EE 630 LAB

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Formation of Y-BUS matrix using MATLAB coding 2. Load flow calculation using MATLAB and PST package 3. Continuation Power Flow (CPF) using PSAT 4. Contingency screening using power world simulator 5. Small signal stability analysis using MATLAB and PST package 6. Transient stability analysis using MATLAB and PST package 7. State Estimation using matlab program 8. Distribution loadflow and / or Electromagnetic transients propagation in Transmission line

EXPERIMENT -1
OBJECTIVE:
Formulate Y-BUS for the given system using MATLAB coding.

THEORY:
Y-BUS matrix for the given system is a N*N matrix where N is the no. of the buses in the system.
Y11 Y12 Y 21 YBUS = Y N1 YNN Y1N

where Y11= y11+y12+_y13+..+y1N Y12= -y12 y11= shunt admittance connected to bus 1 y12= admittance of line between bus 1&2 System with transformer taps: If there is a transformer in between the bus i & j with taps on bus i side and tap ratio t, then

where yk is the admittance of the line between bus i & j .

yii = 1/t(1/t-1)*yk yij = yji = 1/t*yk yjj = (1-1/t)*yk

PROCEDURE:
1. Formulate the line data in a matrix in the following order Column 1: starting bus number Column 2: end bus number Column 3: resistance of line in per unit Column 4: reactance of line in per unit Column 5: line charging susceptance Column 6: tap ratio Column 7: tap phase Column 8: maximum value of tap Column 9: minimum value of tap Column 10: tap size 2. Formulate the bus data in matrix in the following order Column 1: bus number Column 2: voltage magnitude of bus Column 3: voltage phase angle of bus Column 4: real power generation in per unit

Column 5: reactive power generation in per unit Column 6: real power load in per unit Column 7: reactive power load in per unit Column 8: external shunt conductance in per unit Column 9: external shunt susceptance in per unit Column 10: bus type ( 1-slake bus, 2-PV bus, 3- PQ bus) Column 11: maximum reactive power generation limit in per unit Column 12: minimum reactive power generation limit in per unit Column 13: rated bus voltage in kV Column 14: maximum allowable voltage in per unit Column 15 minimum alloable voltage in per unit 3. Write the MATLAB code to find the YBUS matrix of the system first without considering transformer taps 4. Include transformer taps and calculate YBUS matrix of the system

EXPERIMENT-2
OBJECTIVE:
To carry out load flow calculation using MATLAB and PST package using different method: 1. Guass Seidel method 2. Newton Raphson method 3. Fast decoupled method

THEORY:
Power flow studies play an important role in power system analysis and design. They are essential when adjustment in power generation levels are needed to meet economic and/or security requirements. Power flow calculations involve solving a large number of nonlinear equations by iterative methods. There have many proposals for applying numerical technique to solve the power flow equations. Presently, the following are the leading techniques: Guass Seidel method Newton Raphson method Fast decoupled load flow method

Guass Seidel Method: This is the simplest method. No assumptions are taken
account. But at the same time it is a slow method and requires more time and more number of iteration. The iterative equation for bus voltage used in this method is as follows:

Where, k=iteration count n=number of buses Pp,Qp=real and reactive power of pth bus

Newton Raphson Method: This method is considered the faster and widely used
technique. Number of iteration requires is less than the G-S method but the time require for each iteration is more. Also the memory size requires to store jacobian and its inverse is large. There are two type of method : 1. N-R in polar coordinate 2. N-R in rectangular coordinate

N-R in polar coordinate:

Where,

=
Where, V=Bus voltage magnitude = Bus voltage angle

N-R in rectangular coordinate:

Where,

1. While forming B neglect the representation of all those element which predominant affect the reactive power flow. Such as line shunt, external shunt, transformer off nominal in phase taps. 2. While forming B neglect the angle shifting effect of the phase shifter. 3. While forming B neglect the representation of all the series resistance of line.

PROCEDURE:
1. Insert the line and bus data of 9 bus system in the format as describe in the previous experiment. 2. Formulate the MATLAB coding for different method of load flow. 3. Run base case load flow and observe the loading of different lines 4. Effect of generation rescheduling, search for the line which is highly loaded and increase the generation at one of bus it is connected, run load flow and observe the new loading of the line. Also compare the total real power losses with the base case. 5. Effect of increasing line length, restore the data to base case and increase the length of any of the line, run load flow and compare its power exchange and loss with the base case. Also comment on the total transmission loss in the system. Run laod flow for many of different length and see can you infer that increasing the length of a line would necessarily result in Reduction of power exchange on the line Reduction of real power loss on that particular line, Increase in total real power loss in the system. 6. Effect of increasing system load, restore the data to base case and increase the overall load on the system and observe the change in voltage profile of the system and number of load flow iterations and tabulate the result as shown below. Load |V1| |V3| |V4| |V5| |V6| |V7| |V8| |V9| No. of |V2| iterations

Indicate which generator hits its reactive power limit first. What happen to type of bus where this generator connected? 7. Effect of shunt reactive compensation, restore the data to base case and apply external shunt reactive compensation at the bus with the lowest voltage. Run load flow and record the new voltage setting of the bus with compensation and its adjacent buses. Repeat the exercise for different shunt compensation and observe the effect of compensation on the bus voltage and overall voltage profile. 8. Effect of series reactive compensation, restore the data to base case and add the series compensation to any line, run load flow and record the loading of the lines. Repeat for different value of series compensation. Observe how does series compensation affect the power transfer capacity of a line? How is the line losses affected? What is the impact on the loading of adjacent lines?

Note : After making nay change in any of the files, do not forget to save it.

EXPERIMENT - 3
OBJECTIVE:
Continuation Power Flow (CPF) using PSAT.

THEORY:
Voltage stability has been recognized as a very important issue for operating power systems when the continuous load increase along with economic and environmental constraints has led to systems to operate close to their limits including voltage stability limit. CONTINUATION POWER FLOW Predictor Step: To simulate load change, Pdi and Qdi, in load flow equations, may be represented by Pdi = Pd 0i (1 + * KPdi ) (1)

Qdi = Qd 0i (1 + * KQdi )

(2)

where, Pd0i and Qd0i are the base case active and reactive load powers of at bus i. is the loading factor, which characterize the change of load. The ratio of KPdi /KQdi is constant to maintain constant power factor. Similarly, to simulate generation change, Pgi and Qgi, in load flow equations, may be represented as functions of and are given by Pgi = Pg 0i (1 + * KPgi ) (3) Qgi = Qg 0i (1 + * KQgi ) (4) where, Pg0i and Qg0i are total active and reactive powers of the generator of the base case. The ratio of KPgi /KQgi is constant to maintain constant power factor for a PQ machine. For a PV machine, equation (4) is not required. For a machine, when the reactive limit is violated, Qgi should be kept at limit and equation (4) is not required. The non-linear power flow mismatch equations can be written as: (5) f ( x, ) = 0 where above equation (5) shows whole set of power flow mismatch equations. The predictor step is used to provide an approximate point of next solution. A prediction of the next solution is made by taking an appropriately sized step in the direction tangent to the solution path. To solve equation (5), the continuation algorithm with predictor and corrector steps can be used. Linearizing (5), we have df ( x, ) = f x dx + f d (6)

In order to solve equation (6), one more equation is needed. If we choose a nonzero magnitude for one of the tangent vector and keep its change as 1, one extra equation can be obtained tk = 1 (7) where, tk is a nonzero element of the tangent vector dx. Combining equations (6) and (7), we can get a set of equations where the tangent vector dx and d are unknown variables. f x f dx 0 (8) = ek d 1 Where ek is a row vector with all elements zero except for Kth, which equals one. In (8), whether +1 or -1 is used depends on how the Kth state variable is changing as the solution is being traced. After solving (8), the prediction of the next solution may be given by x* x dx (9) * = + d where * denotes the estimated solution of the next step while is a scalar, which represents the step size.
Corrector Step: The corrector step is to solve the augmented Newton power-flow equation with the predicted solution in (9) as the initial point. In the augmented Newton power-flow algorithm an extra equation is included and is taken as a variable. The augmented Newton power-flow equation may be given by f ( x, ) 0 (10) = xk 0 where , which is determined by (9), is the predicted value of the continuation parameter xk. The determination of the continuation parameter is shown in the following solution procedure. The corrector (10), which consists a set of augmented nonlinear equations, can be solved iteratively by Newtons approach as follows: f ( x, ) f x f x (11) = ek xk

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
OBJECTIVE:
Contingency analysis and computation of sensitivity factors viz. generation shift factors and line outage distribution factors using power world simulator.

THEORY:
Operations personnel must know which line or generation outages will cause flows or voltages to fall outside limits. To predict the effects of outages, contingency analysis techniques are used. Contingency analysis procedures model single failure events (i.e. one line outage or one generator outage) or multiple equipment failure events (i.e. two transmission lines, one transmission line plus one generator etc.), one after the another in sequence until all credible outages have been studied. For each outage tested, the contingency analysis procedure checks all lines and voltages in network against their respective limits. The simplest form of such analysis is shown in Fig below.

Start

Set system model to initial conditions i=1 Simulate an outage of generator i using the system model Any line flows exceed limit? No Any bus voltages exceed limit? No i = i +1 No Last generator done? Yes l=1 Simulate an outage of line l using the system model Any line flows exceed limit? No Any bus voltages exceed limit? No l = l +1 No Last line done? Yes End Yes Display alarm message Yes Display alarm message Yes Display alarm message Yes Display alarm message

Sensitivity Factors
The problem of studying thousands of possible outages becomes very difficult to solve if it is desired to present the results quickly. One of the easiest ways to provide a quick calculation of possible overloads is to use linear sensitivity factors. These factors show the approximate change in line flows changes in generation on the network configuration and are derived from DC load flow. These factors are basically of two types. 1. Generation shift factors. 2. Line outage distribution factors. Generation shift factors are designated ali and have the following definition: f ali = l (1) Pi where l is the line index, i is the bus index, fl is the change in megawatt power flow on line l when a change in generation, Pi occurs at bus i. It is assumed in this definition that the change in generation, Pi, is exactly compensated by an opposite change in generation at the reference bus, and that all other generation

remain fixed. If the generator under consideration was generating Pi0 MW and it was lost, we would represent new power flow on lth line as follows. fl n = fl 0 + ali Pi ; Pi = Pi 0 (2) n 0 where, fl is the flow on line l after the generator on bus i fails and fl is the flow before the failure. The effects of simultaneous changes on several generating buses can be calculated using superposition. Suppose, for example, that the loss of generator on bus i were compensated by governor action on machines throughout the interconnected system. One frequently used method assumes that the remaining generators pick up in proportion to their maximum MW rating. Thus, the proportion of generation pickup from unit j (j i) would be P max ji = j max (3) Pk
k k i

where, Pkmax is the maximum MW rating for generator k, ji is the proportionality factor for pickup on generating unit j when unit i fails. Then, the new power flow in lth line with the loss of generation on ith bus can be given as fl n = fl 0 + ali Pi (4) alj ji Pi
j i

Note that this assumes that no unit will actually hit its maximum. If this is apt to be the case, a more detailed generation pickup algorithm that took account of generation limits would be required. The line outage distribution factors are used in a similar manner, only they apply to the testing for overloads when transmission circuits are lost. By definition, the line outage distribution factor has the following meaning: f dlk = 0l (5) fk where, dlk is the line outage distribution factor when monitoring line l after an outage on line k, fl is the change in MW flow on line l, and fk0 is the original flow on line k before it was outaged (open). If one knows the power on line l and line k, the flow on line l with line k out can be determined using d factors. (6) fl n = fl 0 + dlk f k0 0 0 n where, fl , fk are the preoutage flows on lines l and k, respectively and fl is the flow on line l with line k out.

PROCEDURE:
Contingency Analysis Open the Power World Simulator Window. Prepare a new case or open the saved one for analysis. Toggle from edit mode to run mode using the tool bar option. Click on options/Tools tab and click on contingency analysis. Now you can insert desired contingency by clicking auto insert tab. A window pops up with many options.

 Now you can choose from many options of inserting contingency and then click on insert contingencies tab. Then with a click on start run tab, you can see the results of contingency analysis. Computation of Sensitivity Factors Open the Power World Simulator Window. Prepare a new case or open the saved one for analysis. Toggle from edit mode to run mode using the tool bar option. Click on options/Tools tab and keep the mouse arrow on other sensitivities tab. Many option will appear, out of which you can choose line outage distribution factors and generation shift factors. By clicking on these tabs, you can have pop up window with different options for inserting contingencies and getting the sensitivity factors.

EXPERIMENT-5
OBJECTIVE:
To analyze Small signal stability of the system using MATLAB and PSAT.

THEORY:
Stability is a phenomenon concerned with dynamic system and obtaining some steady state condition. Equilibrium or steady state is the state where operating parameters are not change with time. Small signal stability refers to small disturbance of short duration. Post disturbance equilibrium point of stable system is considered same as pre disturbance equilibrium point. System equations are linearized around pre disturbance equilibrium point and linear technique can be used. For the analysis of small signal stability linear state space model is used. Eigen value analysis is a method to analyze system stability.

QV Sensitivity Analysis: For eigen value analysis of power flow jacobian matrices, three matrices can be used: 1. JLF, which is obtained from the static equations of only lines and transformers, and is generally defined as the standard power flow jacobian matrix. 2. JLFV, which is the jacobian of the complete jacobian matrix of the algebraic equations of the system 3. JLFD, which is computed from the complete matrix AC. Condition for stability If all the eigen value of the system lie on the negative half plane then the system is stable. If single complex conjugate pair of eigen value lie on the imaginary axis then the system marginally stable. If the multiple eigen value lie on the imaginary axis or lie on right half plane then the system is unstable.

PROCEDURE:

EXPERIMENT-6
OBJECTIVE:
To analyze transient stability of the system using MATLAB and PST package.

THEORY:
A dynamical system is said to be stable if following a disturbance, it regains an acceptable equilibrium state. Transient stability refers to large disturbance such as faults, loss of generator of large capacity. It is mainly triggered due to real power imbalance at generator, results into loss of synchronism. Most of the time post disturbance equilibrium point is different from pre disturbance equilibrium point. To analyze this requires nonlinear model and numerical technique. To analyze the system swing equation is solved. Swing equation is a nonlinear second order differential equation
H d 2 = Pm Pe f dt 2

The Transient Stability module enables engineers to accurately model system disturbances and events while performing studies such as load shedding, fast bus transfer, critical clearing time, and generator start-up. You can split or combine multiple subsystems, automatically simulate relay actions and associated circuit breaker operations, and accelerate or decelerate motors. Combined with incredible plotting and graphical result, engineers can truly master power system stability. There are many methods to analyze transient stability of a system. These are as follows:
Graphical method: To determine whether a power system is stable after a disturbance, it is necessary, in general, to plot and inspect the swing curves. If these curves show that the angle between any two machines tends to increase without limit, the system of course is unstable. If, on the other hand, after all the disturbances including switching have occurred, the angles between the two machines of every possible pair reach maximum values and thereafter decrease, it is probable, although not certain, that the system is stable. Occasionally in a multi-machine system one of the machines may stay in step on the first swing and yet go out of step on the second swing because the other machines are in different positions and react differently on the first machines.

In a two-machine system, under the usual assumptions of constant input, and constant voltage behind transient reactance, the angle between the machines either increases indefinitely or else, after all disturbances have occurred, oscillates with constant amplitude. In other words the two machines either falls out of step on first swing or never. Under these conditions the observation that the machines come to rest with respect top each other may be taken as the proof that the system is stable. There is a simple graphical method of determining whether the machines come to rest with respect to each other. This method is known as the equal area criterion of stability. When this criterion is applicable its use wholly or partially eliminates the need of computing swing curves and thus saves considerable amount of computation time. According to equal area criterion the area under the swing curve during acceleration should be equal to the that during deceleration.

Here A1= accelerating area A2=deceleration area for stable operation of system A1 equal to A2.

Numerical technique for solution of swing equation

The transient stability analysis requires the solution of a system of coupled non-linear differential equations. In general, no analytical solution of these equations exists. However, techniques are available to obtain approximate solution of such differential equations by numerical methods and one must therefore resort to numerical computation techniques (commonly known as digital simulation). Some of the commonly used numerical techniques for the solution of the swing equation are:

Point by point method Euler's method Euler's modified method Runge-Kutta method, etc.

Point -by -point method

Point by point solution, also known as step-by-step solution is the most widely used way of solving the swing equation. The following two steps are carried out alternately. 1. First, compute the angular position d , and angular speed d/dt at the end of the time interval using the formal solution of the swing equation from the knowledge of the assumed value of he accelerating power and the values of d and d/dt a the beginning of the interval 2. Then compute the accelerating power of each machine from the knowledge of the angular position at the end of the interval as computed in step 1.

Eulers Method

This is the simplest method but also very much error introduce by this method. The governing equation of this method is = +

so for solving swing equation here we can take y as or . Here h is step size. h = T/n , T is the total range of time in which we are interested, and n is the number of subinterval.
Modified Eulers Method or Predictor Corrector Method

This method is the modified version of Eulers method, error in this method is less than the previous method. This method utilizes average slope computed at the beginning and the end of subinterval. The governing equation for this method is

Predictor step:

Corrector step:

Runge-Kutta Method

In this method again we are improving slope that we used in Eulars method. Its a forth order method. The governing equation are as follows

Where,

EXPERIMENT-7
OBJECTIVE:
State estimation using matlab.

THEORY:
State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state variable based on measurements from that system according to some criteria. Usually, the process involves imperfect measurements that are redundant and the process of estimating the system states is based on a statistical criterion that estimate the true value of the state variables to minimize or maximize the selected criterion. Different methods commonly used for state estimation are:

1. The maximum likelihood criterion, where the objective is to maximize the probability that the estimation of the state variable, x , is the true value of the state variable, x ( i.e., maximize P( x ) = x ). 2. The weighted least square criterion, where the objective is to minimize the sum of the squares of the weighted deviations of the estimated measurements, z , from the actual measurements, z . 3. The minimum variance criterion, where the objective is to minimize the expected value of the sum of the squares of the derivatives of the estimated components of the state variable vector from the corresponding components of the true state variable vector. In this experiment, weighted least square criterion is considered for state estimation of unknown system variable. The error between the actual measurements and the true value (but unknown) of the measured quantities are given by where z = actual measurement ztrue = Hx = true values of measured quantity H = measurement function coefficient matrix x = state variables

e = z - ztrue = z Hx

The true value of x cannot be determined; therefore we need to estimate the values of x. The estimated value of errors are given by

eest = z zest = z Hxest = e H(xest x)

According to weighted least square method, the direct sum of the squares of the errors are to be minimized. To ensure that measurements from meters of known greater accuracy are treated more favorably than less accurate measurements, each term in the sum of squares is multiplied by an appropriate weighting factor (w) to give the objective function as

f = wje j
j =1

where n = no. of state variables

f To minimize the objective function f , x is equated to zero, we get

HT W eest = HT W (z xest) = 0
or,

xest = (HT W H)-1 HT W z

where x

est

are the weighted least square estimates of the state variables.