd t

Notes a Suitable for glulam or LVL. A durable connection which can be site-assembled. b c d

Reinforcement of the timber may be required to avoid splitting. A neat connection, suitable for glulam or LVL. The tightness of the corner reduces its strength; it cannot be used in service class 3. As b but with improved strength; still cannot be used in service class 3. Very neat appearance and no site assembly required. Suitable only for glulam. Internal radius limited to: tE mean r H 70 Where r = Emean = t = radius of curvature (mm) mean modulus of elasticity (N/mm2) thickness of individual glulam laminates (mm)

Fig 9.6

Haunch details

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