12

Fire Technology, 48, 807823, 2012 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. Manufactured in The United States DOI: 10.1007/s10694-011-0246-5

Parametric Fires for Structural Design

Kristian Hertz*, Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
Received: 6 February 2010/Accepted: 8 October 2011

Abstract. The authorities, the construction association, and a number of companies in Denmark have supported the author writing a guide for design of building structures for parametric res. The guide is published by the ministry as a supplement to the building regulations. However, consultants and contractors have asked for a reference in English in order to make the guide-lines and the background for them available internationally. The paper therefore presents recommendations from the design guide especially concerning how to assess parametric design res based on the opening factor method for large compartments. Findings leading to the guide-lines are discussed, and it is indicated what a safe design re model means for structural design and how it diers from a safe design re model for evacuation. Furthermore, the paper includes some experiences from the application of the design guide in practise especially concerning implementation of consequences of the latest development of the building technology, where low-energy windows and step-noise damping give rise to changes of the design res.
Keywords: Parametric re, Opening factor, Structural re safety

1. Introduction
The rst structural re safety design was based on experience from real res leading to application of a preferred building technology (as described for example by Vitruvius [1] in Rome). Next step was application of articial re tests, where standardized cribs of wood or coal were ignited and the impact on structural elements observed (as for example applied by Bausinger [2] in Munich for his column tests). When city gas was introduced, gas furnaces were applied by Woolson at Columbia University [3, 4]. This gave rise to development of the standard re temperaturetime curve, which is still widely applied. The curve represents heating of a severe re in a building as it could be made around year 1900, and the re applied can be reproduced, because it is not susceptible to weather conditions or quality of wood or coal. The parametric opening factor method was developed After World War II taking into account re load and ventilation of the compartment (Kawagoe [5] and personal contact).

* Correspondence should be addressed to: Kristian Hertz, E-mail: khz@byg.dtu.dk

808

Fire Technology 2012

Lately CFD (computational uid dynamics) calculations make it possible to model a re development in more details, if the in-data needed can be assessed and agreed. During the last 30 years, calculation of re resistance of structures has become widely applied. The re model used has mainly been the standard re and to a much smaller extent parametric opening factor res. Pettersson et al. [6] made a thorough handbook on parametric design of steel structures, which contains many applicable data for example a good assessment of the inuence of the thermal inertia of the compartment. This assessment has later been veried by Hadvig [7] in his experimental work on the inuence of opening factor res on structures of wood. The experimental basis made by Kawagoe, Pettersson, Hadvig and others for application of opening factor res was limited to small compartments and therefore codes and building regulations usually has a limit of approximately 200 m2. This limit is a problem for example designing structures for oce landscapes and it is a purpose for the present paper and the design guide Hertz [8] to show how a design can be made for compartments with large oor areas. Furthermore, building technology has changed since the early tests were made, and this has severe consequences for the re safety design of structures, which is also demonstrated in the paper.

2. Safe Fire Models

No matter how a design re is created, it is a model of the real world or an impact to be applied instead of a real world re, and if application of it should lead to an increase of re safety, it has to be safe compared to what can be observed and expected in the real world. A re model is safe if it represents a re more severe than the res, which can be expected in the compartment and if it is based on well-documented experiments proving the basic theory and if reliable data can be found for the model. Comparing results of re safety design for a large variety of res and structures of concrete, steel, and wood it is a predominant characteristic that: It takes time for a re impact to penetrate a cross-section. It means that in general a slow re with a low opening factor reduces the loadbearing capacity more than a rapid re with the same re load and a large opening factor. Only the lightest steel structures may be more susceptible to a large opening factor. This is in contrast to design for evacuation, where rapid res with high temperatures are usually the most dangerous. The same re models can therefore not be applied for calculation of evacuation and for structural design, because a safe side assessment of the parameters involved compared to what may be expected in the real world should be reversed. i.e. in terms of an opening factor method the opening factor should be assessed relatively low for structural design and high for evacuation design if it should be safe compared to the real ventilation conditions of a compartment.

Parametric Fires for Structural Design

809

The authors research group is involved in dening CFD models for example for atria and oce buildings and several attempts are made for developing more precise and reliable models for oce landscapes. However, the experience is that many parameters are doubtful and very dierent results are consequences of variation of these parameters within their possible values. Furthermore, several of our authorities do not allow CFD calculations to be used as a basis for structural design because of the uncertainties and because the function-based requirements for structures are more conservative than the requirements for evacuation. The opening factor method represents a more simple procedure for dening fully developed re courses based on a limited number of parameters. This simple design re is so much on the safe side, that consensus has been established between building industry, consulting engineers, contractors, ministry and communities in Denmark, and therefore it is operational without further proof. It is related to re load and thermal conditions of the compartment, and it includes a cooling phase, which is essential to structural design because during this heat proceeds penetrating cross-sections of concrete and insulated steel and charring proceeds in sections of wood before it reaches a nal charring depth. The standard re is simpler, and must be considered as a xed kind of requirement, because it has no cooling phase, which means that the dimension of the tested specimen has an inuence on how much of the damage from a real-re that can take place during the standard re test. Furthermore, the thermal inertia of the specimen inuences the re applied. It is for example our experience that only the half amount of gas is needed to follow the prescribed standard temperaturetime curve if a concrete oor element is insulated than if it is not, while the re load is not coupled to the insulation in real buildings. The standard re requirements should therefore be rather severe compared with requirements related to a more detailed modelling of the real res that can be obtained for example by the opening factor method.

3. Expression for a Parametric Fire

In structural codes like CEN [9], opening factor res are represented by a simple expression for the release of heat from a re load related to the heat transport from the compartment. The rate of combustion is determined by the ventilation of the compartment. A good accordance is proved between simple expressions, more accurate heat balance calculations, and full-scale tests. The author has made the following expression for compartments of height up to 4 m, which was found in the Danish Action Code DS410 [10] and the design guide [8]. It is an extension of a formula by Ulf Wickstro m found in the CEN Action Code EN1991 [9], including a cooling phase and replacing previous time-step calculations of the parametric res as used for example in Pettersson et al. [6].

810 345 log10 8Ct 1  3;5 1 0:04 ttd

Fire Technology 2012

Tg 20

 C;

where

O 2 C
b 0:04 2 1160

td 7:80 103

q min O

Tg is a compartment temperature in C, t time in minutes, td time for end of heating period, O the opening factor in m, q the re load in MJ/m2 enclosing surface, and b the average thermal inertia of the compartment in Ws/(m2K) given by b p kqcp 3

where k is the thermal conductivity in W/(mK), q is the density in kg/m3, and cp is the specic heat capacity in J/(kgK) A parametric re represents the most severe ashover re, which is possible in a compartment, if all combustible material is ignited at once. These preconditions are on the safe side for applying the method as a re exposure for structural calculations. Since structural collapse is not commonly incorporated as a critical condition for risk assessment for evacuation, the safety against structural collapse needs to be high, and a safe side approximation considering a ashover re is therefore justied.

4. Inuence of Development in Building Technology

Application of the parametric opening factor method is only justied, if changes in the building technology are observed and incorporated in the assessment of the parameters. One change of importance is introduction of low-energy windows. These windows have thick glass sometimes in 3 layers and ocers from several Danish re brigades unambiguously report that the new windows in general do not break in re. This means that at least in the Nordic countries, window openings cannot any more be considered as holes when the opening factor is assessed, because the windows are now closed by insulating plates which remain in place during re. They even have to be incorporated as insulating surfaces, when the thermal inertia is assessed. As a consequence a minimum opening factor must be applied unless the compartment has automatic re ventilation. A minimum opening factor according to the design guide [8] is 0.02 m. Further, new increased step-noise requirements in a country like Denmark means that most oor elements in domestic buildings are covered with chipboard on 20 mm to 30 mm mineral wool. This reduces the thermal inertia of the oors,

Parametric Fires for Structural Design

Table 1

811

Max Temperature/Time of Max Temperature and Reduction Factors n for 0.2% Strength of Prestressing Wires 1860 MPa for Standard Fires and for Opening Factor Fires
Depth of wire: St. Fire: 60 min 120 min Parametric re Thermal inertia 1160 Ws/m2C 600 Ws/m2C 300 Ws/m2C 30 mm TC/t min 350/60 528/120 TC/t min 413/150 515/147 616/145 30 mm n 0.4328 0.1163 n 0.3073 0.1326 0.0453 50 mm TC/t min 184/60 344/120 TC/t min 309/199 382/194 451/196 50 mm n 0.7392 0.4445 n 0.5090 0.3697 0.2342 80 mm TC/t min 64/60 174/120 TC/t min 212/265 261/257 306/260 80 mm n 0.9407 0.7576 n 0.6858 0.5969 0.5144

and the inertia 1160 Ws/(m2 K) of a standard compartment is often reduced to about 600 in modern buildings and even 300 if light internal walls are used. This has consequences for the re and the structures exposed to the re as illustrated for a prestressing wire in depths 30 mm to 50 mm and 80 mm of a 215 mm concrete slab in a domestic building with a statistical re load of 200 MJ/m2 enclosed surface and minimum opening factor 0.02 m. The standard re is shown for comparison in Table 1 (calculated by Conre [11]). A requirement of 120 min standard re is seen to be comparable to an opening factor re in a modern domestic building.

5. Compartment Floor Area

It is obvious that the original preconditions for the opening factor method cannot be fullled for large at compartments such as oce landscapes, because a ashover-like re will hardly occur at the same time at any place. This is a reason why action codes prescribe a limit of for example 200 m2 for the application of the opening factor method. A good question is therefore: what happens if the limit is exceeded? It is often possible to divide such compartments by means of planes of symmetry. A long oce landscape with windows to both sides can for example be divided by a centre plane and the half compartment can be divided into rectangular pieces. The planes of symmetry are not included in the enclosed surface, because no heat ux will cross them, but the external walls, the openings in them, and the oors are included in the partial compartment considered. Still the compartment may be large, and the behaviour of it must be analysed. This is done in a series of 9 full-scale tests made by British Steel and Fire Research Station in Cardington. The tests are described in detail in the report Natural Fires in Large Scale Compartments by Kirby et al. [12]. The test series was made in order to evaluate a formula for equivalent time given in the European Action Code CEN [9]. This paper does not comprise the

812
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3

Fire Technology 2012

2 1

Figure 1. tests.

Plan of a part of a large compartment applied for full-scale

concept of equivalent time, which is shown for example in Hertz [13] not to be applicable for concrete structures. Instead, it utilises the excellent raw data from the report in order to document that parametric res are applicable for large at compartments such as oce landscapes. Doing so, these parametric res can be applied for design of any structure of wood, steel, or concrete without any further modications. The author has digitised all data from the measured temperaturetime curves in order to establish the data used (Figure 1). A compartment of internal length 22.855 m, with 5.595 and height 2.750 m had walls and ceiling of light concrete lined with bre wool. The compartment was considered to be a part of a oor in a 46 m wide and innitely long building. In one test (No. 8), gypsum was applied as lining in stead as a reference. The oor was covered with sand, and a re load was applied of 11 rows each with 3 crib res of 1 m 9 1 m. The re load varied between 20 kg and 40 kg wood per m2 oor. The opening at the facade wall was either free or conned by light concrete blocks to be a half, a quarter, or an eight of the size. The inmost row of cribs (nearest to the centre line of the compartment) was ignited at all re tests except Nos. 7 and 9, and the development of the re was registered measuring the temperatures 300 mm from the ceiling at row 2,6, and 10. During all these tests, the re blazed up for a short period at the inmost rows igniting the cribs of the next rows and became extinct. When the outmost rows at the opening had burned out, oxygen from the opening could reach into the compartment, and the re then spread inwards until these areas are burned out. This appears to be a signicant result. At test No. 9, all cribs were ignited simultaneously, and as expected, the re at rst became extinct at the centre of the building, burns out at the facade, and then spread inwards. At test No. 7, the compartment was reduced to a square in order to observe how the opening factor re can model the test re (Figures 2, 3). In order to compare the test result with the calculation, the depth h of the hot zone is found from the total height H as

Parametric Fires for Structural Design

h H
0

813

Figure 2.

Cross-section of test compartment with the hot zone h.

hh

qh H  H,h q0 1 qh
q0

where qh and q0 are densities of the air in the hot and the cold zone given by q0 1:20 kg=m3 og qh 353 kg=m3 273 Th 5

and where the temperature Th of the hot zone to be compared with the measured temperatures is found from the average temperature of the compartment Td as  Th Td 353=1:20 1 273 Th  6

giving the expression Td 273 q T2 d 1718Td 74529 2

Th

In the following the design temperature Td is calculated as an opening factor re, and the corresponding hot zone temperature Th is compared with the temperatures measured 300 mm from the ceiling. The thermal inertia is calculated from the material properties of the report for the inmost linings, because they are mainly decisive for the re development (Table 2).

Table 2

Thermal Inertia Calculated from Material Properties

Thermal conductivity k, W/(mK) 0.020 0.24 1.00

Density q, kg/m3 Ceramic bre wool Gypsum boards Sand 128 900 1750

Specic heat cp, J/(kgK) 1130 1250 800

Thermal inertia b, Ws/(m2K) 53.8 520 1183

814

Fire Technology 2012

In Test 7, a small re compartment is established with a quadratic oor plan of 5.6 9 5.6 m and an opening of of the width and the re load 20 kg wood per m2 oor. This test demonstrates the correlation between the full-scale tests of this series and the opening factor method, because this re compartment is only 31 m2 and therefore within the limits accepted by various action codes. This means that the correlation between test and calculation is considered acceptable on beforehand (Figure 4).

Walls or planes of symmetry Tested compartment Facade

Figure 3.

Plan of innite long room with actual tested compartment.

20 kg/m2 floor 1/4 Opening 1/4 Length Ignition at once B 5.595 m qd 153 H MJ m
2

Test 7
L qf 5.595 m 380 MJ m
2

2.750 m Od

1.370 m
0.5

h 507.1

2.750 m W.s
0.5 2 m .K

0.08 m

bd

1400 1200 1000

Td ( t) Th( t) 800 T1 ( t) 600 TO ( t) 400 200 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

min

t
Figure 4. Test 7. Small quadratic compartment to compare test and opening factor method. Th(t) dashed are calculated temperatures in the hot zone and T1(t) dotted are measured.

Parametric Fires for Structural Design

815
20 kg/m2 floor 1/1 Opening

Test 2
L qf 22.855 m 380 MJ m
2

5.595 m qd 179

H MJ m
2

2.750 m Od

5.595 m
0.5

h 586.5

2.75 m W. s
0.5 2 m .K

0.094 m

bd

C 1400
1200 Td ( t) 1000 Th( t) T2 ( t) T6 ( t) 600 T10 ( t) 400 200 0 800

30

60

90

120

150

min

t
Figure 5. Test 2. Large compartment with full opening ignited at the bottom. Th(t) dashed are calculated temperatures in the hot zone and Td(t) full is the design curve. T2, T6, and T10 are temperatures in row 2, 6, and 10, i.e. in the bottom, middle, and front.

The parametric re TO(t) is assessed for this small compartment, where the enclosing surface is 124 m2, the re load is 96 MJ/m2 enclosing surface, the opening factor 0.05 m, and the thermal inertia 339 Ws/(m2K). Because the tested compartment has 3 light insulated walls with thermal inertia near 0 Ws/(m2K), it can with good approximation be considered as a part of a large innitely long compartment of width 2 times the length of the tested small compartment, where the 3 insulated walls are considered planes of symmetry. A parametric design re Td(t) is calculated for this large innitely long at room. The parameters are found for this large room by counting only the original facade as walls which together with the oor and ceiling constitutes the total enclosing surface to which the re load is related. The enclosing surface is then 78.0 m2, the re load per unit of this is 153 MJ/ 2 m , the opening factor 0.08 m, and the thermal inertia 507 Ws/(m2K). It is observed that the calculated re for the actual tested compartment and the large innitely long room are almost equal. This demonstrates that the insulated

816

Fire Technology 2012

Test 8
L qf 22.78 m 391.4 MJ m
2

20.6 kg/m 2 floor 1/1 Opening, Plaster Board B 5.465 m qd 185 H MJ m

2

2.680 m Od

5.065 m
0.5

h 833

2.68 m W. s
0.5 2 m .K

0.0843 m

bd

1400

C
1200 Td ( t) 1000 Th( t) T2 ( t) T6 ( t) 600 T10 ( t) 400 200 0 800

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

270

300

min

Figure 6. Test 8. Large compartment with full opening and gypsum lining ignited at the bottom. Th(t) dashed are calculated temperatures in the hot zone and Td(t) full is the design curve. T2, T6, and T10 are temperatures in row 2, 6, and 10, i.e. in the bottom, middle, and front.

walls of the small compartment can represent planes of symmetry in a large compartment well. Therefore, only the design curves for the full at compartments are shown in the graphs of the following tests. The temperatures of the hot zone of the compartment are calculated from the average temperatures in order to compare the temperaturetime curve of the opening factor method with the temperatures measured 300 mm from the ceiling in the full-scale test (Figure 4). It is seen from the results that the measured temperaturetime curve is within the calculated indicating that the calculated is on the safe side, which is probably because all the combustion energy of 19 MJ/kg wood is seldom released in the compartment by a real re. The measured curve exceeds the average design curve for a short interval of time, which was expected. From the previous discussion it is seen that this can only theoretically be critical for light steel structures placed close to the ceiling,

Parametric Fires for Structural Design

817
20 kg/m2 floor 1/1 Opening Ignition at once

Test 9
L qf 22.855 m 380 MJ m
2

5.595 m qd 179

H MJ m
2

2.750 m Od

5.065 m
0.5

h 586.5

2.75 m W .s
0.5 2 m .K

0.085 m

bd

1400 1200

Td ( t) 1000 Th( t) T2 ( t) T6 ( t) 600 T10 ( t) 400 200 0 800

30

60

90

120

150

min

Figure 7. Test 9. Large compartment with full opening ignited all over. Th(t) dashed are calculated temperatures in the hot zone and Td(t) full is the design curve. T2, T6, and T10 are temperatures in row 2, 6, and 10, i.e. in the bottom, middle, and front.

but not for structures of concrete, wood, and most protected steel structures. The deviation must therefore be acceptable for a general design curve. The tested compartment is small and within the limits for application of parametric design res. This means that the deviation is already accepted by the codes. The test therefore serves as a validation of the correlation and an indication of what can be accepted (Figure 4). The only dierence between Test 2 and Test 7 was that in Test 2 the re compartment was made 4 times deeper and the opening was made 4 times wider. This means that the opening has the full size of the facade wall. It is clear how the re rapidly became extinct in row 2 and blazed up later. Moving the parametric re curves in time, it is seen that it is neither more unsafe, nor more uncertain to apply them as design models for the re in the dierent rows of the large compartment, than it would be in the small compartment in Test 7. The idealized curves are therefore acceptable for design (Figure 5). Test 8 was equal to Test 2 except for the fact that walls and ceiling were lined with gypsum boards increasing the thermal inertia b from 587 to 833. The

818

Fire Technology 2012

Test 3
L 22.855 m MJ q f 380 2 m B 5.595 m qd

20 kg/m2 floor 1/2 Opening H 2.750 m w 5.195 m h 1.47 m 0.5 MJ W.s 0.5 179 Od 0.034 m bd 586.5 2 2 m m .K

1400 1200

Td ( t) 1000 Th( t) T2 ( t) T6 ( t) 600 T10 ( t) 400 200 0 800

30

60

90

120

150

min

t
Figure 8. Test 3. Large compartment with half opening ignited at the bottom. Th(t) dashed are calculated temperatures in the hot zone and Td(t) full is the design curve. T2, T6, and T10 are temperatures in row 2, 6, and 10, i.e. in the bottom, middle, and front.

temperaturetime curves are now considerably lower, and the design curve is in good agreement with the measured curves, if it is displaced in time. This demonstrates that parametric design res are safe to apply even for light unprotected steel for this compartment with a more realistic value of the thermal inertia. It is now possible to make the general conclusion that a re exposure of a structure in a large at compartment can be modelled by means of a parametric re based on the opening factor method if the compartment is well insulated or has a more usual thermal inertia. The conclusion is valid for heavy as well as for light structures. The re load at Test 2 and 8 is approximately 180 MJ/m2 enclosing surface, which is above the value for oces (Hertz [8] and CEN [9]). This means that the result is applicable for oce landscapes (Figure 6). Test 9 is equal to Test 2 apart from the fact that all parts of the compartment are ignited at the same time. It is clearly seen that the re became extinct in the bottom (in row 2) and in the middle (row 6) after which the re moves inwards.

Parametric Fires for Structural Design

819

Test 5
22.855 m MJ q f 380 2 m L B 5.595 m qd

20 kg/m2 floor 1/4 Opening H 2.750 m w 2.13 m MJ 0.5 179 Od 0.018 m bd 2 m h 586.5 1.73 m 0.5 W.s
2 m .K

1400 1200

Td ( t) 1000 Th( t) T2 ( t) T6 ( t) 600 T10 ( t) 400 200 0 800

30

60

90

120

150

180

min

t
Figure 9. Test 5. Large compartment with a quarter opening ignited at the bottom. Th(t) dashed are calculated temperatures in the hot zone and Td(t) full is the design curve. T2, T6, and T10 are temperatures in row 2, 6, and 10, i.e. in thebottom, middle, and front.

This is almost the same picture as seen for Test 2. The conclusion is that the applicability of the parametric re is not aected by simultaneous ignition of a large compartment (Figure 7). Where the opening was the full facade in Test 2, it was half in Test 3, a quarter in Test 5 and an eighth in Test 6. Everything else was the same. This means that the opening factors for the design res were 0.094 m, 0.034 m, 0.018 m, and 0.0044 m. It is seen that the re courses becomes slower in all three positions of the compartment, when the opening factor is reduced. The maximum temperatures become especially small for the smallest opening (Figures 8, 9, 10). Finally, the test series comprises two tests with a larger re load of 40 kg wood/ m2 oor instead of 20. Apart from this, Test 1 is identical with Test 2 with full opening, and likewise Test 3 can be compared with Test 4 with the half opening. It can be concluded that an increase of the re load to one which may occur in a factory or a shop, and which is much more than will be found in an oce, does

820

Fire Technology 2012

Figure 10. Test 6. Large compartment with an eighth opening ignited at the bottom. Th(t) dashed are calculated temperatures in the hot zone and Td(t) full is the design curve. T2, T6, and T10 are temperatures in row 2, 6, and 10, i.e. in the bottom, middle, and front.

not aect the conclusion concerning the applicability of parametric res (Figures 11, 12).

6. Conclusions
It takes time for a re impact to penetrate a cross-section and the cooling period is therefore important for the re safety. An expression is given for parametric design res including the cooling period for compartments of height up to 4 m. It is demonstrated that modern building technology with low-energy windows and step-noise insulated oors leads to more severe design res and that a minimum opening factor of 0.02 m must be applied if forced ventilation is not implemented. It is especially concluded that parametric design res based on the opening factor method are applicable for structural design of large at compartments with oor areas of more than 200 m2 and heights up to 4 m, because the deviations between measured and calculated re courses are not more critical for the design for large at compartments than for small.

Parametric Fires for Structural Design

821

Test 1
L qf 22.855 m 760 MJ m
2

40 kg/m2 floor 1/1 Opening B 5.595 m qd 358 H MJ m

2

2.750 m Od

w 0.094 m

5.595 m
0.5

h 586.5

2.75 m W.s
0.5 2 m .K

bd

1600 1400

Td ( t)

1200

Th( t) 1000 T2 ( t) 800 T6 ( t) 600 T10 ( t) 400 200 0

30

60

90

120

150

min

t
Figure 11. Test 1. Large compartment with full opening and double re load ignited at the bottom. Th(t) dashed are calculated temperatures in the hot zone and Td(t) full is the design curve. T2, T6, and T10 are temperatures in row 2, 6, and 10, i.e. in the bottom, middle, and front.

It is also concluded that parametric res are not only applicable for large at compartments used as oces, but also if they have larger re loads as may occur in factories or shops. Walls of symmetry conning a part of the compartment considered are not taken into account. In practise, this means that a parametric re can be calculated per unit length of a building only regarding the oor, ceiling, and facades.

Acknowledgements
The author would like to express his gratitude to the Danish Enterprise and Construction Authority, the Danish Construction Association, and a number of contractors and consulting companies for encouraging and supporting the work of the design guide on which the present paper is based, and to British Steel and BRE-Fire Research Station for oering the data from their test series to public use.

822

Fire Technology 2012

Test 4
L 22.855 m MJ q f 760 2 m B 5.595 m qd

40 kg/m2 floor 1/2 Opening H 2.750 m w 5.195 m h 1.47 m 0.5 MJ W. s 0.5 358 Od 0.034 m bd 586.5 2 2 m .K m

1400 1200

Td ( t) 1000 Th( t) T2 ( t) T6 ( t) 600 T10 ( t) 400 200 0 800

50

100

150

200

250

min

t
Figure 12. Test 4. Large compartment with half opening and double re load ignited at the bottom. Th(t) dashed are calculated temperatures in the hot zone and Td(t) full is the design curve. T2, T6, and T10 are temperatures in row 2, 6, and 10, i.e. in the bottom, middle, and front.

References
1. Vitruvius VP (1960) Ten books on architecture, Book 2, chap 9, 16, English by Morgan MH. Harvard University Press 1914, Dover Publications Inc, New York 2. Bausinger J (1885) Columns of cast iron, malleable iron, and stone exposed to re and rapid cooling (Ueber das Verhalten gusseiserner, schmiedeiserner und strinerner Sa ulen im Feuer und bei rascher Abku hlung). Mittheilungen aus dem Machanisch-Technischen Laboratorium der K. Technischen Hochschule in Mu nchen 3. Babrauskas V, Williamson RB (1978) The historical basis of re resistance testingpart I. Fire Technol 14(3)304316 4. Babrauskas V, Williamson RB (1978) The historical basis of re resistance testingpart II. Fire Technol 14(4):184194 5. Kawagoe K, Sekine T (1963) Estimation of re temperature-time curve in rooms. Building Research Institute Occasional Report 11, Tokyo 6. Pettersson O, Magnusson S-E, Thor J (1976) Fire engineering design of steel structures. Swedish Institute of Steel Construction Publication No. 50, Stockholm

Parametric Fires for Structural Design

823

7. Hadvig S (1981) Charring of wood in building res. Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 8. Hertz KD (2006) Guide for design of building structures for fully developed res (In Danish), version 23. National Agency for Enterprise and Construction, Copenhagen 9. CEN (2002) Eurocode 1: actions on structures. EN 1991-1-2. Brussels konstruktioner. DS 410 (code for actions on 10. Dansk Standard (1999) Norm for last pa structures). Copenhagen 11. Hertz KD (2008) Users guide for the program ConFire, 1st ed. Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Denmark. Available at http://www.byg.dtu.dk/ Forskning/Software.aspx 12. Kirby BR, Wainman DE, Tomlinson TL, Kay TR, Peacock BN (1994) Natural res in large scale compartments. British Steel, BRE-Fire Research Station 13. Hertz KD (1983) Equivalent time of re exposure for concrete structures. report 163. Department of Civil Engineering 1983, CIB W14/83/3(DK)