Aereobiological Enginnering Topics

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.
asp
AEREOBIOLOGICAL ENGINNERING TOPICS
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART 1 - AIRBONE PATHOGENS

1 AIRBONE PATHOGENS DATABASE
3
3
2 LIST OF AIRBONE PATHOGENS
PART 2 - AIRBONE PATHOGEN CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES

3 - AIRBONE PATHOGEN CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES LIST
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4 DESCRIPTION OF CURRENT AIRBONE PATHOGEN CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES 4.1 - ISOLATION SYSTEMS 4.2 AIR FILTRATION 4.3 ULTRAVIOLET IRRADATION 4.4 OUTDOOR AIR PURGIN 4.5 - ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION 4.6 NEGATIVE AIR IONIZATION 4.7 VEGETATION 7 7 13 20 26 33 35 39
5. DESCRIPTON OF DEVELOPMENTAL AIRBONE PATHOGEN CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES 5.1 PHOTOCATALYTIC OXIDATION 5.2 AIR OZONIZATION 5.3 CARBON ADSORTION 5.4 PASSIVE SOLAR EXPOSURE 42 42 43 47 48 2
5.5 PULSED LIGHT 5.6 ULTRASONIC ATOMIZATION 5.7 MICROWAVE ATOMIZATION
51 59 60
PART 3 PUBLICATONS
PUBLICATIONS DOWNLOAD
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PART 1 - AIRBONE PATHOGENS
1 AIRBONE PATHOGENS DATABASE
Viruses Bacteria Fungi VIRUSES Orthomyxoviridae Influenza
List of Airborne Pathogens
Arenavirus - Junin
Arenavirus Machupo
Arenavirus - Lassa
Filovirus - Marburg
Filovirus - Ebola
Hantaviruses
Picornoviridae Rhinoviruses
Picornoviridae Echovirus
Coronaviruses
Paramyxovirus
Morbillivirus
Respiratory Synctial Virus
Togavirus
Coxsackievirus
Parvovirus B19
Parainfluenza
Adenoviruses
Reoviruses
Poxvirus - Variola
Poxvirus - Vaccinia
Varicella-zoster
BACTERIA Neisseria meningitidis Klebsiella pneumoniae Pseudomonas mallei Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Pseudomonas pseudomallei
Acinetobacter
Moraxella catarrhalis
Moraxella lacunata
Alkaligenes

Cardiobacterium Haemophilus influenzae Haemophilus parainfluenzae
Bordetella pertussis
Francisella tularensis
Legionella pneumophila
Chlamydia psittaci
Chlamydia pneumoniae
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Mycobacterium kansasii
Mycobacterium avium-intracell.
Nocardia asteroides
Bacillus anthracis
Staphylococcus aureus
Streptococcus pyogenes
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Corynebacteria diphtheria
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
FUNGI Aspergillus spp. Absidia corymbifera Rhizopus stolonifer
Mucor plumbeus
Cryptococcus neoformans
Histoplasma capsulatum
Blastomyces dermatitidis
Coccidioides immitis
Penicillium spp.
Micropolyspora faeni
Thermoactinomyces vulgaris
Alternaria alternata
Cladosporium spp.
Helminthosporium
Stachybotrys spp.
2 LIST OF AIRBONE PATHOGENS
BACTERIA Neisseria meningitidis Klebsiella pneumoniae Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas pseudomallei Pseudomonas mallei Acinetobacter
DISEASE / SYMPTOM TYPE MIN DIA. microns SHAPE meningitis pneumonia pneumonia pneumonia pneumonia pneumonia gram- gram- 0.4 gram- 0.5 gram- 0.5 gram- 0.5 gram- 0.5 cocci rods rods rods rods cocci

Moraxella catarrhalis Moraxella lacunata Alkaligenes Cardiobacterium Haemophilus influenzae Haemophilus parainfluenzae Bordetella pertussis Francisella tularensis Legionella pneumophila Chlamydia psittaci Chlamydia pneumoniae Mycobacterium tuberculosis Mycobacterium kansasii Mycobacterium avium-intracell. Nocardia asteroides Bacillus anthracis Staphylococcus aureus Streptococcus pyogenes Streptococcus pneumoniae Corynebacteria diphtheria Mycoplasma pneumoniae flu flu whooping cgh pneum./fever Legionnaires pneumonia pneumonia TB (TB) pneumonia pneumonia anthrax pneumonia scarlet fever pneumonia diptheria pneumonia gram- 0.5 gram- 0.5 gram- gram- gram- 1 gram- 1 gram- 0.5 gram- gram- 0.5 gram- 1 gram- 1 gram+ 0.2 gram+ 0.2 gram+ 0.2 gram+ gram+ gram+ gram+ 0.5 gram+ 0.5 gram+ no wall 0.2 cocci cocci rods rods cocci cocci rods rods rods rods rods cocci cocci cocci cocci rods coccoid
PART 2 - AIRBONE PATHOGEN CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
3 - AIRBONE PATHOGEN CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES LIST
3.1 - CURRENT
A. Isolation Systems B. Air Filtration C. Ultraviolet Irradiation D. Outdoor Air Purging E. Electrostatic Precipitation F. Negative Air Ionization G. Vegetation
3.2 - DEVELOPMENTAL
A. Photocatalytic Oxidation B. Air Ozonation C. Carbon Adsorption D. Passive Solar Exposure E. Ultrasonic Atomization F. Microwave Atomization G. Pulsed Light
4 DESCRIPTION OF CURRENT AIRBONE PATHOGEN CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
4.1 - ISOLATION SYSTEMS ISOLATION ROOMS & PRESSURIZATION CONTROL Isolation systems can be classified in three basic categories :

Negative Pressure Isolation Rooms Positive Pressure Isolation Rooms Multi-level Biohazard Laboratories Also, dual-purpose systems now exist that can be controlled to serve as either negative pressure or positive pressure isolation rooms. The isometric view shown below illustrates the basic design principle for pressure control of isolation rooms. It includes an ante room for separating the isolation room from the corridor of the facility. In this diagram, air is supplied to the isolation room and exhausted from both the isolation room and the ante room. The balance of airflow, or the difference between between supply and exhaust, will dictate whether the room experiences positive or negative pressure with respect to ambient.
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp In this diagram, air would flow between the isolation room and the ante room, mostly through the gaps in and around the door. For a positive pressure room the air would flow from the isolation room to the ante room, where it would be exhausted partly by the exhaust duct and partly by flowing out to the corridor. In a negative pressure room, air would flow from the ante room to the isolation room. Pressure control is maintained by modulating the main supply and exhaust dampers based on a signal from a pressure transducer located inside the isolation room. This is by no means the only possible design -- there are various configurations of supply and exhaust ductwork, dampers and control systems that will accomplish pressurization.
Negative Pressure Isolation Rooms Negative Pressure Isolation Rooms maintain a flow of air into the room, thus keeping contaminants and pathogens from reaching surrounding areas. The most common application in the health industry today is for Tuberculosis (TB) Rooms. The infectivity of TB is extremely high and these rooms are essential to protect health workers and other patients. The CDC recommends 6-12 air changes per hour (ACH) for TB Rooms. An ante room is always recommended, as this provides a barrier between the TB Room and hallways and limits the impact of opening doors and traffic. The exhaust air is normally filtered through a HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air) filter before being exhausted to the outside, where it is ultimately rendered harmless by natural elements. Air which is recirculated within the room is also normally filtered. Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation (UVGI), commonly known as UV light, may be used to augment HEPA filters, but cannot be used in place of HEPA filters, as their effectiveness on airstreams is limited. The exact air pressure differential which is required to be maintained is nominal only, as it merely indicates the airflow direction. It is sometimes stated as 0.001"wg, 9
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp but this is not a pressure which is practical to measure, and therefore other criteria are given such as maintaining an inward velocity of 100 fpm, or exhausting 10% of the airflow, or exhausting 50 cfm more than the supply. The exact criteria will always be dependent on both the size and the airtightness of the subject facility. Positive Pressure Isolation Rooms Positive Pressure Isolation Rooms maintain a flow of air out of the room, thus protecting the patient from possible contaminants and pathogens which might otherwise enter. The most common application today is HIV Rooms and rooms for patients with other types of immunodeficiency. For such patients it is critically important to prevent the ingress of any pathogens, including even common fungi and bacteria which may be harmless to healthy people. Design criteria for HIV Rooms are similar to those for TB Rooms. Air supplied to or recirculated in HIV Rooms is normally filtered through HEPA filters, and UVGI systems are sometimes used in conjunction with these. Anterooms are recommended and the air pressure differential criteria as described for TB Rooms applies similarly. Approximately 15% of AIDS patients also suffer from TB, and this presents a unique design problem. One solution is to house the positive pressure (HIV) room within a negative pressure (TB) room, or vice-versa, which would be similar to a pair of nested biohazard levels. A much less expensive alternative is to design an entire house or building as a positive pressure (HIV) room, and this makes the outdoor air play the part of the second pressure barrier as it will effectively sterilize any exiting pathogens. Exhaust HEPA filters are still recommended, however, to protect any passersby.
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Pressurization Control in Buildings The basic principle of pressurization for microbial contaminant control is to supply air to areas of least contamination (greatest cleanliness) and stage this air to areas of progressively greater contamination potential. It could be assumed that in nonbiohazard facilities, the exhaust or exfiltration from the building could go directly to the outside. In medical facilities, like TB clinics, this air is often HEPA filtered and sometimes given UVGI exposure before exhausting to the outside, though the reasons for this are primarily because of litigation concerns and not based on any known realities. An alternate perspective on the design principle of pressurization control is to exhaust air from those areas which have the greatest contamination potential, and allow air to be staged, or cascaded, from progressively cleaner areas, or the areas it is desired to protect. Systems which combine both negative pressurization in contaminated areas with positive pressurization in clean, or protected, areas will have the greatest degree of protection and control. Below is an illustration of the basic principle of cascading airflows from clean areas to areas of progressively greater microbial conatmination potential.
In the above diagram, a facility is depicted which has offices and isolation rooms, separated by corridors and other areas (storage rooms, labs). Air is supplied to the areas, usually offices, maintained at the greatest positive pressure (marked with a 11
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp '++'), and exhausted from the areas maintained at the greatest negative pressure (marked with a '- -'). Transfer air (exfiltration/infiltration) is identified with purple arrows. This represents one possible arrangement, but facilities often differ markedly in layouts, and the presuurization scheme must be adapted individually for each facility. The unlabeled rooms in the diagram above could be laboratories, which usually have independently operating exhaust hoods or separate ventilation systems. If not, they would be generally be designed as double negative pressurization areas. Biohazard Laboratories Biohazard laboratories are merely isolation rooms with strict requirements defining their degree of airtightness, pressurization and associated equipment. There are four biohazard levels, in level 1 defines a simple isolated area, and in which level 4 defines a near perfectly airtight zone requiring breathing apparatus and airtight anterooms or staging areas. Specific information on laboratory design is widely available from various sources, including ANSI, ASHRAE and the CDC. Bibliography 1. ANSI (1992). American national standard for laboratory ventilation. New York, American National Standards Institute. 2. AIA (1993). Guidelines for construction and equipment of hospital and medical facilities. Mechanical Standards. American Institute of Architects. Washington. 3. ASHRAE (1991). Health Facilities. ASHRAE Handbook of Applications. ASHRAE. Atlanta. 4. ASHRAE (1996). Designing HVAC systems for hospital isolation rooms. ASHRAE Short Course. Atlanta, ASHRAE. 5. Bartholomew, D. (1994). TB control in hospitals. Engineered Systems July: 52-53. 6. Bloom, B. R. (1994). Tuberculosis : Pathogenisis, Protection, and Control. Washington, ASM Press. 7. Blowers, R. and B.Crew (1960). Ventilation of operating -theatres. Journal of Hygiene 58: 427-448. 8. Brief, R. S. and T. Bernath (1988). Indoor pollution: guidelines for prevention and control of microbiological respiratory hazards associated with air conditioning and ventilation systems. Appl. Indust. Hyg. 3: 5-10.
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 9. CDC (1994). Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care facilities. Federal Register. CDC. Washington, US Govt. Printing Office. 59. 10. Galson, E. and K. Goddard (1968). Hospital air conditioning and sepsis control. ASHRAE 10(7): 33-41. 11. Galson, E. (1987). Facility microbiological test procedures. ASHRAE Transactions 93(1): 1289-1303. 12. Galson, E. and J. Guisbond (1995). Hospital sepsis control and TB transmission. ASHRAE May. 13. Gill, K. E. (1994). HVAC design for isolation rooms. HPAC July: 45-52. 14. Greene, V. W., D. Vesley, et al. (1960). The engineer and infection control. Hospitals 34: 69-74. 15. Hers, J. F. P. and K. C. Winkler (1973). Airborne Transmission and Airborne Infection. VIth International Symposium on Aerobiology, Technical University at Enschede, The Netherlands, Oosthoek Publishing Company. 16. ICCCS (1992). The Future Practice of Contamination Control. Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Contamination Control, Westminster, Mechanical Engineering Publications. 17. Kunkle, R. S. and G. B. Phillips (1969). Microbial Contamination Control Facilities. New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold. 18. Lidwell, O. M. and R.E.O.Williams (1960). The ventilation of operating-theatres. Journal of Hygiene 58: 449-464. 19. Lidwell, O. M. (1960). The evaluation of ventilation. J. Hygiene 58: 297-305. 20. Linscomb, M. (1994). AIDS clinic HVAC system limits spread of TB. HPAC February. 21. Maloney, S. A., M. L. Pearson, et al. (1995). Efficacy of control measures in preventing nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis to patients and health care workers. Annals of Internal Medicine 122(2): 90-95. 22. Miller-Leiden, S., C. Lobascio and W.W.Nazaroff (1996). Effectiveness of in-room air filtration and dilution ventilation for tuberculosis infection control. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association 46(9): 869. 23. Riley, R. L. and F. O'Grady (1961). Airborne Infection. New York, The Macmillan Company. 24. Rubbo, S. D., T. A. Pressley, et al. (1960). Vehicles of transmission of airborne bacteria in hospital wards. The Lancet 7147: 397-400.
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 25. Seagal-Maurer, S. and G. E. Kalkut (1994). Environmental control of tuberculosis: Continuing controversy. Clinical Infectious Diseases 19: 299-308. 26. Sullivan, J. F., J.R.Songer (1966). Role of differential air pressure zones in the control of aerosols in a large animal isolation facility. Applied Microbiology 14(4): 674-678. 27. Wedum, A. G. (1961). Control of laboratory airborne infection. Bacter. Rev. 25: 210-216. 28. Weinstein, R. A. (1991). Epidemiology and control of nosocomial infections in adult intensive care units. The American Journal of Medicine 91(suppl 3B): 179S-184S. 29. Winters, R. E. (1994). Guidelines for preventing the transmission of tuberculosis: A better solution? Clinical Infectious Diseases 19: 309-310.
4.2 AIR FILTRATION FILTRATION OF MICROORGANISMS
Three types of filters exist for use in ventilation systems, prefilters, HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air) filters and ULPA filters. A typical HEPA filter, such as the one shown at right will filter micron sized particles at about 95% efficiency. Some box or pleated type filters can be as thin as 2-4 inches, or as wide as 8-12 inches. The picture at the right shows a bag type HEPA filter, which can extend up to 24 inches. Bag type filters typically have a lower pressure drop than the pleated or box type HEPA. The picture below shows a typical installation with a bank of prefilters at the outside air inlet of a large air handling unit. These prefilters are typically between 70-90% efficient. Prefilters and HEPAs, whether bag or box type, will filter particles down to below 1 micron in size, but with varying efficiencies. Different filters have different pressure drop characteristics, which is a factor in energy and cost analysis. HEPA filters are comonly found in hospital isolation rooms, operating theaters, and Level 3 & 4 containment facilities, as well 14
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp as in industrial clean rooms. HEPA filters are typically rated as 99.97% effective in removing dust and particulate matter above 0.3 micron in size, based on DOP (diocytl phthalate) testing usually performed by the manufacturer. In theory, HEPA filters should be highly effective against bacteria and fairly effective against viruses, but real world installations do not always achieve perfomance limits measured in laboratories. Air Filtration - Theory and Application HEPA filters consist of fine fibers as illustrated in the diagram at the right. Materials vary, but generally these are made of synthetic fibrous materials. The
principle of HEPA filtration is not to restrict the passage of particulate by the gap between fibers, but by altering the airflow streamlines. The airflow will slip around the fiber, but any higher-density bioaerosols or particulate matter will not change direction so rapidly and, as a result of their inertia, will tend to impact the fiber. Once attached, most particulates will not be re-entrained in the airstream. In the diagram below, the airstream is depicted winding its way around a single fiber. The heavier particulates will either impact the fiber directly, or sometimes attach by close passage, due to static electrical attraction, or simply by physical attachment.
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The following diagram shows the effects of Brownian motion on particles approaching molecular dimensions. Viruses can be small enough to be dominated by Brownian motion as opposed to gravity or inertial forces.
Some early studies found HEPA filters could remove bacterial spores at 99.9999 % efficiency and viruses at 99.999% efficiency (Harstad 1969, Thorne 1960), but this was under ideal laboratory conditions. The Harstad study noted that manufacturer's quality control had the most significant effect on filter performance, and that even a single pinhole could seriously affect filter efficiency. Also, operating outside design conditions of airflow or humidity could multiply the amount of virus penetration. An additional factor that can have a major impact on filter performance is the installation and maintenance of the filters. Poor tolerances in the fit of the filters to the frames can seriously degrade performance by bypassing unfiltered air. In applications that demand high performance levels, such as the nuclear industry and clean room technology, DOP testing is performed with in-place filters. The testing determines the presence of leaks in the filters or frames, mixing uniformity, and 16
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp airflow, but does not determine actual filter efficiency (Ornberg 1978, US NRC Reg. Guide 1.52 & 1.140). It is assumed that if all these other conditions are met, filter efficiency will approach that obtained in the factory, or 99.97 % at 0.3 microns. Achieving all the requirements for acceptable operation often yields only borderline results. No formal studies exist in which actual HEPA filter installations (for humans) have been put to the test with live viruses and bacteria, and therefore quantitative data on real-world efficiencies are unavailable. There have been reports of tuberculosis bacilli (1 - 5 micron rod-shaped bacteria) penetrating HEPA filters in treatment facilities. It is entirely possible that bacteria of this size may pass through HEPA filters due to the fact that they are dynamic living organisms that do not wish to remain attached to dry surfaces without nutrients. Viruses can be much smaller than 0.3 micron and although HEPA filters can theoretically remove particles down to about 0.01 microns in size, their performance is nonlinear and the efficiency drops off sharply at this size. As has been pointed out by some biologists, the use of HEPA filters may provide evolutionary pressure for smaller microorganisms. Office buildings, schools and other such facilities do not normally include HEPA filters in the ventilation system, although they often include pre-filters and filters of lower efficiencies. The addition of HEPA filters to standard building systems may have a significant effect on the reduction of airborne bacteria, viruses and fungi, as well as other particulates. The overall effectiveness of such an approach, and economic comparisons with other methods for controlling airborne pathogens, is currently being studied at Penn State through the use of computer models. The construction of a model HEPA filter bank, and testing of filtration efficiencies with live bacteria and viruses, is being planned for the Spring semester of 1997. Updates of progress and results will be reported here. References 1. Bradley, D., G.J.Burdett, W.D.Griffiths & C.P.Lyons (1992). "Design and performance of size selective microbiological samplers." Journal of Aerosol Science 23(S1): s659-s662. 2. Brown, R. C., & D. Wake (1991). "Air filtration by interception -- theory and experiment." Journal of Aerosol Science 22(2): 181-186. 17
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 3. Chang, J. C. S., K.K.Foarde & D.W.VanOsdell (1996). "Assessment of fungal (Penicillium chrysogenum) growth on three HVAC duct materials." Environment International 22(4): 425. 4. DeCosemo, G. A. L., I.W.Stewart, W.D.Griffiths and J.S.Deans (1992). "The assessment of airborne microorganisms." Journal of Aerosol Science 23(S1): s683s686. 5. DeCosemo, G. A. L., and W.D. Griffiths (1992). "Problems associated with the assessment of airborne microorganisms." Journal of Aerosol Science 23(S1): s655s658. 6. Gougeon, R., D.Boulaud, H.J.Fissan, R.Lange and A.Renoux (1994). "Observation of fibrous filter surfaces loading with liquid aerosols by confocal microscopy." Journal of Aerosol Science 25(S1): s209-s210. 7. Griffiths, W. D., S.L.Upton and D.Mark (1993). "An investigation into the collection efficiency & bioefficiencies of a number of aerosol samplers." Journal of Aerosol Science 24(S1): s541-s542. 8. Grinshpun, S. A., K.Willeke, V.Ulevicius, Y.Qian and J.Donnelly (1995).
"Aerodynamic particle sizing of airborne bacteria." Journal of Aerosol Science 26(S1): s879-s880. 9. Han, R., J.R.Wu and J.W.Gentry (1993). "The development of a sampling train and test chamber for sampling biological aerosols." Journal of Aerosol Science 24(S1): s543-s544. 10. Hanley, J. T., D.D.Smith and D.S.Ensor (1995). "A fractional aerosol filtration efficiency test method for ventilation air cleaners." ASHRAE Transactions 101(1): 97. 11. Harstad, J.B. (1969). "Evaluation of air filters with submicron viral aerosols and bacterial aerosols." American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal. May-June p280-290. 12. Hautanen, J., T.Watanabe, T.Tuschida, Y.Koizumi, F.Tochikubo, E.Kauppinen, K.Lehtinen and J.Jokiniemi (1995). "Brownian agglomeration of bipolarly charged aerosol particles." Journal of Aerosol Science 26(S1): s21-s22. 13. Hyvarinen, A., M.K.O'Rourke, J.Meldrum, L.Stetzenbach and H.Reid (1995). "Influence of cooling type on airborne viable fungi." Journal of Aerosol Science 26(S1): s887-s888. 14. Kalechits, V. I., A.A.Kirsch, V.I.Kulibaba, O.Y.Maslakov and Y.V.Pavlov (1994). "Aerosol control and monitoring system LADA." Journal of Aerosol Science 25(S1): s207-s208. 18
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 15. Kemp, S. J., T.H.Kuehn, D.Y.H.Pui, D.Vesley and A.J.Streifel (1995). "Filter collection efficiency and growth of microorganisms on filters loaded with outdoor air." ASHRAE Transactions 101(1): 228. 16. Khudyjakov, S. V., A.A. Kirsch & I.B.Stechkina (1994). "The minimization of the fold filter resistance under nonsteady filtration." Journal of Aerosol Science 25(S1): s205-s206. 17. Li, C., and Y.Kuo (1992). "Airborne characterization of fungi indoors and outdoors." Journal of Aerosol Science 23(S1): s667-s670. 18. Liu, R., R.R.Raber and H.H.S.Yu (1991). "Filter selection on an engineering basis." Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning 63(5): 37. 19. Liu, R., and M.A.Huza (1995). "Filtration and indoor air quality: a practical approach." ASHRAE Journal 37(2): 18. 20. Maschandreas, D. J., S.W.Choi and M.M.Meckler (1996). "Indoor air quality and the variable air volume / bypass filtration system: chamber experiment." Environment International 22(2): 149. 21. Meklin, T., A.Nevalainen, A.Jouzaitis and K.Willeke (1995). "Characterizing the mold exposure in schools -- comparison of the new single-stage impactor and Andersen six-stage impactor." Journal of Aerosol Science 26(S1): s881-s882. 22. Miller-Leiden, S., C. Lobascio and W.W.Nazaroff (1996). "Effectiveness of in-room air filtration and dilution ventilation for tuberculosis infection control." Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association 46(9): 869. 23. Mitchell, B. W. a. D. J. K. (1994). "Effect of negative air ionization on airborne transmission of newcastle disease virus." Avian Diseases 38: 725-732. 24. Nardell, E. A. (1990). "Dodging droplet nuclei." American Review of Respiratory Disease 142: 501-503. 25. Olsson, M., A. Sukura, L.Lindberg and E. Linder (1996). "Detection of Pneumocystis carinii DNA by filtration of air." Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 28: 279282. 26. Ornberg, S.C. (1978). Design, Construction and Testing of Nuclear Air Cleaning Systems, Rev. 0, Dated 10-2-78. Sargent & Lundy Engineers, Chicago. 27. Pollman, R. A. (1990). "A new technology in the practical application of sterile air and gas filtration for the brewing process." Brewers Digest 65(4): 33-35. 28. Putensen, C., J. Rasanen, & F. A. Lopez (1995). "Interfacing between spontaneous breathing and mechanical ventilation affects ventilation-perfusion distributions in experimental bronchoconstriction." American Journal of Respiratory Crit Care Med 151: 993-999. 19
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 29. Reinhart, A., and H.Tammet (1995). "Electrical simulation of aerosol deposition in lungs." Journal of Aerosol Science 26(S1): s613-s614. 30. Reponen, T., M.Lehtonen and T.Raunemaa (1992). "Effect of indoor sources on fungal spore concentration and size distribution." Journal of Aerosol Science 23(S1): s663-s666. 31. Rothwell, G. (1992). "Collection of airborne microorganisms onto sticky surfaces." Journal of Aerosol Science 23(S1): s679-s681. 32. Stechkina, I. B., and A.A.Kirsch (1994). "Multistage high efficiency air filtration." Journal of Aerosol Science 25(S1): s203-s204. 33. Straja, S., and R.T.Leonard (1996). "Statistical analysis of indoor bacterial air concentration and comparison of four RCS biotest samplers." Environment International 22(4): 389. 34. Swanson, M. C., A.R.Campbell, M.T. O'Hollaren and C.E.Reed (1990). "Role of ventilation, air filtration, and allergen production rate in determining concentrations of rat allergens in the air of animal quarters." American Review of Respiratory Diseases 141(6): 1578-1581. 35. Tablan, O. C., L.J. Anderson, N.H.Arden, R.F.Beiman, J.C.Butler, M.M.MacNeil and the HICPAC (1994). "Guideline for the prevention of nosocomial pneumonia." American Journal of Infect Control 22: 247-292. 36. Thorne, H.V. and T.M. Burrows. (1960). "Aerosol sampling methods for the virus of foot-and-mouth disease and the measurement of virus penetration through aerosol filters." Journal of Hygiene 58:409-417. 37. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Regulatory Guides 1.52 and 1.140. Design, Testing and Maintenance Criteria for Air Filtration Units for Nuclear Power Plants. Code of Federal Regulations 10CFR50. 38. VanOsdell, D. W. (1994). "Evaluation of test methods for determining the effectiveness and capacity of gas-phase air filtration equipment for indoor air applications." ASHRAE Transactions 100(2): 511. 39. Wake, D., A.C.Redmayne, A.Thorpe, J.R.Gould, R.C.Brown and B.Crook (1995). "Sizing and filtration of microbiological aerosols." Journal of Aerosol Science 26(S1): s529-s530. 40. Watanabe, T., F.Tochikubo, J.Hautanen and E.I.Kauppinen (1995). "Review of particle agglomeration." Journal of Aerosol Science 26(S1): s19-s20. 41. Wathes, C. M., H.E.Johnson and G.A.Carpenter (1991). "Air hygiene in a pullet house: effects of air filtration on aerial pollutants measured in vivo and in vitro." British Poultry Science 32: 31-46. 20
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 42. Weinstein, R. A. (1991). "Epidemiology and control of nosocomial infections in adult intensive care units." The American Journal of Medicine 91(suppl 3B): 179S-184S. 43. Willeke, K., S.A/.Grinshpun, V.Ulevicius, S.Terzieva, J.Donnelly, S.Stewart and A.Jouzaitis (1995). "Microbial stress, bounce and re-aerosolization in bioaerosol samples." Journal of Aerosol Science 26(S1): s883-s884.
4.3 ULTRAVIOLET IRRADATION ULTRAVIOLET GERMICIDAL IRRADATION
The use of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) sterilization for the of
microorganisms has been studied since the 1930s. Microbes are uniquely vulnerable to the effects of light at wavelengths at or near 2537 Angstroms due to the resonance of this wavelength with molecular structures. Looking at it another way, a quanta of energy of ultraviolet light possesses just the right amount of energy to break organic molecular bonds. This bond breakage translates into cellular or genetic damage for microorganisms. The same damage occurs to humans, but is limited to the skin and eyes. The ultraviolet is the component main of
sunlight
reason
microbes die in the outdoor air. The die-off rate in the outdoors varies from one pathogen to
another, but can be anywhere from a few seconds to a few minutes for a 90-99% kill of viruses or contagious bacteria. Spores, and some environmental bacteria, tend to be resistant and can survive much longer exposures. UVGI systems typically use much more concentrated levels of ultraviolet energy than are found in sunlight. 21
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp Some properly designed, and well-maintained, UVGI installations have proven highly effective, as in certain hospitals, and some studies perfomed in schools. CDC guidelines recommend the use of UVGI only with the simultaneous use of HEPA filters and high rates of purge airflow. The germicidal effects can also be speciesdependent. Laboratory tests have achieved extremely high rates of mortality under idealized conditions. In actual applications, many factors can alter the effectiveness of UVGI, including the following :

Exposure time (the air velocity must allow for a sufficient dose). Room air mixing (for non-powered applications like ceiling units). Power levels. The presence of moisture or particulates provide protection for microbes. Dust settling on light bulbs can reduce exposures, maintenance is necessary. One especially effective application of UVGI is the control of microbial growth in air handling unit cooling coil and filter assemblies. The constant exposure has been found to be very effective at controlling fungal growth, either because the spores are inactivated, or perhaps because mycelial growth cannot be sustained under continuous exposure. Certain types of UVGI designs seem to provide a much higher rate of disinfection than standard models operating at nearly identical spectrums, the difference being the result of improvements in the electrical power controls and regulation of internal plasma temperature, resulting in the generation of a more constant energy density at a distance from the light source. Viruses are especially susceptible to UVGI, more so than bacteria, but are also very difficult to filter. Some studies have shown that viruses are more sensitive to ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths somewhat above the normal UVGI broad-band wavelength of 2537 A (Rauth 1965; Setlow 1961). A combination of filtration for bacteria and spores, with UVGI for viruses may be an optimum combination if all components are sized appropriately. UVGI Theory & Rate Constants for Airborne Pathogens UVGI inactivates pathogens according to the standard decay equation
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp S = exp(-kIt) In this equation S represents the fraction of the original population that survives exposure at time t, and I represents the UVGI intensity. The rate constant k has been determined experimentally for a number of bacteria, viruses and spores, at different power levels. See Mathematical Modeling of Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation for Air Disinfection by Kowalski et al 2000 for a summary of most of the known rate constants for the indicated pathogens. References 1. Abshire, R. L. and H. Dunton (1981). "Resistance of selected strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to low-intensity ultraviolet radiation." Appl. Envir. Microb. 41(6): 1419-1423. 2. Allegra, L., F. Blasi, et al. (1997). "A novel device for the prevention of airborne infections." J. Clinical Microb. 35(7): 1918-1919. 3. Antopol, S. C. and P. D. Ellner (1979). "Susceptibility of Legionella pneumophila to ultraviolet radiation." Appl. & Environ. Microb. 38(2): 347-348. 4. Beebe, J. M. (1958). "Stability of disseminated aerosols of Pastuerella tularensis subjected to simulated solar radiations at various humidities." Journal of Bacteriology 78: 18-24. 5. Collier, L. H., D. McClean, et al. (1955). "The antigenicity of ultra-violet irradiated vaccinia virus." J. Hyg. 53(4): 513-534. 6. Collins, F. M. (1971). "Relative susceptibility of acid-fast and non-acid fast bacteria to ultraviolet light." Appl. Microbiol. 21: 411-413. 7. Darken, M. A. and M. E. Swift (1962). "Effects of ultraviolet-absorbing compounds on spore germination and cultural variation in microorganisms." Microbiology 11: 154-156. 8. David, H. L. (1973). "Response of mycobacteria to ultraviolet radiation." Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 108: 1175-1184. 9. DeGiorgi, C. F., R. O. Fernandez, et al. (1996). "Ultraviolet-B lethal damage on Pseudomonas aeruginosa." Current Microb. 33: 141-146. 10. El-Adhami, W., S. Daly, et al. (1994). "Biochemical studies on the lethal effects of solar and artificial ultraviolet radiation on Staphylococcus aureus." Arch. Microbiol. 161: 82-87. 11. Fernandez, R. O. (1996). "Lethal effect induced in Pseudomonas aeruginosa exposed to ultraviolet-A radiation." Photochem. & Photobiol. 64(2): 334-339. 23 Applied
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 12. Fuerst, C. R. (1960). "Inactivation of bacterial viruses by physical means." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 82: 684-691. 13. Futter, B. V. (1967). "Inactivation of bacterial spores by visible radiation." J. Appl. Bact. 30(2): 347-353. 14. Gates, F. L. (1929). "A study of the bactericidal action of ultra violet light." J. Gen. Physiol. 13: 231-260. 15. Glaze, W. H., G. R. Payton, et al. (1980). Oxidation of water supply refractory species by ozone with ultraviolet radiation, U.S. EPA. 16. Goldstein, M. A. and N. M. Tauraso (1970). "Effect of formalin,B-propiolactone, merthiolate, and ultraviolet light upon Influenza virus infectivity, chicken cell agglutination, hemagglutination, and antigenicity." Appl. Microb. 19(2): 290-294. 17. Gurol, M. D. and R. Vatista (1987). "Oxidation of phenolic compounds by ozone and ozone + UV radiation." Water Res. 21: 895. 18. Harstad, J. B., H.M.Decker, et al. (1954). "Use of ultraviolet irradiation in a room air conditioner for removal of bacteria." American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal 2: 148-151. 19. Hill, W. F., F. E. Hamblet, et al. (1970). "Ultraviolet devitalization of eight selected enteric viruses in estuarine water." Appl. Microb. 19(5): 805-812. 20. Hollaender, A. (1943). "Effect of long ultraviolet and short visible radiation (3500 to 4900) on Escherichia coli." J. Bact. 46: 531-541. 21. Jagger, J. (1967). Ultraviolet Photobiology. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 22. Jensen, M. M. (1964). "Inactivation of airborne viruses by ultraviolet irradiation." Applied Microbiology 12(5): 418-420. 23. Keller, L. C., T. L. Thompson, et al. (1982). "UV light-induced survival response in a highly radiation-resistant isolate of the Moraxella-Acinetobacter group." Appl. & Environ. Microb. 43(2): 424-429. 24. Knudson, G.B. (1986). "Photoreactivation of ultraviolet-irradiated, plasmid-bearing, and plasmid-free strains of bacillus anthracis." Appl. & Environ. Microbiol. 52(3): 444-449. 25. Kundsin, R. B. (1966). "Characterization of Mycoplasma aerosols as to viability, particle size, and lethality of ultraviolet radiation." J. Bacteriol. 91(3): 942-944. 26. Kundsin, R. B. (1968). "Aerosols of Mycoplasmas, L forms, and bacteria: Comparison of particle size, viability, and lethality of ultraviolet radition." Applied Microbiology 16(1): 143-146. 27. Lidwell, O. M. and E. J. Lowbury (1960). "The survival of bacteria in dust." Annual Review of Microbiology 14: 38-43. 24
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 28. Miller, W. R., E. T. Jarrett, et al. (1948). "Evaluation of ultraviolet radiation and dust control measures in control of respiratory disease at a naval training center." 82: 86100. 29. Mitscherlich, E. and E. H. Marth (1984). Microbial Survival in the Environment. Berlin, Springer-Verlag. 30. Mongold, J. (1992). "DNA repair and the evolution of transformation in Haemophilus influenzae." Genetics 132: 893-898. 31. Morrissey, R. F. and G. B. Phillips (1993). Sterilization Technology. New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold. 32. Munakata, N., M. Saito, et al. (1991). "Inactivation action spectra of Bacillus subtilis spores in extended ultraviolet wavelengths (50-300 nm) obtained with synchrotron radiation." Photochem. & Photobiol. 54(5): 761-768. 33. Philips (1985). Germicidal Lamps and Applications, Philips Lighting Div. 34. Phillips, G. B. and F. E. Novak (1955). "Applications of germicidal ultraviolet in infectious disease laboratories." Appl. Microb. 4: 95-96. 35. Pollard, E. C. (1960). "Theory of the physical means of the inactivation of viruses." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 82: 654-660. 36. Prengle, H. W. J. (1983). "Experimental rate constants and reactor conditions for the destruction of micropollutants and trihalomethane precursors by ozone with ultraviolet radiation." Environ. Sci. Technol. 17: 743. 37. Qualls, R. G. and J. D. Johnson (1983). "Bioassay and dose measurement in UV disinfection." Appl. Microb. 45(3): 872-877. 38. Qualls, R. G. and J. D. Johnson (1985). "Modeling and efficiency of ultraviolet disinfection systems." Water Res. 19(8): 1039-1046. 39. Rainbow, A. J. and S. Mak (1973). "DNA damage and biological function of human adenovirus after U.V. irradiation." Int. J. Radiat. Bil. 24(1): 59-72. 40. Rauth, A. M. (1965). "The physical state of viral nucleic acid and the sensitivity of viruses to ultraviolet light." Biophysical Journal 5: 257-273. 41. Rentschler, H. C., R. Nagy, et al. (1941). "Bactericidal effect of ultraviolet radiation." J. Bacteriol. 42: 745-774. 42. Rentschler, H. C. and R. Nagy (1942). "Bactericidal action of ultraviolet radiation on air-borne microorganisms." J. Bacteriol. 44: 85-94. 43. Riley, R. L. and F. O'Grady (1961). Airborne Infection. New York, The Macmillan Company.
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 44. Riley, R. L. K., J.E. (1972). "Effect of relative humidity on the inactivation of airborne Serratia marcescens by ultraviolet radiation." Applied Microbiology 23(6): 11131120. 45. Riley, R. L. and E. A. Nardell (1989). "Clearing the air: The theory and application of ultraviolet disinfection." Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 139: 1286-1294. 46. Scheir, R. and F. B. Fencl (1996). "Using UVC Technology to Enhance IAQ." HPAC Feb. 47. Seagal-Maurer, S. and G. E. Kalkut (1994). "Environmental control of tuberculosis: Continuing controversy." Clinical Infectious Diseases 19: 299-308. 48. Severin, B. F., M. T. Suidan, et al. (1983). "Kinetic modeling of U.V. disinfection of water." Water Res. 17(11): 1669-1678. 49. Severin, B. F. (1986). "Ultraviolet disinfection for municipal wastewater." Chemical Engineering Progress 81: 37-44. 50. Shama, G. (1992). "Inactivation of Escherichia coli by ultraviolet light and hydrogen peroxide in a thin film contactor." Letters in Appl. Microb. 15: 259-260. 51. Shama, G. (1992). "Ultraviolet irradiation apparatus for disinfecting liquids of high ultraviolet absorptivities." Letters in Appl. Microb. 15: 69-72. 52. Sharp, D. G. (1938). "A quantitative method of determining the lethal effect of ultraviolet light on bacteria suspended in air." J. Bact. 35: 589-599. 53. Sharp, G. (1939). "The lethal action of short ultraviolet rays on several common pathogenic bacteria." J. Bact. 37: 447-459. 54. Sharp, G. (1940). "The effects of ultraviolet light on bacteria suspended in air." J. Bact. 38: 535-547. 55. Sylvania (1981). Sylvania Engineering Bulletin 0-342, Germicidal and Short-Wave Ultraviolet Radiation, GTE Products Corp. 56. Takahashi, N. (1990). "Ozonation of several organic compounds having low molecular weight under ultraviolet irradiation." Ozone Science & Engineering 12: 117. 57. Tamm, I. and D. J. Fluke (1950). "The effect of monochromatic ultraviolet radiation on the infectivity and hemagglutinating ability of the influenza virus type A strain PR8." J. Bact. 59: 449-461. 58. Taylor, A. R. (1960). "Effects of nonionizing radiations of animal viruses." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 82: 670-683. 59. Von Sonntag, C. (1986). "Disinfection by free radicals and UV-radiation." Water Supply 4: 11-18.
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 60. Wang, Y. and A. Casadevall (1994). "Decreased susceptibility of melanized Cryptococcus neoformans to UV light." Appl. Microb. 60(10): 3864-3866. 61. Wells, W. F. (1955). Airborne Contagion. New York, New York Academy of Sciences. 62. Westinghouse (1982). Booklet A-8968, Westinghouse Electric Corp., Lamp Div. 63. Scheir, R. and F. B. Fencl ,Steril-Aire USA, Inc. (1997). Electric utility solves IAQ problem with UVC electrical energy. (You'll want to know) HPAC Vol. 69, No. 5. May, p28.
4.4 OUTDOOR AIR PURGIN OUTDOOR PURGE AIR SYSTEM Airborne pathogens can be removed by purging with outside air, which is naturally sterilized. Airborne bacteria and viruses pathogenic for humans rarely occur in the outdoor air, and cannot survive long if they do. Spores of fungi and actinomycetes can occur in outside air but rarely occur in hazardous concentrations (Goodfellow 1984). The concentration of fungal spores in outdoor air varies, but is often as low as 100 CFU/m3 in residential areas (see Table 2.3). The only condition in which purging with outside air is not a solution to an indoor microbial contamination problem is when microbial growth has occurred inside the air handling unit, because this may increase respiratory distress throughout the building. Therefore, under normal conditions, purging a building with outside air is an acceptable way of removing airborne pathogens, especially contagious human pathogens. Even the cleanest of human environments is full of microbes. Table 2.1 lists the variety of airborne microorganisms that have been isolated on American and Soviet spacecraft (Nicogossian 1977 & 1993, Johnson et al 1977). The last column identifies those species that are found in outdoor air, based on several studies (Kemp 1995, Li 1992, Straja 1996). This table highlights an important distinction -contagious human pathogens are found concentrated indoors, not outdoors (Gregory 1973), close to their main source, humans. Fungi can occur in both locations (Samson 1994, Reponen 1992).
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Limits for Indoor Airborne Microbes No standards exist for acceptable levels of indoor air contamination with microorganisms, since the infectivity of pathogens is extremely species dependent, although a number of guidelines exist for indoor spore levels, and a few exist for indoor bacterial levels (Rao 1996, Su et al 1992, Godish 1995). Table 2.3 and Table 2.4 summarize some of the lower levels that have been suggested as limits, along with data from various sources indicating average ambient outdoor or indoor levels. These limits are by no means the only limits specified in the literature, but they are representative of the low end of all the limits or averages that have been published. The bacteria referred to are implicitly ambient, or environmental bacteria. Pathogenic bacteria and viruses, particularly contagious pathogens, are considered to have no safe limits (Rao et al 1996).
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The rate of removal of airborne pathogens depends on two factors, the air change rate (ACH) and the ventilation effectiveness (or degree of air mixing). If plug flow (piston flow) were assumed, then one air change would completely remove all pathogens that were initially present in a room. This is rarely the case, except when it is by design (ASHRAE 1991). Complete air mixing will delay the removal of airborne pathogens in an exponential manner. This represents the limiting case for normal buildings, and is a reasonable and simple model to use for evaluating the removal rate of airborne pathogens. Given the assumption of complete air mixing, the primary factor determining the removal of airborne pathogens is the air change rate.
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp Airborne pathogen hazards are dependent on the species of microbe. Some microbes are extremely lethal at very low doses. Some guidelines exist for levels of airborne fungi, and these are used as general indicators. The ACGIH and the AIHA define 1000 CFU/m3 as an upper limit for concentrations in indoor environments, while the CEC defines 2000 CFU/m3 as a "very high" level (Rao et al 1996). A value of 10,000 CFU/m3 of nondescript airborne microbes could therefore be considered a hazardous level for indoor environments. The chart below illustrates the purging effect of different rates of outdoor air, in terms of ACH (air change per hour). The actual amount of outdoor air that can be economically brought in to a building can depend heavily on ambient conditions. In mild dry climates, large volumes of outdoor air can be used to purge a building continuously with little added cost. In hot, dry climates it is possible to use two stage evaporative coolers to recover a large fraction of exhaust cooling and thereby bring in outdoor air at possible high volumes for a much reduced cost. In cold climates, high efficiency air-to-air or run around heat exchangers can recover heat losses, but the problem becomes one of economics as well as system operating parameters.
References 1. May, K. R., H.A.Druett, L.P.Packman (1969). Toxicity of open air to a variety of microorganisms. Nature 221: 1146-1147. 31
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 2. Cox, C. S., J.Baxter, B.J.Maidment (1973). A mathematical expression for oxygeninduced death in dehydrated bacteria. Journal of General Microbiology 75: 179185. 3. Cox, C. S., F.Baldwin (1967). The toxic effect of oxygen upon the aerosol survival of Escherichia coli. Journal of General Microbiology 49: 115-117. 4. de Jong, J. C., K.C.Winkler (1968). The inactivation of poliovirus in aerosols. Journal of Hygiene 66: 557-565. 5. Harper, G. J. (1961). Airborne micro-organisms : survival tests with four viruses. Journal of Hygiene 59: 479-486. 6. Benbough, J. E., A.M.Hood (1971). Viricidal activity of open air. Journal of Hygiene 69: 619-626. 7. de Mik, G., I.de Groot (1977). The germicidal effect of the open air in different parts of the Netherlands. Journal of Hygiene 78: 175-187. 8. Zeterberg, J. M. (1973). A review of respiratory virology and the spread of virulent and possibly antigenic viruses via air conditioning systems. Annals of Allergy 31: 228-299. 9. Sullivan, J. F., J.R.Songer (1966). Role of differential air pressure zones in the control of aerosols in a large animal isolation facility. Applied Microbiology 14(4): 674-678. 10. Lidwell, O. M. and R.E.O.Williams (1960). The ventilation of operating-theatres. Journal of Hygiene 58: 449-464. 11. Blowers, R. and B.Crew (1960). Ventilation of operating-theatres. Journal of Hygiene 58: 427-448. 12. Liu, R., and M.A.Huza (1995). Filtration and indoor air quality: a practical approach. ASHRAE Journal 37(2): 18. 13. Miller-Leiden, S., C. Lobascio and W.W.Nazaroff (1996). Effectiveness of in-room air filtration and dilution ventilation for tuberculosis infection control. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association 46(9): 869. 14. ICCCS (1992). The Future Practice of Contamination Control. Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Contamination Control, Westminster, Mechanical Engineering Publications. 15. Hers, J. F., K. C. Winkler, et al. (1973). Airborne Transmission and Airborne Infection. VIth International Symposium on Aerobiology, Technical University at Enschede, The Netherlands, Oosthoek Publishing Company. 16. Seagal-Maurer, S. and G. E. Kalkut (1994). Environmental control of tuberculosis: Continuing controversy. Clinical Infectious Diseases 19: 299-308. 32
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 17. Lidwell, O. M. (1960). The evaluation of ventilation. J. Hygiene 58: 297-305. 18. Brief, R. S. and T. Bernath (1988). Indoor pollution: guidelines for prevention and control of microbiological respiratory hazards associated with air conditioning and ventilation systems. Appl. Indust. Hyg. 3: 5-10. 19. ANSI (1992). American national standard for laboratory ventilation. New York, American National Standards Institute. 20. Rivers, R. D. (1982). Predicting particulate air quality in recirculatory ventilation systems. ASHRAE Transactions(82): 929949. 21. Clark, R. P. (1985). Ventilation conditions and air-borne bacteria and particles in operating theatres: proposed safe economies. J. Hyg. 95: 325-335. 22. Hambraeus, A., S. Bengtsson, et al. (1977). Bacterial contamination in a modern operating suite. J. Hyg. 79: 121-132. 23. Phelps, E. B., L. Buchbinder, et al. (1942). Studies on Microorganisms in simulated room environments, I, II, III. J. Bacteriol. 42: 321-366. 24. ASHRAE (1989). Standard 62R: Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality, ASHRAE. 25. Ager, B. P. and J. A. Tickner (1983). The control of microbiological hazards associated with air conditioning and ventilation systems. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 27(4): 341-358. 26. Jenkins, P. A. (1991). Mycobacteria in the environment. Pathogens in the Environment. B. Austin. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications. 27. Kowalski, W. J. (1997). Master's Thesis -- Technologies for controlling respiratory disease transmission in indoor environments: Theoretical performance and economics., Ann Arbor, UMI Dissertation Services. 28. Li, D.-W. and B. Kendrick (1995). A year-round comaprison of fungal spores in indoor and outdoor air. Mycologia 87(2): 190-195. 29. Pasanen, A.-L. and e. al (1991). Airborne bacteria and fungi in rural houses in Finland. IAQ '91. Washington, Healthy Buildings/IAQ '91. 30. Burge, H. (1990). Bioaerosols: Prevalence and health effects in the indoor environment. J. Allerg. Clin. Immunol. 86(5): 687-781. 31. Fulton, J. D. and et al (1966). Microorganisms of the upper atmosphere, I - V. Appl. Microbiol. 14(2): 232. 32. Pady, S. M. (1957). Quantitative studies of fungus spores in the air. Mycologia 49: 339-353. 33. Nardell, E. A., J. Keegan, et al. (1991). Airborne infection: Theoretical limits of protection acheivable by building ventilation. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 144: 302-306. 33
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 34. Tamblyn, R. T. (1995). Toward zero complaints for office air conditioning. Heating, Piping & Air Conditioning March: 67-72.
4.5 - ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION
Electrostatic precipitators commonly used are to
remove particles from airstreams having large steady Typical include flow rates.
applications coal-burning
plants and cement kilns. A typical two-stage
electrostatic precipitator has a stage of corona wires and a stage of collecting plates, as illustrated in the diagram at right. The corona wires are maintained at several thousand volts which produces a corona that releases electrons into the airstream. These electrons attach to dust particles and give them a net negative charge. The collecting plates are grounded and attract the charged dust particles. The collecting plates are periodically rapped by mechanical rappers to dislodge the collected dust, which then drop into hoppers below. The air velocity between the plates needs to be sufficiently low to allow the dust to fall and not to be re-entrained in the airstream. It takes between 0.01 and 0.1 second for dust particles to acquire a charge in the corona region. Industrial systems are normally designed with more than 1 second residence time in the first stage to assure the charging of dust particles. Industrial systems are capable of removing particles in the size range 0.01 -- 10 microns and can achieve efficiencies in the neighborhood of 95%.
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp Small electrostatic precipitators designed for home or other non-industrial applications are known as electronic air cleaners. These do not have rappers, but must be taken apart and cleaned periodically. also, these devices are often inserted into airstreams without regard to residence time or air velocities, and hence efficiencies can be much lower than those used in industrial applications. A welldesigned electronic air cleaner for home or office building applications would not only be relatively large and have a high energy demand, but it would also generate ozone at potentially hazardous levels. Even a well-sized, efficinently operating air cleaner cannot achieve the efficiency necessary to guarantee complete interception of airborne bacteria, let alone viruses. However, as a means of simply improving air quality and decreasing dust and airborne microbes, electronic air cleaners do indeed have some value in homer and office building environments. No studies exist which examine the effectiveness of electrostatic precipitators in controlling airborne microorganisms. A computer simulation is currently in progress at Penn State which analyzes the effectiveness of electrostatic precipitation in controlling airborne microbes in a model building. The results of this study will be presented here upon completion. References 1. Heinsohn, R.J., Kabel, R.L. (1996). Sources and Control of Air Pollution. The Pennsylvania State University. 2. Khare, M. and M. S. (1996). "Computer aided simulation of efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator." Environment International 22(4): 451-462. 3. Mohr, M., B.A.Kwetkus and H.Burtscher (1993). "Improvement of electrostatic precipitation by UV-charging of submicron particles." Journal of Aerosol Science 24(S1): s247-s248. 4. Seto, K., K. Okuyama and Y. Inuoe (1995). "Electrostatic precipitation of fine particulate contaminants by UV/photoelectron method under low pressure condition." Journal of Aerosol Science 26(S1): s17-s18. 5. Stenhouse, J. I. T. and K. B. (1990). "Aerosol deposition in e;ectrostatic precipitators." Journal of Aerosol Science 21(s1): s703-s706. 6. Zhibin, Z. and Z. G. (1992). "New model of electrostatic precipitation efficiency accounting for turbulent mixing." Journal of Aerosol Science 23(2): 115-121. 35
4.6 NEGATIVE AIR IONIZATION
Negative air ionization has the potential to reduce the concentration of airborne microorganisms. The effect appears to result from the ionization of bioaerosols and dust particles that may carry microorganisms, causing them to settle out more rapidly. Settling tends to occur on horizontal surfaces, especially metallic surfaces, and generally in the area near the ionization unit. Ionization may enhance agglomeration, creating larger particles out of smaller particles, thereby increasing the settling rate. Ionization may also cause attraction between ionized particles and grounded surfaces. In situations where dust may carry microorganisms, negative air ionization can be economical to use to reduce infections. It has been used economically to reduce the incidence of Newcastle Disease Virus in poultry houses (Mitchell 1994). Poultry houses can be notoriously dusty.
The above chart shows the Colony Forming Units (CFU) measured with and without ionization in a dental clinic by Gabbay et al (1990). Airborne microbial levels were reduced by 32-52% with ionization. He also found that horizontal plates picked up considerably more cultures than vertical plates, strongly suggesting that settling out of ionized particles was the primary mode of removal.
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This chart summarizes the results of studies by Makela et al (1979), who found that bacterial aerosols in patient rooms of a burns and plastic surgery unit could be reduced with air ionization. Variations in the bacterial levels were associated with bed-changing and other room activities. The humidity in the rooms was low, which may have enhanced the effect.
In this chart, also based on results from Makela et al (1979), specifically identified Staphylococcus aureus levels in a room with and without ionization. The average for two days of monitoring indicated a definitive reduction in airborne levels.
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp Staphylococcus aureus is a potential nosocomial infectious agent of wounds and burns.
The chart above summarizes some results from Happ et al (1966), who found that levels of aerosolized virus T1 bacteriophage were rduced under various types of ionization, which included mixed ions, negative ions and positive ions. All three types of ionization had comparable results in terms of reducing airborne levels. The method used by Happ involved testing the filtration efficiency, in which lower filter efficiencies demonstrated lower recoveries rom the air. These lower recoveries suggested either that the phage was not present in the air or had perhaps been inactivated. TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR ION GENERATORS Ion Generation Method Power Supply Wattage Ozone Production References 1. Gabbay, J. (1990). Effect of ionization on microbial air pollution in the dental clinic. Environ. Res. 52(1): 99. 2. Happ, J. W., J. B. Harstad, et al. (1966). Effect of air ions on submicron T1 bacteriophage aerosols. Appl. Microb. 14: 888-891. 38 Pulse Ionization Field 9 kV - 15 kV 0.75 - 2.7 W < 0.02 PPM
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 3. ICCCS (1992). The Future Practice of Contamination Control. Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Contamination Control, Westminster, Mechanical Engineering Publications. 4. Mitchell, B. W. a. D. J. K. (1994). Effect of negative air ionization on airborne transmission of newcastle disease virus. Avian Diseases 38: 725-732. 5. Mitchell, B. W. (1994). Effect of negative air ionization on airborne transmission of Newcastle Disease Virus. Avian Dis. 38(4): 725. 6. Phillips, G., G. J. Harris, et al. (1963). The effect of ions on microorganisms. Int. J. Biometerol. 8: 27-37. 7. Estola, T., P. Makela, et al. (1979). "The effect of air ionization on the air-borne transmission of experimental Newcastle disease virus infections in chickens." J. Hyg. 83: 59-67. 8. Kreuger, A. P., R. F. Smith, et al. (1957). "The action of air ions on bacteria." J. Gen. Physiol. 41: 359-381. 9. Krueger, A. P. and E. J. Reed (1976). "Biological Impact of Small Air Ions." Science 193(Sep): 1209-1213. 10. Lehtimaki, M. and G. Graeffe (1976). The effect of the ionization of air on aerosols in closed spaces. Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on
Contamination Control, Copenhagen. 11. Makela, P., J. Ojajarvi, et al. (1979). "Studies on the effects of ionization on bacterial aerosols in a burns and plastic surgery unit." J. Hyg. 83: 199-206. 12. Phillips, G., G. J. Harris, et al. (1964). "Effect of air ions on bacterial aerosols." Intl. J. of Biometerol. 8: 27-37. 13. Soyka, F. & A. Edmonds (1991). "The Ion Effect" Bantam Books. (Many thanks to the people at Electrocorp for providing some of the above information and support for the ongoing studies of negative air ionization at PSU.)
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4.7 VEGETATION VEGETATION AND AIR DESINFECTATION A handful of studies have investigated the use of vegetation as a means of removing or reducing levels of airborne microorganisms. This has sometimes been referred to as "growing clean air." Recently a Canadian firm developed what it called a "breathing wall," or a wall of plants and waterfalls that seems to improve air quality (ASHRAE Journal 1998, May, p58). Earlier results of studies by government agencies seemed inconclusive but recent experience suggests there may be merit to this idea. The reasons that vegetation may reduce levels of airborne microorganisms are varied. The surface area of large amounts of vegetation may absorb or adsorb microbes or dust. The oxygen generation of the plants may have an oxidative effect on microbes. The increased humidity may have an effect on reducing some microbial species although it may favor others. The presence of symbiotic microbes such as streptomyces may cause some disinfection of the air. Natural plant defences against bacteria may operate against mammalian pathogens. One downside to keeping large amounts of vegetation indoors is that the potting soil may include potentially allergenic fungi. The presence of moisture may also contribute to fungal problem. Clearly there is some balance to be achieved between the desirable and undesirable effects. The use of waterfalls in conjunction with vegetation will increase local humidity. Humidity has mixed effects, as stated before, but the use of moving water may generate positive or negative ions, or may simply cause hygrophobic microbes to precipitate out of the air. The evaporative cooling effect of dripping water may chill some microbes into inactivation. Cooling coils have a similar effect. Evaporative coolers (not warm cooling towers) may have a similar effect. A possible application might be to route building return air through a greenhouse. Not only will some filtering effects occur, but oxygen will be replenished and the solar exposure will cause some air disinfection. Few references are available at present, but those that provide related information are listed below. 40
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp References 1. Burroughs, H. E. B. (1997). IAQ: An environmental factor in the indoor habitat. HPAC, 69(2), 57-60. 2. Cox, C. S., F.Baldwin. (1967). The toxic effect of oxygen upon the aerosol survival of Escherichia coli. Journal of General Microbiology, 49, 115-117. 3. Davey, B., and Halliday, T. (1994). Human biology and health: An evolutionary approach, Open University Press, London. 4. de Jong, J. C., K.C.Winkler. (1968). The inactivation of poliovirus in aerosols. Journal of Hygiene, 66, 557-565. 5. de Mik, G., I.de Groot. (1977). The germicidal effect of the open air in different parts of the Netherlands. J. Hygiene, 78, 175-187. 6. Dorgan, C. B., Dorgan, C. E., Kanarek, M. S., and Willman, A. J. (1998). Health and productivity benefits of improved air quality. ASHRAE Transactions, 104(1). 7. Estola, T., Makela, P., and Hovi, T. (1979). The effect of air ionization on the air borne transmission of experimental Newcastle disease virus infections in chickens. J. Hyg., 83, 59-67. 8. Fisk, W. (1994). The California healthy buildings study. Center for Building Science News, Spring 1994, 7,13. 9. Fisk, W., and Rosenfeld, A. (1997). Improved productivity and health from better indoor environments. Center for Building Science News, Summer, 5. 10. Futter, B. V. (1967). Inactivation of bacterial spores by visible radiation. J. Appl. Bact., 30(2), 347-353. 11. Gregory, P. H. (1973). Microbiology of the atmosphere, Leonard Hill Books, Plymouth. 12. Harper, G. J. (1961). Airborne micro-organisms : survival tests with four viruses. Journal of Hygiene, 59, 479-486. 13. Hatch, M. T., and Dimmick, R. L. (1966). Physiological responses of airborne bacteria to shifts in relative humidity. Bacteriological Reviews, 30(3), 597. 14. Hautanen, J., T.Watanabe, T.Tuschida, Y.Koizumi, F.Tochikubo, E.Kauppinen, K.Lehtinen and J.Jokiniemi. (1995). Brownian agglomeration of bipolarly charged aerosol particles. Journal of Aerosol Science, 26(S1), s21-s22. 15. Hyvarinen, A., O'Rourke, M. K., Meldrum, J., Stetzenbach, L., and Reid, H. (1995). Influence of cooling type on airborne viable fungi. Journal of Aerosol Science, 26(S1), s887-s888.
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 16. Isaac, S. (1996). To what extent do airborne fungal spores contribute to respiratory disease and allergic reactions in humans? Mycologist, 10(1), 31-32. 17. Kreuger, A. P., Smith, R. F., and Go, I. G. (1957). The action of air ions on bacteria. J. Gen. Physiol., 41, 359-381. 18. Krueger, A. P., and Reed, E. J. (1976). Biological Impact of Small Air Ions. Science, 193(Sep), 1209-1213. 19. Lidwell, O. M., and Lowbury, E. J. (1960). The survival of bacteria in dust. Annual Review of Microbiology, 14, 38-43. 20. May, K. R., H.A.Druett, L.P.Packman. (1969). Toxicity of open air to a variety of microorganisms. Nature, 221, 1146-1147. 21. Phelps, E. B., Buchbinder, L., and Solowey, M. (1942). Studies on Microorganisms in simulated room environments, I, II, III. J. Bacteriol., 42, 321-366. 22. Phillips, G., Harris, G. J., and Jones, M. V. (1964). Effect of air ions on bacterial aerosols. Intl. J. of Biometerol., 8, 27-37. 23. Puckorius, P. R., Thomas, P. T., and Augspurger, R. L. (1995). Why evaporative coolers have not caused Legionnaire's Disease. ASHRAE Journal, Jan, 29-33. 24. Stroh, G., and Stahl, W. Effect of surfactants on the filtrat ion properties of fine particles. Filtech 89, Karlesruhe, West Germany. 25. Watanabe, T., F.Tochikubo, J.Hautanen and E.I.Kauppinen. (1995). Review of particle agglomeration. Journal of Aerosol Science, 26(S1), s19-s20. 26. Wise, J. A. (1997). How nature nurtures: Buildings as habitats and their benefits to people. HPAC, 69(2), 48.
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 5. - DESCRIPTON OF DEVELOPMENTAL AIRBONE PATHOGEN CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
5.1 PHOTOCATALYTIC OXIDATION PHOTOCATALYTIC OXIDATION (PCO) Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a semiconductor photocatalyst with a band gap energy of 3.2 eV. When this material is irradiated with photons of less than 385 nm, the band gap energy is exceeded and an electron is promoted from the valence band to the conduction band. The resultant electron-hole pair has a lifetime in the space-charge region that enables its participation in chemical reactions. The most widely postulated reactions are shown here. OH- + h+ _________> .OH O2 + e- _________> O2Hydroxyl radicals and super-oxide ions are highly reactive species that will oxidize volatile organic compounds (VOCs) adsorbed on the catalyst surface. They will also kill and decompose adsorbed bioaerosols. The process is referred to as heterogeneous photocatalysis or, more specifically, photocatalytic oxidation (PCO). Several attributes of PCO make it a strong candidate for indoor air quality (IAQ) applications. Pollutants, particularly VOCs, are preferentially adsorbed on the surface and oxidized to (primarily) carbon dioxide (CO2). Thus, rather than simply changing the phase and concentrating the contaminant, the absolute toxicity of the treated air stream is reduced, allowing the photocatalytic reactor to operate as a self-cleaning filter relative to organic material on the catalyst surface. Photocatalytic reactors may be integrated into new and existing heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems due to their modular design, room temperature operation, and negligible pressure drop. PCO reactors also feature low power consumption, potentially long service life, and low maintenance requirements. These attributes contribute to the potential of PCO technology to be an effective process for removing and destroying low level pollutants in indoor air, including bacteria, viruses and fungi. Technical issues that must be confronted before PCO reactors can be used in this application include the formation of products of incomplete oxidation, reaction rate 43
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp inhibition due to humidity, mass transport issues associated with high-flow rate systems, catalyst deactivation and inorganic contamination (dust and soil). (The above information was provided courtesy of Dr. Bill Jacoby) References 1. Block, S. S.; Goswami, D.Y. (1995). "Chemically enhanced sunlight for killing bacteria." Solar Engineering - ASME 1995 1: 431-437. 2. Goswami, D. Y.; Trivedi, D.M.; Block, S.S. (1995). "Photocatalytic disinfection of indoor air." Solar Engineering - ASME 1995 1: 421-427. 3. Ireland, J. C. K., P.; Rice, E.W.; Clark, R.M. (1993). "Inactivation of Escherichia coli by titanium dioxide photocatalytic oxidation." Applied and Environmental
Microbiology 59(5): 1668-1670. 4. Jacoby, W. A.; Blake, D.M.; Fennell, J.A.; Boulter, J.E.; Vargo, L.M. (1996). "Heterogeneous photocatalysis for control of volatile organic compounds in indoor air." Journal of Air & Waste Management 46: 891-898. 5. Matusunga, T. (1985). "Sterilization with particulate photosemiconductor." Journal of Antibacterial Antifungal Agents 13: 211-220. 6. Nagame, S.; Oku, T. Kambara, M.; Konishi, K. (1989). "Antibacterial effect of the powdered semiconductor TiO2 on the viability of oral microorganism." Journal of Dental Research 68: 1696-1697. 7. Saito, T.; Iwase, T.; Horie, J.; Morioka,T. (1992). "Mode of photocatalytic bactericidal action of powdered semiconductor TiO2 on Streptococci mutans." Journal of Photochemical Photobiology 14: 369-379.
5.2 AIR OZONIZATION OZONIZATION AND RECLAMATION
In this depicted system, ozone is injected into the airsteam and mixed in the turbulator to a degree that would guarantee ozonization of all organic compounds, including viral nucleic acids and bacteria. Due to the corrosiveness of the ozone, an efficient reclamation system must be developed. Reclaimed ozone could be recycled to the 44
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp injector, or else neutralized and used to regenerate electricity which would feed back to the regenerator. An alternative to regeneration of the ozone is ozone filtration through the use of the polymer NoXon, which removes ozone from air. This polymer, developed by Hoechst, converts the ozone to oxygen. Reportedly, the triatomic ozone molecule is disrupted, one of its oxygen atoms binds to the polymer, and the remaining two atoms form diatomic oxygen. The polymer's active absorption sites eventually become saturated and it must be regenerated or replaced. Although this product is not yet on the market, its application to the above described system holds great potential. Ozonization has proven extremely effective in water systems, but as yet no airside systems have been developed and proven safe and effective. Ongoing research at Penn State has found airborne concentrations of ozone highly effective at disinfecting surfaces. The levels of ozone capable of producing rapid sterilization appear low enough that natural decay, or decay enhanced by uv radiation, may be sufficient to render the sterilized air breathable without recourse to ozone filtration. Results of this research cannot be presented here at present, but summaries will be provided later, or on request to interested parties. References 1. Beltran, F. J. (1995). "Theoretical aspects of the kinetics of competitive ozone reactions in water." Ozone Science and Engineering 17: 163-181. 2. Beltran, F. J. and P. Alvarez (1996). "Rate constant determination of ozoneorganic fast reactions in water using an agitated cell." Journal of Environmental Science & Health A31(5): 1159-1178. 3. Botzenhart, K., G. M. Tarcson, et al. (1993). "Inactivation of bacteria and coliphages by ozone and chlorine dioxide in a continuous flow reactor." Water Science Technology 27(3-4): 363-370. 4. Broadwater, W. T., R. C. Hoehn, et al. (1973). "Sensitivity of three selected bacterial species to ozone." Applied Microbiology 26(3): 393-393. 5. Bunning, G. and D. C. Hempel (1996). "Vital-fluorochromization oF
microorganisms using 3',6'-diacetylfluorescein to determine damages of cell membranes and loss of metabolic activity by ozonation." Ozone Science and Engineering 18: 173-181.
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 6. Chang, C. Y., C. Y. Chiu, et al. (1996). "Combined self-absorption and selfdecomposition of ozone in aqueous solutions with interfacial resistance." Ozone Science & Engineering 18: 183-194. 7. de Mik, G., I.de Groot (1977). "The germicidal effect of the open air in different parts of the Netherlands." Journal of Hygiene 78: 175-187. 8. Elford, W. J. and J. v. d. Eude (1942). "An investigation of the merits of ozone as an aerial disinfectant." Journal of Hygiene 42: 240-265. 9. Fetner, R. H. and R. S. Ingols (1956). "A comparison of the bactericidal activity of ozone and chlorine against Escherichia coli at 1 C." Journal of General Microbiology 15: 381-385. 10. Finch, G. R., D. W. Smith, et al. (1988). "Dose-response of Escherichia coli in ozone demand-free phosphate buffer." Water Resources Technology 22(12): 1563-1570. 11. Finch, G. R. and D. W. Smith (1989). "Evaluation of empirical process design relationships for ozone disinfection of water and wastewater." Ozone Science and Engineering 12(2): 157-175. 12. Hall, R. M. and M. D. Sobsey (1993). "Inactivation of Hepatitis A virus and MS2 by ozone and ozone-hydrogen peroxide in buffered water." Water Science Technology 27(3-4): 371-378. 13. Harakeh, M. S. and M. Butler (1985). "Factors influencing the ozone inactivation of enteric viruses in effluent." Ozone Science & Engineering 6: 235-243. 14. Hart, J., I. Walker, et al. (1995). "The use of high concentration ozone for water treatment." Ozone Science & Engineering 17: 485-497. 15. Hartman (1925). J. Am. Soc. Heat. & Vent. Engrs. 31: 33. 16. Heindel, T. H., R. Streib, et al. (1993). "Effect of ozone on airborne microorganisms." Zbl. Hygiene 194: 464-480. 17. Katzenelson, E. and H. I. Shuval (1973). Studies on the disinfection of water by ozone : viruses and bacteria. First International Symposium on Ozone for Water & Wastewater Treament, Washington D.C., Hampson Press. 18. Katzenelson, E., G. Koerner, et al. (1979). "Measurement of the inactivation kinetics of poliovirus by ozone in a fast-flow mixer." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 37(4): 715-718. 19. Levenspiel, O. Chemical Reaction Engineering. New York, John Wiley & Sons. 20. Lockowitz, T. G., H. N. Guttman, et al. (1973). Deactivation of virus by ozonation in a stirred tank reactor. First International Symposium on Ozone for Water & Wastewater Treament, Washington D.C., Hampson Press. 46
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp 21. Masaoka, T., Y. Kubota, et al. (1982). "Ozone decontamination of bioclean rooms." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 43(3): 509-513. 22. McCarthy, J. J. and C. H. Smith (1974). "A review of ozone and its application to domestic wastewater treaTment." Journal of the American Water Works Association 74: 718-729. 23. Mik, G. d. and I. d. Groot (1977). "Mechanisms of inactivation of bacteriophage pX174 and its DNA in aerosols by ozone and ozonized cyclohexene." J. Hygiene 78: 199-211. 24. Perez-Rey, R., H. Chavez, et al. (1995). "Ozone inactivation of biologically-risky wastewaters." Ozone Science & Engineering 17: 499-509. 25. Rahn, O. (1945). "Death of bacteria by chemical agents." Biodynamica 5(96): 114. 26. Reiger, I. H., G. Feucht, et al. (1995). "Selective adsorption of noxon for the detection of ozone." Odours & VOC's Journal(December): 39-44. 27. Rice, R. G. (1997). "Applications of ozone for industrial wastewater treatment -A review." Ozone Science & Engineering 18: 477-515. 28. Roy, D. (1981). "Mechanism of enteroviral inactivation by ozone." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 41(3): 718-723. 29. Roy, D., R. S. Englebrecht, et al. (1982). "Comparative inactivation of six enteroviruses by ozone." Journal of the American Water Works Association 74: 660-664. 30. Scott, D. B. M. and E. C. Lesher (1962). "Effect of ozone on survival and permeability of Escherichia coli." Journal of Bacteriology 85: 567-576. 31. Sobsey, M. D. (1989). "Inactivation of health-related microorganisms in water by disinfection processes." Water Science Technology 21(3): 179-195. 32. Sproul, O. J. and S. B. Majumdar (1973). Poliovirus inactivation with ozone in water. First International Symposium on Ozone for Water & Wastewater Treament, Washington D.C., Hampson Press. 33. Technology, N. I. S. t. (1992). "Photoinitiated ozone-water reaction." Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 97(4): 499. 34. Vaughn, J. M., Y. S. Chen, et al. (1987). "Inactivation of human and simian rotaviruses by ozone." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 53(9): 22182221. 35. Zeterberg, J. M. (1973). "A review of respiratory virology and the spread of virulent and possibly antigenic viruses via air conditioning systems." Annals of Allergy 31: 228-299. 47
5.3 CARBON ADSORTION
Carbon adsorption is used primarily for removal of gases and vapors. It is effective against volatile organic compounds (VOCs) but is not used for control of airborne dust or microorganisms. It is, in fact, not advisable to use carbon adsorption where particulate matter is present and may clog the adsorbent bed. Carbon adsorption depends on the use of materials like activated charcoal which possess an enormous amount of surface area per unit mass. The presence of this surface area allows gas molecules to adhere to the surface. Though carbon adsorbers are unlikely to have a significant effect on airborne microbes, they can be effective at removing VOCs generated by fungi and bacteria, and so decrease the health threats. Although it is not used for intercepting particulate matter, the use of carbon adsorption for the control of airborne viruses, which are not much larger than VOCs, is a potential application which remains to be studied. A mere tenfold increase in pore size might be sufficient to adsorb viruses. References 1. Heinsohn, R.J., Kabel, R.L. (1996). Sources and Control of Air Pollution. The Pennsylvania State University. 2. Tamai, H. 1996. Synthesis of extremely large mesoporous activated carbon and its unique adsorption for giant molecules. Chemistry of Materials. v8 n2 p454. 3. Delanghe, B. 1996. Removal of organic micropollutants by adsorption onto fibrous activated carbon. Water Supply v14 n2 p177. 4. Gomez, A.F. 1995. Adsorption of Botulinum Toxin to activated charcoal with a mouse bioassay. Annals of Emergency Medicine 25:818. 5. VanOsdell, D.W., L.E.Sparks. (1995). Carbon Adsorption for Indoor Air Cleaning. ASHRAE Journal, February 1995. p34-40.
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6. Stenzel, M.H. 1993. Remove organics by activated carbon adsorption. Chemical Engineering Progress. v89 n4 p36. 7. Liu, R.T. 1990. Removal of volatile organic compounds in IAQ concentrations with short carbon bed depths. Proceedings of Indoor Air 90. Toronto, Canada. p177-182.
5.4 PASSIVE SOLAR EXPOSURE
Passive irradiation
exposure as a
to means
solar of
destroying airborne pathogens is being investigated by the Penn State Architectural Engineering
Department. The principle is that ultraviolet, and other, radiation
from the sun is sufficient to sterilize most pathogens within the space of about 30-60 seconds. This is the primary reason most infectious microorganisms die in the outdoor air. In the diagram shown at the right, the spectrum of light produced by the sun is illustrated. The ultraviolet component of sunlight includes the range of 2050 3020 Angstroms, which is biocidal to microorganisms. UVGI systems operate at 2537 Angstroms, and can be highly effective. In the design for a ten-story office building shown at left, a portion of the windows serves as the outside face of the duct, and the rest of the duct can be inexpensive plexiglas. The vertical red bars represent very long runs of transparent ductwork, or the Passive Solar Exposure (PSE) plenum. These faces can be oriented east and west, and as the air is mixed on the roof, the
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp same sterilizing effect can be had moring or afternoon. Air exhausted from each room passes into the PSE plenum and travels down to the first floor before turning back up towards the roof. The air handling unit on the roof then filters (and processes) the air for return, also through the PSE plenum. In the alternate design depicted below the entire window area of each face serves as a return or supply air plenum. As it is transparent on both sides the view is preserved for the occupants. As in the design above, the air is reheated, or cooled, and mixed at the zone itself. The red rectangles penetrating the window space each represent a zone inlet and zone exhaust. Except for the local zone equipment, this building has no
ductwork at all. The fact that the duct occupies window space means there is no additional cooling or heating load on the building as the result of this design. One innovation incorporated in this design is the intake of outside air at the individual room, where it is mixed with return air in a ceiling plenum. In addition, the return air is heated (reheated) in the ceiling
plenum prior to mixing with the
outside air, which has improved germicidal effects. Cooling is accomplished with chilled water coils in the plenum and chilled water is supplied from basement chillers. The main advantage of this design is that the increased cost of operating this system is very small, and also, the first cost of construction can be integrated into the building design at a minor add-on cost. One potential enhancement to this design is the incorporation of titanium oxide PCO (Photocatalytic Oxidation) units into the PSE plenum. The
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ultraviolet light from the sun would activate the titanium dioxide and oxidize any microorganisms in the plenum air. The effectiveness of such a design is currently being explored at Penn State with a computer simulation of the ten story building depicted in the wire frame drawing above. Other
enhancements and innovations are being investigated and will be presented here upon project completion. For more information see the section on Photocatalytic Oxidation. References 1. Baseler, M. W., B.Fogelmark, R.Burrell (1983). "Differential toxicity of inhaled gram-negative bacteria." Infection and Immunity 40(1): 133-138. 2. Beebe, J. M. (1958). "Stability of disseminated aerosols of Pastuerella tularensis subjected to simulated solar radiations at various humidities." Journal of Bacteriology 78: 18-24. 3. Benbough, J. E., A.M.Hood (1971). "Viricidal activity of open air." Journal of Hygiene 69: 619-626. 4. Buckland, F. E., D.A.J.Tyrrell (1962). "Loss of infectivity on drying various viruses." Nature 195: 1063-1064. 5. Cox, C. S., F.Baldwin (1967). "The toxic effect of oxygen upon the aerosol survival of Escherichia coli." Journal of General Microbiology 49: 115-117. 6. Cox, C. S., J.Baxter, B.J.Maidment (1973). "A mathematical expression for oxygen-induced death Microbiology 75: 179-185. 7. de Jong, J. C., K.C.Winkler (1968). "The inactivation of poliovirus in aerosols." Journal of Hygiene 66: 557-565. 8. de Mik, G., I.de Groot (1977). "The germicidal effect of the open air in different parts of the Netherlands." Journal of Hygiene 78: 175-187. 9. Dimmock, N. (1967). "Differences between the thermal inactivation of Picornaviruses at high and low temperatures." Virology 31: 338-353. 10. DOE (1994). BLAST : Building Loads Analysis and System in dehydrated bacteria." Journal of General
Thermodynamics, Department of Energy.
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11. Goodlow,
R.
G.,
F.A.Leonard
(1961).
"Viability
and
infectivity
of
microorganisms in experimental airborne infection." Bacteriology Reviews 25: 182-187. 12. Harper, G. J. (1961). "Airborne micro-organisms : survival tests with four viruses." Journal of Hygiene 59: 479-486. 13. Hemmes, J. H., K.C.Winkler, S.M.Kool (1960). "Virus survival as a seasonal factor in Influenza and Poliomyelitis." Nature 188: 430-431. 14. Jensen, M. M. (1964). "Inactivation of airborne viruses by ultraviolet irradiation." Applied Microbiology 12(5): 418-420. 15. Langmuir, A. D. (1961). "Epidemiology of airborne infection." Bacteriology Reviews 25: 173-181. 16. May, K. R., H.A.Druett, L.P.Packman (1969). "Toxicity of open air to a avariety of microorganisms." Nature 221: 1146-1147. 17. Sullivan, J. F., J.R.Songer (1966). "Role of differential air pressure zones in the control of aerosols in a large animal isolation facility." Applied Microbiology 14(4): 674-678. 18. Walton, G., J. Axley, J. Grot (1995). CONTAM95 : Contaminant Analysis Program, NIST. 19. Wilkinson, T. R. (1966). "Survival of bacteria on metal surfaces." Applied Microbiology 14: 303-307. 20. Zeterberg, J. M. (1973). "A review of respiratory virology and the spread of virulent and possibly antigenic viruses via air conditioning systems." Annals of Allergy 31: 228-299.
5.5 PULSED LIGHT
PULSED LIGHT & PEF Pulsed White Light (PWL), also called Pulsed Light or Pulsed UV Light, involves the pulsing of a high-power xenon lamp for about 0.1-3 milliseconds per some sources (Dunn 1990, Rowan 1999, Johnson 1982), or about 100
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microseconds to 10 milliseconds per other sources (Wekhof 2000). The spectrum of light produced resembles the spectrum of sunlight but is momentarily 20,000 times as intense (Bushnell et al. 1997). Figure 1 compares the spectrum of a single pulse of PWL with that of continuous sunlight at the earth's surface, however, since only broad spectrum UV light between 200-400 nm contributes to the disinfection effect, the comparison of solar and PWL spectra has only illustrative value. The spectrum of PWL includes a large component of ultraviolet light.
These high intensity flashes of broad spectrum white light pulsed several times a second can inactivate microbes with remarkable rapidity and effectiveness. The germicidal effect appears to be due to both the high ultraviolet content and the brief heating effects (Wekhof 2000), however, these systems can be tuned to produce pulsed light with different compositions. The Figure below compares two different pulses in which the frequency spectra have been shifted (Wekhof 2000). The brevity of the pulse assures no heating effects will occur on a macroscopic level.
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Figure 2. (above) Spectra of a xenon flash lamp: 1- at a high current density of 6.500 kA/cm2, 2- at a low current density of approx. 1000 kA/cm2. This technology is currently being applied in the pharmaceutical packaging industry where translucent aseptically manufactured bottles and containers are sterilized in a once-through light treatment chamber. The chamber generates a light intensity at the surface of the exposed containers of about 1.7 J/sq.cm., or 1.7 x E06 microWatt-s/sq.cm. Sunlight produces about 1359 Watts/sq.cm. Only two or three pulses are sufficient to completely eradicate bacteria and fungal spores. Two pulses at 0.75 J/cm2 each were sufficient to sterilize plate cultures of Staphylococcus aureus from more than 7 logs of CFU (Dunn et al. 1997). Spores of Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus
stearothermophilus, and Aspergillus niger were inactivated completely from 6-8 logs of CFU with 1-3 pulses (Bushnell et al. 1998). These results are depicted in Figure 3. One of the surprising aspects of PWL exposed cultures is that they exhibit no tailing to their survival curves (Dunn et al. 1997). In other words, there seems to be no innate capacity for resistance among segments of the microbial populations, unlike other inactivation mechanisms.
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The exact mechanism by which PWL kills bacteria and spores appears to be due to the effects of UV combined with a new disinfection mechanism -disintegration of the cell wall (Wekhof 2000). While UV causes damage to the nucleic acid and other components of the cell, the instantaneous heating of the cell results in the rupture of the cell wall, or lysing. This disintegrating effect has been demonstrated to occur in the absence of UV (Wekhof 2000, Dunn 2000). A comparison of the disinfection rates due to PWL with the disinfection rates under UVGI exposure suggests that doses for sterilization by PWL are an order of magnitude lower than that for UV exposure (Wekhof 1991, Rowan et al 1999, Dunn 2000). Bacillus subtilis, for example is sterilized (99.999% disinfection) by about 42,600 microW-s/cm2 of UV while requiring a dose of only 4500 microW-s/cm2 under pulsed light. PWL clearly results in an apparent synergy of the pulsed energy quanta as compared to the relatively continuous stream of lower density UVGI quanta.
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In terms of the dose for sterilization, PWL may represent the most efficient energy delivery mechanism to date. However, the generation of the pulse requires a considerable amount of energy, and some units requires external cooling. The power consumption for a typical pulsed light system is about 1000 W while similar results can be achieved with a UVGI system drawing only 10 W of total power. Applications are therefore limited to situations where the benefits of rapid sterilization outweigh the costs of pulse generation, as in the pharmaceuticals and health care industries. Limited data on energy consumption is currently available for pulsed light technology, but one production unit uses four 14-inch Xenon gas lamps powered by a pulsing unit. An economics of use analysis for PWL in food applications estimates a cost of 0.1-0.4 cents/sq.ft. of irradiated surface area (Dunn et al. 1997). This technology has also been applied to water systems, such as for the eradication of Cryptosporidium, and systems are currently available for such applications. Water may attenuate the effects to some degree, and PEF may more suitable for this application as it suffers less attenuation. PEF involves the pulsing of an electric fields of about 4-14 kV/cm through a liquid medium. The result of this momentary field is a membrane potential across the bacterial cell wall of more than 1.0 V, which is sufficient to lyse or damage the cell irreparably. The inactivation of various microbes, including Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus brevis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus cereus spores, and S. cerevisiae has been found to be dependent on field strength and treatment times that are unique to each species. Since this method has little effect on proteins, enzymes, or vitamins, it is perfectly suited for food processing where the liquid medium may be anything from boullion soup to milk. PWL is a variation of pulsed electric field technology. Electric fields and light are both electromagnetic radiation, however, the mechanism of inactivation
56
due to electric fields appears to be distinctly different. In addition, spores do not appear to be inactivated by pulsed electric fields. PEF sterilization requires an electric fields of no less than 8 kV/cm. PEF exposure exhibits the characteristic survival tail and conforms to the standard logarithmic decay rate (death curve/survival curve) of microbes subjected to lethal mechanisms such as radiation, biocides, and heating. There are currently two manufacturers of pulsed light technologies, PurePulse Technologies, Inc. of San Diego and Wek-Tec of Heilbronn, Germany. References 1. Bushnell, A., Clark, W., Dunn, J., and Salisbury, K. (1997). Pulsed light sterilization of products packaged by blow-fill-seal techniques.
Pharmaceutical Engineering, 17(5), 74-84. 2. Bushnell, A., Cooper, J. R., Dunn, J., Leo, F., and May, R. (1998). Pulsed light sterilization tunnels and sterile-pass-throughs. Pharmaceutical
Engineering, March/April, 48-58. 3. Clark, W., Bushnell, A., Dunn, J., and Ott, T. (1997). Pulsed light and pulsed electric fields for food preservation. AIChE Annual Meeting Abstract. 4. Clark, W., A, B., Dunn, J., and Ott, T. Pulsed Light and Pulsed Electric Fields for Food Preservation, Paper 65f. AIChE Annual Meeting. 5. Dunn, J., Burgess, D., and Leo, F. (1997). Investigation of pulsed light for terminal sterilization of WFI filled blow/fill/seal polyethylene containers. Parenteral Drug Association J. of Pharm. Sci. & Tech., 51(3), 111-115. 6. Dunn, J., Bushnell, A., Ott, T., and Clark, W. (1997). Pulsed white light food processing. Cereal Foods World, 42(7), 510-515. 7. Grahl, T., and Markl, H. (1996). Killing of microorganisms by pulsed electric fields. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 45, 148-157. 8. Keith, W. D., Harris, L. J., Hudson, L., and Griffiths, M. W. (1997). Pulsed electric fields as a processing alternative for microbial reduction in spice. Food Research Intl., 30(3/4), 185-191.
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9. Peleg, M. (1995). A model of microbial survival after exposure to pulsed electric fields. J. Sci. Food Agric., 67, 93-99. 10. Perkins, R. C., and Honig, W. M. (1991). A high-intensity pulsed light source in blue and UV from commercial fluorescent tubes. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 3(1), 91-92. 11. Qin, B., Zhang, Q., and Barbosa-Canovas, G. V. (1994). Inactivation of microorganisms by pulsed electric fields of different voltage waveforms. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, 1(6), 1047-1056. 12. Qin, B., Pothakamury, U. R., Barbosa-Canovas, G. V., and Swanson, B. G. (1996). Nonthermal pasteurization of liquid foods using high -intensity pulsed electric fields. Critical reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 36(6), 603-627. 13. Rice, J. (1994). Sterilizing with light and electrical impulses. Food Processing, July, 66. 14. Schoenbach, K. H., Peterkin, F. E., Alden, R. W., and Beebe, S. J. (1997). The effect of pulsed electric fields on biological cells: Experiments and applications. IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, 25(2). 15. Wouters, P. C., and Smelt, J. P. P. M. (1997). Inactivation of microorganisms with pulsed electric fields: Potential for f ood preservation. Food Biotechnology, 11(3), 193-229. 16. Zhang, Q., Qin, B., Barbosa-Canovas, G. V., and Swanson, B. G. (1995). Inactivation of E. coli for food pasteurization by high -strength pulsed electric fields. J. of Food Processing and Preservation, 19, 103-118. 17. Bruhn, R. E. (1997). Electrical environment surrounding microbes exposed to pulsed electric fields. IEEE Transactions: Dielectrics & Electrical Insulation, 4(6), 806. 18. Castro, A. J. (1993). Microbial inactivation of foods by pulsed electric fields. J. of Food Processing and Preservation, 17(1), 47. 19. Dunn, J. (1995). Pulsed-light treatment of food and packaging. Food Tech., 49(9), 95. 20. Dunn, J. (1997). Investigation of pulsed light for terminal sterilization of WFI filled blow/fill/polyethylene seal containers. PDA J. of Pharm. Sci. & Tech., 51(3), 111.
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21. Dunn, J. (2000). Private communication with W. J. Kowalski / unpublished test results. 22. Martin, O. (1997). Inactivation of Escherichia coli in skim milk by high intensity pulsed electric fields. J. of Food Process Eng., 20(4), 317. 23. Martin-Belloso, O. (1997). Inactivation of Escherichi coli suspended in liquid egg using pulsed electric fields. J. of Food Processing and Preservation, 21(3), 193. 24. Pothakamury, U. R. (1996). Effect of growth stage and processing temperature on the inactivation of E. coli by pulsed electric fields. J. of Food Protection, 59(11), 1167. 25. Qin, B. (1994). Inactivation of microorganisms by pulsed electric fields of different voltage waveforms. IEEE Transactions of Dielectric & Electrical Insulation, 1(6), 1047. 26. Vega-Mercado, H. (1996). Inactivation of Escherichia coli by combining pH, ionic strength and pulsed electric fields. Food Res. Intl., 29(2), 117. 27. Vega-Mercado, H. (1997). Non-thermal food preservation: Pulsed electric fields. Trends in Food Science & Tech., 8(5), 151. 28. Wekhof, A. (1991). Environmental Progress, V. 10, n. 4, pp. 241 - 247, U.S.A.,TREATMENT OF CONTAMINATED WATER, AIR AND SOIL WITH UV FLASHLAMPS. 29. Wekhof, A. (1992). Hazardous Materials Control, V. 5, N. 6. pp. 48 -54, U.S.A., with E.N. Folsom and Yu. Halpen: TREATMENT OF
GROUNDWATER WITH UV-FLASHLAMPS - THE THIRD GENERATION OF UV SYSTEMS. 30. Wekhof, A. (1992). Rev. Sci. Instruments, V.. 63, n. 12, pp.5565 -5569 : A LINEAR ULTRAVIOLET FLASHLAMP WITH SELF-REPLENISHING
CATHODE. 31. Wekhof, A. (1992) Patent N. 5,144,146: METHOD FOR DESTRUCTION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES WITH ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION. 32. Wekhof, A. (1992) Patent N. 5,124,131: COMPACT HIGH-THROUGHPUT ULTRAVIOLET PROCESSING CHAMBER. 33. Wekhof, A. (1992). Patent N. 5,170,091: LINER ULTRAVIOLET
FLASHLAMP WITH SELF-REPLENISHING CATHODE.

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34. Wekhof, A. (2000). Pharma+Food, January, Httig Verlag Heidelberg Germany. 35. Zhang, Q. (1994). Inactivation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in apple juice by square-wave and exponential decay pulsed electric fields. J. of Food Process Eng., 17(4), 469.
5.6 ULTRASONIC ATOMIZATION
Ultrasonics are capable of atomizing water droplets, and in theory could atomize bacteria, which contain, or are contained in water. Viruses, which are either contained within droplets of water or have organic components such as DNA, RNA or proteins, should also be atomizable. There are two methods by which this may be accomplished, supersonic nozzles and sonic generators. If the airstream is forced through a supersonic nozzle, a standing shock wave develops at the nozzle outlet. This shock wave dissipates energy by imparting it to 60
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp the airstream, causing it to expand suddenly and rapidly. This results in the atomization, or reduction to gas, of all bioaerosols in the airstream. The fan power or pumping power required to accomplish this however, would be considerable. The use of a sonic generator to create the standing shock wave has the advantage of being much more efficient, as they are purely electronic. The sonic generator, essentially a high-power speaker and amplifier, tuned to resonate within the ductwork cavity, would create a standing shock wave through which the airstream would pass, and in which atomization of any bioaerosols would occur. Both this and the supersonic nozzle system would require a sound insulated ductwork section with inlet and outlet silencers.
5.7 MICROWAVE ATOMIZATION
This schematic diagram represents a simplified version of a microwave sterilization system in which the airstream is sandwiched between the dielectric surfaces. Alternatively, the airstream could be routed through a large microwave cavity. The energy efficiency of the microwave system outlined above would likely be unsurpassed, as essentially only the energy imparted to polar molecules in the airstream would be converted. Microwaves consist of mutually
perpendicular electrical waves and magnetic waves, as depicted in the diagram at the right. Each of these components has an effect on the water molecules and other organic molecules which make up the bacterial cell or viral structure. The water molecules will rotate at or near the microwave frequency, and this energy translates into linear motion. Linear motion of gas or liquid defines heat, and this thermal activity ultimately disrupts the cell and viral structures.
61
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Deparatament of Architectural Enginnering http://www.engr.psu.edu/iec/abe/topics.asp Microwaves have been demonstrated to have biocidal effects due to the heating they induce, and are used to sterilize equipment. Normally this requires extended exposure times, but with a boost in power the exposure times could theoretically be reduced. In addition, there exists a phenomenon called the microwave effect which appears to destroy viruses for reasons other than heating.The system depicted above would be optimized to take advantage of the Microwave Effect. For more extensive information on microwaves and the microwave effect see the section titled DNA and the Microwave Effect. Of related interest is microwave induced resonance.The first three harmonic modes of DNA have been shown to be excitable in the range of 2.5 - 20 Ghz by Davis et al. A sufficient power level could disrupt the molecule altogether. Vibrational and rotational resonance has been demonstrated at much lower frequencies by various researchers for both RNA & DNA. The specific frequencies and power levels necessary to dissociate virus nucleic acids remain to be determined
62
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PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY

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PART 1 - AIRBONE PATHOGENS

2 LIST OF AIRBONE PATHOGENS

PART 2 - AIRBONE PATHOGEN CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES

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5.5 PULSED LIGHT 5.6 ULTRASONIC ATOMIZATION 5.7 MICROWAVE ATOMIZATION

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PART 1 - AIRBONE PATHOGENS

1 AIRBONE PATHOGENS DATABASE

Viruses Bacteria Fungi VIRUSES Orthomyxoviridae Influenza

List of Airborne Pathogens

Respiratory Synctial Virus

BACTERIA Neisseria meningitidis Klebsiella pneumoniae Pseudomonas mallei Pseudomonas aeruginosa

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FUNGI Aspergillus spp. Absidia corymbifera Rhizopus stolonifer

2 LIST OF AIRBONE PATHOGENS

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PART 2 - AIRBONE PATHOGEN CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES

3 - AIRBONE PATHOGEN CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES LIST

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4 DESCRIPTION OF CURRENT AIRBONE PATHOGEN CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES

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4.2 AIR FILTRATION FILTRATION OF MICROORGANISMS

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4.3 ULTRAVIOLET IRRADATION ULTRAVIOLET GERMICIDAL IRRADATION

The use of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) sterilization for the of

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4.5 - ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION

Electrostatic precipitators commonly used are to

plants and cement kilns. A typical two-stage

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4.6 NEGATIVE AIR IONIZATION

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5.2 AIR OZONIZATION OZONIZATION AND RECLAMATION

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5.3 CARBON ADSORTION

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5.4 PASSIVE SOLAR EXPOSURE

Department. The principle is that ultraviolet, and other, radiation

plenum prior to mixing with the

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Thermodynamics, Department of Energy.

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5.5 PULSED LIGHT

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FLASHLAMP WITH SELF-REPLENISHING CATHODE.

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5.6 ULTRASONIC ATOMIZATION

5.7 MICROWAVE ATOMIZATION

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