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Q.1. Ans. What is computer architecture and advance computer architecture? COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE: Computer Architecture is a combination of software (set of instructions) and hardware. In which the instructions are implemented on hardware to perform some task or operation. ADVANCE COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE: Its a computer architecture, which is in the form of abstraction and which reflects the advancement in the languages and hardware used. It means the more efficient use of languages on the hardware with the help of advancement in different parts of computer. Q.2. What is the concept of computer architecture?

Ans. The Concept of Computer Architecture: Evolution and interpretation Levels of abstraction Hierarchical framework Extensions Description of computer architectures Q.3. What is the evolution of computer architecture?

Ans. Evolution of the concept of computer architecture: Computer architecture (programmers view) The structure of a computer that a machine language programmer must understand to write a correct (timing independent) program for the machine Computer organization (implementers view) Actual hardware structure and realization Hierarchical, multilevel description Electronic circuit, logic design, programming, processor-memory-switch Functional specification and hardware implementation Q.4. What is the evolution of computer architecture?

Ans. Computer architecture Underlying computational model o Von Neumann, dataflow, Level of consideration o Micro machine, processor, computer system Scope of interest o Functional specification, implementation Abstract Architecture Concrete Architecture Programming Model Hardware Model Logical Design Physical Design Registers, EU Circuits, Signals Interconnections Interconnections Ops, MicroInst, Inst Associated Signals Q.5. ? Ans. What is the hierarchical description of digital systems Hierarchical description of digital systems:

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Operating system Computer system Processor Functional block Circuit Circuit elements

Q.6. ? Ans.

What is the description of computer architecture Description of computer architectures Informal description An informal description is used in most papers introducing a new architecture or in papers comparing existing architectures. Formal description A formal description is required if a precise, unambiguous representation is needed, such as for inputting architecture specifications into a CAD package. Description by ADLs (VHDL) A fixed set of design decisions is assumed. Description by a design space using DS-trees All considered design aspects & available choices for each of the aspects can be represented by means of DS-trees. What are imperative languages and give examples? IMPERATIVE LANGUAGES: We can define such languages according to the characteristics that they display. By default, statements (commands) are executed in a step wise, sequential manner. As a result order of execution is crucial. Destructive assignments the effect of allocating a value to a variable has the effect of destroying any value that the variable might have had previously. Control is the responsibility of the programmer programmers must explicitly concern themselves with issues such as memory allocation & declaration of variables.

Q.7. Ans.

EXAMPLES: C, FORTRAN, AND PASCAL. Q.8. Ans. Why imperative languages are important? IMPORTANCE OF IMPERATIVE LANGUAGES: The importances of imperative languages are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. The imperative paradigm is the most established paradigm. It is much more in time with the computer communitys way of thinking. Imperative programs tend to run much faster than many other types of programs. Programmers are prepared to sacrifice some of the advance features & programming convenience generally associated with high-level languages in exchange for speed of execution.

Q.9. Ans.

What is computational model? COMPUTATIONAL MODEL: The combination of languages and the computer architecture in a common foundation or paradigm is called Computational Model. The concept of computational model represents the higher level of abstraction than either the computer architecture or the programming language alone, covers the both.

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The computational model comprises the set of the following abstractions. The basic items of computation. The problem description model. The execution model. Q.10. Ans. . Variables (named data entities) Memory or registers location. Q.11. Ans. What is problem description model and what are its parts? PROBLEM DESCRIPTION MODEL: The problem description model refers to both the style and the method of problem description. It means that how the problem will be solved and how its solution will be made. PARTS: Style: The problem description style specifies how the problem in a particular computational model is described. It has two types: 1. Procedural Style: In this style the algorithm for solving the problem is stated. 2. Declarative Style: In this style all the facts and relationships relevant to the given problem have to be stated. It also has two ways i.e. using functions (methods) or predicates (conditional structure). What are basic items of computation in computational model? THE BASIC ITEMS OF COMPUTATION: Data, object, argument and functions, element of sets and the predicates

Method: The problem description method specifies what will be the method that will be following to solve the problem. It also has two types: 1. Solution Based: this method states how the solution of the problem is to be described. E.g., Von Neumann Model solution lies in the sequential execution of instruction expressing an appropriate algorithm. 2. Problem Based: it specifies how the problem is to described e.g. applicative model problem is represented set of function which express relationships and facts pertaining to the problem. Q.12. Ans. What is execution model and what are its parts? EXECUTION MODEL: The third and last element of the computational model describes that how the execution will be performed on the instructions after selecting the problem description style and method. It has also has three parts which are discussed below: 1. Interpretation of how to perform the computation: which is strongly related to the problem description method. The computation has to be interpreted as the execution of the given sequence of instructions. 2. Execution Semantics: this can be interpreted as a rule that prescribes how a single execution step is to be performed. It has four types: State Transition Semantics: it states that how the data will change its stated during execution. The Von Neumann, Turing and Object-based model, uses it. Data Flow Semantics: it states that how the data will flow during the execution. Data flow model uses this type of execution semantics. Reduction Semantics: its applied to the applicative model. SLD-Resolution Semantics: its applied to the predicate logic-based model.

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3. Control of the execution sequence: it specifies that how the execution will be controlled. It has also three types: Control-driven: it is assumed that there exists a program consisting of a sequence of instruction. Implicit execution sequence. Explicit control instructions are also there. It is the characteristic of Von Neumann and Object-based model. Data-driven: operation is activated as soon as all the needed input data is available. This mode of sequence control is also called eager evaluation. It is the characteristic of Dataflow model. Demand-driven: operation is activated only when their execution is needed to achieve the final result. This mode of execution control is also called lazy evaluation because the delayed until need philosophy is applied. It has the characteristics of Applicative model.

Q.13. Ans.

Draw the complete hierarchy of computational model?

COMPUTATIONAL MODEL

Basic items of computation

Problem Description Model

Execution Model

Data Objects

Sets

Style

Method

Interpretation Execution Control of of how to Semantics execution perform the sequence computation Declarative

Procedural

Declarative Using Functions Using Predicates

Procedural

State Transition semantics

Dataflow Reduction Semantics Semantics

SLD Resolution Semantics

Control driven
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Data driven

Demand driven

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Q.14. Ans. What are the concepts of computational model, programming language & architecture explain with the help of diagram? Every computational model uses two things one are programming language and the other is corresponding computer architecture. Programming language is the specification part and computer architecture is the implementation part. Concepts of computational model, programming language, and architecture

Specification tool

Computational Model

Implementation tool

Execution Programming Language

Q.15. Ans. What are the features of Von Neumann model? FEATURES OF VON NEUMANN MODEL: Variables are implemented as addressable locations in the memory or register. Sequencing is implemented by storing index of instruction in PC (Program Counter). Q.16. Ans. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Von Neumann model? ADVANTAGES: It can be easily implemented. DISADVANTAGES: Sequential in nature. History sensitive. o Not referentially transparent. o Side effect. Q.17. List down points of typical evolution?

Computer Architecture

Ans. Typical Evolution Computation model Corresponding programming language Corresponding architecture Q.18. What are the basic computational models?

Ans. Basic computational models: Turing Von Neumann Object based

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Q.19. Ans. Dataflow Applicative Predicate logic based

Explain Von Neumann model? The von Neumann computational model:

Basic items of computation are data Variables (named data entities) Memory or register locations whose addresses correspond to the names of the variables Data container Multiple assignments of data to variables are allowed. Problem description model is procedural (sequence of instructions). Execution model is state transition semantics

Q.20. Ans.

Finite State Machine

What are the key characteristics of Von Neumann model? Key characteristics of the von Neumann model Consequences of multiple assignments of data

History sensitive. Side effects.

Consequences of control-driven execution ++ Easily be implemented Related language

Computation is basically a sequential one.

Allow declaration of variables with multiple assignments. Provide a proper set of control statements to implement the control-driven mode of
execution. Q.21. Ans. What are the extensions of Von Neumann model? Extensions of the von Neumann computational model: New abstraction of parallel execution Communication mechanism allows the transfer of data between executable units Unprotected shared (global) variables Shared variables protected by modules or monitors Message passing, and Rendezvous Synchronization mechanism is to impose restrictions on the execution sequence of the executable units. Semaphores Signals

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Events Queues Barrier synchronization. Data sharing mechanism is needed to declare whether parallel executable units are (processes) are allowed to access a common data space (shared variable concept) or whether distinct processes have access to their local data spaces. Also a communication mechanism should be provided for accessing data pertaining to other processes (often termed as message-passing concept).

Q.22. Ans.

What are the key concepts relating to computational models? Key concepts relating to computational models: Granularity Complexity of the items of computation Size Fine-grained (e.g. Assembly) Middle-grained Coarse-grained (e.g. High-level language) Typing Data based type ~ Tagged Object based type (object classes)

Q.23. Ans.

Define the following terms with their types? TYPED: which are declared variable with specific data type for example in C/C++, Java, VB and so on. Strongly typed: when you declare any variable and you give wrong input it will give error. Weakly typed: languages in which errors are not normally generated. UNTYPED: which are not declared variable with specific data types for example in GWBasic. TAGGED ARCHITECTURE: those architectures in which variables are tagged are called tagged architectures. PREFETCH: it is a technique, which you use to do more instructions at the same time. SOME ABBREVIATIONS: VLSI - Very Large Scale Integration. SISD - Single Instruction Single Data Stream. SIMD - Single Instruction Multiple Data Stream. MISD - Multiple Instruction Single Data Stream. MIMD- Multiple Instruction Multiple Data Stream. CMOS Component Metal Oxide Semiconductor CISC - Complex Instruction Set Code RISC Reduced Instruction Set Code SFI Set Flag Interrupt CLI Clear Flag Interrupt MAR Memory Address Register MBR Memory Buffer Register

Q.24.

What is an Instruction cycle?

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Ans. INSTRUCTION CYCLE: There are two steps Fetch. Execute. Fetch Cycle

Execution Cycle

START

Fetch Next Instruction

Execute Instruction

HALT

Q.25. Ans.

What is a Fetch cycle? FETCH CYCLE: Program counter (PC) holds address of next instruction to be fetched. Processor fetches instruction from memory location pointed to by PC. Increment PC. o Unless told otherwise. Instruction loaded into instruction register (IR). Processor interrupts instructions & performs required action. Program Status Word (PSW). o Which holds information all the registers like a snapshot. All values are saved we can use in context switching. Describe Execution cycle? EXECUTION CYLCLE: Process or memory. o Data transfer between CPU & main memory. Processor I/O. o Data transfer between CPU & I/O module. Data Processing. o Some arithmetic or logical operation on data. Control. o Alteration of data. Jumping.

Q.26 Ans.

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