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TunelntoEngineeringTV.com
MOTION AMPLIFIERS: BIG
MOVES, SMALL PACKAGES,
page 46
PRECISION MOVEMENT WITH
LINEAR DAMPING, page 58
SELF-LUBING POLYMERS
GIVE THROUGHPUT A BOOST,
page 68
SPECIAL ISSUE
Motion control
seweurodrive.com / 864-439-7537
Is your inefcient drive system ushing money and
energy down the drain? The answer is most likely
YES! The Movigear
36
74
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Servo parameters clarified
Servodrlvesonlyperformwellwhen
parametersarecorrectlyenteredlntothe
controls.Here,weclarlfythelnconslstent
termsandunltsformotorsanddrlves.
Small but mighty
Thecostandslzeofmotlonampllflershave
droppedtoapolntwherefeaturesonce
conslderedhlghendnowcanbeapplledto
baslcposltlonlng.
New ways to damp vibration
Llnear-axlsdamplnglmprovesthe
performanceofmachlnetoolsandother
preclslonequlpment.
Self-lubricating polymers
bolster can production
Aredeslgnellmlnateslubrlcatlonproblems
andlncreasesthespeedanddurabllltyof
can-maklngmachlnes.
Bearings designed to multitask
Bearlngmanufacturersareaddlngnew
featuresandcapabllltlestothelrproducts,
maklngthemmoreusefulandaffordable.
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 2
6XUH*HDU
3UHFLVLRQ
6HUYR*HDUER[HV
TheSureGearPGAseriesofhigh-precision
planetaryservogearreducersisanexcellent
choiceforapplicationsthatrequireaccuracy
andreliabilityatanexceptionalvalue.
Thisin-lineplanetaryservogearboxhasa
thread-inmountingstyle,alongwith
precisionandtorquecapacity
thatisbestinclass.
- industty-standatd mounting dimensions
- 1btead-in mounting styIe
- sest-in-cIass backIasb (s atc-min)
- tout geat tatios avaiIabIe (s, 1o, 1s, zs:1)
- Mounting batdwate incIuded fot attacbing to sutesetvo motots
- HeIicaI-cut Ianetaty geats fot quiet oetation and teduced vibtation
- uncaged needIe toIIet beatings fot bigb tigidity and totque
- Adatet busbing connection fot simIe and eective attacbment to sutesetvo motots
- Higb-viscosity, anti-seatation gtease does not migtate away ftom tbe geats, no Ieakage tbtougb tbe seaI
- Maintenance ftee: no need to teIace tbe gtease fot tbe Iife of tbe unit
- At nominaI seed, setvice Iife is zo,ooo bouts
- can be ositioned in any otientation
- s-yeat wattanty
- statting at: szs8.oo (cmm lt+me lc4cc c4!
3UHFLVLRQ*HDUER[HV
for Servomotors
Porcompletedetailsandpricing,
visit:www.automationdirect.com/motion-control
8VH6XUH*HDUZLWKRXUSUDFWLFDO
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TheSureServofamily
ofbrushlessservo
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AutomationDirect
isfullydigitaland
oersarichsetof
featuresat
dynamiteprices.
8eginnersto
experiencedusers
cantakeadvantage
ofthiseasy-to-use
familyforaslittle
as$97l.00``
(100W system)
start under $1,000**
- igbt standatd systems ftom 1oo w to z kw
- use witb DitecttO0ic rtcs ot any otbet bost conttoI
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Goonlineorcalltogetcompleteinformation,
requestyourfreecatalog,orplaceanorder.
Mateseasilyto
SureServomotors
** All components sold separately.
Servo System
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100W Servo Motor
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$488.00
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Allen-Bradley
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Allpricesare U.S. listprices. AutomationDirectpricesare fromApril20l3 Price List. The Allen-8radley
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com/en/e-tools2/28/l3.
10 Motor
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$49.50
SvCEFLO1O
$85.70
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Configuration Software
FREE
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2OO8bwCFR
*SureServo Pro software is FREE when downloaded and is also available for $9 on a CD
Complete 1-axis 100W System
$986.00 $2,176.20
&+(&.28728535,&(6216(5926<67(06
RS# 103
DEPARTMENTS
May23, 20l3
APentonMediaPublication
Tune intoEngineeringTV.com
SPECIAL ISSUE
Motion control
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CanGST#Pl2643l964.CanadlanPostPubllcatlonsMall
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LETTERS
SCANNING FOR IDEAS
Customlzablecyllndersaresmallbutpowerful
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l0
l2
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28
35
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98
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Allied Electronics, Inc 2013. Allied Electronics and the Allied Electronics logo are trademarks of Allied Electronics, Inc. An Electrocomponents Company.
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Free Webcasts:
STEPPER MOTORS 101: FIVE COMMON
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Thursday, May 23, 2:00 p. m. ET
Areyouhavlngdlfflcultywlthyourstepper-motorappllcatlonIDoesresonance
keepyouupatnlghtIAddresslngstepper-motorappllcatlonproblemsmlght
seemdauntlng,butltlsnotthatdlfflcultlfyoucanantlclpatehowcommon
problemsorlglnateandarefamlllarwlththeprocessestoellmlnatethem.
DurlngthlsWeblnar,presentedbyLin Engineering,welldlscussflvecommon
problemsthatstepper-motorusersoftenexperlence:lnsufflclenttorque,
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learning-resources/webinars.
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Revolutionary Liquidmetal
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Performance that Engineers have Learned to Trust.
RS# 108
EDITORIAL STAFF
l300L.9thSt.Cleveland,OH44ll4-l503
EDITOR
Leland E. Teschler
leland.teschler@penton.com
MANAGING EDITOR
Kenneth J. Korane
ken.korane@penton.com
SENIOR EDITORS
Elisabeth Eitel
elisabeth.eitel@penton.com
Stephen J. Mraz
stephen.mraz@penton.com
ASSOCIATE EDITOR
Lindsey Frick
lindsey.frick@penton.com
INDUSTRY COVERAGE:
AUTOMOTIVE, PACKAGING,
MEDICAL
Stephen J. Mraz
CAD/CAM, MANUFACTURING
Elisabeth Eitel
Lindsey Frick
FASTENING & JOINING,
MATERIALS
Lindsey Frick
FLUID POWER
Kenneth J. Korane
MECHANICAL
Elisabeth Eitel
Lindsey Frick
Kenneth J. Korane
EDITORIAL PRODUCTION
Denise Greco
Editorial Production Manager
Randall L. Rubenking
Art Director
PS#l09
PS#ll0
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 10
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RS# 111
LETTERS
ateatareasonablerate,youarego-
lngtobepourlngalotofexcess
fuel down the lntake manlfold.
Computer-controlledfuelln[ectlon
certalnlyhelpslnsuchsltuatlons,
butltsnotamaglccure-all.
Llkethestlckersays,ourmlle-
agemayvary.Toobadtheydont
glveanylndlcatlonastowhy.
Brooks Lyman
The government and the corn
lobbydontwantyoutoknow,but
fuelmlleagelsalwaysmeasured
wlthpurepetroleumgasollne.On
theroad,consumersaretyplcally
uslngl0%,orevenl5%ethanol.
Thatalonecanaccountfora5to
l0% shortfall between LPA and
real-worldmlleage.
|maglnelftheLPAtested[ust
onecarongasollne,Ll0,andLl5,
andpubllshedtheresults.Thecorn
lobbywouldhavethecommlsslon-
ersheadonaplateln24hours.
Name withheld by request
Fuel from seawater
Arecentletterwrlter(1lmDegglt,
Peb.l4)lsdeadwronglnstatlng
thatCO
2
andH
2
cannotbecatalytl-
callycomblnedtomakefuel.CO
2
reactsexothermlcallywlthwaterln
thewell-knownreversewater-gas
shlftreactlontoproduceCOand
H
2
O.
COandH
2
reactexothermlcally
lnthePlscher-Tropschreactlonto
make[etfuel.Ontheotherhand,
Deggltlscorrectthatltwllltake
moreenergytobreakdownwater
tomakehydrogenthancanbeob-
talnedfromthe[etfuel.
Our current flghters need [et
fuelandltlsdlfflculttoconcelveof
aflghterdeslgnthatcouldemploy
Whos messing with
my mileage?
Ken Koranes commentar y on
mpgratlngs(WhostoBlamefor
BogusmpgIMarch6)blowsthe
whlstleontheLPAsmlleagetest-
lng.|shouldthlnkabetterwayto
gaugefueleconomywouldbeto
haveseveraldlfferentpeopledrlve
eachvehlcleoveraperlodoftlme.
Perhapstherecouldbesomesort
ofblackboxwhlchwouldrecord
the varlous condltlons tem-
perature, acceleratlon rate, ter-
ralngradlent,averagespeed,fuel
consumptlon, tlre pressure, etc.
andacomputerprogramback
lnthelabwhlchcouldbollthese
datadowntoanaveragempgfor
asmallsetofdlfferentandcom-
monlyencounteredcondltlons.
| once had a l984VW Pabblt
dlesel.|couldgetover40mpgwlth
thatcarbynottrylngtobetheflrst
awayfromtrafflcllghts,notaccel-
eratlngupsteephllls,andother
common-sensedrlvlngtechnlques
lncludlngkeeplngtlrelnflatlona
blthard(35to40psl).Andlf|had
reallyworkedatlt(coasteddown
hllls,forexample),|couldsome-
tlmes get 55 mpg. When | met
otherownersofthesamemodel,
|daskwhatklndofmlleagethey
weregettlng.Mostwouldclalm
about40mpg,butsomeowners
were only gettlng 30 mpg and
were stlll ecstatlc remember,
thlswasthemld-l980s.
|ttookallttlebltofgumptlonto
askthemwhatthetheyweredolng
wrong,butlf|watchedthemdrlve
away,|gottheanswer.Thedlesel
hadalotoflowendtorque(char-
acterlstlcoftheenglnedeslgn)and
thesehot-shotswouldfloorltas
theytookofffromastandlngstart.
Llttlewonderthelrmlleagewasso
poor.
Anotherrelatedthlng|learned
longagowhen|wasdrlvlnganun-
derpoweredTriumphHeraldwas
thatasmallenglnelsnoguarantee
ofgoodmlleageforreasonablyor-
dlnarydrlvlng.|fyouhavetoput
thepedaltothemetaltoacceler-
hydrogen as fuel.The potentlal
savlngsfromtheseawater-to-fuel
ldeacomefromtheloglstlcalcost.|
haveheardestlmatesapproachlng
$l00pergallontosupplyavlatlon
fueltocarrlersatsea.
Lloyd C. Brown
Paying the toll
The l ssue wl th l nfrastructure
spendlnglsmuchllkethatofedu-
catlon(ThePoadWellTraveled,
March20).Trlckle-downreductlons
lnspendlngatfederalandstate
levelsnecessarllymeanreduced
fundlngformunlclpalltlesandlo-
calltleswhlchbeartheburdenof
fundlnglnfrastructurerepalr.The
realproblemlsthatlnfrastructure
repalrfundlng,muchllkeschool
fundlng,lsseenbytaxpayersasa
necessaryandwelcomedexpense
andthlsmakesdollarsearmarked
forlnfrastructurelmprovements
easypreyforlobblesandspeclal
lnterestgroupsthatwantcashfor
otherpro[ectsanddlscretlonary
spendlng.TheresultILocallnltla-
tlvesralsetaxdollarsthatgetsl-
phoned and rerouted by local
comptrollers,knowlngthepubllc
wlllalwaysapprovefutureaddl-
tlonaltax-ralslngmeasures.Theso-
lutlonIPldeasportblkeorplckup
truckand[ustsaynotoaddltlonal
spendlng.
Ed Ponce
|tamazesmethattheU.S.lsadd-
lng more than a trllllon dollars
toltsdebteachyear,andyetwe
canonlyspend$90bllllononour
hlghwaysandbrldges.|ftherels
anythlngourtaxdollarsshouldbe
usedfor,ltlslnfrastructure!
Dan Bernier
Playing with those
mileage figures
Peadersknowthatmostthlngscanbe
measuredfalrlyaccurately,whlch[ustconfuses
themwhenthelrbrandnewcarsdontgettheLPAmlleageon
thestlcker.|slttheethanol,asonereadersuggestsI
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MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 12
ContiTech products meet current and future needs in mobility, energy generation
and energy efciency, as well as health, nutrition and environmental protection.
Whatever we do, we do with one goal in mind: to provide economical solutions
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Rubber-stamped. Naturally.
In almost every branch of industry.
www.contitech.us
Conti Tech.Engi neeri ngGreenVa| ue
RS# 112
The new 955 eBrik linear displacement transducer.
Price and performance
so well balanced,
it just might displace
potentiometers.
Atlast,theresapurelyelectronicsolutiontopositionsensors.
Ournew955eBrikusesmagnetostrictivetechnologyso
theresnocontact,nomovingparts,nothingtowearout.No
erraticpositionsignals.Availablein1"to72"strokelengths,
itseconomicalandversatileenoughformanyapplications,
field-programmable,andtheperfectreplacementforold-style
potentiometers.Learnmoreatourwebsite.
ametekapt.com
LETTERS
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Pleaselncludeyourname,address,and
daytlmephonenumber.Lettersmay
beedltedforbrevltyandtofocuson
essentlalpolnts.
Mail: Letters, MACHINE DESIGN,
1300 E. 9th St., Cleveland, OH 44114-
1503, Fax: 216-621-8469
E-mail, Editorial:
mdeditor@penton.com
as|bellevethatwouldbenaive
andlnaccurate.Oh,dld|mentlon
werebulldlngFreightlinerTrucks,
Boeing 767s, and BMWs ln the
CarollnasnowI|mentlonthlsasa
seguetosaythat|grewuplnsnow
countryandchoosetollvehereln
asmalltownclosetomountalns,
lakes,andtheocean.Andnotev-
eryonelovesLAorblgcltles.
Werealreadyalanddlvldedby
a common language and many
cultures.Weshouldtryfocuslngon
theposltlvestuffweenglneers.
Kevin Hayes
by factors of 1.6 and 2.5, respectively.
If population predetermines trade
figures, the Japanese miracle in the
1960s and 1970s would have never
happened. In 1960, the population
of Japan was 93.4 million. (The U. S.
population was 179 million.) The
population of Japan grew at an av-
erage annual rate of 1.1% through
1970 while its merchandise exports
grew at an average annual rate of
16.9%. Leland Teschler
Lets just get along
|vemetandworkedwlthanum-
berofenglneersfromhlgh-tech
Callfornlacompanles(mentloned
byanearllerletterwrlterlnLvery-
onelovesLA),andwhllebrllllant
ln thelr respectlve flelds, some
couldntchangeablcycletlrewlth-
outhelpfromatechnlclan.
| wont make the mlstake of
generallzlngmycommentstoall
Callfornlaorhlgh-techenglneers
Math problems
|[ustreadyouredltorlal(Thank
God|AmNotaPreeTrader,1an.
l6),andltmademefrlghtenedby
yourlackofmathematlcalprow-
ess.ComparlngtheU.S.andBrltlsh
percentagesoftotalworldmanu-
facturlnglnl870andl9l3wlthout
anyconslderatlonoftherespectlve
countrypopulatlons,(letalonea
hostofotherpolltlcal/economlc
factors), ls utterly meanlngless.
Blamlng the change entlrely on
freetradelsludlcrous.
There l s a more-recent ex-
ampleofafreetradeagreement
youcouldhaveused,NAPTA,but
|doubtltprovldesevldencesup-
portlngyourconcluslon.
|expectmoreofafellowenglneer.
Matt Person
Population has little to do with trade
figures. Between 1870 and 1913 both
the U. K. and U. S. populations grew
PS#ll3
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 14
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2012
RS# 114
SCANNING FOR IDEAS
LdltedbyStephen J. Mraz
NPPAtle-rodhydraullccyllndersare
powerfuldevlces,buttheyregenerally
prettyhefty.Thesmalleststandardslze
usuallyhasal.5-ln.bore,accordlngto
offlclalsatNason,Walhalla,S. C.(www.
nasonptc.com).ThecompanysLl5
hydraullccyllnders,ontheother
hand,areratedforl,500psl
ofpressurebutcome
lnboresdownto
20mm,glvlng
englneersavlable
optlonwhen[obs
needlotsofforce
lntlghtspaces.
Theyremade
ofthlck-walled,
anodlzed-aluml-
numhouslngsand
endcaps,andare
assembledwlth
hardenedfasten-
ers.Chrome-plated
l045/l050-steel
plstonrodsand
steelplstonswlth
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whlchcantbedonewlthsteelhydrau-
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Self-lubrlcatlngbronzebearlngs
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lubrlcatedwlthPTPLlmpregnatedgrease
helpensurelowbreakawayandrunnlng
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TheLl5cyllnderscomelnslngleanddou-
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etersrangefrom20to50mm(0.79tol.97ln.)
andstrokesfroml5to75mm(0.59to2.95ln.),
wlthlnchormetrlcmountlngsandportsavall-
able.|nfact,becauseallma[orcomponentsare
machlned,deslgnsareeasllycustomlzedtouser
specs.AndallLl5Serlescyllnderscanberebulltln
thefleld.
RS# 401
Customizable cylinders
aresmallbutpowerful
Pabrlc-
relnforced
phenolresln
wearstrlp
Bolt-on
anodlzed
alumlnum
heads
Anodlzed-
alumlnum
houslngwlth
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Hard-
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Request free information via our
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MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 16
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NB CORPORATION OF AMERICA
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Toll free: (866) 289-2899
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E-mail: info_us@contrinex.com
www.contrinex.com
MiniDist
1,000
Ke (V / rad / sec)
9.55
where V = Vdc bus for most drive systems = Maximum
(crest) voltage available Not in RMS terms.
Ke
= Voltage (emf ) constant, expressed in either
V/rad/sec, V/Krpm, or other equivalent typically as-
sociated with six-step commutation (not sine-wave
commutation).
For a wye-wound armature, if a motor data sheet de-
fines the voltage (emf ) constant as the phase (line-to-
neutral) voltage developed per some velocity unit, it must
be multiplied by 3 for a final result in the line-to-line Ke
units defined above.
The B
emf
voltage constant
The voltage (Bemf) constant K
b
(also listed as K
Bemf
,
K
B
, and K
e
) is the line-to-line RMS voltage developed per
some velocity unit.
Kb (Vrms/Krpm) = Ke (V/Krpm)/2, or
Kb (Vrms/rad/sec) = Ke (V/rad/sec)/2
where Kb (Vrms/Krpm) = Ke (V/rad/sec) 1,000/9.55/2.
The voltage (Bemf) constant Kb expressed in
Vrms/rad/sec, Vrms/Krpm, or other equivalent is typically
associated with sine-wave communication (not six-step
commutation.)
If a motor data sheet defines the Voltage (Bemf) con-
conversion table in this article maps
such instances and the varied param-
eters relationships.
Motor-name variations
Servomotors can be classified as
brushless-dc motors (BDCMs or
BLDCMs), servos, brushless-dc/ac
synchronous servomotors, ac per-
manent-magnet (PM) servos, and
more. Servo manufacturers estab-
lished most of these terms in the
1980s for marketing purposes and
to underscore that ac permanent-
magnet (PM) motors (which are
electronically commutated to cre-
ate PMAC servos) can replace the
servo function of permanent-mag-
net dc-brush motors.
Over the years, some industry
sources invented explanations for the technologies
varied naming conventions. Many such explanations
relate to B
emf
characteristics clean sine-wave si-
nusoidal commutation or six-step or block commu-
tation, also known as trapezoidal commutation, in
which each electrical cycle (one electrical cycle or PM
pole pair) is six commutation steps. However, the bot-
tom line is that more than anything else, the conven-
tions aimed to overcome false perceptions of techno-
logical barriers.
Regardless of their varied naming conventions, all of
these motors are basically three-phase () ac-PM syn-
chronous machines.
Let us establish the typical units presented by motor
manufacturers, so that engineers can convert these units
for a proper comparison of one servomotor to another
when applicable. This also lets us convert motor param-
eters to the units required by the chosen drive.
For the purpose of this article, consider a three-phase
wye (Y)-connected motor capable of good three-phase
sinusoidal-emf waveforms when backdriven as a gen-
erator, with electrically balanced windings, versus a delta
()-wound armature. We use this example because most
three-phase ac-PM servomotors today utilize wye-con-
nected armatures, especially for sinusoidal commutation.
(Consideration of torque angle advance algorithms and
harmonic issues are beyond this articles intent and scope.)
Following is the commonly used nomenclature for such a
motor.
The emf-voltage constant
The voltage (emf) constant is usually abbreviated Ke,
but sometimes appears as K
emf
, K
E
, or K
b
. It is the maxi-
mum line-to-line voltage developed per some veloc-
ity unit, such that when the velocity unit is rad/sec and
Kt is in Nm/A, then Ke (V/rad/sec) = Kt (Nm/A). This
is also true for PMDC brush servomotors, for which
Rm = 2 R
or
L (line to line)
W
U
V
Clockwise rotation
U, V, W phases
Motor phase ()
One of three coils)
Wye-connected servomotor
|
|(line)
I_line
V (line to line)
V (line to line)
V_line (line to line)
V =
V (line to neutral) =
V_line/3
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 38
RS# 131
MOTION CONTROL
Kt (Nm/A) = Kt (T/a-rms)/1.5
and Kt (T/a-rms) = Kt (Nm/A) 1.5.
Therefore, continuous current Ic (rms) required by a
given motor to reach full capacity has a lower value than if
presented as an Ic (crest or dc-style) current just as one
would expect.
We will not cover the formal derivation of 1.5 for con-
verting between six-step and sine-wave commutation Kt
and current. However, its verified by the equivalency of
six-step and sine-wave power-loss calculations. (See the
Motor parameters conversion table.)
The most common miscalculation between the two
commutation methods is to mistakenly use the 2 RMS
instead of the 1.5 conversion between the two different
Kt units, or required currents. The 2 root-mean-square
conversion is not the same unit conversion as seen be-
stant as the (line-to-neutral) RMS voltage developed per
some velocity unit, it must be multiplied by 3 for a final
result in the line-to-line Kb units defined above.
The torque constant
The torque constant Kt (sometimes denoted K
T
) is
the ratio of some torque T unit over either the maximum
(crest) motor-phase current (line to neutral), or the RMS
phase current (line to neutral).
Note that the two different specifications for the term
Kt arise because of the differences between six-step and
sine-wave commutation. These differences prevent many
engineers from deducing the relationship between the two
Kt current units.
Furthermore, its generally assumed that the torque
constant is torque developed per some unit of current
through one phase of the wye-wound armature. There-
fore, manufacturers dont always publish its exact defini-
tion in literature or motor-specification sheets.
In a wye-wound armature, line-to-line current is equal
to line-to-neutral current.
1. The torque constant Kt (sometimes K
T
) associated with
six-step commutation is the ratio of some torque T to
the maximum (crest) phase () current (line to neu-
tral), where Kt is in the units T/A. For this definition
and a three-phase servomotor, current flows through
only two of the three motor coils (2-ON, 1-OFF) at a
time.
2. Torque constant Kt (sometimes K
T
) associated with
sine-wave commutation is ratio of some torque T to the
RMS phase () current (line to neutral), where Kt is in
the units T/a-rms. For this definition and a three-phase
servomotor, current may flow through all three coils at
the same time.
When manufacturers publish the torque constant for
sine-wave commutation in the units Nm/amp (crest of
sine-wave) then:
T/a-rms = 2 Nm/amp (crest of sine wave).
Conversion between the two commutation methods
for the torque constant is:
Nomenclature caveat
Adrlvesnomenclaturemaybeappearldentl-
caltothoselnthlsartlcle,butthatdoesntmean
lts requlred unlts are ln harmony wlth those
presented by a glven manufacturer. Llkewlse, a
drlvesrequlredunltsmaybeappearldentlcalto
thoselnthlsartlcle,butthatdoesntmeanthelr
denltlons are the same. Por example, ln the
power lndustry some unlts are standardlzed ln
PMS values but lack the rms subscrlpt notatlon.
The lack of speclclty for a requlred unlt ln thls
dlsclpllne of motlon control can easlly convey
thewrongmeanlngorlnterpretatlonoftheunlt.
Standard abbreviations
emfLlectromotlveforce
Bemf Back (opposlng or counter) electromotlve force
relatlng to motor operatlon the lnduced voltage
ln opposltlon to (and resultlng from) the current re-
qulred by the motor to drlve the load at any glven
polntlntlme
radradlans
secsecond(s)
orthetaAnglebetweenthecurrentandvoltage
or phl Phase llne-to-natural current through or
voltage across one branch of a wye-wound coll, and
notllne-to-llnevoltage
Wye-woundarmature
Delta-woundarmature
Crest Maxlmum voltage or current avallable. Here, the
term peak ls best avolded to mlnlmlze confuslon of
slne-wave-to-PMS-unlt converslon wlth the conver-
slonofslx-steptoslne-wavemotor-drlveunlts,orvlce
versa.
PMSorrmsPoot-meansquare
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 40
Find out by contacting your LINAK
electric motion-control expert.
linak-us.com/contact | (502) 413.0320
theres a better alternative
to the motion-control solution we use today?
RS# 132
MOTION CONTROL
RMS value of motors continuous capability per
(line-neutral).
Peak motor-current-limit units: a-rms Ip (motor)
is the RMS value describing the motor limit per
(line-neutral)
Kt constant units: Nm/a-rms Torque_unit/a-rms for
a sine-wave controller, with line-to-neutral ()
RMS current
Kb constant units: Vrms/Krpm RMS voltage line
tween the motors Kt units or the required current to pro-
duce a specific torque, from a six-step unit system to a
sinusoidal commutated unit system, or vice versa.
Drive selection
Let us assume that were selecting a drive in the form of
a sinusoidal-commutation controller requiring motor pa-
rameters in the following units:
Continuous motor current units: a-rms Ic (motor),
Motor parameters conversion table
COLUMNA COLUMNB COLUMNC COLUMND COLUMNL COLUMNP COLUMNG
Motor:X
(Wye-woundarmature)
Unlts:X
Commutatlon
slx-step:
ColumnBto
ColumnD
converslons:
Unlts:X
Commutatlon
slx-step:
ColumnD
toColumnP
converslons:
Unlts:X
Commutatlon
slnewave:
Drlveunlts
requlredforslne
commutatlon
wlthwye-wound
armature:
Tc l2.7_Nm l2.7_Nm l2.7_Nm Tc(Nm)
Tp 4l.2_Nm 4l.2_Nm 4l.2_Nm Tp(Nm)
|c(current/
l
) l3_A/
l
l3_A
l
-l.5 l0.6l_a-rms
l
|c(a-rms)/
phase()
l&7
|p(current/
l
) 53.3_A/
l
53.3_A
l
-l.5 43.52_a-rms
|p(a-rms)/
phase()l
&7
Kt l.00Nm/A l.00Nm/A l.5
l.224745
Nm/a-rms
Kt(Nm/a-rms)
KeorKb 0.57735v()/rad/sec 3
l.00v(L-L)/
rad/sec
l,000-9.55
-2
74.05
vrms(L-L)/
Krpm
Kb(vrms/Krpm)
OP
0.57735
v()/rad/sec
3l,000
-9.55
l04.72v(L-L)/
Krpm
-2
74.05
vrms(L-L)/
Krpm
Kb(vrms/Krpm)
Pm(ohms)
3
(llne-to-llne)at
25C
0.540_/
3
2
l.08_(llneto
llne)
l.08_(llneto
llne)
Pm(:llnetollne)
at25C
Lm
2
(mH) 4.25_mH/
2
2 8.5_mH(L-L)/ 8.5_mH(L-L)/
LorLm
(mH:llnetollne)
1m(lnertla) 0.00l52kg-m
2
l00
2
l5.2kg-cm
2
l5.2kg-cm
2
1m(kg-cm
2
)
Motorpoles l0_Poles l0_Poles -2 5_Pole-palr Pole-palr(PP)
Thermalreslstance 0.467C/W 0.467C/W 0.467C/W
Wlndlngtemperature
(maxlmum)
l55C l55C l55C
Watts(loss)at25Camblent }(l55-25)-0.467}w 278
}(l5525)
-0.467}w
278
}(l30C_rlse)-
0.467}w
Basedondata-
sheetlnformatlon.
Lquallty:Watts(loss)by
powercalculatlons
Power(slx-step)
5&6
v|cos
5
2|_
2
Pm_(hot)
4
|_llne
2
Pm_L_L(hot)
4
2l32(0.54l.525) 278
l3
2
(l.08
l.525)
278 Notappllcable
Checksoutbased
onglvenor
converteddata.
Power(slnewave)
5&6
3v_
2
|_cos
5
3|_
2
Pm_(hot)
4
3|_
2
Pm_L_L(hot)
4
-2
Notappllcable
Not
appllcable
Notappllcable 278
3l0.6l
2
(l.08
l.525)-2
Checksoutbased
onglvenor
converteddata.
Provided by Kollmorgen 1.1.2013
This table converts common wye-wound motor
parameters into units that can be entered into drives for
sinusoidal operation.
1. Locate the required drive units in Column G.
2. For any motor parameter presented in the units of
Column B, use the conversion factors of Column C to
get the units of Column D. Then use conversion factors
of Column E to get the units of Column F, to match the
specific units for the drive in Column G.
3. For any motor parameter presented in the units of
Column D, use the conversion factors of Column E to
get the units of Column F and match the specific units
for the drive in Column G.
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 42
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RS# 133
ATLAS Digital Ampli
amazing amount of output power in an ultra compact
design. These single-axis ampliers provide high-
performance torque control of DC brush, brushless DC,
and step motors. And, while theyre as small as a paper
clip, they offer up to 1 Kilowatt of total output power
all without breaking the bank. Learn more about the big
advantages of thinking small in digital amplication.
PERFORMANCE MOTION DEVICES, INC. | 80 CENTRAL ST. | BOXBOROUGH, MA 01719 P: 978.266.1210 | WWW.PMDCORP.COM
Small is the big
news in motion
ampliers.
Product shown is actual size.
TOTAL POWER OUTPUT TO
1 KILOWATT
DIGITAL HIGH PERFORMANCE
TORQUE CONTROL
ULTRA COMPACT DESIGN
LOW COST
PROGRAMMABLE CONTROL
MOTION CONTROL
to line per
1,000_rpm
Rm (typically
20 or 25C room
temperature)
units: Ohms ()
line to line Two
phases in series, Rm_
= Rm (L-L)/2]
L or Lm inductance (line to
line), inductance units: milli-Henry or
mH L_ = Lm(L-L)/2
Motor rotor inertia Jm units: Kg-cm
2
Notes on common variations
Following are subscript notes for the Motor parameters
conversion table.
1. Most often the phase () current and () voltage (line
to line) is defined somewhere in the manufacturers data.
However, it commonly assumed to be understood.
2. For a wye-wound winding, if a data sheet states Lm =
L (line to neutral), multiply L by 2 for the total motor
inductance Lm (in mH, line to line).
3. For a wye-wound winding, if a data sheet states Rm =
R (line to neutral), mul-
tiply R by 2 for the to-
tal resistance Rm (line to
line). For a delta-wound
motor, resistance () is
Rm/ = Rm (line to line).
4. As temperature climbs
from 25 ambient to a maximum
of 155C, resistance of the copper
increases by a factor of approximately
1.525.
5. For a given motor and the scope of this article, when
power for six-step commutation is set equal to the power
for sine-wave commutation:
2 V_ I_ cos = 3 V_ I_ cos
The cos factors out of the equation.
6. Conventional three-phase trapezoidal commutation
drives control only two motor windings at a time. Sinusoi-
dal commutation drives can concurrently control all three
windings.
7. For sine-wave commutation (Column F in the Motor
parameters conversion table) if a drive demands that Ic
(continuous) and Ip (Ipeak) be entered in the units:
Ic (crest of the sine wave)/phase ()
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Ip (crest of the sine wave)/phase ()
Then the corresponding value in Column F must be multiplied by 2.
If the specific parameters are to be entered in the units:
Ic (crest to crest of the sine wave)/phase ()
Ip (crest to crest of the sine wave)/phase ()
Then the corresponding value in Column F must be multiplied by 2 2.
Note that crest is used here to minimize confusion of the myriad
terms for peak motor and drive capabilities with expressions relating to
sine-wave peak (crest) or peak-to-peak (crest-to-crest) values.
The Motor parameters conversion table can be also be used as a
quick-check nomenclature reference. For example, to verify that Kt and
Kb (or Ke) are in RMS units, divide what is thought to be Kb (Vrms/
Krpm) by Kt (Nm/a-rms). If the corresponding units are correct, the re-
sulting quotient will equal some quantity between 60 and 65, or (in a few
exceptions for rounding off) just over or under that range. The method
typically works regardless of the assumed motor temperature (operating
or ambient) or PM servo type. MD
Resources:
Kollmorgen, www.kollmorgen.com, support@kollmorgen.com
HurleyGllllsa78graduateofvlrglnlaTech.Hesworkedlnthemotlon-control
lndustryslncel980.
Measurement unitlsclearlydeflnedlntheInternational Vocabulary of Metrology
Basic and General Concepts and Associated Terms,(v|M)(3rded.),Joint Committee for
Guides in Metrology,2008,p.67.
Tomato
tomaato
Bydenltlon,aunltof
measurelsamagnltudeofsome
physlcalquantltydenedand
adoptedbyaconventlonor
lawandusedasastandardfor
thequantltysmeasurement.
Thus,ltstandstoreasonthatthe
lndustryshouldhavedeveloped
separatestandardparameters
foreachofthesecommutatlon
methods.(SeeResourcesfor
morelnformatlon.)
|nfact,theunltsand
ldentlfylngnomenclatureforthe
twomalncommutatlonmethods
areoftenmuddled.Theproblem
lscompllcatedbylnconslstent
useofparametersbymotorand
drlvemanufacturers.
PS#l35
MOTION CONTROL & MECHATRONICS
Small
but
MIGHTY
One example of a single-card
controller integrates up to
four solderable amplifiers,
a high-speed on-card
microprocessor, and
over 2 Mbytes of
combined program
and memory
space.
The last 20 years have seen precision amplifiers used for
positioning and velocity control make major strides in
power output, size, and control features. Applications
such as laboratory automation, semiconductor equip-
ment, and scientific automation make use of high-end
amplifier capabilities such as field-oriented control.
The cost of electronics is coming down to a point where
even industries identified with basic motion needs now
consider using high-end features, particularly where
smoothness, motor efficiency, and top speed matter.
Another key development is that of solderable ampli-
fiers, which let engineers build cards able to run an en-
tire machine. It is even possible to obtain amplifiers that
mount on the motor itself, a strategy that may simplify
wiring.
It is helpful to review exactly what modern motion-
control amplifiers can do. At their core, amplifiers accept
low-power control signals and generate higher-power
voltages to drive the motor. By far and away, the dominant
approach in amplification for motion control is to gener-
ate drive signals through a technique known as pulse-
width modulation (PWM), or just switching.
Switching amplifiers basically generate a variable duty-
cycle square wave that is filtered to give the desired out-
put signal. They take advantage of the ever-increasing
Motion amplifiers
occupying just a cubic
inch of space can handle
sophisticated tasks once
demanding multiple boards
and big heat sinks.
Authoredby:
Chuck Lewin
PounderandvlcePresldentofLnglneerlng
Performance Motion Devices Inc.
Boxborough,Mass.
LdltedbyLeland Teschler
leland.teschlerQpenton.com
Key points:
Solderableampllflersprovldeuptoakllowattofpowerln
packagesassmallasl.0ln.
3
|mprovementslnswltchlngampllflersaretheslngleblggest
factormaklngsuchall-ln-onemachlne-controllercards
posslble.
Resources:
Motion-control basics,http://machinedesign.com/BDE/motion/
bdemotion1/
Motion-control study guide,http://machinedesign.com/
ebook/motion-control-mechatronics/motion-control-study-
guide-0111
Motion-control trends,http://machinedesign.com/article/the-
top-three-trends-shaping-motion-control-0623
Performance Motion Devices Inc.,www.pmdcorp.com
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 46
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RS# 136
MOTION CONTROL & MECHATRONICS
Basic motion-control system
Encoder, Hall-effect sensors
Dc-brush,
brushless-dc,
stepmotor
Amplier
Motion
controller
One, two,
or three-phase
connection
All-in-one machine-controller card
Host
Encoder feedback
Motors
Motors
Motors
Solderable
amplier
Solderable
amplier
Solderable
amplier
Signal
conditioning
Signal
conditioning
Motion
processor
Bus
decode
Bus
Limits, I/O, etc.
Motion systems consist of three major
components: the controller, the amplifier,
and the motor/actuator. The controller is an
integrated circuit or printed-circuit card that
outputs control signals to the amplifier based
on commanded position and feedback of
position and velocity information typically
from encoders or Hall sensors.
A typical
all-in-one
controller
card, in
this case
driving
four axes
using
solderable
amplifiers.
for these effects to improve response time, efficiency, and
positioning accuracy.
Is current control always critical? For stepmotors, the
answer is yes because current control in steppers affects
nearly every aspect of performance top speed, posi-
tioning accuracy, heat generation, and more. There is a bit
more wiggle room in dc-brush and brushless-PM-motor
applications. But as costs have dropped for electronics
and current-sensing hardware, active current control has
become the norm for all but a small number of motion-
control applications.
The term phasing refers to the selective application
of voltage or current to the windings of multiphase mo-
tors such as stepmotors and brushless-dc motors. Proper
phasing keeps these motors moving forward or backward
as directed by the host controller. Dc-brush motors, by
comparison, phase themselves using brushes or other
contacts to distribute the applied voltage to the correct
rotor coil as it spins. So dc-brush motors need no external
phasing control.
Stepmotors employ various phasing schemes such as
full stepping, half stepping and microstepping, depending
on the step increment. For brushless-dc motors, phasing
efficiency with which metal-oxide field-effect transistors
(MOSFETs) and insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)
can switch on or off, rapidly applying a bus voltage to a
circuit load, and then disconnecting that supply from the
load to produce a particular commanded voltage.
Though switching amplifiers dominate motion con-
trol, there are still some applications where nonswitching
linear amplifiers (also called transconductance amplifi-
ers) are needed. They are three to five time times less effi-
cient than switchers, but linear amplifiers generate much
less electromagnetic interference (EMI) and, thus, find
use where that property is critically important.
Current control
Current control, also often called torque control in
servomotors, refers to the active regulation of current
flowing through each winding of the motor. Windings are
inductors, so they resist changes in current. In addition,
the motor itself is a highly dynamic environment that in-
duces back-EMF (electromotive force) onto the winding
as it spins. Both of these effects distort the actual current
flowing through each winding relative to its applied volt-
age. Amplifiers with current control actively compensate
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 48
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RS# 137
MOTION CONTROL & MECHATRONICS
Distributed-motion system
System
host
Stepmotor
(encoder
optional)
Distributed
amplier
Distributed
amplier
Distributed
amplier
Dc-brush
motor
Brushless-dc
motor
Ethernet, CANbus, or serial network
Solderable motion-control amplier
Dc bus
Logic supply
HV
5 V +3.3 V
Bus monitoring
Bus voltage
Bus voltage
Enable
AtRest
VaultOut
NVRAM
Trace
RAM
SPICS
SPIClk
SPISI
SPI
command
process
SPISO
Control and logic
synchronization
Commutation and
microstep control
Digital
current
loop
Motor
outputs
A
B
A
B
C
D
Power
stage
Current sense
Pulse and
direction counter
Pulse Direction
Some years ago, general-purpose industrial
networks began to host digital amplifier
command interfaces allowing a central
controller to handle multiple motors.
Solderable amplifier
modules comprise
a single packaged
unit that provides
major functions of
amplification, current
control, phasing, and
extras such as FOC
and fault detection.
They can control step,
brushless-dc, and
dc-brush motors and
may work stand-alone
or in conjunction
with higher level
controllers for velocity
or positioning
applications.
range. Needless to say, the amplifier needs enough get up
and go for your application!
Modern controllers
Motion systems typically consist of three major com-
ponents; the controller, the amplifier, and the motor/ac-
tuator. The controller is an integrated circuit or printed-
circuit card that outputs control signals to the amplifier.
But what kind of signals? The granddaddy of ampli-
fier command formats is 10-V analog. In this scheme,
the motion controller generates an analog voltage carried
is called commutation. The most-common version uses
feedback from Hall sensors positioned around the ro-
tor shaft to generate trapezoidal or six-step drive signals.
Trapezoidal commutation, while widely used, has discon-
tinuities where the Hall-effect sensors switch. This has led
to the wide use of vector control, also called field-oriented
control (FOC), which uses a sinusoidal waveform along
with more-advanced phasing algorithms. FOC provides
smoother motion, more-efficient motor operation, and
higher top speed.
As with current control, ever-improving controllers
such as digital signal processors (DSPs) are making FOC
a standard feature in more and more motion-control
systems.
There are a number of additional functions that are
likely to be important in modern motion-control designs.
One particular area is fault detection. Look for detection/
protection from overtemperature faults, short-circuit
faults, overcurrent faults, bus overvoltage and undervolt-
age faults, and more. Properly designed, these features can
protect an amplifier, motor, and sometimes even the ma-
chine in the event of a failure.
Another useful motion-amplifier feature is called I
2
t
current management. This is a general technique for lim-
iting the total energy delivered to the motor. Compared to
instantaneous current limiting, I
2
t provides a much-more
useful protection mechanism because heating comes
from current applied over a period of time.
Beyond all these features there are, of course, the basic
specifications of the amplifier itself. These include the
voltage range, continuous and maximum current ratings,
and environmental ratings such as temperature operating
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 50
RS# 138
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MOTION CONTROL & MECHATRONICS
An example of a
solderable amplifier
is the Atlas amplifier.
Solderable amplifiers
provide up to a kilowatt
of power in packages as
small as 1.0 in.
3
differentially over two signals that
encode a desired voltage, current,
or velocity. Typically, these signals
are routed by cable to the amplifier
module.
Unfortunately, analog encoding
makes less sense when amplifiers
incorporate DSPs and other digital
logic. Why convert the controllers
digital signals to analog and then
convert them back to digital in the
amplifier?
To address this conundrum, about
20 years ago general-purpose indus-
trial networks began to host digital
amplifier-command interfaces. Now-
adays, networks hosting such inter-
faces include CANopen, Profibus,
EtherCAT, Ethernet Powerlink, and
a few others.
What does the controller actually
say to the amplifiers? In some cases
just the desired torque goes down the
wire, but often the controller sends
higher-level command streams such
as PV vectors (position, velocity).
Once the interface becomes dig-
ital, the amplifier can report prob-
lems back to the controller and assist
with tuning and setup. This ability
has made possible new generations of
module-oriented machine control-
lers where the location of the ampli-
fier is practically a nonconsideration
in the design of machines.
Network-based amplifiers seem
like the ultimate evolution of ma-
chine controllers. But its worth re-
membering that what originally mo-
tivated the separation of the ampli-
fier and the controller was the need
to manage heat. Today, those same
amplifiers no longer generate all that
much heat.
This sets the stage for what has
become an increasing counter cur-
rent to modularization: the tendency
to locate all controls on a single con-
trol card. With all controls on a single
card, there are fewer failure-prone
connectors and cables. Ditto for ser-
vice hassles: There is no need to fig-
ure out whether the motion card, the
cable connections, or the amplifiers
are causing the problem.
PS#l42
RS# 145
RS# 144
RS# 143
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MOTION CONTROL & MECHATRONICS
control, centrifuges, robot arms,
shuttles, and so forth. Now, they can
buy off-the-shelf ICs or solderable
modules and keep everything on a
single printed-circuit board.
One major category of such prod-
ucts consists of small, dedicated, sin-
gle-axis motor amplifier ICs. These
ICs come in various configurations
such as H-bridges (used with dc-
brush and stepmotors) as well as
half-bridges (used with brushless-
PM motors). Basic entries provide
just the switching function and per-
haps some overcurrent protection.
More-sophisticated versions provide
current control and additional fea-
tures such as selectable fast-decay,
slow-decay operation.
For stepmotor control, these ICs
directly produce pulse and direction
signals and provide half-step as well
as microstepping control. They uti-
lize current control techniques espe-
cially suited to the demands of man-
aging stepmotors.
An important drawback to this
category of on-card amplifiers is that
they rarely output more than 4 A or
150 W. In terms of drive sophistica-
tion. These products are fairly low on
the totem pole. If they provide com-
mutation, it is typically six-step trap-
ezoidal, and many of the higher level
features described earlier are missing.
The other major category of on-
card amplifiers pertains to solderable
amplifier modules. Solderable ampli-
fier modules resemble traditional ca-
ble-connected amplifier modules in
that they embody a single packaged
unit providing all the major func-
tions discussed earlier amplifica-
tion, current control, phasing, and
extras such as FOC and sophisticated
fault detection.
They differ from cable-connected
amplifier modules in several impor-
tant ways, however. For starters, they
Improvements in switching amplifiers are the single
biggest factor making such all-in-one machine controller
cards possible. With less heat generated, a single control
card can safely drive kilowatts of power rather than dozens
of watts as in the past. A decade ago, engineers were forced
to go off-board for higher power axes such as spindle
may be tiny, but some can produce up to a kilowatt. (Not
bad for an amplifier occupying a bit more than a cubic
inch.)
As the name implies, they are solderable. They gen-
erally use standard through-hole pin connections and
packaging that tends to have around 20 pins. These pins
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MOTION CONTROL & MECHATRONICS
provide microprocessor-compatible connections, power
input signals, motor output, and other safety and control
signals.
Unlike lower power amplifier ICs, solderable modules
are full-blown motion amplifiers. In fact, many of the
same companies that offer cable-connected amplifiers
also offer solderable motion amplifiers. These products
are well suited for positioning and high-precision velocity
control.
With new paradigms come new challenges. Neither
analog 10-V signals nor full-blown digital networks are
well suited for connecting to onboard microprocessors
with solderable amplifiers. So what is
the right format?
Some amplifiers directly out-
put PWM waveforms, but doing so
means the motion controller must
perform the task of current con-
trol, a daunting prospect for many
designers. The alternative is to set-
tle for voltage-mode control of the
motor windings, a major sacrifice in
performance.
Another common approach re-
tains some flavor of analog input.
Most commonly, the module pro-
vides a unipolar analog level along
with a separate digital sign bit.
The interface that seems to be
gaining attention is serial-peripheral
interface (SPI). SPI is completely dig-
ital and uses just four signals. Com-
munications can be bidirectional and
the bandwidth is more than enough
for motion applications which tend
to update the desired torque at a rate
between 2.5 and 10 kHz.
There are other digital formats
such as RS-232. There has been talk
within the industry about whether a
standard will evolve for on-card am-
plifier connections. Only time will tell.
Finally, amplifiers small enough
to mount directly on the motor have
made a big splash. Such a configu-
ration is called an integrated motor
drive (IMD) and has special ben-
efits in the area of cable reduction.
Encoder signals and Hall-sensor sig-
nals from the motor feed directly into
the IMD and neednt go back to the
controller.
The downside of IMDs is that
they boost the weight of the mo-
tor assembly, and IMD electronics
are likely to get hotter than those
of an amplifier sitting in a rack or
in a controlled environment. The
heat affects reliability or lifetime,
depending on the harshness of the
operating environment. MD
PS#l47
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 56
RS# 148
BEARINGS
New compact hydrostatic guides operate as
complete closed-loop units. Carriages ride
on precision-honed guideways energized
by a layer of pressurized oil.
When in doubt, make it stout. That was the rule of thumb for designing strong
and durable machine tools in the past. Over the years, however, this mindset
has changed as technical advances have allowed for dramatic increases in the
performance of machine tools within the same design envelope. Better modeling
software and analysis tools, along with advancements in radial and linear bearings,
have increased machine spindle and traverse speeds. At the same time, motor,
drive, and position-feedback capabilities compensate for mechanical inaccuracies.
All of these developments have fostered faster, more-precise machining.
Nevertheless, the never-ending demand for higher speeds, deeper cuts, and bet-
ter accuracy to increase throughput continues to challenge engineers designing the
next generation of high-performance machine tools. Focusing on dynamic stability
through effective axis damping may be the key to meeting these challenges.
Linear-guide characteristics
As designers continue to push the envelope even further in pursuit of greater
throughput, some of the advances that contribute to higher speed also present cer-
tain drawbacks. The evolution from plain bearings to ball and roller-recirculating
linear guides is one example.
Plain-bearing systems, while inefficient and limited in speed, have very good
damping characteristics as a result of their large surface-contact areas and lubrica-
tion film. The effect of this inherent damping lets machinists increase the cutting
depth while maintaining good surface finishes and accuracy. Many CNC lathes built
today still use plain-bearing slides on their turret axis because of these advantages.
Linear-axis damping
improves the
performance of
machine tools as well
as other precision
equipment.
Authoredby:
Carl White
ManagerAppllcatlonLnglneerlng
LlnearandProductlonMachlnery
Schaeffler Group USA
PortMlll,S.C.
LdltedbyKenneth J. Korane
ken.koraneQpenton.com
Key points:
Punnlngmachlnetoolsfaster
canleadtovlbratlonsandpoor
productquallty.
Addlngllnear-axlsdamplngcan
permlthlgherspeeds,deeper
cuts,andbetterpreclslon.
Damplngoptlonslnclude
lntegrateddamplngelementsand
compacthydrostatlccarrlages.
Resources:
Schaeffler Group USA,www.
schaeffler.us
New ways to
DAMP
VIBRATION
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 58
RS# 149
Improve
machine
performance
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BEARINGS
This chart shows
the relationship
of stiffness versus
damping in plain and
recirculating-type
bearing guides. With
plain bearings as
the baseline, results
show that rigidity
of all systems is
similar, but there
are significant
differences in
relative damping.
0 50 25 100 75 125
Plain
bearing
Static stiffness (%) Relative damping (%)
Comparing damping values
X-arrangement
O-arrangement
X-arrangement
O-arrangement
Recirculating
roller bearing
Recirculating
ball bearing
M
o
n
o
r
a
i
l
g
u
i
d
a
n
c
e
s
y
s
t
e
m
s
5
136
8
136
5
70
6
73
100
100
A model of a three-axis machine tool shows the interaction of damping and
rigidity under different conditions. Clearly, rigidity cannot replace a lack of
damping.
0 50 100
Excitation frequency (Hz)
E
l
a
s
t
i
c
i
t
y
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
(
m
/
N
)
150 200
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
Case 3:
c = 600 N/m
d = 200,000 kg/sec
Case 2: c = 1,200 N/m
d = 10,000 kg/sec
Case 1:
c = 600 N/m
d = 10,000 kg/sec
Interaction of damping and rigidity
On the other hand, while ball and roller-recirculating linear guides have low
coefficients of friction and high speed ratings, they offer poor damping char-
acteristics because of the metal-to-metal point and line contacts of their ball or
roller elements transitioning between the steel bearing body and rail.
The nearby chart, Comparing damping values, shows the relationship of stiff-
ness versus damping in plain bearings and recirculating-type bearing guides.
Using a plain bearing system as the baseline, results show similar rigidity values
for all the systems. But when it comes to relative damping values, there is a sig-
nificant difference.
Structural dynamic rigidity
Some designers make the mistake of focusing mainly on a machines static
rigidity. In actuality, it is also important to consider the balance of the over-
all structural mass with highly preloaded linear bearings for increased static
rigidity, versus lower structural inertias for increasing chip-to-chip speeds.
Properly balancing rigidity and inertia increases machine dynamics which, in
turn, boost overall machine performance. High dynamics has a significant in-
PS#l50
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 60
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GALIL MOTION CONTROLLERS
RS# 151
Visit www.rollonnews.com
for technical papers and
application help or call
1.877.976.5566
75D
61CD
Dontletdefelctionslow
]oudown.Telescopic Rail
wont]ieldtoheav]loads
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s
RAPID DELIVERY
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LIVE SUPPORT
BEARINGS
Adaptive elements built
into the linear guides
improve damping.
Adaptive-
damping
element
Frequency (Hz)
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
(
%
)
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
50 100 150 200 250
Machine-tool response
FEA modeling shows modal-frequency responses at working points without
(red) and with (blue) adaptive-damping elements.
fluence on the machines structure and its elements.
Vibrations induced by cutting-tool pass fre-
quencies and wear, along with other out-
side disruptive forces, can cause
poor machine performance.
Dynamic rigidity through
proper damping can reduce
these influences.
Modeling a three-axis
machine that uses recirculat-
ing linear bearings and guide
rails shows the interaction of
damping and rigidity. In the nearby
graphic, c represents rigidity and d repre-
sents damping values of the linear bearings. Force, F, is applied to the spindle
nose and is the elastic response.
In case 1, the model has a rigidity value of 600N/m and a damping value of
10,000kg/sec. The results show a modal peak around 80Hz. In case 2, rigidity is
doubled to 1,200N/m and damping remains the same. Here, results show the
mode shifts, but the amplitude is almost the same. For case 3, the rigidity value
matches case 1, but the damping input increases to 200,000kg/sec. The result is
now a modal peak similar to case 1, but at a much lower amplitude. This vali-
dates that rigidity cannot replace a lack of damping.
Integrating linear-axis damping
Two effective methods for adding damping to the linear axes are known to
designers yet, surprisingly, they are seldom used. These methods involve the
use of adaptive elements or complete hydrostatic systems.
The adaptive method integrates a damping element within the recirculating
linear guide. The damping element, or carriage, fits on the same linear-guide
rail and has an inner profile that matches, but does not contact, the rail. The
gap between the damping carriage and rail is approximately 25m (0.001in.).
This gap is filled with oil using a gravity drip feed through ports in the carriage.
The squeeze-film effect provides damping similar to that of a shock absorber
on a car. Because the gap is very small, capillary action maintains the oil film,
and there is minimal fluid loss during linear cycling of the slide provided that
the unit contains proper-viscosity oil. The length of the damping carriage di-
PS#l52
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 62
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RS# 153
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630-980-1133
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Special Designs
BEARINGS
To prove the effectiveness of hydrostatic
guides, three different slide assemblies
were tested on a motion table.
Conventional hydrostatic slide systems tend to be quite complex.
Traditional hydrostatic slide
rectly influences the magnitude of damping. Because flat surfaces are preferred
for this method, only roller-type guide rails are used.
The FEA model labeled Machine-tool response shows the modal frequency
response of a vertical-machining center at the spindle nose using roller profile
rails. The first modal response curve (in red) is based on a linear-rail system that
uses only roller guide bearings on the Y and Z axes. The second response curve
(in blue) shows results after implementing damping carriages between the roller
guide bearings on the Y and Z axes. Results reveal a significant reduction in the
amplitude of the modal frequencies generated by cutting forces at various feed
rates and spindle speeds. This, in turn, permits greater cutting depths at higher
speeds and, consequently, better machine performance.
Hydrostatics
The other method for integrating linear-axis damping is through complete
linear hydrostatic-bearing systems. While this is not a new concept, the eco-
nomics have not justified widespread adaptation. These types of systems have
pressurized hydraulic cavities or pockets within the axis table. What makes this
design so costly is that it requires a series of cross-drilled passages and ports that
have to be generated with extreme
accuracy.
Another drawback of hydro-
statics is the challenge of sealing
and controlling bypass leakage of
high-pressure fluid. Most of these
designs are open-type loss systems
which must contain fluid-collec-
tion troughs. Fluid that leaks past
the bearing has to be collected and
filtered before reuse.
Finally, these systems always
face the nightmare scenario where
failure means the complete slide
assembly must be repaired or
replaced.
New options
The drive to produce a more
cost-effective alternative has led to
PS#l54
Hydraulic regulator
Machine slider
Pressure pocket
Rail
Rail
Machine bed
MACH|NLDESIGN.com 64 MA23,20l3
|
E
K
1
1
-
0
7
U
S
A
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Ideal for applications with dozens of small servo axes
Considerable reduction in space requirements as well as wiring and commissioning costs
Integrated fast control technology designed for highly dynamic positioning tasks
The servo terminal supports synchronous motors with a rated current of up to 4 A.
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RS# 155
HIGH
TORQUE
SMALL PACKAGES
7KUeesi]esFXUUeQWl\available
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IGARASHI MOTOR
SALES USA, LLC
BEARINGS
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
/
s
e
c
2
)
Time (sec)
0.015 0.02 0.035 0.03 0.045 0.04 0.05 0.025
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
Roller carriage and guide
Adaptive damping
Hydrostatic carriage
Roller carriage and guide
Adaptive damping
Hydrostatic carriage
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
(
m
/
s
e
c
2
/
N
)
Frequency (Hz)
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Impact tests on the motion table
measured modal response and
settling times. Results show that
damping carriages significantly
reduce dynamic response.
Hydrostatic systems perform even
better, as they almost completely
eliminate such effects.
Vibration settling time
Frequency response
the development of next-gener-
ation hydrostatic linear systems,
which can be engineered into a
machine in much the same way
as current linear-recirculating
guides.
These compact hydrostatic
guides operate as a closed-
loop unit. Carriages with pres-
sure pockets ride on precisely
honed guideways energized by
a steady layer of pressurized oil.
The hydrostatic guide carries
loads on these oil-filled pres-
sure pockets.
The carriage consists of a
steel saddle plate and two end
pieces. One end piece has an
integrated pressure regulator
that supplies oil to the carriages
pressure pockets. The other, a
suction-side end piece, extracts
depressurized oil and sends it
back through the oil circuit.
To prove the effectiveness of
this type of hydrostatic guide,
we tested three different slide
assemblies, one at a time, in-
stalled in a motion table. The
first configuration used stan-
dard Size 45 roller carriages
and guides; the second slide in-
cluded damping carriages be-
tween the roller guides; and the
third used hydrostatic carriages
and guides.
For each setup, we applied a
controlled impact force at the
center of the table and measured
the vibration response using an
accelerometer. Results show modal response and settling times from this im-
pact. With the standard roller system serving as the baseline, the additional
damping carriage significantly reduced dynamic response. But the hydrostatic
system achieved the best result, virtually eliminating the dynamic response.
The advantage of the hydrostatic carriage and rail is that it fits into the
same design space, with the same mounting-hole locations, as standard lin-
ear guides. Thus, engineers can spec them into machines with minimal de-
sign effort. An OEM can now offer machines using standard linear guides,
with adaptive damping carriages, or with upgrades to complete hydrostatics
on the same machine platform, depending on customer requirements. New
designs can focus on reducing structural mass for higher accelerations and
traverse speeds.
Currently, hydrostatic carriage and rail systems cost about four to five
times as much as conventional roller profile-rail systems. But like any-
thing else, as market demand increases production volume, costs will
come down. Key to driving this demand will be competition between
manufacturers seeking to offer their customers a technological edge in
machine-tool performance. MD
PS#l56
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 66
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Insight. Analysis. Opinion.
RS# 157
MECHANICAL
Traditional
round ram
has all-metal
components.
The redesigned ram
with polymer cam
followers eliminated
lubrication, cut
maintenance intervals,
and permitted higher
operating
speeds.
SELFLUBRICATING
POLYMERS
bolster machine output
Can-making equipment is nothing if not specialized. Yet the sub-
systems found on these machines offer a number of design les-
sons that can be applied more broadly by any engineer working to
improve the performance and reliability of high-speed equipment.
Consider, for example, the cam-driven ram actuators found on a
can lines necking stations. Mounted on a rotating turret and mov-
ing at up to 250 strokes/min, these rams push the round can shell
onto a series of shaping dies that gradually reduce the diameter of
the can to form its neck.
Traditionally, these rams consisted of a round pin that moved
axially within a barrel-like steel housing, with a machined keyway
to keep the pin from rotating. A pair of metal cam followers on the
rear of the pin directly drive the ram.
Unfortunately, the traditional ram design suffers from three
problems. For one, it requires aggressive lubrication to function
properly and prevent ram and cam wear. Second, it lets the pin lift
and twist in the barrel, causing premature wear. And finally, the
traditional design limits the operating speed of the necker.
A redesign eliminates lubrication
problems and increases the speed and
durability of can-making machines.
Authoredby:
Georg Bartosch
Presldent
Intech Power Corp.
Closter,N.1.
LdltedbyKenneth J. Korane
ken.koraneQpenton.com
Key points:
Tradltlonalcan-maklngequlpmentrequlresaggresslve
lubrlcatlontofunctlonproperlyandpreventexcesslvewear.
Self-lubrlcatlngpolymercomponentsellmlnated
lubrlcatlonneedsandextendedmalntenancelntervals.
Cuttlngwelghtloweredthemachlnesenergyusageand
allowedhlgheroperatlngspeeds.
Resources:
Intech Power Corp., www.intechpower.com
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 68
www.satco.com/das|gn
Lat Us Ha|p You
1-800-543-0470
0UST0N Fh0|hFF8F0
SP|h0LFS & SL|0FS
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T0 Y0U8 SPF0|F|0AT|0hS
RS# 158
MECHANICAL
By eliminating the need for lubrication, we addressed
all three problems with a new ram design that serves as a
drop-in replacement for traditional units. Heres how.
Excess wear
Can-making machines run around the clock and typi-
cally produce between 2,000 and 3,000 cans/min. One of
the chief problems with the traditional design was its pro-
pensity to wear out prematurely, despite lubrication.
We analyzed the wear patterns and found that much of
it came from an obvious source metal-on-metal contact
between the pin and barrel, and between the cam follow-
ers and drive cams. Without lubrication, the ram would
quickly fail.
A less-obvious source of wear emerged from a finite-
element analysis of the ram. We simulated not only the
forces needed to extrude the can neck but also the related
centrifugal and acceleration forces. What we found was
that the ram deflected upwards and twisted. This deflec-
tion significantly increased the effects of metal-on-metal
wear throughout the ram assembly. In particular, cen-
trifugal and acceleration forces contributed to wear on the
leading edge of the ram body and its keyway, resulting in a
telltale pleating defect on the can neck.
With all the metal-on-metal contact, ongoing lubrica-
tion of the ram and cam followers was essential. Thats why
these machines typically have costly automated lubrication
systems.
Better materials, less weight
Solving the wear problem involved a change in the
rams materials and pin geometry. By moving to an alu-
PS#l60
PS#l59
FEA results show high stress areas where
the cam followers mount on the tail pin.
Later design iterations reduced these
stresses by beefing up the transition
between the pins full cross
section and the thinner tail.
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 70
minum ram and
square pi n, we
cut ram wei ght
by 60% f or an
equal reduction
in centrifugal and
pin-acceleration
forces. The square
shape al so bet-
ter guides the pin
during extrusion
cycles and distrib-
utes forces evenly
over a larger area,
further diminish-
ing the potential
for wear.
Even if we did
nothing else, the
weight reduction
woul d have ex-
tended the wear
l ife of the ram,
dri ve cam, and
met al cam fol -
lowers. Yet as long
as metal-on-metal
contact remained
especially between
t he cam fol l ower
and drive cam
we could not create
a lubrication-free
system.
Eliminating lu-
brication altogether
meant replacing the
original rams metal components with self-lubricating
polymers. We proposed polymer cam followers and a self-
lubricating plastic liner on the rams inner surface.
Selecting the right polymers was crucial. However, its
easier said than done because most such materials are not
as strong as metals. And it is important to note that data
sheets for self-lubricating polymers do not accurately re-
flect changes in mechanical properties under operating
conditions.
We based material selection on a thorough under-
standing of the forces involved, which we had from our
FEA work. We also performed additional engineering cal-
culations to predict how self-lubricating materials would
behave over time under actual operating conditions. For-
tunately, we have developed proprietary material models
over the years which let us make accurate calculations.
The result of the material and geometry changes has
been impressive. Reductions in forces, friction, and wear
have at least doubled the life of a typical ram. And the
wear-induced pleating defect has dropped from 3% to less
PS#l62
PS#l6l
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 71
MECHANICAL
The square ram with polymer cam followers eliminates
720 lubrication points and nearly 1 metric ton of moving
mass from the necker.
than 1% in high-speed lines.
More important, the revamped ram completely elimi-
nated the need to lubricate the ram body and its two cam
followers. With a total of 240 rams on a typical 10-stage
necker, the redesigned ram gets rid of 720 lubrication
points on the machine. It also makes the expensive auto-
matic lubrication system unnecessary.
The payoff
With industrial machines, improvements to a seem-
ingly minor component can often have an outsize pay-
back. The square ram design is a case in point:
The rams last two to four years longer, reducing the cost
and downtime associated with ram replacement.
They eliminate cam wear and the high cost of replacing
worn cams.
They eliminate the capital expense of an automated
lubrication system, and operating costs as high as
$6,000/year for one necker.
They improve yields by reducing the pleating defect.
The redesign also generated some important
secondary benefits:
Speed. In can making, line speed equals profit. And
the traditional round-ram design imposed a speed limit
on necking operations. Made from steel with steel cam
followers, these rams typically weighed about 14 lb with a
pin that weighed 8 lb. Operating these heavy rams at high
speeds triggered high centrifugal forces that accelerated
wear. So machine speeds would be dialed down from their
design specifications to keep the rams from wearing out
prematurely.
To raise the speed limit, we cut ram weight by more
than half to 5.2 lb. The moving mass of the pin and cam
followers dropped to 3.0 lb. Reducing the weight in-
volved crafting ram components from aircraft aluminum
and polymers, rather than steel. Total weight reduction
of rotating mass on a 10-stage line is nearly 1 metric ton.
The move to lightweight materials has significantly
improved cycle time. Based on the reports from the
plants now using the square ram, necker cycle times have
dropped on average by 12 to 15% on older machines. On
new neckers, the square ram permits operation at or near
the design speeds.
Energy savings. By cutting nearly a metric ton of mass
that would otherwise have to be accelerated and decel-
erated, the square ram has lowered necker energy con-
sumption significantly. In some cases, energy costs have
dropped by 25%.
Less shock and vibration. Using lightweight materials
reduces shock and vibration, which usually represents an
important speed constraint in rotating machines. In par-
ticular, the polymers used on the rams cam followers pro-
vide a significant amount of mechanical damping with
the damping properties of the polymers peaking near the
operating temperatures of a necker.
The total cost reduction and other benefits associated
with square rams has already resulted in their adoption by
can-making operations around the globe. MD
Polymers eliminate
cam wear
Squareramscouldnotdothelr[obwlthoutacamtopro-
pelthem.And,lnfact,theblggestvalueofthesquareram
deslgn ls that lt extends ram llfe and ellmlnates cam wear.
Some measure of protectlon comes from the fact that the
llghtwelghtsquareramoperatesatlowerforcesthantradl-
tlonalroundrams.However,cleveruseofmaterlalsplaysan
even-morelmportantrole.
The ram redeslgn replaced metal cam followers wlth
ones made from a self-lubrlcatlng polymer. Because the
polymercamfollowerswlllnotgeneratewearonthemuch-
hardercamsurfaces,thlscompletelyellmlnatestheprlmary
mechanlsmbehlndcamfallure.
Whlle the cost of replaclng a ram ls not lnslgnlcant,
lt pales ln comparlson to the cost of replaclng the necker
cams. The cams themselves are preclslon ground and ex-
penslve. Then theres the downtlme and labor costs to re-
place the cams.Taken together, these factors mean that ln
thetradltlonaldeslgn,atyplcalcamchangecancosttensof
thousandsofdollarsonlytoberepeatedeveryfewyears.
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 72
FOR MAINTENANCE-FREE LINEAR WAY PERFORMANCE,
HEAD STRAIGHT FOR IKO TECHNOLOGY.
Our linear motion rolling guide
lineup scores big with maintenance-free
performance in a wide variety of applications.
Maintenance will never slide with our
self-lubricating C-Lube maintenance-
free rolling guides that run up to ve years.
Our C- Lube family of linear motion
rolling guides offers you great load capacity,
high rigidity, superior running accuracy
BALL ROLLER BALL SPLINE
Lubricant is deposited
directly to the surface of the
rolling elements.
and smooth motion for machine tools, semi
conductor and liquid crystal manufacturing
applications.
These great performers make
different from others, providing superior
cost performance for your machines
and offer an unending run of long term
maintenance-free lubrication for up to
5 years or 20,000 km.
IKO International, Inc.
www.ikont.co.jp/eg/
New York: 800-922-0337 / E-mail: eco@ikonet.co.jp UChicago: 800-323-6694 / E-mail: mwo@ikonet.co.jp
Atlanta: 800-874-6445 / E-mail: seo@ikonet.co.jp UDallas: 800-295-7886 / E-mail: swo@ikonet.co.jp
Los Angeles: 800-252-3665 / E-mail: wco@ikonet.co.jp USilicon Valley: 800-252-3665 / E-mail: wco@ikonet.co.jp
5 YEARS
12,500 MILES
MAINTENANCE
FREE
IKO C-LUBE LINEAR WAY SERIES
RS# 163
MECHANICAL
into digital signals. Each rotation of the bearing generates
a predefined number of pulses or magnetic signatures,
which can be decoded in real time as rotational speed and
position. If there is too much EMI, the bearing and sensor
can be shielded.
Intelligent bearings such as these can serve as motor
encoders to monitor position, rotational speed, and di-
rection of motor shafts. They mount inside the motor
and provide reliable alternatives to conventional encod-
ers, which mount outside the motor. Variations on this
setup include end-of-
shaft multiturn sensors,
absolute through-shaft
sensors, and high-reso-
lution absolute-position
sensors for measuring
position, and roller en-
coders for making linear
measurements.
Steering units
Steeri ng uni t s for
steer-by-wire modules on
industrial and off-high-
way vehicles replace con-
Bearings have long been used to reduce friction, support
loads, locate shafts, and reinforce system rigidity. Today,
bearing designers are adding sensors, signal-processing
capabilities, and advanced housings, and combining seals
and lubricants in those housings. These smart bearings
offer OEMs and engineers longer service lives and more
options.
Heres a detailed look at these next-generation bearings
that will provide even higher levels of form and function.
Sensor bearings
Intelligent sensor bearings provide accurate informa-
tion on speed (rpm), direction, and incremental or abso-
lute position of rotating or linearly moving components.
They can generate signals that contains data such as the
number of revolutions, relative position/counting, and
if they are accelerating or decelerating. These intelligent
bearings contribute to productivity and reliability, and al-
low for more-compact equipment.
In a typical scenario, a sensor gets designed into the
bearing. The sensor is often an impulse (or code) ring
linked to the bearings rotating inner ring. The inner ring
contains a sequence of north and south-oriented mag-
nets. The sensor detects changes in magnetic fields as the
bearing and its magnets spin and converts those changes
Adding new
features and
capabilities to
bearings improves
productivity and
lowers costs.
Authoredby:
Mark Hinckley
DlrectorofStrateglcPro[ects
SKF USA Inc.
Landsdale,Pa.
LdltedbyStephen J. Mraz
stephen.mrazQpenton.com
Resources:
SKF USA Inc.,www.skfusa.com
For some apps from SKF,
including a Bearing Calculator:
http://tinyurl.com/ccj9g2h
BEARINGS
designed to
multitask
This cutaway drawing
of an ac motor shows the
built-in sensor (red/blue) that
generates speed and position data,
which can be used as feedback signals.
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 74
RS# 164
MECHANICAL
functionality. If additional driver locations are required
on a vehicle, several steering modules can be added to the
system providing a belt-and-suspenders approach to
vehicle-steering redundancy.
Advanced housings
Bearing housings are stronger and designers are add-
ing new features, including seals, making custom housings
largely unnecessary. For example, upgraded SE plummer
block housings are now designed to be stiffer and stronger
so they better resist deformation. And larger ribs in the
center of the base improve heat dissipation by increasing
the contact area between the base and support surface,
thereby improving heat flow away from the bearings outer
ring. These upgrades also lengthen the blocks service life.
Housings have also been designed to make serving
easier by adding a grease-guiding flange that sends grease
directly from the fitting to the bearing, which lets techni-
ventional steering columns or provide an alternative to
joystick-controlled machines, which are becoming more
common.
Either noncontact incremental or absolute position sen-
sors can trace movements of a steering wheel and, in turn,
detect steering-wheel position, steering speed, and direc-
tion. For many applications, these sensors can be packaged
in a basic steering encoder which creates constant steering
friction and moderate but acceptable resolution of steering
signals. These compact encoders often combine a stainless-
steel stub shaft (on which the steering wheel mounts), two
noncontact rotary incremental sensors, a friction mecha-
nism that creates the steering feel, and rolling bearings
inside a compact and durable housing. Units can have
standard resolution (256 increments/turn of the steering
wheel) or high resolution (1,024 increments/turn of the
wheel), depending on the sensors.
For steering units with more functions and perfor-
mance, smart bearings give drivers a realistically changing
steering feel. These units detect steering-wheel position to
generate end stops and just the right amount of resistance
(or feel) to turning, which depends on current driving
conditions. These units add two independent CANbus
interfaces and an electromagnetic brake to the previously
described basic steering unit.
The vehicle controller (via the CANbus) or a micropro-
cessor in the steering unit controls the brake so that torque
resistance on the steering wheel accurately changes to sim-
ulate feedback from mechanical steering units. The brake
also creates left and right end-stops that keep the steering
wheel from turning. The brake lets go when the steering
wheel moves in the opposite direction. Unlike mechanical
or hydraulic steering systems in which end-stops are fixed,
end-stops in these units are programmable. The steering
ratio can also be programmed to vary with vehicle speed
or other operating parameters.
Bui l t -i n redundancy and
fail-safe operation are critical
for safety in steering units. This
means that both the absolute po-
sition sensor and output chan-
nels comprising the microproces-
sors and CANbus interfaces are
designed with internal redun-
dancy. For example, if one of the
two CANbus interfaces fails, the
second will continue to operate,
providing data to the vehicle con-
troller. During normal operations,
these two channels of communi-
cations are continually compared
to each other to ensure both are
providing accurate feedback. If
the vehicle controller detects a
discrepancy between the two sig-
nals, the OEM can design a limp-
home mode that lets the driver
use the vehicle , but with reduced
Bearings and efficiency
Theenglneerlngbehlndbearlngshaschangedovertheyears,lettlngdeslgnersreal-
lzegreateremclenclesandmoreperformance.etthemalntaskofbearlngsremalnsthe
same:reducefrlctlonand,lntheprocess,reduceenergyconsumptlon.
Whlle developlng new bearlng deslgns, researchers rely on sophlstlcated computer
modellng and proprletary software to attack vlrtually every source of bearlng frlctlon.
Wlth roller bearlngs, for lnstance, englneers have tlghtened bearlng speclcatlons and
rened the lnternal geometry of the polymer cage, roller, raceway, and guldlng nange.
Andbearlngcompanlesmakethesedeslgnsuslngpreclsemanufacturlngtechnlques.
Porenergy-emclent(L2)bearlngs,englneersfocusedongettlngthenumberofrollers
[ust rlght.They also wanted to modlfy the raceway to cut the welght of rotatlng parts
byaboutl0%becausellghterbearlngstakelesspowertomove,maklngthemmoreef-
clent.Thelower-welghtmovlngpartsalsohavelesslnertlaandare,therefore,lessllkely
toskldorsmear,whlchreducesperformanceandservlcellfe.L2bearlngsalsogenerate
lessheatandruncooler,extendlngtheservlcellfeofthelubrlcants.
Pelatlvetocomparablyslzedstandardbearlngs,energy-emclentverslonscanreduce
frlctlonallossesby30%ormoreandarewellsultedforgrease-lubrlcated,llght-to-normal
loads such as electrlc motors, pumps, conveyors, and fans. And shlelded verslons have
longerservlcellvesthanstandardbearlngs.
Encoders that are built-in on ac motors can monitor rpm
speed, shaft position, and direction of rotation, and come
in a variety of sizes and styles.
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 76
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PRODUCTS & LIT
Rings and springs
The newly released 2013 50th Anniversary Parts and Engineering Catalog
combines all of the companys 10,000 products into a single entity. Covered
products include the Spirolox Retaining Ring and Wave Spring Series, as well
as the new Metric Hoopster and Laminar Seal Rings.
Laminar-seal rings, an alterna-
tive means of sealing components
in assemblies from contamina-
tion, have been available from the
company for years. The rings better
withstand higher temperatures
and corrosive environments than
common O-rings or conventional
rubber seals. Their increased popu-
larity in metal seals allowed for the
series to be incorporated into the
catalog for the first time. Laminar
Rings can withstand higher tem-
peratures and more corrosive envi-
ronments than common O-rings or
conventional rubber seals.
Smalley Steel Ring Co., 555 Oak-
wood Rd., Lake Zurich, IL 60047, (847)
719-5900, www.smalley.com
RS# 688
PS#l96 PS#l95
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 97
MAY 23, 2013 MACHINE DESIGN.com 98
POSITAPE
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New BEI Sensors Selection Guide Covers Products,
Environments and Technology for Motion Control
BEI Sensors product selection guide
explains the fundamentals of various
speed and position sensing technolo-
gies and how to choose which is best
suited to a particular application.
BEIs extensive line of rugged products
include rotary encoders, rotary and
linear potentiometers and rotary
Hall effect sensors, all of which are
displayed in easy-to-read charts that
summarize the most critical specifca-
tion criteria side-by-side.
www.beisensors.com/guide
RS# 255
Wondering if we carry a cable that meets your specs? Need to
complete your cabling system with the right accessories? Then the
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BUSINESS STAFF
LlectronlcDeslgnMachlneDeslgnMlcrowaves&PPMedlcalDeslgnSourceLSBHydraullcs&PneumatlcsGlobalPurchaslng
DlstrlbutlonPesourcePowerLlectronlcsTechnologyMoblleDevelopmentandDeslgnLnergyLmclency&Technology
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P E NT ON ME DI A, I NC .
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DE S I GN E NGI NE E R I NG & S OUR C I NG GR OUP
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E DI T OR I A L
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ART DIRECTOR: RANDALL L. RUBENKING (216) 931-9857, randall.rubenking@penton.com
A R T DE PA R T ME NT
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GROUP DESIGN DIRECTOR: ANTHONY VITOLO tony.vitolo@penton.com
P R ODUC T I ON
GROUP PRODUCTION DIRECTOR: CAREY SWEETEN (913) 967-1823, carey.sweeten@penton.com
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ONL I NE
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CLASSIFIEDS
To Advortiso in
5)+016-,-;1/6;
ClnssiBods Soction,
contnct Pnul Milnnnow nt
(312) 840-8462,
pnul.nilnnnowponton.con
PRODUCTS/SERVICES
THUMBSCREW
THE ORIGINAL
INSTANT
In most cases, advertisements contained
in Machine Design employment section
indicate that the companies are equal
opportunity employers. The Federal Civil
Rights Act of 1964, and other laws, prohibit
discrimination in employment based on
race, color, religion, national origin, sex, or
for any reason other than lack of professional
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MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 102
BACKTALK
WD-40
Did you know ...
WaterDlsplacement40thformula,
betterknownasWD-40,lsthecre-
atlon of three technlclans at the
Rocket Chemical Co.lnSanDlego
looklngtocreatearust-preventatlve
solvent and degreaser to protect
mlssllepartslnl953.Thetechnlclans
flnallysucceededonthelr40thattempt
attheformulatlon.Oneoftheorlglnal
founders,KenLast,saystherelsnoth-
lnglnWD-40thatcanhurtyou.The
companywasrenamedtoWD-40 Co.
Inc.ZZltsonlyproductlnl969.
Somelnterestlngfactslnclude:
AerospacecontractorConvairflrst
usedWD-40toprotecttheouter
sklnoftheAtlasMlssllefromrust
andcorroslon.Becauseltworkedso
well,severalemployeessnucksome
cansoutoftheplanttouseathome.
Afewyearslater,PocketChemlcalCo.
founderNormLarsenexperlmented
wlthputtlngWD-40lntoaerosolcans,
bellevlngthatconsumersmlghtusetheproductat
homellkehlsemployeeshad.|nl958ltmadeltsflrst
appearanceonstoreshelves.
|nl960,thecompanydoubledlnslze,growlngto
sevenpeople,whosoldanaverageof45cases/day
fromthetrunkofthelrcarstohardwareandsportlng
goodsstoreslntheSanDlegoarea.
|nl96l,theflrstfulltruckloadorderwasfllledwhen
employees produced addltlonal concentrate to
meetthedlsasterneedsofthevlctlmsofHurrlcane
CarlaalongtheU.S.Gulfcoast.WD-40wasusedto
recondltlonfloodandraln-damagedvehlclesand
equlpment.
|nl973,thecompanywentpubllcandwasllsted
Over-The-Counter.Thestockprlcelncreasedby6l%
ontheflrstdayofllstlng.
|nl993,WD-40wasfoundtobeln4outof5Amerl-
canhouseholdsandusedby8l%ofprofesslonalsat
work.Saleshadgrowntomorethanlmlllloncans
eachweek.
|n2003,thenewWD-40BlgBlastcan,featurlnga
wlde-areaspraynozzle,waslntroduced.
|n2005,theWD-40SmartStraw,whlchfeaturesaper-
manentlyattachedstraw,waslntroduced,solvlngthe
numberonecomplalntaboutWD-40productsloslng
thellttleredstraw.
|n2006,theWD-40No-MessPenprovldedconsumers
wlthaportable,preclslon-appllcatlondellverysystem.
TheWD-40PanClubreachedanastonlshlngl00,000
members,atrlbutetoltsfanatlcalfanbasearoundthe
globe.
|n2008,thepopular-slzeWD-40canswerecon-
vertedtoWD-40SmartStrawcans.
|n2009,WD-40TrlggerPro,anonaerosolprod-
uct,waslntroducedtobettermeettheneedsof
lndustrlalconsumers.
|n20ll,theWD-40Speclallstllneofbest-ln-
classspeclaltyproductsgearedtowardtrade
professlonalswaslntroduced.
Today,thereareover2,000+usesforWD-40.
Herearesomesubmlttedtothecompanyon
thelrWebslte.Userscansubmltsuggestlonsat
www.wd40.com/about-us/history.
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PS#l99
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 103
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PS#200
MA23,20l3 MACH|NLDESIGN.com 104
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RS# 201
WE SET
THE STANDARD.
NOW WEVE
DOUBLED THE LIFE.
After leading the way for more than 50 years, the best just got better. Clocking
in at an industry-leading 3000
+
*
miles of travel, the new Bimba Original Line
cylinders
are designed to leave the competition in the dust. These new, non-repairable, round
body cylinders are also lubricated for life to ensure less hassle for the long haul.
To register for a free sample, visit bimba.com/OLroadtrip
INTRODUCING THE BLUE & IMPROVED ORIGINAL LINE
FINALLY A CYLINDER THAT GOES THE EXTRA MILE.
B|MB^ B|^N|3 | Mc^| | M|| | |NcUM^|YNc | 1||
Copyright 2013 Bimba Manufacturing Company. All Rights Reserved. *This life estimate may not include cylinders with design modications, those exposed to harsh operating conditions or any unintended applications.
RS# 202