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Marxism, Labor, and the Failed Critique of Religion Author(s): Alexander Saxton Source: Science & Society, Vol. 70, No. 3 (Jul., 2006), pp. 308-336 Published by: Guilford Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40404838 . Accessed: 30/05/2013 19:01
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Vol. 70, No. 3,July2006, 308-336 Science & Society,

/' V

Marxism, Labor,and theFailed Critiqueof Religion*

ALEXANDER SAXTON
the ABSTRACT: Marxism inherited from theLeft Enlightenment task ofinterpreting human in materialist terms. Such an history ina matobe credible, would needtobe grounded interpretation, ofreligion's Marx andEngels, terialist account andpower. origins Volume before for revolution andlongbefore calling proletarian I of Capital, that criticism of must specified religion precedeall criticism. a clear Yetneither (norlater Marxists) they developed norspelled outtheassumed between disdefinition, relationship belief and working-class liberation. Since- throughout thesocalledEra of Secularism from to theEnlightenment (roughly, World War classes tobe more have tended II) - working religious thanmiddle the"problem" an obofreligion remained classes, toMarxian stacle Thusthefailure oftheMarxist politics. critique notonly left this more left unresolved, but, problem importantly, secularism itself theresurgence disarmed of intellectually against belief that followed theSecondWorld War. religious

CULTUREAND POLITICS through thelate19th andfirst half ofthe20th centuries the provided cutting edge for theanti-religious oftheEnlightenment. When heritage Marxchoseforhisdoctoral thesis a comparison oftwoclassical ma* An earlier version ofthis waspresented in October 2003as a discussion essay paperat theLaborHistory Seminar directed Marcus Rediker attheUniversity ofPittsbyProfessor criticisms and suggestions made during thediscussion havebeen Comments, burgh. to me in laterrevisions. I am grateful to Professor Rediker and faculty and stuhelpful dents in theseminar fortheir interest and assistance. Forreadings at variparticipating ousstages andcritical I alsowant tothank Michael Furrow, Kuttnauer, suggestions Dwight DavidRoediger, Robert Charles Sellers andJack McLeod, Raines, Jonathan John Rydell, Weston.

308

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he wasdeclaring terialists and Epicurus), hisindepen(Democritus And dencefrom idealism. lest there be as to his doubt Hegelian any in hisforeword views on religion, he included a inromantic (1841) ofPrometheus: vocation
makes no secret "Insooth ofit.Prometheus' admission: allgods Philosophy I hate"[Aeschylus, Prometheus is itsownadmission, itsownmotto Unbound] and earthly, whodo notacknowledge all gods,heavenly theconagainst . . . Prometheus is thenoblest sciousness ofmanas thesupreme of deity. in thecalendar saints and martyrs ofphilosophy. (ME, 1964,13-4.)

in a critical on Hegel,Marxwrote Threeyears that critilater, essay ofreligion "isthepremise ofall criticism," andwent on tocharcism as "theopiumof thepeople"(41-2). All thiswas acterize religion ofDas Kapital in 1867andfour thefirst volume before 20 years years Marx andFriedrich nowpartners, issued their famous before Engels, "The proletarians in the Communist havenothManifesto: challenge . their chains. . . of all unite!" to lose but countries, Workingmen ing and titles are well I These what known; (ME, 1998,77). quotations ofreligion istheir Criticism both needtostress chronology. preceded ofindustrial revolt and theanalysis thecall forproletarian capitalas a sensethatsocialist ism.The orderofpriority conveyed theory and remained Marx and by Engelsbeganfrom, deeply developed ofreligion. in,therejection grounded Ifsuchwerethecase,one wouldexpectto find religion clearly the located within dialectic of class anditsnegation defined centrally heldassumption, butalmost Thatindeedhasbeena widely conflict. The factis thatreligion is nowhere demistaken. clearly certainly between disbelief and in Marxian noris therelation fined writings, out.Religion isgenerally linked revolution fully spelled working-class the latter understood as false consciousness to negatively ideology, class(Seliger, 1977,30-1,notes20,21); but bytheruling promoted ornecessarily forms ofideology, existed whether part religion simply in This of remains lack to it, unexplained. precision theorizing prior - hampered - as I will Marxian follows pracargueinwhat religion the 19th and tical 20thcenturies; and,at longer throughout politics secularism of themodern thedominant undercut era,thus range, of belief for the the following resurgence religious leaving way open theSecondWorld War.

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to theManifesto 1. FromFeuerbach

idealism from their break Marxand Engels tellus that Hegelian Feuerfrom aswell)wasinspired (andpresumably byLudwig religion a mahad Feuerbach bach'sEssence (1841). proposed ofChristianity inprimeval times account ofreligion: humans terialist imagined gods samegods; those intheir andworshipped ownimage, then projected ofthemas they camegradually to realize thegodswerereflections divine essence oftheir the so they wouldgradually selves, recognize no less but a similar Marx and ambiguhumanity. Engelsadopted inMarx's doctoral thesis ousformulation. Prometheus proappears drawn oftheboundary as does thefuzziness Feuerbachian, foundly he was in Wellversedthough therebetween humanand divine.1 - knowing bornof gods and Greekmythology thatPrometheus, himhuman had to be a god - Marxnonetheless titans, assigned ofphilosophy." in thecalendar status: "noblest ofsaints and martyrs If isa property or WasMarx divinity directly metaphorically? speaking in cosmos? Had inherent the ofthehuman it not also be must species for substituted a Feuerbach Spinozean pantheism Christianity's simply conorthodox theism? 2001,159-74).AndMarxand Engels (Israel, in this? themselves from curred Feuerbach, yet Theysoondistanced tasks on the would not hesitate to they impose proletarians god-like ofPrometheus. and these ambivalences ofconcept anddefinition, Marx Despite and foesofinstitutional remained non-believers Engelsthemselves This from the Left religion. heritage Enlightenment they powerfully on their thushelping to insure thatMarxism followers, impressed thenext anda half would serve as a prime for through century target - morethan multitudinous Atthesametime defenders. religion's - Marxofradical anyother19th-century tendency anti-capitalism ismremained and working-class open to laborunionism politics. Marxian activists influential leaders inboththese proved enterprises. It maynotbe irrelevant, to askhowsuccessful were therefore, they inpursuing theparty lineon religion, andwhether itproved an asset
1 As accurately this"fuzziness," I quotea comment Lichtman at a rendering byRichard on "Marxism andChristianity" Herbert in 1968: "Feuersymposium organized by Aptheker bach's'reduction' ofreligion . . . must notbe misunderstood. . . . The process is one of exaltation for theintention is nottolower Godand religion to mere butto anthropology, raisemanto thelevelofthedivine" tovarying con1968,75). Forreference (Aptheker, ofreligion heldbyMarx and Engels, see note4, below. cepts

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in organizing or a hindrance norto inquire Marxand workers; why chose to make criticism of the fortheir Engels religion "premise" in political project revolutionary economy. in thisessayare global,although the Obviously mypurposes to I fill which can them out remains modest. At I can most, degree sketch contours ofthequestions for meatleast are justposed(which newones), and suggest I willbeginwith tentative answers. thelast Anappraisal first. ofhowMarx andEngels themquestion positioned selves with to the at middle of the 19th and respect religion century, took the stance more or less to did,points they why they logically an examination ofhowthat stance worked outlater fortheir followers. The research forsuchan examination on anynational required letaloneglobal scaleisimmense. Someofithasalready beendone. In theU. S. field, which boundaries for mostof however, provides if much has been I done have notyet encountered my presentation, it.Consequently, I willbe speaking (somemight tentatively sayevain the I middle that will as move as posis, sively) portions: quickly sibleto the20thcentury and talk moreaboutpersonal experiences in thelabormovement thanaboutarchival discoveries. weneedtoask- andthis will metotheconcluding Finally, bring section why such at all? For as for most ofmy me, pursue questions academic within 15 or so of talk" talk colleagues years my age,"god about both seemed useless and distasteful. Had we not been religion raised theEraofSecularism? What hasreligion todo with the during of modern times? We were that the so-called Era of history forgetting Secularism itself hasa history that with the and began Enlightenment ended theSecond World War.2 Sincethen ithasbeeninselfjustafter mode.To bring us intoourownpost-secular era,letme destructing a of scholar who an anedited quote contemporary religion recently the Marx on "In the thology bearing title, Religion. twenty-first century," he writes, tobe a major historical force for thefirst "religion promises in four time hundred ... In this newcentury thevalues Marx years. for . . . their find most effective advocate in world fought may religions." While thefirst ofthis statement seems thelast accurate, part directly I think remains dubious 2002,12-13). (Raines, part
on secularism literature and religious 2 Thereis an immense revival. Forpresent purposes reference toMatthew Arnold's "Dover Beach"(1867) andNewman's Sua Apologia proVita then andBellah, 221-2, Cox,1965; 1960; (1947,123,181, 236); 1968; Shapley, McLoughlin Cox,1995willbe sufficient.

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Now:to Marx, Engelsand thelineon religion. We need to notethat careers fallwithin their theopening cenof the Era in of Secularism. for the first time more Non-belief, tury - eventosome than wasbecoming fifteen hundredyears, intellectually extent Orthodox Protestant orCathosocially tolerable. religionists, controlled most institutions such as and state lic,still major city governments and universities Western throughout Europe,yetfaced articulate from resistance educatedopponents increasingly among theupperclasses. Millin Enwhen Thus,forexample, JohnStuart thatthe"whole oftheprevalent ofthe glanddeclared metaphysics a "tissue of suborned in evidence favor present century" comprises ofreligion" he was what Marx (Mill,1969,72), saying approximately andEngels were andtargeting thesameGerman idealist metasaying, wererebelling WhileforMillthemainenemy physics they against. wasKant, itwasofcourse for Marx andEngels. Different Hegel though thesystems ofthese it would not be inaccurate to were, philosophers describe bothas idealist constructions to protect designed religion. Protect it against what? the oncoming Era of Secularism: Against the rise of cumulative disillusionrationalism; against skeptical against ments attached tothememory ofreligious wars that hadraged across theencroachments ofempiri200 years; Europeforalmost against cal scienceintoorthodox belief. Marxand Engelsin all thesecontroversial areasstoodon solidground to theextent that their peers in classstatus and education werelikely to remain tolerant toward criticisms of religion which of themalready shared(Carver, many 1989,1-59). Yetno suchimmunity wouldattach to radical criticisms ofclass The in a dialectic broad sense had idealized the hierarchy. Hegelian cosmos as ongoing Morenarrowly, that of spiritual process. portion it paralleling humanhistory could be analogized to Christian doctrine. God's decision to createa world (inpopulated bycreatures established the antithesis. Conflict stemmed from humans) cluding thewilled actofhumancreatures to use their for God-given liberty rebellion the Creator. after turns of the Resolution, against many must await theadvent ofChrist, outofmortal flesh dialectic, begotten divine and thus the within which the by spirit, providing synthesis and divine, Creator and created will at lastbe opposites mortal to the famous Marx had arrived at his rejoined. According legend, classinterpretation ofhumanhistory an intellectual tour by deforce,

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one. dialectic intoa materialist is bytranslating that Hegel'sidealist of a thenarrative ofpushing Instead through progression metaphysihuman wouldnowbe madeto convey thedialectic cal abstractions, in thelanguage ofhistorical realism. classstruggles in the the dialectic occurs of materialist A full-dress presentation There are some Communist (1848). conceptual baffling Manifesto I willmention ofwhich aboutthis transformation, (at this problems in which a seriesofstruggles comprises point)onlyone. Ifhistory to classes one another antithetical) (therefore overpower exploited there wouldseemno positsowndominance, each in turn establish occurred unlessa classformation thisrepetition sibleescapefrom somehow had thepower(or lackofpower!)to breakout of which model- that theoriginal thecycle. is,theHegeliandiaRecalling - itisobvious Christian the the enacted that lectic story symbolically terminates whobyhissacrificial death toChrist, rolebelonged crucial Yet creator and created. between thelongchainofcontradictions all the actors is turned down and dialectic idealist whenthis upside deare conditioned active become"real, men,as they bya definite formation what sort of class of their forces," productive velopment role?(ME, 1970,47). "The to playa comparable couldbe expected theMarxian thenon - " writes forMarxfrom idea - fundamental wasa class which could theproletariat "that Eric Hobsbawm, historian, a first as without itself notliberate liberating society whole, thereby ofobrather thana product deduction appearsas 'a philosophical makesitsfirst . . . 'the proletariat servation'. appearancein Marx' as thesocialforceneeded to realizetheaimsof German writings theidealized . . .'" Needed,that is,to materialize figure philosophy ofPrometheus 1998,22-3). (Hobsbawm, toProletarians 2. Prometheans He did. Marxand Engelsalways Did Hobsbawm saydeduction? or rather thanChristian as scientific socialist insisted on their theory in the 19th cenas understood least however Science, (at Utopian. butinductions from noton deduction , rests allegeduniversais, tury) in The Condition observation. from ofthe Working Engels, empirical and shattering an empirical ClassinEngland (1845), had provided His work of capitalist of thebeginnings manufacturing. portrayal of on to the contributed accuracy Capital, predictive undoubtedly

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which the two authors later collaborated; yet it hardly offersmuch evidence for the Promethean (or Christ-like)role assigned to prole-

tariansin TheCommunist Manifesto.

as the as filthy abouthere, swarm and children women A hordeofragged in lives these race that . . . The the that thrive swine heaps. garbage upon of the lowest have reached . must . . ruinous stage humanity. really cottages areconchildren ofworkingmen's mass towhich thegreat . . . The neglect race.. . . Liquorisalmost ofthewhole theenfeeblement . . . brings demned ofworking number as a great ... Asinevitably source ofpleasure. their only influruinous its it manifest does so to drink, menfallprey just inevitably and mindofitsvictims. enceuponthebody 98, 132-3.) 1987, (Engels, How could a "race" so reduced in vitalenergyand self-esteem and raise the findcourage to breakfreefromreligioussuperstition did hisbest than an no less enthusiast bannerofrevolt? Marx, Engels, he this to answers to discover education," question."Faulty empirical from "saves[thenewproletarian] religious prepossessions, speculated, thatholds the bourgeoisie he ... knowsnothingof the fanaticism milieu bound . . ." (151). For Engels,raisedin a hardshellCalvinist if arrived even from 1989, 1-30), anyestrangement (Carver, religion, and he foundhope also in thefirst was a positive at bydefault, factor; who can "The Englishworkingman of classconsciousness. flickerings his where well knows less nevertheless read and still write, very scarcely and thatof the nationlies" (Engels, 1987, 141). "They own interest a power form feebleas individuals, that, they though beginto perceive awakens. . . theworkers of oppression united.. . . The consciousness such as thesereattainsocial and politicalimportance" (148). Entries in tone,whereas theovercautiousand tentative mainfewin number, and of book is on thrust degradationEngels' despair whelming and death wretchedness oftheworkers, disease, malnutrition, suffering of theirwomen and children. whenthesesame proletarians Yetonlythreeyears later, reappear in the Communist have takena newlease on life.A key Manifesto, they - and announcingtheir historic "condition" their passagedescribing mission runsas follows: thesamein . . . modern modern to capital, industrial labour, subjection him [the in has as in in America as France, Germany, stripped England are of national character. of trace Law, morality, religion, proletarian] every

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to him so manybourgeoisprejudices, behind whichlurkin ambushjust as . . . All previous historical movements weremovemanybourgeoisinterests. . . . The proletarianmovementis the self-conscious, mentsof minorities. in the interestof the independent movementof the immense majority, The proletariat, the loweststratum immensemajority. of our presentsothewhole superincumbent strata of ciety. . . cannotraiseitself up, without official society being sprunginto the air. (ME, 1998, 48-9.)

a contrast! The industrial What transcends notonly worker, reborn, but as well; nationalism, law, bourgeois bourgeois morality, religion and not bydefault but as a result of purposeful Deconthought. of ideology, themysteries theproletarian "the structing energizes of is immense humankind no evidence (there majority" empirical in Engels'bookto support whatever this whose fate now assertion), on theintegrity rests ofworking-class consciousness. Hereis a transto thelastmovement formation ofBeethoven's Ninth comparable and we need to understand share of some the same Symphony, they The new rises as culture hero for the proletarian up ingredients. oftheworld, to workers them the "self-evident of truths" revealing their which liketheaxioms ofEuclidean on condition, geometry - compel aremodeled total and which actions that they acceptance itcan be shown accordtherewith 1987,50,65). YetI think (Engels, in I do the next of will to that section) (as try many thedifficulties Marx encountered difficulties endemic toworking-class andEngels a the next and half stemfrom this throughout century politics theidealized and a Marxian mismatch between commitproletarian at an empirical levelwith therealworld. ment to stand
3. DialecticsoftheWelfare State

in the1840s ofMarxand Engels weretheir anticiTwomistakes revolution andtheir belief that must ofimmediate proletarians pation had (64,151,243). On bothpoints, religion necessarily reject Engels his observations of life could what English working-class beyond pushed this. a and Marxwent sustain, alongwith Together, they developed from in revolts the17th historical building upward peasant argument ofthe18th thegreat revolutions andChartism inthe through century, - all securely within real(empirical) anchored 19th history then, led an future insurrection to however, byEngland's imagined leaping

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oftheworld which would thenations (ME,1970, proletarians engulf in wrote soon "must break out . . . Revolution, 1845, 66-88). Engels incomparison to with which theFrench Revolution . . . will prove have beenchild'splay"(Engels, of 1987,64). Thencametherevolutions which in in the Rhineaction 1848, they supported (Engels military as bourgeois and constitutionalist 1989, land); butviewed (Carver, to the insurrection 80, 86) merely preliminary they proletarian were him1987,22). Many later, (Kiernan, predicting years blaming self fortheir failed itto "youthful ardor" prophecy, Engelsascribed I am here Marxism not concerned with 1987, 38, itself, 46). (Engels, with credits and I demerits between its founders. apportioning supardent thanEngels; pose Marxto havebeen no lessyouthfully they were inage;both two were barely years apart gripped byexpectations - what that led them to at leastgo beyond transcend or perhaps theempirical evidence warranted. with toreligion, were Moreover, especially respect they hampered in their inherent classbackground. as Secularism, bymisperceptions I notedearlier, in 19thcentury, becometolerable had,bytheearly educated middle-class circles. Butthis wasnotthecasefor lower-class cultures. that most ofwhat he knew aboutreEngelsacknowledged came from of and ligionin the milltowns reports parliamentary committees Conservatives 1987, 128, 157-8). governmental (Engels, wereAnglican, Liberals to be Unitarian; each had their own likely to would be suspicious ofMethodist and agendas push.Both chapels hostile to radical sectaries suchas thosedescribed byE. P. Thompson (1993),or (foran earlier Hill (1975). The period)Christopher mills were Irish already recruiting immigrants (Engels,1987,123some doubtless their Catholic which toAnglicans 6) ; faith, brought aswell as Unitarians would seemworse than noneatall.I suspect that with to missed a deal of what was Engels, respect religion, good going on aroundhimin Manchester and Birmingham. In part, due totheir incarnation ofPrometheus, Marx and then, were mistaken both intheir ofrevolution andtheir Engels prediction belief that industrial workers would Thelatter seemed reject religion. at leastduring the1840s, becausethey believed lossofrelicrucial, forthat total alienation from values which gionnecessary bourgeois would launch theproletarians into orbit. they expected revolutionary It wasnon-occurrence ofthisrevolution thatestablished thepoliticallandscape within which Marxism andreligious faith their pursued

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the19th and early centuries. 20th complex relationships throughout of Sincethepolitical that has been thoreconomy landscape already I notesomeofitsmainfeatures and set oughly mapped, willsimply them asideforreference. Industrial in capitalism burgeoned WesternEuropeand North America. So also did theindustrial working class. Becauseindustrialists somedegree ofwilling required cooperation from their work a symbiotic which wenowcall force, relationship welfare-state between thetwo. Welfare-state developed capitalism capiin talism and in the United spreadrapidly Europe,slowly painfully States. Itslogicpointed toworking-class would partnership: subjects be calledcitizens andgranted benefits that raised them (presumably) above the level that outside their national boundaries. prevailed Grudgcraft room for the unions made new in"non-skilled" ingly, old-style in and in dustrial the United workers; slowly painfully rapidly Europe, In Europe, laborparties States. with socialist proliferated, many proin theUnited where universal hadpreStates, (male)suffrage grams; cededindustrialization, workers took asvoters as leaders) (seldom part in thetwo-party system. ofwelfare-state The Thekeystone wasindustrial capitalism growth. thepie,thelarger itsindividual slices. Growth madepossible bigger - ofworking-class - sometimes evenimprovement livmaintenance in standards without the hierarchical structure ing requiring changes class ofsociety. Thusitmitigated conflict andprovided a buffer against sides(capital revolution. Welfare states faced outward. Both andlabor) theenterprise ofother instrove to upgrade at theexpense nations, structured welfare states. We know that similarly byhindsight cluding be the eventual but such scenarios world war would were outcome, grim visible the19th and early notyet centuries. Labor 20th readily during shorn inside eachwelfare ofrevolution, a radicalism, state, produced of class trade union officials and social democratic pseudo-middle whoserved their constituents as spokesmen andmediators. politicians life these across successive circumstances Continuing spans, generated ofindustrial a classconsciousness that wasuniqueto thelaborforce Marx and Engels couldhardly haveperceived it capitalism. Although it and as totally serviceable within emancipatory,proved protective so longas economic continued national moreor boundaries, growth Thatofcourse wasa big"if." lessuninterrupted. as partnerships, welfare states worked Outwardly functioning as arenas of class conflict. the controlled Although conflict inwardly

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wasbasically that oflaboragainst both sides(laborespecially) capital, A remained divided. Weberian internally imageof thisapparatus wouldlook likea seesaw with thesocialist workers at one end and workers on theother. The capitalist-controlled religious government in themiddle occasional this or for finetunthat gives nudges way We are now into the Era of which as we know Secularism, ing. deep classes less than other levels of penetrated working society. Although details differ from nation to nation and timeto time, the obviously seesaw remains I on for welfare think, image approximately target, states thewestern world. The socialrelationships itporthroughout entail several corollaries. Marxian labor activists, trays important whatever their ownclassorigins, willnecessarily activipursuetheir tiesinworking-class communities that arelikely tobe morereligious thanthenorm forthesociety at large. Vulnerable to accusations of disbelief and will Christian be teaching morality, corrupting they in defending themselves sincethey are known as hampered already members ofa movement, or party, that deniesreligion. Theirlogical counter-move willbe a class-solidarity appeal charging religion whatever branch of religion dominates the community) with (or the their Such indictbetraying workers bysupporting employers. to make them ments, containing reality enough empirical persuasive, nonetheless intheoriginal introduced subtle shifts Marxist stance on that from of to of itself forms religion shifts, is, critiques religion anticlericalism that sometimes seemedmoreconcerned with purifythancriticizing it. ingreligion 4. In theVanguard Class oftheWorking I argued earlier that theMarxian oftheproletariat was concept in since the Prometheus which init was partly religious origin, by the sublimated Christ of as respired anticipates Hegel's dialectic, converted into"human . . . products ofnature" byFeuerbach beings ofan elite, destined and (ME,1964, 224).The notion byits knowledge to save the of remainder the or or tribe, courage community,speciesfrom itsowncowardice and ignorance, is hardly a newidea, at-large and historical are examples byno meansonly religious. Dispensing has always a source ofpower and esoteric, saving knowledge proved esteem If 1981, 168, 176). public (Pagels, proletarians, byletting slip therevolutionary showed themselves lessthan moment, Promethean,

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ofthevarious Marxist members that cameafterwards were not parties that role.It was,I think, averse to assuming Lukcswhocoinedthe term consciousness" 51-2,344(Lukcs,1971,xviii-xix, "imputed what would be thinking anddoing 5) ,toexpress working-class persons ifthey did as and their Marxist fellow (more advanced) thought admonished them(Seliger, workers 1977,58-9,61, 86, 91). Workersofcoursehad to havebeen created equal in theEnlightenment levelsofdiscipline and theoretical sense, yetdivergent perspective them. So while the rank and filecarried did develop party's among with to theconsciousness-raising burden fellow workers outside respect moreexperienced leaders theparty, cadresofpresumably pursued tasks inside. This division oflabor conflict. Local generated comparable collided with short-term issues national leaders activists pushing trying or reformulate socialist One side to preserve long-range objectives. therealities ofworking-class theother with forgotten having charged of"economism" with accusations and "vultheother life; responded since real could their reMarxism." Neither problems prevail, gar mainedinsoluble. thatoften an elitism The epithet conveyed "vulgar" especially to actual condiIt signaled toparty attached insensitivity leadership. which realpeoplelived tions under (anddied). Moreover andhere - it madedifferences beofthematter I think we getto theheart tendencies seem like factional and so-called tween "vulgar" "pure" weremorelikealternating whereas divisions, actually they percepas they facedtheongoing thesameindividuals ofreality inside tions Once therevolulaborand party routines ofindustrial organization. in every Marxian consciousthere had toexist to happen, tionfailed the more one that an ness agonizing effectively copedwith perception and one's comrades oneself needsof keeping alive,the day-to-day final with be would exploiany reckoning capitalist longer postponed ofwelfare as thedialectic Thismight be described tation. capitalism. cametobe likesomething itsMarxist for The welfare inmates, state, outofDante'sPurgatory. inPurgatory, a revolution Leninorganizing I sometimes imagined - serving as political commis's famous title or- tocallup B. Traven more a world the sarfortheRebellion Confronting already of Hanged. Leninattempted what ofMarxand Engels, thanthat may appalling industrial to checkmate have been the finaleffort capitalism by oforganization. Thusthesubliminal styles ratcheting up Promethean

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and ofthePromethean connections into, merged religious metaphor in ofradical thepractical necessities reinforced, building the party in in the I When the Communist 20th century. joined Party Chicago 1940s I remember a warm ofpride athaving early glow experiencing assumed in of class." And the the my working responsibility "vanguard I remember an Communist of German descent American hearing whohad visited thehomeland describe theWeimar during regime, "Yes!We are therevolutionariness ofGerman radicals: working-class for for therevolution! it!Weeducate ourchildren it! Weprepare for Butjust don'tlettheRevolution on is our Sunday happen Sunday. with thechildren totheseashore, thesports themountains, day park, music..." Spokenironically butwith wasthenat bitterness (Hitler theheight ofhispower) an elitist rebuke , thespeechconveyed by that real out their would have been suggesting proletarians preparing - as no doubtmany actudefenses ofthem (and physical) political were. ally Yetafter a hundred fortheRevolution, whendoes waiting years itcometime for a dayin thepark? ofMarxist Members were parties to be I ambivalent about the roles have been charlikely leadership as Promethean, or Leninist. Thesehaveindeedunleashed acterizing I need mention heroesofmodern times. world-shattering onlytwo to morethanmakemypoint:EugeneDebs,Che Guevara. I could citehalfa dozenothers, farlessfamous, from knowledge. personal Suchpeople indeedwere(and are) Promethean; I think although this tobe attributed moretotheir consciousness ofthemselves ought as humans than as heroes ofa gnostic Yetthesamestyle of vanguard. in other circumstances, elitist, abrasive, divisive, organization, proved Itcontributed tofailures ofsocialdemocratic and self-serving. parties thedisasters oftheSoviet Unionand Soviet I referred blocnations. to itearlier in a context ofirony, butthat is too gentle. The style is destructive, paradoxical, paralyzing. Itsparadox is that itclaims ortranscendental, for sanction divine, thatare (merely!) humaninductions from propositions empirical observation. Marx and did know Prometheus wasa Well, yes: Engels but that was back in Greek What wanted god, yonder mythology. they for their owntimes wasa myth abouthuman whobecame beings gods for themselves howtomakefire; and do science(ME, bydiscovering were tousethecertainty ofan abstract 1970, 47). So,yes: they hoping to underwrite the vast uncertainties of (scientific laws?) idea-system

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and socialist classstruggle revolution. Engelsin lateryears began material for what to was have been a majorwork titled gathering Dialectics Nature . He wassearching, I think, (Haldane,1940, vii-xvi) of forsomecosmicmachinery that wouldcause thenon-teleological ina "progressive" ofmaterial tomove direction. unfolding sequences that unfinished. We can what Marx He left would project only guess ofitsincehe dieda decadeearlier. havethought 5. Religion theVanguardists Among werenotadvocating Marxand Engelsmadeclearthatthey reofreligion Socialist and Communist have byforce. pression parties in theory disavowed forcible actual repression, although always practimes and placeswasdoubtless different. The Soviet ticeat certain forpropagation Unionpermitted itself a state-sponsored program Soviet of the (anti-religious) faith and I presume bloc nations did ofselections toa volume titled Marx and likewise. Thustheforeword PublishonReligion issuedbytheMoscow Foreign Languages Engels in the admonition: 1957 contains following ingHouse attaches to thedirections of . . . great given bytheclassics importance not must be administhat the Marxism pursued by struggle against religion butbyprofound and intheaffairs ofreligious interference trative people scientific atheist (ME,1957, 10.) propaganda. systematic ofMarxism-Leninism of wassigned The foreword bythe"Institute no need CPSU." Marx and had seen C.C. [Central Committee] Engels base of butassumedthatwhenthematerial forspecialeducation abolished was class finally byproletarian exploitation religion Evenin societconsciousness. wouldfadefrom revolution, religion no Communist ies thatactually revolutions, however, experienced it wouldnothaveexpected and Marxists suchfading occurred; away the"material base"continstates where welfare tooccurin capitalist ued rampant. ofSocial-Democratic toward wasthestance What then, religion, thewelfare state era?Did they make and Communist during parties it or leave to an issueofparty ^conversion perdiscipline, simply or choosing bein selecting a trade, sonalchoice- as forexample of Since neither modes and tween sexuality? monogamist pluralistic

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oflabor so far as I know, theresearches Marxist historians, nor, theory I to this definitive answer has comeup with question, willturn any and own hereto personal not-altogether-empirical experience my to Marxist attracted observations. Individuals thought intellectually from theistic themselves weregenerally at thesametime separating Thiswasmyownrouteand affiliations. beliefs and denominational in the forpeople ofmiddle-class wastypical background probably socialization whose cultural United andWestern States (even Europe, antithe of still reflects Enlightenment nowadays) greatsweep route ofentry, clericalism. ofcourse wasnottheonly Butthat espesuchas forworking ofsharpclassstruggle cially people in periods attracted theGreat Radicalized workers, bythemilitancy Depression. to be turned ofMarxist-led then were by likely away organizations, In theUnited thehostility to religion. ofthosesameorganizations for African Ameriremained these States, especially typical, patterns communities. Undoubtcans (Kelley, 1990) and Irish working-class newrecruits this thwarted eagerfor edly party growth. Party regulars, tosoftpedal and mindful ofwarnings might try against "repression," in most in a milieu where clubs)study (as party religious yet questions; wasnoteasyto do. ofthe"classics" wasalways on theagenda,that The result wouldbe eitherthatthe newrecruit droppedout,or more outcome the former the droppedreligion probable being 1997,144-9). (Saxton, then- however had arrived at their Marxists, persuasion they - usually or non-believers, described themselves as atheists although seldom an line they Duringmy pushed anti-religious aggressively. in theCommunist in itwasnotunusualto be involved years Party sometimes individual aimedat uncoverdiscussions, group grillings, traces ofwhite racism or malechauvinism; butI ingand eradicating cannotrecallhaving everheardofsuchan inquiry with to respect I The fact much talked about and suswas not is,religion religion. wasthecase in other and organizations as radical pectthat groups well.Forthisthere weretwocompelling which reasons, have,howI slants. radicals knew as a ever, opposite Among during myyears on the back burner because it history professor, religion stayed seemeduninteresting if and irrelevant. of us for Some example - might wewereworking in political decidethat Lutheran history had playeda majorrole in thevoting behavior of second pietism

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in ourimmediin theMidwest; butfor Germans us,now, generation wouldseem- howshallwe sayit- academic. atelives, this In younger whenI wasa seaman, construction however, days, talk thereason for was and laborunionist, worker avoiding religious The Era of Secularizaitwasdivisive and potentially that dangerous. had lessimpact in working times class as already several noted, tion, and theera itself endedsoonafter the thanin others; communities workSecondWorld War.Thismeansthat radicals, Marxists, party often found themselves to operate ers,labororganizers, attempting heldand powerfully instiin communities waswidely where religion this activSometimes tutionalized. virtually precluded organizational - thanks to thecatastrophic of however nature at other times, ity; notbetter, sinceMarx hasgrown industrial worse, (which capitalism families and their wouldbe and Engelsscrutinized it) - workers of ecothe or radicalism toward by stringency injustice their pushed then to break from nomiccircumstances. away Theymight begin the institutions with or institutions (more along rarely) push religious center ofconflict and becamea storm In either them. case,religion constructed of could tension. destroy laboriously Upsurges religion thevulnerability bothoforincreased ofconfidence; networks they doubtless wished a Marxist and organized. organizer Many ganizers and had their mouths I that Marx did) (as occasionally kept Engels shutaboutreligion. ofacademia(as thegardens from inside To study laborconflicts a historian) is to be to do sincebecoming I havebeen privileged on one While hostilities from the sheltered, they engender. partially, on theother itsoftens movemoreeasily, research handthis makes I want tocallup from thehardbiteofreality. (anddistorts) personal which for me two remembered, highlight vividly episodes, experience in ofthereligious and immediacy relevance theabsolute problem laborconflict.
6. Sheepand Shepherds

WarI sometheSecondWorld WhenI wasgoingto sea during in Atconditions Masses fortheNew times wrote articles describing I knew oftheeditors I visited. several lantic andMediterranean ports would takeme to "on thebeach," andwhenI wasin NewYork, they

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lunchin lieu ofpayment forthearticles. Masses had itsofThe New ficein thefamous old loft on or 13th eastof 12th Street, building which the and also housed Communist Worker. Broadway, Party Daily Evenin thosedaysa guardat theelevator busiyour gatechecked nessandfrisked for concealed As editor we waited, you my weapons. introduced me to themanahead ofus,whoturned outto be Louis I had notmetBudenz editor oftheDailyWorker. Budenz, managing and neversawhimagain;butI see himthereyet, a stocky, tiredmiddle in man his overcoat York can (New looking aged not-very-new be bitter cold in February) his turn for the waiting up-elevator. Bornin the1890sin Indianapolis to a staunchly marCatholic, middle-class fortheCatholic Budenz,after ginally family, working Men's moved as a state in Institute, leftward, Young serving manager LaFollette's and with the onset of 1924presidential campaign, depressionthrew himself intothemovement for industrial unionism where he becamea labor as wellas a courageous and of ten journalist jailed strike leader. theCommunist in Budenz worked as 1935, Joining Party laboreditor oftheDailyWorker. He went to Chicago to setup a new then backtoNew in 1940tothetop York (butshort-lived) party paper, Worker at the 1962,121-77).Approximately (Packer, postat theDaily I methim, time he haddetermined toreturn tothefaith ofhischildhood.He waslaying with Fulton thecelebrated plans Bishop J.Sheen, Catholic head-hunter and savior-of-souls, to conduct this transformation ina manner that would as damaging as possible totheComprove munist inwhich, Budenz continued tofunction as a meanwhile, Party member. "At the he "I criticized Worker," recalled, leading Daily copy, madeproposals andrevisions on pieces tobackthe[party] line- and a rosary in my as I didso" (Budenz, 1947, 346). fingered pocket Sheenwaswell connected for thepublic relations ofsoulBishop his other most Clare Booth Luce, saving, newsworthy conquest being wife ofHenry wasCEO ofTime/Life, andself-styled Luce,whoin turn inventor oftheterm, "theAmerican Sheenarranged for Century." Budenzand histill-then-common-law wife tobe properly united in a "secret" atStPatrick's Cathedral ahead (leakedtothepress ceremony oftime) . Budenz then issued a statement featured and bynewspapers radiostations all overthewestern world inwhich he announced that he had returned to thefaith ofmyfathers," "byGod's grace" "fully and endedbydeclaring thatCommunism and Catholicism wereirreconcilable. "Communism ... is in unending conflict with religion

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1945.The United freedom" and true (349). The datewasOctober, in San Francisco convention Nations had concludeditsfounding the atFordham Budenz months earlier. three joined graduate faculty consultant to theFBI and in 1946.He becamevirtually a full-time un-American activities committees. various According congressional inAmerican sketch National Klehr's toHarvey biographical Biography, in at least60 trials, and deportation cases Budenztestified hearings in thefirst Communist as a government witness and appeared Party Smith Acttrial(Klehr, 1962,121-4). 1999,3:872-3;Packer, ammunition In October 1945,1wason a shiploadedwith origiinvasion of which had been rendered for the intended Japan, nally ofHiroshima so thestory went, bombing bytheatomic unnecessary, I home homebeing 1946 before Itwas andNagasaki. got January earlier with our two had moved wife where nowSan Francisco, my for was first shore-side children. Bridges, job working Harry presiMy Union(ILWU).Mytask was CoastLongshoremen's dentoftheWest but were notto organize (who already organized) to longshoremen the takepartin whatseemeda marvelously enterprise, promising shore-side workMaritime and Maritime for Committee (CMU). Unity at are organized to theextent ersin those they today, days(and still craft old ten or twelve unions, all) weredivided constantly among one another's themselves and sabotaging bargaining among feuding ofthese were The two efforts. andorganizational (andnewest) largest Maritime Unionand theNational theWestCoastLongshoremen's Eachofthese inAtlantic andGulf Union(NMU),basedmainly ports. ferocious theDepression had cometogether unions through during Bothhad adoptedpartially warfare. waterfront and intense strikes bothhadjoined theCIO; bothhad industrial forms; organizational and now(1946) both beenconstructed activists; byMarxist-oriented whohad charismatic chieftains as forward figures tough, brought honin their earlier themselves courage, by struggles distinguished toBridges was andradicalism. Curran, presiJoseph Counterpart esty Union. Maritime dentoftheNational ran rather forMaritime the Committee Unity Constructing The old its and understood Workers approved purpose. smoothly. Union of thePaSailors' unions(Harry craft hard-line Lundberg's middle butenough an angry maintained cific opposition, especially) strike viable. to make a nationwide on unions oriented andleft signed CMU staffers and other of 1946I went with In thesummer Bridges

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toChicago for with Curran and CMU peoplefrom strategy meetings theEast.Bridges andCurran, from encounwell-acquainted previous worked if not outhow ters, cordially, together efficiently, very figuring theCMU wouldnegotiate for(and control) themultiple unionsof which itwascomposed; and howto organize thestrike itself, since, as everyone with the and knew, negotiations shipping longshoring associations werecertain todeadlock. Thatthey did.The CMU then shut downthenation's lines on all three seacoasts. Picket were ports wasmadeto breakthem; within abouta weeknegosolid;no effort tiations were under which ledtofairly substantial way wage gains again the and a scattering of (against escalating postwar priceinflation) other fortheparticipating benefits unions. Thisstrike hadbeenshort, theenormous well-organized despite of its and onemight successful; span operations, peaceful, moderately describe it as a textbook modelofthekindofstrike unionleaders butdon'toften thepre-eminence ofthe hopefor get.It established Unionand National Maritime Unionin themariLongshoremen's time It stoodin prominent contrast tosetbacks andviolent industry. labor had been in 1946. few a months opposition encountering Only earlier Truman President had broken a railroad strike bythreatenstrikers intothe military, and actually ing to draft pushedsucha inCongress, measure for theway theTaft-Hartley Act thereby paving which would In seem mild. it is clear (1947), by comparison retrospect, - eager that ofAmerica's industrial establishment segments capitalist torollbackconcessions madetowelfare state-ism unwillingly during - werenowexploiting theDepression theanxieties ofpostwar reconversion to reduceorganized militant its induslabor,especially trial topapertigers. in that direction. The wing, Many signs pointed CMU strike a smallbutsignificant to the represented signpointing ofa different possibility agenda. in as co-chair oftheCMU,accompaEarly 1947Curran resigned his with a of denunciation theCommunist nying resignation Party, theapparent that theCMU wasa Commufirst, implications being, nist that itsefforts tounify themaritime front, and,second, working classserved theinterests oftheSoviet Union.Curran, a Catholic or had been under since the 1940s ex-Catholic, pressure early bythe Association ofCatholic TradeUnionists (ACTU) to breakhislong alliance with radical left and Communists whohad played a wingers crucial in the union. The Catholic Trade Unionists, part building

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had previously demonafter thewar, influential always increasingly himin elections. now todefeat andsought izedCurran They praised hisstronrunfor re-election andinhisnext him, (1949)stood among ofcourse theCMU. Curran's torpedoed resignation gest supporters. ofthe since it left to his own It also proved union, many devastating members defenseless notonly militant andexperienced NMU'smost theACTU,butalsoagainst Taft-Hartley deporprosecutions, against attacks tation red-hunting bylocal and congressional proceedings, conwhich aboveall toblacklisting committees; bytheCoastGuard, to every essential workofCoastGuardpasses, theissuance trolled ingseaman(Seaton,1981,663,156-8,208,218,231-2,note55).
or Utopia? 7. Ideology

in hisautobiography that themost decisive LouisBudenzwrote nineyears withBishopSheen occurred encounters of his several he reachedhisowndecisionto leavetheCommunist before Party of the Communist the first to Catholicism. and return year During so-called just period(1937), Budenz,having PopularFront Party's had openeda publicdebate overtheDailyWorker taken editorship, on both declarations with hostile Thedebate with Sheen. sides, began line of the PopularFront, the conciliatory but Budenz,pursuing levels. WhenSheensugmoveto moreharmonious hopeditmight and "in an obscure meetforlunch,Budenzaccepted, gestedthey "for an roomthetwomentalked hotelgrill ofa midtown corner" contradict me to "He was not tones." hourin earnest, disposed quiet oftheir conversation. recalled Budenz inourface-to-face discussion," tookme totally "What he did,instead, bysurprise."
"Letus nowtalkof theBlessed and exclaimed: bentforward Monsignor will this incident the bounds ofbelief, who are For those beyond Virgin!" in soul what went on not will havelittle my They comprehend significance. I was He sawthat I saidsimply toMonsignor. . . . "Very atthose words. well," ... all the of of God. Of the Mother so he And moved. epispoke deeply memento to Mary wasthe this varied havecrowded sodesthat career, my . . . (Budenz,1947,155-64.) themost most electric, awe-inspiring.

ofwhothegoodguys Budenz's view with ornotone concurs Whether itself is no doubtthestory in this narrative and bad guys are,there in human of influence the enormous religion governing conveys

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ofintense class even (or especially) undercircumstances behavior, seem this The answer conflict. Howcanweexplain may easy power? and obvious forbelievers likeBishopSheenand theex-Communist likemyself. LouisBudenz, butbafflingly difficult forsecularists My are ownideasabouthistory, classconflict and industrial capitalism butI do notthink whatMarxand Engels Marxist; predominantly ofitspower. wrote an aboutreligion provides adequateexplanation Let me begin(as Marxdid with theBudenz Hegel) byturning We can call Notlong down. it a episodeupside experiment. thought before hejoined theCommunist Budenz had been a strike Party, leaderatAuto-Lite in Toledo,Ohio. The issuewasindustrial unionism. in theNational which Auto-Lite's Guard, management brought shotseveral we now two. workers, Suppose imagine striking killing thatone oftheCEOs at Auto-Lite a clandestine meeting arranged if with Budenzand offered hima faculty at Fordham appointment he woulddenounceother unionleadersas Communist dupesand of them on to violence. Budenz asks incitement testify against charges a daytothink for this over. He then hisspiritual adviser. The consults is notFulton morelikeDoradviser, however, J.Sheenbutsomeone for oftheCatholic Worker 1981, (Seaton, 55). "Let othy Day, example, us talknowabouttheVirgin the adviser (this Mary," says quotation ofcourseis imaginary) : "Mary, Mother ofGod,gaveherson to die on the crossto liberate theworld'soppressed and downtrodden masses. How couldyoueventhink hertrust ofbetraying byselling outtheworkers whorely on you?"(Day,1952,220-1). Is sucha scenario conceivable? One might think itcouldnothave been forMarxand Engels, sinceitmakes rather religion liberating thanoppressive. Yetsomeoftheir conclusion. writings pointto that Marxwrote in 1844,"is . . . theexpression ofreal distress," "Religious distress andthe real distress . . . the of the protest against sigh oppressed creature ..." (ME,1964, attributed 42,vii-xiv). Engels Christianity's risein the RomanEmpireto enslaved and exploited spectacular and he represented the Hussites and Anabaptists as populations3 rebels to liberate from feudalreligiously inspired fighting peasants ism (Raines,2002,203-37). Whymight not religion theninspire rebels industrial The fact is it has working-class against capitalism?
- nowgenerally 3 ThatEngels wasmistaken as to thesocialmilieu ofearly loChristianity - does notinvalicatedamongurbanartisans and trades 1983,passim) people (Meeks, datehisattribution ofsometimes to religion. liberating potentials

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of done so - a dramatic recent) (and relatively example beingthat in Latin America. While it be true that most Liberation may Theology classes havebeencrushed suchmovements bytheir respective ruling that can be explained that and dominant bynoting religion clergies, hierarchies which into the existusually merged generated privileged connections be seen as class. These causal might contingent ingruling or as resulting necandEngels them); (as Marx apparently perceived thesocialpower that from religion placedin thehandsofits essarily and Karl Mannheim Marxand Max Weber (longafter professionals. a to movements maturation that attributed process religious Engels) or charismatic them would make , 1936) (Mannheim, (Weber, "utopian" their earlier xxxiii-xxxv, 2,46-79),during 1963, phases(consequently butafterwards defensive or "ideologipolitics); open to liberationist of hence at the service cal," reactionary politics. 8. TheFailedCritique werebyno meansclearin as I notedearlier, Marxand Engels, ofreligion. their ideason theorigins (butnotalways) They generally alliance becauseofitscustomary as reactionary characterized religion treated as obwas class with negatively, Ideology ideologies. ruling sometimes to concealclassexploitation. intended scurantism They or oftheone (religion) as identical, and ideology spokeofreligion had evensuggested that theother. within as contained religion They all shared These for beeninvented explanations ideological purposes. inhuman ofplacing a common religion's starting pointfate problem within since all culture, religion ideology; they beganbyenclosing of in theMarxian as a by-product and ideology (understood system division with the must have and class originated exploitation) gender itthequestion ofwhether left oflabor.Butthat religion dangling classsociety.4 before self existed - whotraced backtothebeginFeuerbach, religion bycontrast it as "man's earliest and had described culture of human nings
ofreligion. The Marx andEngels tried outvarious thespanoftheir 4 Over concepts writings citations: I think, arecovered, themes ME,1970, 47,51; ME,1998, bythefollowing major in 1876summarized what was n.d. (c. 1936),91-2;ME,1964,147-8.Engels 48,58; Marx, intonations and states. latedate:"Tribes view at that their collective developed probably ofhuman inthe human that fantastic reflection andwith them Lawandpolitics arose, things - religion." world outlook" which then becamethecoreof"theidealistic mind Religion men'sminds" had "dominated times sinceancient 1972, 258-9). (Engels,

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"the childalsoindirect form ofself-knowledge"; religion epitomized likecondition ofhumanity" What remained 1957,13). (Feuerbach, variadifferent between theMarxist and Feuerbachian significantly tions wasthat one lockedreligion intoruling-class whereas ideology, theother for links to lower-class movements such openedpossibilities as Liberation or that Given their Theology Anabaptism. assumption all ideologies must be exploitive, Marxand Engels favored generally their ownversion overtheFeuerbachian (Engels,1941,18,24-5). Yetthey were atthesametime for a materialist account hard-pressed ofreligion that from that couldfree them theidealist epistemologies dominated German(and mostotherphilosophy) in the 19thcenTheirinitial forFeuerbach's enthusiasm Essence tury. ofChristianity forthisreason.Thus they his was precisely borrowed uncritically - asidefrom definition which with their own beingincompatible - wasnotreally on ideology views at all,buta loosea definition To incorporate thisinto limbed, romantically-inclined description. their ownwritings of inhibiting had the effect morefar-reaching materialist whether or their followers investigations, bythemselves 1989,126). (Carver, in an impressive Reinhold toa collection introduction Niebuhr, ofMarxand Engelson religion a (1964), accusedthemofmaking error that must major by"wrongly" assuming empirical epistemology I 1964, (Niebuhr, vii-ix). necessarily pointto materialist hypotheses itmay havebeen theother around: that suspect way having already determined on materialist for a were history, they looking compatibleepistemology to introduce it.Niebuhr's carhowever, criticism, riesa revealing In this of he is corollary. goldenage science, saying, we are obligated towork from empirical epistemologies, yetremain - including freeto pursuehypotheses causalexplanations ofreliidealist or as the evidence seems towarmaterialist, gion empirical rant. I remain Niebuhr's assurance that Although unpersuaded by final must be idealist hisobservation (i.e.,religious), any hypothesis toexplain thecontinuing of materialist tolapse helps liability thought intoescapist idealisms.
9. Causes (and Consequences) oftheFailed Critique

The materialist ofhistory has always stoodat the interpretation center of Marxian efforts to construct a thought-system aboutthe

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human condition. No materialist couldcomhowever, interpretation, mandpersuasive unless it in were a exmaterialist grounded power of itself. as Marx insisted from the That, planation religion beginning, had to be thestarting theopening ofall criticism." point, "premise in materialist Yetto reinterpret terms is a terrifying underhistory Even such bold travelers as Marx and sometimes taking. Engels from backedoff. their transition to hisSo, after Hegelianidealism torical materialism feeling to provide hisobligated, apparently, a inner with had installed their tory "progressive" compass they rolefortheproletariat. a temporary Wasthis failure of world-lifting in nerve? later a sum(1888) Engels, writing many years retrospective oftheir toFeuerbach, relations that (on thecontrary) mary suggests itexpressed an outlook shared himself and Marx: long by
intheendless Allsuccessive historical areonly course systems transitory stages from thelower to thehigher. Eachstage ofdevelopment ofhuman society for thetime and conditions it is necessary, and therefore towhich justified owesitsorigin. (ME, 1964,218.)

a "necessary" from I agree that toinvoke "lower with Niebuhr progress and unsubstantiated into an essentially idealist to higher" amounts had been projected as a materialist So trusion intowhat rendering. to is that would suffice discredit faras internal it; logic concerned, referred to earlier we add theconceptual and ifto this problems on when (and how) religion lack of cleardefinition, uncertainty to ideology, fuzziness as to itsrelationship entered and,ficulture, own of its their contradictory revolutionary opinions potential nally, - wewill Marxism Marx toconclude that be obliged (as developed by a necessary of belief. and Engels)did notentail rejection religious this outinpublic discourse would havestrengthTo havespelled havealtered the cause.Although it couldhardly ened theMarxian entire backed basicbalanceofpower sincecapitalism's apparatus of forms stood on the other revealed and institutionalized religion by forworking-class anticlerics to side- itwouldhaveeased theway have raised the tolerance level socialist and politics, might support Ernst for like Bloch(Hudson, Marxist within 1982, philosophers parties Schoolscholars 56someoftheFrankfurt 1973, 1-20),and for (Jay, materialist with or were to reconcile who 7) history spiritual trying it have of the cosmos. would notions encouraged Certainly pantheist

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beliefs underwhich intohistorical circumstances research religious would most had acted as and, forces; importantly, liberating actually nonand of means which believers havepushedserious by theorizing forcomcollaborate believers mutualdeception)might (without if held (even limited) objectives. monly havebeenparreferred toabove- which The difficulties might inconsistenall involved resolved more discussion tially by open liethemore ciesintheparty lineon religion. however, these, Beyond as in in the real world. demands of Religion, credibility implacable overhumanbehavior the Budenzepisode above,exerts controls comesthis Whence materialist which seemto transcend explication. in belief to impose ofclerical hierarchies sysacquiescence capacity The tems that defend and legitimate exploitation? quesruling-class as answers toseektranscendental tionposesa choiceofalternatives: has Niebuhr with most of our establishment) political-cultural (along to construct an effective done; or,as Marxand Engelsattempted, in endeavor wasdue in Their failure this latter secular explanation. more accuit would be to over-reliance on Feuerbach; although part wasdue to certain rateto saytheir reliance on Feuerbach assumpbehindeven shared with Feuerbach and never tions they quiteleft had populated heaven after left Feuerbach behind. Feuerbach they and andearth with saints and Marx candy Engels, sugar plumangels. on a scalefargrander bebutno lessanthropomorphic, operating in thecosmos lievedthat somewhere out there chorus Beethoven's from I amofcourse theNinth would still be singing the"Ode toJoy." insaying I don'tknow what "believed." myself they mis-speaking they but when ascribed to believed; they world-lifting powers proletarians orcosmic transcendence totheDialectic must ofNature, itseems they havebeen holding to something likethis. KarlBarth in criticism wrote ofFeuerbach that he did notknow death.Barth believed deathwaspartofreligion 1957, (Feuerbach, Materialists would want to add that deathmust be part vii, x-xxxii). ofanysecular ofreligion. A secular ofreliexplanation explanation would be a to account of gion comparable non-ideological ideology. Suchan account wouldderive theideological constructions ofany classfrom realhistorical circumstances ofthat class;and particular so also- tocomplete this an effective secular comparison explanation ofreligion wouldbe one that theconstruction of grounded belief in historical circumstances of the human real, religious spe-

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ofthedifficulty, ofcourse, in thefact cies.Part resides that religious historical evidence about the human condition. origins longprecede therefore be inpart must this Any explanation hypothetical, although Marx should havedeterred and Engels, whohad often shown hardly In themselves of bold case were well capable hypotheses. any they all modern in principle, awarethat scienceremains, hypothetical. Bothmenadmired Darwin 1987,238-9). Bythe1860s (Carver, Darwinian to explain therelationship of beganusing they concepts to labor.Thus,already, consciousness were that when they arguing at thatlevelofcomplexity evolution arrived we call conbiological human animals for the first time would find themselves sciousness, labor that in theMarxian purposeful being, capableofconsciously humans from what other animals view, distinguishes principally (Engels, ofa similar line of thought with to 1972,243-64). Pursuit respect would have to well religion pointed hypothetical explanations beyond from what hadinherited Feuerbach. andtenuous they Sketchy though must still havebeenat that suchexplanations the time, simply effort a conviction to construct them wouldhavedemonstrated thatrelilike of the human other elements condition must sooner gion to secular, materialist or later accessible Thusthey prove reasoning. on theneed forsucha breakthrough couldhavefocused attention as a crucial agenda.5 stepin theMarxian there this wasnotdone. Marxand Doubtless werereasons why totheir ofindustrial were committed analysis capitalism. They Engels in Their was health. financial resources were older. Marx poor getting
Prior 5 Howfar havegonebeyond Feuerbach? to thescientific advances ofour couldthey that contributed to "going-beyond-Feuerbach" had already ownera,most developments thesewereDarwinism whileMarxand Engelswerestillalive.Among itself, happened ofearly Edward tooktoimmediately; and thework which anthropologists, they especially were definition with whom 1987, (McLellan, 37). Tylor's certainly acquainted Tylor, they couldhaveserved Marxand Engels well.The definiin Spiritual ("belief very Beings") to reappear in secular accounts of religion 1958 [1871],8; tionhas continued (Tylor, anchor "beliefto 1960, vi;Wilson, 2002,44-5),which Radin, 1957, 7-9; Shapley, usually - a linkage ofdeath) atleast asancient as Greek andRoman causation (terror psychological in theclassics, had readthe schooled doubtless classics 2002,13,67,269). Marx, (Atran, thefirst whowrote, ofourso-called ChrisRomanpoet,Publius Statius, century during world" first ofall,produced tian era:"Fear, 1996, 31;Lucretius, 1951, (Burkert, godsinthe in thelast20 or 30 years werereadily available oftheir 158).Thesevarious components to use?The question is unanswerable; did they notputthem lives. probably yetit Why no connection between the thatEngelsapparently maybe worth recalling perceived as a very andterror ofdeath; andthat ofhuman consciousness advent Marx, when, young chosefor that thesis he determined tobeginhisdoctoral man, purbyrejecting religion, ofPublius ofPrometheus rather thenthegrim realism Statius. message posetheupbeat

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were To complete Das Kapital, racedagainst thediminmeager. they time and one demand more of their lives. How could ishing energy As to their thanthat? over the decades to win followers, striving forsocialist weremorelikely to working-class support politics, they be evading conflicts than secular con(therefore religious promoting theories ofreligion. abouttheorigin troversial) I think it a Marx or later and Engels, Nonetheless, pity generations ofSocialists and Communists, didnotpushbeyond Feuerbach. To havedone so wouldhaveestablished a solidground fortheentire Marxian in debt to the Radical its system, Enlightrepaying, part, andlinking itforward andideologically tothose enment, conceptually scientific which theendofthe20th would breakthroughs (by century) be expanding thepotential of As I materialist scope explanation. at the Marxian culture and the outset, suggested provided politics of the Era of Secucutting edge anti-religious thought throughout To this larism. can nowbe added,byway ofconclusion, that failure to complete theMarxian left itself and secularism isolated, critique the of belief that disarmed, intellectually against resurgence religious followed theSecondWorld War.
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