Pensamiento de Shah Wali Allah

'Religion and Thought of Shah Wali Allah Dihlawi', 1703 1762 Revised ebook edition by J. M. S.
Baljon Edited by Krijn Peter Hesselink and Katinka Hesselink Published online as a free ebook 2012 Originally published as Volume 48 van Studies in the history of religions as a Hardcover of 221 pages, published by Brill Academic Pub (1986)
A note on usage of this work While this book is provided as an ebook free of charge fair use applies. In other words: if you quote this work, please reference it correctly, including the URL where the ebook can be found online:
http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html
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2 Table of Contents PREFACE 4 5
NOTE ON THE TEXT ABREVIATIONS 6
A. WORKS OF SHH WAL ALLH 6 B. PERIODICALS AND ENCYCLOPEDIA INTRODUCTION 7
CHAPTER ONE: VOCATIONAL VISIONS 13 CHAPTER TWO: EXTRA-SCRIPTURAL MEDIA OF DIVINE REVELATION 16
A) ÀLAM AL-MITHL (WORLD OF PREFIGURATION) 16 C) ANGELIC CATEGORIES 17 D) TAJALLIYYT (RADIANCES EMANATING FROM THE FIRE BY WHICH GOD REVEALS HIMSELF) E) AL-TAJALL AL-A`ZAM (MOST SUPREME THEOPHANY) 19
18
CHAPTER THREE: METAPHYSICS 21

A) CONCEPT OF GOD 21 B) COSMOLOGY 24 C) WAHDAT AL-WUJD (UNITY OF BEING)
28
CHAPTER FOUR: PSYCHOLOGY 31 CHAPTER FIVE: MYSTICISM CHAPTER SIX: ETHICS 43 50 53 38
CHAPTER SEVEN: THE LIFE TO COME CHAPTER EIGHT: PROPHETOLOGY
CHAPTER NINE: PEOPLE OF EMINENCE 61 A. KMIL (PERFECT MAN) 61 B. HAKM (WISE MAN) 61 C. WAL (PROTG OF GOD) 62 D. CALIPH 63 E. MUHADDATH (MAN WHO IS INSPIRED) 65 F. FARD (SINGULAR MAN) 65 G. MUJADDID (RENEWER) 66 H. ÙLAM' 67 I. PHILOSOPHERS 67 J. MUTAKALLIMN (SCHOLARS IN THE FIELD OF SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY) 68 CHAPTER TEN: QURAN 71 THE GENESIS AND PURPORT OF THE QUR'N 71 QUR'NIC TEACHING 72 QUR'NIC STYLE AND LANGUAGE 72 TAHRF (DISTORTION OF THE TEXTS OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURE) CHAPTER ELEVEN: HADITH 79
74
CHAPTER TWELVE: THE SHARIA 84 BIRTH OF THE SHARÀ 84
Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
3 THE NEED OF A UNIVERSAL SHARÀ 84 PRACTICALITY OF THE SHARÀ 85 TYPICAL TRAITS OF THE SHARÀ 86 EVALUATION OF THE MADHHIB (SCHOOLS OF RELIGIOUS LAWS) IJTIHD AND TAQLD 87 IJM` AND QIYS 88 CHAPTER THIRTEEN: TRUE AND FALSE RELIGION 91
86
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: RELIGIOUS RITES AND CUSTOMS 95 SHA`'IR 95 SALT 96 ZAKT 97 FASTING 97 HAJJ 98 JIHD 98 DHIKR,RECITATION OF THE QUR'N AND DU`' CARE OF THE DEAD 100 VISITING SHRINES OF HOLY MEN 100 MAGIC PRACTICES 100
99
CHAPTER FIFTEEN: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IDEAS EPILOGUE 107
103
BIBLIOGRAPHY 110 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS INDEX OF PROPER NAMES AFTERWORD CAREER 126 126 120 112
J.M.S. BALJON THE 3RD BIBLIOGRAPHY 127 ENGLISH DUTCH NOTES 128 127 127
Preface
When my grandfather died in 2001 he left my grandmother well provided for, but with a lot of responsibilities. She took care of his library by donating the books to the Leiden University Library as he had arranged it. She took care of the house by moving everything around. An uncle of mine took care of the finances. However, there was one wish of my gra ndfathers that weighed heavily on her heart: he had worked on a revised edition of his last book till a year before he died and had wanted to see it published. Unfortunately it proved difficult to get the book republished. Ill leave it up to the reader to decide why it was difficult to get this book republished, though as a family we are certainly not short of speculation on the topic. We are sure that he would have wanted readers to be able to benefit from the work he had done to improve the book. Given that many of the potential readers of this work live in Pakistan with little money, we feel sure that a free digital edition is a suitable way to finally give shape to my grandfathers wishes.
Note on the text

No attempt has been made to correctly render transliterations of Arabic, Urdu or any other non-Latin script. This is especially true for the parts of the book added by the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon. The first chapters of the transcript have been edited for style by Krijn Peter Hesselink. I have done work on page formatting and the like. The parts edited by my brother have endnotes. The rest of the chapters have footnotes at the end of each chapter. In those chapters I have left the original page numbers as my grandfather put them in. I assume this will make it easier on students who want to check with the original edition. As testimony to both the difficulty anyone would have in making a final version of this text, as well as how serious my grandfather took this revision I want to share with you all one of the pages in the copy of his copy of the book:
I can assure you that its not due to the picture quality that its impossible to read the authors notes. Katinka Hesselink 2012
Abreviations
A. Works of Shh Wal Allh
Anfs A.Q. Atyab al-nagham B.B. F.K. Fuyd H. Haw. Intibh Ìqd Izla al-Juz' al-latf Khizna Lamha Maktb Majmà Musaff Musaww Q.J. Qurrat Sat. Sharh al-tarjim Tafh. Ta'wl
Anfs al-`rifn, Delhi, 1897 Altf al-quds f ma`rifa lat'if al-nafs, Gujrnwala, 1964 Atyab al-nagham f madh sayyid al-Àrab wa'l-wa'l-Àjam, Delhi, 1890/1 al-Budr al-bzigha, Bijnawr, 1935/6 al-Fawz al-kabr f usl al-tafsr, Karachi, 1964 one of the visions recorded in the Fuyd al-Haramayn Hama`t. The Roman numerals refer to one of the 22 chapters. Hawmi`, Delhi, n.d. Intibh f salsil awliy' Allh, Karachi, n.d. Ìqd al-Jd f bayn ahkm al-ijtihd wa'l-taqld, Karachi, 1959/60 Izlat al-khaf' àn khilfat al-khulaf', Bareli, 1869 al-Juz' al-latf f tarjamat al-àbd al-dìf, Delhi, n.d. a chapter of al-Khayr al-kathr one of the 60 Lamaht, Hydarbd, Sind, 1963 Maktb-i Madan, Delhi, 1906 Majmà-i wasy-i arbaà, Hydarbd, Sind, 1964 al-Musaff, Delhi, n.d. al-Musaww min al-ahdth al-Muwatta', Mecca, 1932-4 al-Qawl al-jaml f bayn saw' al-sabl, Karachi n.d. Qurrat al-àynayn f tafdl al-shaykhayn, Delhi, 1892/3 one of the 46 Sat`t, Hydarbd, Sind, 1964 Risla sharh al-tarjim abwb sahh al-Bukhr Tafhmt-i Ilhiyya, Dabhel, 1936 Ta'wl al-ahdth f rumz quss al-anbiy', Hydarbd, Sind,1966
B. Periodicals and Encyclopedia
AION BOAS EI 2 IC JRAS MW
Annali dell' Instituto Orientale di Napoli Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Encyclopaedia of Islam,New Edition Islamic Culture Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society The Muslim World
Introduction
Great personalities in pious Muslim circles are never born without some solemn prediction. Shh Wal Allh records the following that occurred to his father Àbd al-Rahm: Once he visited the mausoleum of Qutb al-Dn al-Bakhtiyr al-Kk1 (d. 1235). The latter addressed him, announced to him the birth of a son and advised him to call him Qutb al-Dn. When I was born, however, God caused him to forget to name me Qutb al-Dn. He called me Wal Allh (protg of God) on account of cosmic events indicating that I would be the object of Gods constant beneficence ( mutawalla) (Tafh. II, 154). At first, this news of a future son threw Àbd al-Rahm into confusion, since his wife had reached the menopause. The dweller of the shrine then removed Àbd al-Rahms perplexity with the simple solution to marry a second time. Àbd al-Rahm then chose to marry Fakhr al-Nis', a daughter of his disciple Shaykh Muhammad of Phulat, a small town in the district of Muzafarnager (western U.P.). According to Shh Wal Allhs son Shh Àbd al-Àzz, Shh Wal Allh was born in his maternal grandfathers house in Phulat on 4 Shawwl A.H. 1114 (February 21, 1703). Shh Wal Allh claims to be a descendant of Ùmar, the second caliph ( Anfs, 38). He relates that once during a murqaba (meditation ceremony) the whole long line of his ancestors right back to Ùmar appeared to him in a shining light (Kalimt-i tayyibt, 160). His lineage on the mothers side is traced to Ms al-Kzim (d. 1294), the seventh imm of the Ithn Àshariyya. In this way, he can also be reckoned among he progeny of Àl, the cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed. His ancestors emigrated to India in the thirteenth century. He himself refers to the history of his ancestors with evident delight, saying: I hail from a foreign country. My forbears came to India as emigrants. I am proud of my Arab origin and my knowledge of Arabic, for both of them bring a pers on close to the sayyid (master) of the Ancients and the Moderns, the most excellent of the prophets sent by God, and the pride of the whole creation. In gratitude for this great favour, I ought to conform to the mores and customs of the early Arabs and the Prophet himself as much as I can and to abstain from the customs of non-Muslims of countries beyond Arabia (àjam) and the mores of the Hindus (Tafh. II, 245 f.). In the beginning, his ancestors occupied offices in the judicature of the Delhi Sultanate. Later, some of them joined the armed forces under the Mughals. 2 His father, Shaykh Àbd al-Rahm (1644-1719), did not wish to have any connection with the Court however. In response to an invitation from the Emperor Awrangzb (d. 1707), he wrote: Mystics unanimously declare: how horrible it is to find a dervish on the threshold of kings. God states: The fruition of this world is small ( Qur'n IV, 77) (Anfs 68). Shaykh Àbd al-Rahm lived and worked in Delhi where he founded a seminary called after him. This madrasa Rahmiyya was originally located in a building associated with the Ferozshh mosque in the Kotl Ferozshh (Tughluqbd) area. Later in 1737, the madrasa was shifted to the centre of Delhi, not far from the Jmi` Mosque. In the War of Independence (the Mutiny) of 1857 it was reduced to ruins. No trace of it is visible now. At the age of fifteen, two years before the death of his father in 1719, Shh Wal Allh was already permitted to assume the responsibility of running the madrasa. In other words, the son followed in his fathers footsteps. The most fundamental and innovating element in the method of the fathers teaching, later on adopted by the son, was studying the Qur'n without the use of any commentary. In this way, the students were induced to think over the Word of God independently. This is also the reason why Shh Wal Allh used to teach the Qur'n before the Traditions. Their personalities were undeniably different. The son was not as detached from the goods of this world and not as afraid of dependence on the Royal Palace as his father for instance. In 1754 he accepted a grant of 51 bghs of land from the Emperor Àlamgr II as a madad-i ma`sh (a revenue-free grant of land as means of support) for the madrasa (one bgh is equal to about five-eights of an acre). When talking of his early education, Shh Wal Allh makes mention of what he calls useful suggestions for daily life he obtained from his father: My father advised me to recite Y mughn (O He who satisfies, whom He will, of His servants) (the numerical value of the letters of this exclamation is 1100) 1100 times every day and the Sra al-Muzzammil 40 times. And he used to say both recitations are tried means for contentment of heart and independence of ones surroundings (Q.J. 122). Furthermore, he relates that he saw miracles performed by his father (Q.J. 180). We never hear of miracles worked by himself however! Certainly, both of them were teachers, but the son was a typical scholar who produced works of major importance, whereas the father did not write any books. Both of them were mystics, but the mysticism practised by the father shows more magical aspects than that of the son. Just as Ahmad al-Sirhind (d. 1624),Àbd al-Rahm claimed to be a qayym, the highest rank in the mystical hierarchy, enabling its possessor to obtain inspiration directly from the Prophet (Anfs 35). The difference in nature between Shh Wal Allh and his father was announced beforehand, just as Shh Wal Allhs birth had been, this time not through a communication from a buried saint but through a Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
8 vision revealed to his mother when Shh Wal Allh had just been weaned. First, she saw in a dream a bird of wonderful shape, which came to my father carrying a sheet of paper in its bill. The name of Allh was written on it in golden letters. Next, a second bird came to him with another sheet of paper in its bill. It said: In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. If prophethood after Mohammed were possible, We would make him a prophet. With Mohammed, however, prophethood has come to an end... The first bird had a red bill, while the remainder of its body was dust-coloured like a pigeon. The remaining part of the other bird was green like a parrot. Shh Wal Allh himself gives the following comment on this dream: According to the rule of hikma (knowledge of high spiritual truths) the correct interpretation is this. The first sheet of paper (with the name of Allh on it) points to the very perfection of my father, for he was a man of fan' (passing away from self) and immersion into God. The colour of dust indicates that it relates to someone who is not concerned with metaphysical speculations. Accordingly, a pigeon and a ringdove indeed have pleasant voices but they lack the gift of eloquence. The other sheet refers to the perfection I am endowed with and consists of the capacity to analyse the excellences of prophets. A green colour appertains to someone who can expound metaphysics eloquently like a chattering p arrot (Tafh. II, 154 f.). Briefly summarized, the father is a typical example of sainthood, the son a substitute of prophethood. Under the tutelage of his father, Shh Wal Allh studied al-Faw'id al-diy'iyya by Molla Jm (d. 1492) by the age of ten. This was the most popular commentary on al-Kfiya by Ibn al-Hjib (d. 1249), which deals with Arabic syntax, in Indian seminaries. During the next five years of study, he had to peruse many other works. On the subject of fiqh (jurisprudence), he studied the commentary of Sadr al-Sharà al-Thn (d. 1346) on Wiqya al-riwya by the Hanafite Burhn al-Dn Mahmd al-Mahbb, and the famous handbook on Hanafi fiqh, the Hidya of al-Marghnn (d. 1196), except for a few pages. On usl al-fiqh (principles of fiqh), he studied al-Muntakhab f usl al-madhhab by the Hanafite Husm al-Dn al-Akhskat (d. 1247). For his training in logic, he made use of the Sharh al-Shamsiyya, a commentary of Qutb al-Dn Muhammad al-Rz al-Tahtn (d. 1364) on al-Risla al-Shamsiyya by al-Ktib (d. 1276). He also read a portion of the commentary of al-Tahtn on the Matli` al-anwr fi'l-mantiq by al-Urmaw (d. 1283). On the subject of kalm (apologetics for the sake of Muslim faith), he studied the whole commentary of al-Taftzn (d. 1389) on Àq'id by Ab Hafs Ùmar Najm al-Dn al- Nasaf (d. 1142) and the commentary of al-Jurjn (d. 1371) on Kitb al-Mawqif f ìlm al-kalm al-Ij (d. 1355). On the subject of rhetorics, he perused the Mutawwal of al-Taftzn. On the subject of medicine, he studied the summary written by Ibn al-Nafs (d. 1288) of the Qnn by Ibn Sn (d. 1037), called Mu`jiz al-Qnn. Without doubt the chief attention in Shaykh Àbd al-Rahm's teaching was given to mystic literature however. Thus, he studied Àwrif al-ma`rif by al-Suhraward (d. 1234) and works by the great Persian sf poet Jm (d. 1492), to wit his Naqd al-Nuss (a commentary on the Nuss of Ibn al-Àrabs disciple Sadr al-Dn al-Qnaw, d. 1263), his Ashi`àt al-Lama`t (a commentary on the Lama`t by Ìrq, d. 1289) and his Sharh-i Rubìyyt. He received tuition in the recitation of the Qur'n from Muhammad Fdil Sindh (d. 1732). Under the supervision of Shaykh Muhammad Afdal Siylkot 3 (d. 1733), he studied the Tradition, including the Sahh of al-Bukhr. When he was in his fourteenth year, his father deemed it time for him to marry. The bride assigned to him was Ftima, a daughter of his maternal uncle Shaykh Ùbayd Allh of Phulat and a sister of Shaykh Muhammad Àshiq, who later became his closest disciple and friend. In 1746, having become a widower, Shh Wal Allh married B Irda. Talented sons of this couple are Shh Àbd al-Àzz (1746-1824), Shh Raf` al-Dn (1750-1818), Shh Àbd al-Qdir (1753-1813) and Shh Àbd al-Ghan (1756-1812). At fifteen years of age, he was initiated by his father into the Qdiriyya and Chishtiyya orders as well as into the Naqshbandiyya branch of Khwja Khwurd, the son of Shaykh Ahmad Sirhinds spiritual guide Khwja Baq Bi'llh (Tafh. I, 11 and 15; Anfs 6). During 12 years after the death of his father he continuously read up theological works and dissertations on the implied values of law and morals [...] At the tomb of his father he regularly practised tawajjuh (concentration of the soul on the Ultimate Reality) [...] After the study of texts of the four legal schools and principles of jurisprudence in combination of hadths, an irrestable longing seized him to visit Mecca and Medina (Husayn, M. Hidayat, The Persian Autobiography of Shh Waliullh, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1912, 166). In those days, a journey to the Holy Cities was a rather risky enterprise however, because of the danger of the European pirates in the Indian Ocean (Muh. Ikrm, Rd-i Kawthar, Lahore 1970, 90) and his relatives and loved ones, upon whose hearts and eyes God had put a cover, did not approve. So Shh Wal Allh had to abscond. His people pursued him but without succes (Tafh. II, 153). On October 21, 1730, he left for Srat, the harbour of departure for Indian pilgrims. In his autobiography (al- Juz' al-latf, 28), the Delhi divine makes mention of a safe return to Delhi on December 31, 1732. During his stay in al-Haramayn (Mecca and Medina) he often visited the Lofty and Holy Shrine of Mohammed. Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
9 The Prophet used to show himself in various delicate figures: at one occasion in a truly majestic and aweful form, at another in an attractive, sweet and delightful shape, and at a third occasion in an effusing condition so that the whole cosmic space seemed pervaded by his spirit ( Fuyd 9th Vision). In addition to the achievement of other rituals (he performed the hajj twice), the Delhi scholar gave his time to the study of the hadth. In Mecca he attended the lectures of the Malikite Shaykh Muhammad Wafd Allh on the whole of the Muwatta' in the recension of Yahya b. Yahya al-Mashmd (d. 848). He also received instruction on the Tradition by the Hanafite teacher Shaykh Tj al-Dn al-Qala` (d. 1734), a muft (official expounder of Islamic law) of Mecca. And in the Medinian mosque of the Prophet, he could enlarge his knowledge under the guidance of the most outstanding scholar and mystic he met in the Hijz, the Shfi` Shaykh Ab Thir al-Kurd al-Madan (d. 1733), the third and youngest son of Shaykh Ibrahm al-Krn (d. 1690). Both of them, father and son, were highly esteemed by Indian and Indonesian students in the Hijz and were keen on bringing about syntheses between opposing points of view (J. Voll in BOAS, XXXVIII, 1 (1975), 39). In the companionship of his Medinian tutor, he did not only read up the hadth (the whole of al-Bukhr's Sahh and capita selecta of other collections of traditions) but also mystic writings such as the Hizb al-Bahr of al-Shdhil (d. 1258) (Intibh I, 136) and the Qt al-qulb of Ab Tlib al-Makk (d. 998). Furthermore, Ab Thir often functioned as his pr (sf mentor), initiating him into the Shdhiliyya order and the Shattriyya order (Intibh I, 134 & 137). The increased acquisition of knowledge through contact with scholars from various Muslim countries should not, however, be seen as the main result of his stay in the Holy Land. Even more far-reaching was the fact that through the cognizance of different legal schools and divergent religious opinions, he was set to question which of the many choices offered were, in fact, the most reliable, the most valuable. Such cogitations are reflected in the visions he records from his sojourn in Mecca and Medina. In them he occasionally brought doubts with which he was afflicted before the spirit of Mohammed. Thus, he once asked the Prophet: Which school of fiqh do you prefer so that I may know which one I ought to follow? (Fuyd, 10th Vision). At times he received answers which, as he frankly admits, ran counter to his own sentiments, as for instance when Mohammed notified him that he should not hold Àl superior to Ab Bakr and Ùmar (Fuyd, 33rd Vision). Equally against his temperament was the order of the Prophet to follow the practice of one of the four madhhabs, although he disliked taqld (Fuyd, 46th Vision). This is an unmistakable indication that disputes with foreign colleagues compelled him to abandon previously cherished ideas. In short, his creative capacities, already roused after his fathers death, were put to work, improved by a still more critical disposition and stimulated by his contacts with scholars from other parts of the world. After having received the Prophets pen on August 14, 1731, in Mecca (see next chapter), Shh Wal Allh was compelled by his gradual awakening and by the heavy responsibility placed on him in view of the research work to be done to assign the greater part of the teaching duties to assistants on his return to Delhi, keeping for himself the supervision of the madrasa students. In this way he could give adequate attention to both study and writing. By his own account, the students nevertheless had a stimulating influence on his authorship. It was, for instance, at the urgent request of his follower Khwja Muhammad Amn al-Kashmr (d. 1773/4) that he wrote the Qurrat al-àynayn and the Atyab al-nagham. His closest disciple and cousin Shh Muhammad Àshiq of Phulat (d. 1773) continuously encouraged him to complete the Hujjat Allh al-bligha and in a testimonial to this adherent Shh Wal Allh declares: In the case of many books, it was he who induced me to commit them to paper and he himself who undertook the neatening of their manuscripts ( Tafh. I, 126). In addition, his students sometimes furnished his works with glosses. Thus, Sayyid Sharaf al-Dn al-Dihlaw wrote comments on the Hawmi`, and Shh Muhammad Àshiq prepared an elucidation of al-Khayr al-kathr under the title Taqrr Khayr kathr. The latter also drew up a Persian biography of his venerated master: al-Qawl al-jal (Persian). It is also noteworthy that, although he now spent less time on the tuition of the students, their number increased significantly compared with the time before his travel to the Hijz. Among his students, Sayyid Murtad al-Zabd (1732 - 91) was certainly one of the most famous in the Arab world. He is the author of the Arabic dictionary Tj al-Àrs and of the commentary on al-Ghazl's Ihy', called Ithf al-sda al-muttaqn. Another talented disciple was Qd Than' Allh Pnpat (1725/6-1810). He is the author of two widely known books: Tafsr-i Mazhar, a Qur'n commentary named after his spiritual leader Mrz Mazhar Jnjnn (d. 1781), and M l budda min-hu (on the Hanaf fiqh). If one surveys the thousands of pages the Delhi divine needed for the elaboration of his ideas and sees the ease with which he explains difficult subjects, one may wonder why he still asked for incitements to write. The most likely reason to my mind is that he merely wished to make sure that people were waiting for the results of his efforts and that he was doing meaningful work.
The immense amount of writing paper Shh Wal Allh required for the formulation of his views is
10
certainly not due to a verbose style. On the contrary, he generally prefers compact discourses and a terse phrasing.
The two main causes which eventually led to the enormous growth of his scholarly output are: a) a wide scope of interest: he treats almost all topics of Muslim lore, Qur'nic learning as well as the science of the Tradition, fiqh as well as ethics, mysticism as well as apologetic theology, medicine as well as astrology; b) a regular repetition of themes in the successive products of his pen; consequently, if one tries to systematize his teachings, one has to gather complementary data from different works for a single topic. When attempting to draw up a list of his works arranged in order of date, one needs considerable intuition, for there is not much to go by. Only a few writings mention specific dates of completion. For the rest, reference made in some books to earlier works can be helpful in fixing a certain sequence of appearance. Another means affording some aid is the dated licences ( ijzt) permitting a disciple to teach a course he had followed under the guidance of his former instructor. If titles of works of Shh Wal Allh himself are stated in such a certificate, it means in any case that they were composed before the date of its issue. Lastly, now and then the contents of a book (when indicating maturity of thought or a more traditional train of ideas) may give a clue in assessing a date. So, with all reserve, the following order of their creation has been reconstructed. Works written before the stay in the Hijz (1731 - 2) include al-Qasdat al-lmiyya (Arabic) (a polythematic ode with verses ending in the letter l) and al-Qawl al-jaml f bayn saw' al-sabl (Arabic) (A Pleasant Discussion and Explanation of the Straight Path). In the second title qualifications necessary for sf guide and rules for the education of the novice are expounded and litanies and daily offices of various brotherhoods are set forth. The booklet testifies to the strong attachment of the author to his father, whose views or advice are remembered on nearly every page. In 1732, during his sojourn in the Holy Land, he prepared an Arabic translation of the Persian tract Radd-i Rawfid (Refutation of the Sh`s) written by Shaykh Ahmad Sirhind (d. 1624). He titled it al-Muqaddima al-saniyya fi'l-intisr li'l-firqa al-Sunniyya (Splendid Introduction in Defence of the Sunn Creed). He made the translation at the request of his Medinian teacher Shaykh Ab Thir. Moreover, he added useful explanatory and critical notes here and there [... and] has also differed in several places from the original author, and has pointed out his mistakes (M.G. Zubaid Ahmad, The Contribution of Indo-Pakistan to Arabic Literature, Lahore 1967, 115f). Since the ijza (diploma) granted to his disciple Nr Allh b. Mu'n al-Dn Phulat on December 4, 1733 mentions the Fuyd al-Haramayn (Arabic) (Effusions of Grace in Mecca and Medina) ( Tafh. I,9 & 11), Shh Wal Allh will have finished this record of 47 visions he had been favoured with in the two Holy Cities soon after his return to India. The majority of these visions refer to the person of Mohammed in the role of a spiritual guide who answers questions of Islamic doctrine and spiritual practice.
The following four collections of Traditions compiled by the Delhi scholar also date, in all probability, from the time immediately succeeding his stay in the Hijz, since they chiefly contain traditions he obtained there from his spiritual guides:
1) al-Durr al-thamn fi'l-mubashshirt al-nab al-amn (Arabic) (Precious Pearls Consisting in Joyful Annunciations from the Trustworthy Prophet); the forty announcements of good news included in this work were communicated in dreams in which the spirit of Mohammed was witnessed; they are divided into three categories: a) the first thirteen, which he received himself from the Prophet; b) the next seventeen, which he heard through the medium of his father, his paternal uncle or his Medinian teacher Ab Thir; c) the rest, which he received at third hand as in the case of the visions of Ab Thirs father; 2) al-Nawdir min ahdth Sayyid al-aw'il wa'l-awkhir (Arabic) (Funny Traditions of Mohammed Relating Pleasing Anecdotes); these traditions were put together merely because of their curious character; the chain of authorities on which they are based may start with a jinn, al-Khidr (a popular figure, who plays a prominent part in story and legend) or very old people like Ab Àbd Allh al-Muàmmar, who is said to have reached the age of 400; most of the Traditions in this collection came from Ab Thir; 3) al-Musalsalt min hadth al-nab (Arabic) (Traditions of the Prophet Related by an Uninterrupted Chain of Transmitters); they consist mostly only of an isnd (chain of authorities) without a subsequent matn (text); they were handed down to Shh Wal Allh by his masters in Mecca and Medina; 4) Arba`na hadthan musalsalatan bi'l-ashrf f ghlib sanadiha (Arabic) (Forty Traditions mostly with an Uninterrupted Chain of Illustrious Transmitters); a remarkable feature of these Traditions is their brevity; they have the form of aphorisms, which can guide the believer in every department of life. His later works include the following. Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
11 Kashf al-ghayn f sharh al-Rubìyyatayn (Persian) (Removing the Cloud when Commenting on Two Quatrains) (preferably sung in the course of sam`, listening to spiritual music). In this short treatise two rub`s of Khwja Baq bi-'llh (d. 1603) are elucidated, as a correction of al-Sirhinds interpretation of them. al-Irshd il muhimmt ìlm al-isnd (Arabic) (A Manual for the Requirements of the Science of Isnd). The reason why this treatise in all likelihood dates from the period subsequent to the return from the Holy Land is, according to G.N. Jalbani, that every scholar of Haramain he had met had written a book on this subject. He, therefore liked to apprise people on the importance of this science (G.N. Jalbani, Life of Shah Waliyullah, Lahore 1978, 35). Sharh tarjim abwb sahh al-Bukhr (Arabic) (Elucidation of the Methodology followed in al-Bukhr's Collection of Traditions). This treatise contains illuminating annotations on the headings of chapters in the Sahh of al-Bukhr, and discusses problems of the fiqh of Hanaf and Shfi` schools. Ghulm Mustaf al-Qsimi supposes that this essay was written about the years 1732/33 (al-Rahm, Urdu periodical, Hyderabad May 1966, 875). Altf al-quds f ma`rifa lat'if al-nafs (Persian) (Marks of Divine Favour Consisting in Knowledge of Delicate Functions of the Mind). Analysis of a mystic's inner dimensions in order to show the proper sf way and to establish a united disciplined community. Anfs al-`rifn (Persian) (Breathings of Advanced Sfs). Contains biographical accounts of his ancestors, father, paternal uncle Shaykh Ab Rid' Muhammad and teachers in India and the Hijz. Hujjat Allh al-bligha (Arabic) (Peremptory Argument from God). The title derives from Qurn VI, 149. The second part of it deals with precepts implied in the hadth. Here the author follows the classification adopted by the traditionalist Muslim with one significant deviation: the chapters 16-20 (treating marriage, divorce and the like) in the collection of Muslim have been excluded from consideration. As a substitute to these topics, expositions are given on mystical issues like dhikrs (spiritual exercises designed to render Gods presence throughout ones being), maqamt and ahwl (i.e. stages and states associated with the passage along the sf Path). The work owes its great renown however to the original presentation of topics in its first part. Here the Delhi scholar attempts to elucidate the deeper levels of meaning of traditional symbols and practices while integrating mystical, intellectual, and traditional textual approaches to their interpretation (Marcia K. Hermansen, The Conclusive Argument from God, Leiden 1996, p. XV). al-Insf f bayn sabab al-ikhtilf (Arabic) (Fair Elucidation of the Cause for Disagreement). The reason for writing this monograph was the deplorable factionalism of his days ( H.B. I, 161). This essay is to be taken as a kind of complement to the Hujjat Allh al-bligha and implies at the same time a warning against the then doctors of the law, who are denounced as prattlers and braggarts memorizing indiscriminately the teachings of colleagues, whether their statements were strong or weak. Ìqd al-jd f ahkm al-ijtihd wa'l-taqld (Arabic) (Chaplet around a Graceful Neck Concerning the Characteristics of Formulating Independent Judgment or an Unthinking Acquiescence in Received Opinion). This treatise focuses on the apropriateness of ijtihd for theological reasoning. Hama`t (Persian) (Downpours). This work was completed in October/November 1735. It offers an exposition of the historic developments in Islamic mysticism and discusses the intentions and purposes as they are pursued by members of the different brotherhoods. al-Intibh f salsil awliy' Allh wa sansid writh Rasl Allh (Persian) (Heed of the Chains of Spiritual Descent of Gods Protgs as well as of the Chains of Transmitters among the He irs of the Messenger of God). This account of sf rituals and doctrines of various orders, followed by a list of authorities related to works of hadth and fiqh was composed in 1740. Ta'wl al-ahdth f rumz qiss al-anbiy (Arabic) (Explanation of Significative Events Referred to in Profetic Tales). This dissertation on the esoteric background of particular episodes pertaining to the lives of persons who are ranked as prophets was composed more or less after the pattern of Ibn al-Àrabs Fuss al-hikam. Fath al-Rahmn f tarjamat al-Qur'n (Persian) (Aid of the Merciful in the Translation of the Qur'n). This annotated Persian version of the Qur'n was completed on March 31, 1738 and published in 1743. Atyab al-nagham f madh Sayyid al-Àrab wa'l-Àjam (The Most Pleasant Tune Consisting in a Laudation of the Arabs and Non-Arabs). An Arabic ode on Mohammed with a Persian commentary. The ode was completed by Shh Wal Allh on June 17, 1743. al-Qasda al-Hamziyya fi'l-mad'ih al-nabawiyya (Arabic) (Polythematic Ode with Verses ending in the Letter hamza in Praise of the Prophet). It was composed in the beginning of 1745. The Persian commentary on it was finished in 1762. Muqaddima dar fann-i tarjama-i Qur'n (Persian) (Introduction to the Art of the Translation of the Qur'n). Directions for the translators of the Qur'n. Hawmi` (Persian) (Drops of Spiritual Dew). Commentary on the Hizb al-bahr (Litany of the Ocean) of al-Shdhil, a collection of invocations credited with protective power preferably recited by seafarers. Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
12 Sata`t (Persian) (Radiances). This monograph offers a compendium of various cosmological concepts and mystic apprehensions peculiar and dear to the Delhi savant. Its title indicates that it was produced under divine inspiration. al-Musaww min ahdth al-Muwatta' (Arrangement of the Traditions of the Muwatta' in a Convenient Form). For the benefit of the reader, Shh Wal Allh rearranged Traditions in the Muwatta', the first written compendium of law produced in Islam, at his own discretion. In addition, he compares inferences deduced from the hadths of this collection by the Mliks with opinions of the Hanaf and Shfi` schools. al-Khayr al-kathr (Arabic) (Abundant Blessing). The title is taken from Qur'n II, 269, and hints at the blessings gainable from the knowledge of the divine Names, which is one of the main pursuits of this study. The chapters of this highly esoteric writing are aptly called Khaz'in al-hikam (Repositories of Wisdom). al-Fawz al-kabr f usl al-tafsr (Persian) (Great Fruition Lying in the Sources of Qur'nic Exegesis). This is a thoughtful essay on various Qur'nic issues. Fath al-khabr bi-m l budd min hafz f ìlm al-tafsr (Arabic) (Aid of Knowing of What One ought to bear in Mind in the Science of Qur'nic Exegesis). This treatise deals with Qur'nic expressions that are difficult to understand. The following supplement is often appended to al-Fawz al-kabr as the first or last chapter: Qurrat al-àynayn f tafdl al-Shaykhayn (Persian) (Delight of the Eyes owing to the Light that indicated the Superiority of the first two Caliphs). This supplement consists of a refutation of Sh` aspersions on Ab Bakr and Ùmar. It was prepared round about 1756. Sarf-i Mr manzm (Persian) (Mrs Inflection in Verse). For the benefit of his little son Shh Àbd al-Àzz, Shh Wal Allh turned the Arabic grammar of Mr al-Jurjn into Persian verse. The child was born in 1746, so this versified primary on etymology must have been completed about 1751/52. Lamaht (Arabic) (Flashes of Lightning). This work consists of a mystical philosophy with speculations on Being, a`yn thbita (archetypes, i.e. latent realities of things), tajalliyt (theophanies), al-nafs al-kulliya (Universal Soul), classes of angels, and the like. al-Budr al-bzigha (Arabic) (Full Moons appearing on the Horizon). The title suggests this book should be considered as a counterpart to the Hujjat Allh al-bligha, for in the preface to the latter work Shh Wal Allh states that its contents are like full moons (budr) which begin to rise (bzigha) on the horizon of God's peremptory argument (hujjat bligha) (H.B. I,4). The expositions in this work, dated 1757, are directed to an unknown person, who apparently represents one of Shh Wal Allhs students. So it can be taken as a type of textbook which recapitulates a number of topics discussed in earlier writings. Tafhmt-i Ilhiyya (Divine Revelations). This is a miscellaneous collection of short discourses in Arabic and Persian, composed at different times. Thus, for instance, ijzas are inserted with dates varying from 15-10-1729 (Tafh. I, 11) to 4-10-1747 (Tafh. I, 236). The greater part consists of excursions on mystical and theological questions. However, the work also deals with legal affairs and visions the author has been granted. Furthermore, it uncovers abuses and even contains sermons held on festive occasions. al-Maqla al-wdiyya fi'l-nasha wa'l-wasiyya (Persian) (Beautiful Treatise in friendly Admonition and Exhortation). In this work, which contains eight admonitions to his children, friends and pupils, a return to the institutions of the early Muslim community is advocated, while Indo-Persian accretions to the faith are rejected. The reason for writing this monograph was the deplorable factionalism of the people of his days (H.B. I, 161). The author argues differences over various aspects of Muslim law date back to the age of the Companions of the Prophet and were due to misunderstanding certain of his acts, to forgetfulness on the part of the reporters, to settling down in different regions, or to changes which took place in the report in the course of its transmission. Wasyat-nma (Persian) (Last Will). This work consists of eight simple advices and discussions on faith, sufism, occult powers operating in the universe and the customs of the country. Izlat al-khaf' àn khilfat al-khulaf' (Persian) (Removal of the Veil of Mystery from the Caliphate of the Caliphs). This work consists of a vindication of the caliphate of the first two caliphs and an exposition of the different forms of the caliphate. The book gives the impression of being unfinished and the author acknowledges that he wrote it in a hurry (Izla I, 8). al-Musaff f ahdth al-Muwatta' (Persian) (a clarification of the Traditions of al-Muwatta'). This is a sister volume to the Musaww, but slighty more detailed. It was published posthumously in 1766. Shh Wal Allh died on August 20, 1762 in Delhi.
13
Chapter one: Vocational Visions

The Delhi innovator was deeply concerned about the embarrassing predicament in which his fellow believers found themselves. A continuous stream of foreign invaders caused great political problems and still worse - the vitality of peoples religious life was under serious threat. In a vision dated May 16, 1732, the Delhi savant witnessed, while still sojourning in the Hijz, how a king of the infidels took possession of Muslim regions, plundered their properties and enslaved their children and how he imported pagan rituals and demolished Muslim shrines in Ajmer, which symbolises the centre of Indian Islam (Fuyd, 44th Vision). This vision refers in all probability to the Hindu tribe of the Rjpts, who in 1710 [...] determined to wage war against the Muslim power (G .S. Sardesai, The Main Currents of Maratha History, Patna 1926, 106) and were to occupy Ajmer from 1721 onwards. Such critical situations for the Mughal rulers induced Shh Wal Allh to claim: The Hindus may one day obtain full power over the whole of India (Tafh. I, 203). We should realise however that observations of this kind are exceptional. Shh Wal Allh only rarely hints at the polity of the moment in his works. The small interest in political affairs apparent in his books is an additional argume nt in support of Muhammad Ikrms doubts concerning the authenticity of the entire collection of political letters assigned to the Delhi divine and edited by K.A. Nizami under the title Shh Wal Allh ke siys maktbt (Aligarh 1950) (Muhammad Ikrm, Rd-i kaw thar, Lahore 1970, 548). Along similar lines, Irfn Habb criticises the exaggeration of Shh Wal Allhs political influence in The Political Role of Shaykh Ahmad Sirhind and Shh Wal -ullh (Enquiry, vol. 59, 1961). According to the Delhi savant, there were three major factors, which accounted for the deterioration of the spiritual attitude of his contemporaries: a) the spread of syllogistic demonstration (burhn), which caused nearly all discussions on articles of faith to be permeated by sterile demonstrative argumentations, ridden as they were with Greek logic; b) a craving for ecstatic experiences (wijdn) roused under the baneful influence of unduly popular sfs, whose exhibitory raptures, cunning mystifications and poetry impressed the people more than the lessons of the Qur'n and the Sunna; c) the traditional authority (sam`) of jurisprudence giving way to excessive individualism: people are growing up in an age, in which everybody follows his private views [...] There is no prospect of agreement or compromise. They disagree in all sorts of jurisprudence ( fiqh). Some are Hanafs, others Shfi`s, and everybody [...] censures the others (Tafh. I,82 f.). A number of vocational visions convinced the Delhi scholar that he was charged with the divine task of uplifting the spiritual and moral life of his native country by means of special endowments and capacities conferred on him for this purpose. The first time he received an intimation of his heavenly mission was on his way to the Hijz, i.e. in the last months of 1730. Then his Lord gave him to understand: This is a most lofty office. You will only accomplish it after having fulfilled what We command of you. In a word, you have to follow the example of the prophets in your moral conduct and spiritual life. You will guide a community from amongst the people. There should be no relationship of love between you and anyone else except the association that is tinged with Gods colour. If you fulfill this, you may be provided with what you hope for (Tafh. II, 121). During his sojourn in the Hijz, Shh Wal Allh obtained various heavenly encouragements to accept his special vocation: Then another fragrance was diffused from the side of the Prophet, indicating: Gods intention with you is that through you the discomposed state of affairs of the umma (the blessed community) will be united [...] Take care not to dispute with the people about the body of positive rules ( fur`) derived from the Law [...] Again another fragrance was diffused. I noticed in it an admonition of the Prophet [...] to take upon myself the burdens of the prophets [...] and to pursue what would further the integrity of mens religious conduct and the wholesomeness of their inner life ( Fuyd, 31th Vision). In another vision, granted in the Holy Land on May 16, 1732, the Delhi divine sees himself appointed as a Master of the Age ( qa'm al-zamn) (title of the twelfth imm). In this capacity, he is told to give a scathing criticism of the whole existent system of regulations (fakk kulli nizmin)4, for God wanted to replace it by a new order to meet the requirements of the time and wished to employ him for the execution of His designs ( Fuyd, 44th Vision). The most suggestive vocational vision was granted him on August 14, 1731. It has been handed down to us in two slightly different versions. Shh Wal Allh describes this telling experience as follows: In the night of the 10th of Safar, A.H. 1144, while staying in Mecca, I saw Hasan and Husayn descend into my house in a dream. Hasan carried a reed pen with a broken point in his hand 5. He stretched out his hand to give it to me and said: This is the pen of my grandfather, the Messenger of God 6. Thereupon he withdrew his hand and explained: Let Husayn mend it first, since it is no longer as good as when Husayn mended it Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
14 by knife the first time. So Husayn took it, mended it and gave it to me. I was delighted with it. Then, a green and white patterned robe was brought. It was laid in front of the two grandchildren. Thereupon Husayn lifted it with the words: This robe belongs to my grandfather, the Messenger of God. And he clothed me 7 with it. Out of respect I raised it to my head and praised God; and then I awoke ( Fuyd, 6th Vision). In the Tafhmt (II, 248 f.) version of this vision, we read instead of this last sentence: From that date my breast was expanded for writing books on religious subjects. The conclusion that he himself had to make a practical use of the pen of the Prophet had apparently been an afterthought. In the introduction of the Hujjat Allh albligha, composed some years later, Shh Wal Allh refers to this incident in the following words: Once I was sitting after the afternoon salt concentrating upon God, when suddenly the spirit of the Prophet appeared and covered me from above with something that seemed to me like a robe thrown over me. In that situation, it crossed my mind that it was a sign of the manner of giving an interpretation of the obligations that God imposes on man. Simultaneously, I felt in my breast a light which continually expanded. After a while, my Lord revealed to me the decree He had set concerning my destiny: one day I would be awakened to this lofty enterprise and I would see the earth illuminated with the light of its Lord (Qur'n XXXIX, 69). Rays of light would be reflected at the time of sunset and Mohammeds sharà would shine forth in this age by manifesting itself in the wide robe of demonstrative proof ( H.B. I, 3). The special relationship which appears to exist between the Delhi scholar and the Prophet is demonstrated with equal clarity by the vision in which the former is invited to give the vow of allegiance to the latter, as happens in the ritual of a sf order. Accordingly, Shh Wal Allh tells us, I moved nearer to him in my sitting position till our thighs were pressed together. Then the Messenger of God performed the initiation rite of the hand clasp (Tafh. II, 248). Thus, he was united with the spirit of the Prophet in the same way as Uways al-Qaran8 had been (F.K. 141). This caused hem to realise that Islamic thinking had reached its final stage in his days. It is impossible, he confesses, to find an epoch more complete than the one we live in (Tafh. II, 143). All these exclusively inward experiences strengthened Shh Wal Allhs self -confidence to a great extent, as may readily be understood. In his autobiography we read: God granted me the robe of disclosure and enabled me to give new vigour and guidance to this last age, laying a firm foundation for the understanding of the Traditions by collecting what would meet with Gods approval and explaining basic notions in the hadth, considerations of expediency in the laws, as well as the stimulations and all other teachings brought by the Prophet from God. This is knowledge that none before me demonstrated with better argumentation [...] If anyone has his doubts about this, tell him to glance into the book al-Qawìd al-kubr, from which it appears that its author Shaykh Ìzz al-Dn b. Àbd al-Salm (1181-1262), in spite of his efforts, failed to realise even a hundredth part of this science. My entourage inspired me with the spiritual itinerary approved by God, as it should be practised in this age [...] I consolidated the foundations of the creed of the ancient sunns by proofs and arguments and by purifying them from nonsensical doubts raised by metaphysicists, in such a way that no room for contest is left. Upon me were poured out: a) thorough knowledge of the four divine perfections, i.e. of absolute originating, temporal creation, planning and guidance; and b) insight into the capacities of the human soul [...] None before me made such a comprehensive study of these most sublime disciplines. Applied science for renewing this age was poured upon me abundantly [...] I was endowed with the power of discerning between the basic teaching of religion as has been handed down by the Prophet and what has been crept in and been tampered with, as well as between what is sunna and what has been innovated by sects (al-Juz' al-latf, 28). In consequence of the outpouring of countless gifts from heaven, the Delhi divine holds various high offices. He is called ntiq and ftih (enunciator and inaugurator) of a new era, as well as q'id (chief) and zìm (ruler) of his generation (Tafh. I, 124). Furthermore, he is considered a mujtahid (one who possesses the aptitude to form his own judgment) to explore independently all the different branches of Qur'nic lore (F.K. 140). During his meditation near the tomb of the Prophet, he once received the titles of zak (a man endowed with inner light) and hakm (wise man) (Intibh I, 8), so that he is a deputy of the prophet Joseph as the latter disposed of hikma (Tafh. II, 68). He is charged with the functions of mujaddid (renewer), was (legal guardian who has a recourse to the spirit of the Prophet) and qutb (pivot who heads the saintly hierarchy) in order to show the people the right way (Tafh. I, 78). In his capacity of was, he is a person to be obeyed by the whole world. The best interests of mankind lie in his hands ( Tafh. II, 53 f.). He has been enabled to give such an authoritative interpretation of the Law that because of it even differences of opinion on details disappear (Tafh. I, 83). The great talents with which Shh Wal Allh finds himself endowed are said to be the outcome of exceptional favours which with he, surprisingly, happens to be blessed. This awareness of having much to be thankful for almost imperceptibly merges into unpalatable bragging. What a pity, he exclaims, that Plato has not seen the Greek philosophy I have! ( Tafh. II, 12). And he claims he would certainly have surpassed Ptolemy, if he had decided to improve the conditions of the world through mathematics and astronomy Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
15 (Tafh. I, 101). If we are scandalized by such excessive claims, we should bear in mind that this is a feature the Delhi savant had in common with quite a number of mystics. Hakm al-Tirmidh (d. 932), for instance, pretended to be a pillar of the earth. Under the guise of humble thanks to God, I. Goldziher writes, al-Sha`rn (d. 973) tells the strangest things about his wonderful qualities ( Muslim Studies, London 1971, II, 266).
16
Chapter two: Extra-scriptural media of divine revelation

Any exposition of Shh Wal Allhs thought should start with an explanation of various abstruse technical terms which he assumes the reader to be familiar with. Most of those terms can be included under the chapter heading given above.
a) Àlam al-mithl (World of Prefiguration)
The `lam al-mithl is a non-elemental world in which spiritual concepts are represented by quasi-bodily forms, corresponding to them in import. They materialise there in some form or other before they are found on earth (H.B. 13). In this respect, it is very similar to Platos world of archetypes. The place this world occupies in the universe is typical of the manner in which it functions. Situated between the World of Incorporeity and our Phenomenal World, it acts as an intermediary in a variety of ways. Thus it serves for the manifestation of both the World of Immaterial Entities ( `lam al-arwh) above it as well as of the forms reflected from the material world below it. Hence it is made of material of extreme refinement (B.B. 152). To ensure the throne of the queen of Sheba could be easily transported through the air, God invested it with properties of the `lam al-mithl (Ta'wl 66). In the light verse (Qur'n XXIV, 35), it is symbolically represented by the olive tree, which is neither in the E ast nor in the West, but is situated in the middle of the trees [...] Just as the fire of a lamp continues to burn in the wick through the oil (taken from the olive tree), the oil functioning as its vehicle, similarly the Divine Form subsists in that part of the universe which happens to be right in the middle of it, namely the `lam al-mithl, which, like the well-proportioned olive tree, is neither in the East nor in the West, i.e. it is neither incorporeal [...] nor does it belong to the category of the bodies [...] but it is between both of them. This part of the universe is completely fitted to the purely Incorporeal and on that account, it has become its vehicle and mirror ( Sat. 46). The `lam al-mithl is an intermediate screen (barzakh) between the empirical and the divine world. Thus, comprehensive planning comes from the divine world by way of the `lam al-mithl (Tafh. I, 220). For the nafs kulliyya (i.e. the universe in the aggregate), the `lam al- mithl performs the function of khayl (the storehouse of the imagination) which is connected somehow with the Throne (upon which the Merciful One Himself sat after the creation of the universe and where all that will befall in the phenomenal world is determined) (Tafh. I, 193 & II, 180). In conclusion we may say that the `lam al-mithl in essence represents a World of Prefiguration, in which things and events are shaped in the same way as an architect draws the shape of a house on a piece of paper before he builds it in empiric reality (Tafh. I, 224). Its material is of a much more refined quality than that of our world, in which everything is composed of the four coarse elements: air, water, fire and earth (Tafh. I, 164). Accordingly, having received a body of this fine and light material, Jesus could ascend to heaven (Ta'wl 76). b) Hazra al-quds (Holy Enclosure)9 The hazra al-quds appeared for the first time, when the celestial spheres came into existence, whirling around the earth like the whorls on a spindle (aflq), together with their faculties and equipped with the knowledge necessary to them. The Self-existent was the first notion which they conceived. Hence He manifested Himself in the hazra al-quds. When the cosmic processes required them to be joined by superior angels and by the souls of wise men, those angels and souls were urged by their nature to feel drawn towards the hazra al-quds like iron to a magnet. Consequently, the circle of the hazra al-quds was extended (Lamha 32) and became the location where the souls are free from their bodily garb and gather with the supreme spirit ( al-rh al-a`zam) (H.B. I, 36). The Holy Enclosure owes its name, as Shh Wal Allh explains, to the fact that the spiritual concentration of angels and the spirits of perfect people enclose it ( Tafh. I, 65). It is there that the most magnificent tadall (theophany) descends. Because of the lightening flash of divine majesty, the souls of these perfect men become bewildered. This tadall, though being one by itself, can assume manifold appearances (burzt) adapted to the attendant circumstances on earth. On one occasion it appears in the shape of general prophethood, on another in the shape of the special prophethood of our prophet Mohammed, and on still another in the institution of our salt, etc. All these manifestations meant for the sublunary world are prepared in the hazra al-quds (Fuyd, 4th Vision). Owing to its primary function of revealing divine devices for humanity, the hazra al-quds is not so much a kind of marked-out space, but rather a manifestation of the Merciful One reflected in a coarse substance like gypsum (Tafh. I, 65) in the same way as a human form is reflected in a mirror10. So the most appropriate description of the hazra al-quds is the term hadra which, within a mystic context, denotes Gods presence, as well as a stage of Being in which He descends and reveals Himself. Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
17 In conclusion, we may say that Shh Wal Allh sees the hazra al-quds as a major instrument for divine revelation, particularly in view of devices considered to be beneficial to the inhabitants of the earth, for which purpose decisions are made there, as it also functions as the will power of the universe.
c) Angelic Categories
The most essential trait of angels is their function of intermediary, or to put it in the words of the Delhi divine: The actual raison d'etre of angels is that universal expediency (maslaha) requires the existence of a divine zone that synthesises the ontological levels of the unconditioned and the conditioned, of necessarily existent being and contingent being, in such a way that a bridge is formed between the two categories (Tafh. I, 192). Angels are perceptible counterparts to the divine Names 11 (Khizna 3), marks of a reality in the World of divine Omnipotence and accordingly not composed of elemental bodies, which are made up of water and clay12. They have characteristics which differ from the characteristics of elemental substances, so that they do not change from one phase to another, as Zayd does, who is first a child, then a youth and ultimately an old man, possessing at first a pale complexion and a slender stature and later a dark complexion and a humped back (B.B. 178). Their souls are therefore more perfect than those of men. And the materials they are composed of are more refined than those of men. Consequently, they are in the possession of complete revelation (wahy) and comprehensive knowledge. On that account they are even superior to prophets, if the angels who bowed down before Adam (cf. Qur'n II, 33) are left out of consideration (Khizna 3). While the jinn predominate over the souls of soothsayers and communicate information to them, the angels of higher ranks predominate over the souls of prophets. From within their ranks, information is communicated from the World of divine Omnipotence (i.e. the tajall a`zam) (Sat. 20). Though not explicitly stated, one of the deductions the Delhi savant seems to draw from the angels possession of comprehensive knowledge is that they are considered to be the intellectual faculties of the human species and to perform for the latter the same function as the intellectual faculties do with regard to an individual of that species. In consequence of this, the angels provide the common Muslims believers with a much clearer notion of God than they would have without them: In short, the mental form God, which we call a conception occurring in the mind, appears to be in the light of deep thinking and revealing visions the shadow of a divine form, which is fixed in the minds of the angels, and which is called mala a`l (Highest Council) (Sat. 41). Shh Wal Allh distinguishes the following four classes of angels: Angels of the first and highest category possess souls that are breathed into luminous bodies at the time of very auspicious conjunctions of planets [...] By luminous bodies, fine elements are meant in which the substance of air dominates, which cannot be perceived by the faculty of seeing ( Sat. 43). These include: a) the angels nearest to God (These are, in ess ence, the embodiment of divine planning in the world, and their shape is composed of material from the World of Prefiguration. Isrfl embodies the general planning of the godly Man meant for human individuals, while Mk'l encompasses the detailed planning. Both of them see to it that men gain a most reasonable sustenance and a good yield from their fields. Gabriel masters the planning aimed at the acquisition of comprehensive knowledge about laws and divine revelation (B.B. 178 f.)); b) the bearers of the Throne of God who are always praying for mankind 13; c) the mala a`l (Highest Council) (These angels constitute one of the levels of the `lam al-arwh (world of immaterial entities) (H. XI). They can be distinguished into three types: those God creat ed as luminous bodies on a par with the fire of Moses; those whose bodies are composed from a mixture of subtle vapours; those human souls who have perfected themselves to the extent that they can be reckoned among the angels (H.B. I, 16). In Shh Wal Allhs system of belief the mala a`l play a foremost part in Gods rule of humanity, since divine Providence proceeds along the following lines: The tajall a`zam, whose function in the universe is comparable to that of the heart in man, reveals in the mala a`l indications relating to Gods providential ordering (ìnya) with respect to the allotment of welfare in the world, to which pertain imminent occurrences, praise and blame with regard to deeds, sayings, beliefs and customs of men. Next, in the mala a`l these hidden indications become more explicit. Consequently, they assume a mithl (prefigurative) shape in the Holy Enclosure, that is to say the area, in which on the level of the `lam al-mithl, the mala a`l bring matters to an issue14. Then these mithl shapes are imprinted on the minds of human beings [...] Hence, two kinds of knowledge spring from their minds: firstly, knowledge of ethical categories [...]; secondly, knowledge of polemics to be used against heretics ( Tafh. I, 201 f.). In addition, these angels are imbued with knowledge of the divine Names and Attributes and with an understanding of the mysteries of the `lam al-jabart (World of Omnipotence) (H.B. I,26).). Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
18 The second class of angels Shh Wal Allh distinguishes consists of auxiliarly angels, classed with the mala safl (Low Council). They consist of souls lesser in rank than those of the mala a`l, breathed into gaseous bodies at the time of fairly auspicious conjunctions of the planets [...] This group of angels is like a cross between minerals and animals 15, as they have no specific form: one member is like a globe, a second like a turnip, a third like a triangle, the fourth like a quadrangle, and so on ( Sat. 43). Parallel to the abode of the mala al-a`l, there is another site (hasra) on a lower level. It is the point to which the meditative concentrations of the mala safl turn. It is the centre of their affairs and the place where they receive their inspirations [...] By descending imperceptibly, God is marked there by affection for His worshippers, complying with some of their desires, and so on ( Fuyd 25th Vision). You should know that the course of Gods behaviour with reference to mankind is as follows. When an important matter has been predestined in the Unseen World and a concept of it has been imprinted on the minds of the mala a`l, the mala safl are informed of the affair (Izla I,34). Characteristic of the latter is that the sole occupation they are charged with is looking out for what may filter down of orders given by the mala a`l from above [...] Thus they come into action in the same way as birds and quadrupeds if urged by their instincts [...] Then they can influence the hearts of men and animals (H.B. I,16) as well as the elements, as we may conclude from a passage in another work, in which these angels are said to operate in the universe by ihla (effecting changes in elements). In that case their acting is mechanical, being not acquainted with the principle of universal expediency (H. XVIII). On the other hand, there is also a traffic stream in the opposite direction. In that case, the initiative comes from the part of human kind. This happens, for instance, when people desire to acquire the perfection of the mala safl. To this end, they should punctiously observe cultic purity, stay in old mosques where saintly people used to perform their prayers, recite the Qur'n frequently and apply themselves to the dhikr-ritual, invocating Allhs 99 most Beautiful Names or His 40 Best -known Names in a repetitive rythm (Fuyd 5th Vision). If they succeed in obtaining some of the abilities of the mala safl in this way, they may possess the faculties of kashf (inner revelation) and of ishrf (thought reading) (H. XVIII). The third class of angels Shh Wal Allh distinguishes consists of angels who represent protective models in behalf of the earthly species. At times, we read in Lamha 43, cosmic processes unite to cause a deluge and destroy the individuals of a whole species. Then those models start to plead before their Lord [...] for the preservation of their images on the earth. It is for this reason that Noah was ordered to take on board a pair from every species (Qur'n XI, 40) and the Prophet rescinded his order to kill the dogs, declaring: after all, they are just as much a community (umma) (Malik b. Anas, Isti'dhn 14). The fourth class of angels Shh Wal Allh distinguishes consists of the guardian angels ( hafaza). These are created in order to ward off the machinations of the Devil and to repel his dirty tricks. They strive for the good of men (B.B. 179).
d) Tajalliyyt (radiances emanating from the fire by which God reveals Himself)
The tajalliyyt are the ways of drawing near to God that are embodied in religion. The term is derived from Qur'n VII, 139: And when Moses Lord manifested Himself ( tajalla) on the Mount Sinai (Sat. 36). The reason why God revealed Himself in this way to Moses is that bearing his fervid nature in mind, God endowed him with a theophany of fire (Ta'wl 50). According to Shh Wal Allh, the tajalliyyt can be discerned by three means. In the first place, they can be discerned by means of the mental image, which is imprinted upon the conceptive faculties, being a representation of the conception itself. When a mystic concentrates upon the image he has of his Lord, an image corresponding to his belief is represented. That image becomes a means of revealing his Lord and an instrument to provide him with self-knowledge. In the second place, they can be discerned by means of the spiritual concentration (himma) of certain angels or people of a superior quality. When the latter endeavour by their himma to become an image of God, that image will be a theophany ( tajall). In the third place, they can be discerned by means of a minute particle (daqqa) that stands in opposite correlation to the Divine Essence and is a likeness and a representation of It ( Lamha 52). In a parallel passage this daqqa is indicated as a raqqa (subtle contact point). When a worshipper immerses himself completely in this point, he attains the theophany which is called tajall dht (disclosure of the Ultimate Reality) through self-annihilation (Tafh. I, 66). The Delhi divine divides the tajalliyyt into three categories. The first category is that of the tajalliyyt wujdiyya. Their essence is the manifestation of wujd (Being), with respect to external substantiation, in forms belonging to the World of Divine Omnipotence as well as to the World of Contingency. Every manifestation is provided with special properties and distinct operations. The second category is that of the tajalliyyt shuhdiyya. When the mystic concentrates energetically on God, Ultimate Reality is disclosed to him in different forms and predicaments. Every form and predicament of that Reality revealed to him is called a tajall. This occurs in proportion to his knowledge of God. The third category is that of the tajalliyyt Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
19 kamliyya. When someone who passes away from self into God has loosened himself from the demands of nature and has devoutly fixed his eyes on the World of Omnipotence, his soul will be coloured with the colour of the World of Omnipotence (Tafh. I, 261). In a more detailed explanation of this category of tajalliyyt the Delhi savant explains: Full happiness is allotted to a worshipper if God appears to him in the following manner. Firstly, His tajall operates on his nasama (lower self) to cleanse it of wickedness. Next, when the tajall is directed to the nafs ntiqa (reasoning soul), the himma of the worshipper receives enlightenment. Then in all his doings his attention is focused on God and no longer on his own self. However, as soon as the tajall is concentrated on his àyn thbita (archetypal individuality), his actions, perfections and stages on the sf Path are coloured by the colour of God ( Tafh. II, 55).
e) al-tajall al-a`zam (Most Supreme Theophany)
In the works of Shh Wal Allh, we note the following diverse statements about this concept. The descent of the tajall a`zam, which manifested Itself in the heart of the nafas Rahmn (i.e. the universe in the aggregate) before the determination of time and the appearance of the transitory world, was meant to attract the human souls to God as iron is attracted to a magnet ( Maktub 8). It is a depot of the realities of the Self-existent, and therefore also a depot of the tajalliyyt and a talisman of the wisdom of the Merciful God (Haw. 5). It is a form that bears likeness to God (Sat. 38), the shadow of the Divine Essence (Tafh. I, 64) and an exemplary representation of It in the universe (Tafh. I, 191). In the opinion of Ibn al-Àrab the name of this reality is al-haqqa al-muhammadiyya16 (Haw. 7). The very existence of this tajall shows that the Divine Essence has a will that brings about changes and continuous processes of renovation in the universe [...] Or to explain more precisely by a metaphor: the sun and its light are inseparable from each other; the light is coupled to the sun; the effects of the light, however, are temporary and consequently changing; thus at midday (and not, for example, at dawn), the light makes a stone hot and causes ice to melt (Sat. 11). The tajall a`zam is the heart of the universe and the mainstay of its affairs ( Lamha 58). Since the heart functions as the seat of religious apprehension in sf parlance, various kinds of knowledge appear to pour out from the tajall a`zam, such as, for instance, knowledge about polemics with heretics (Tafh. I, 202). The tajall a`zam has also a special relationship with the human soul. There is nothing closer to it than the tajall a`zam. On that account it is the instrument most suited to the refinement of the soul. Hence all the Laws introduced by the prophets give a lucid exposition of mental concentrati on on the tajall a`zam (A.Q. 134). The tajall a`zam as It manifests Itself in the universe assigns many Divine Attributes and can be named by many Names. Three of them, however, are basic, to wit: 1) Allh; this Name refers to symptoms of personality and individuality; 2) qdir (possessing strength); this Name denotes the power operating on all contingencies which are substantiated in the nafas Rahmn (Breath of the Merciful, i.e. the ever-spreading and self-unfolding existence which gives rise to contingent beings); 3) `lim (knowing); this Name designates the presence of realities in the world emerging on the level of the Divine Mind (Haw. 3). The tajall a`zam has its own history, its specific periods, phases ( Lamha 50) and different modes of being. As God states: Every day He is in a new state of being ( Qur'n LV, 29) (Tafh. I, 116). In this connection Shh Wal Allh tells us the following story: At the time when the planning for the world had to be arranged, the heavens and the earth with all that was in them were still dusk like a dark night. Divine Wisdom then required that this defect should be removed and that this chaotic state should be changed into a good order. Therefore, a tajall, by which the reality of the Self-existent could be revealed, became manifest in the `lam al-mithl [...] For (in the matter of the reality of God) mans conceptive faculty is in need of a source and a place of refuge. And this can only be the prototype of these tajalliyyt (Haw. 2 and 5). Other details of this first appearance of the tajall a`zam are found in Tafh. I, 191 f. and 209 where we read: That which in the beginning was manifested by the tajall a`zam did not possess any qualification or epithet by which it could be identified or distinguished from that which was not equal to it [...] When the celestial spheres had been created [...] the first subtle substance ( latfa) in them was a dominant white light. In view of the fact that the tajall a`zam (in this first period) was expressed by this dominant white light, its name was Yazdn (the Spirit who is the principle of good). Yet, someone to whom dominant lights like this one were disclosed, was only acquainted with the necessitation and realisation of things and with making assertions about reality. Hence, he did not discern good and bad [...] For prayer, man directed himself (at that time) towards the Yazdn of light. Next came the phase which Shh Wal Allh names Lht (World of absolute divine Transcendence). It was at the time of our leader Abraham that God manifested Himself in this manner. He forbade spiritual affiliations with the stars through Abraham. He abolished the science of talismans, magic pearls, and such [...] In this period, the prophets continuously obtained a direct contact with God for the benefit of the milla Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
20 (religious community) along with the tajall, which arose from the breasts of the angels. On them were poured out knowledge of practical wisdom, of legislation, of polemics, of remembering the favours of God and His days, of trials of faith (fitan), and so on (Tafh. I, 193). After that, when the mission of Mohammed had been realised, a major part of the `lam al-mithl appeared and the phase of the Lht fell into the background. Now God assumed again another universal mode of being (sha'n). An important difference, however, between this externalization of the tajall a`zam in the shape of the `lam al-mithl and the former two (i.e. of Yazdn and Lht) is that in the last two cases the Self-existent manifested Himself directly, whereas this first externalisation represents something that appears in a mirror . As soon as the `lam al-mithl, in which the retentive imagination (khayl) is the dominant faculty, had been fully expanded, the revelatory process (wahy) stopped. As a consequence, the mental condition of the people in general degraded. They only understood the externals of the Law. Then knowledge descended prepared for mans reason, and was no longer destined for his hajar al-baht (gem of stupefaction) (a centre in the heart of man which functions as a telescope for the reception of light waves transmitted by divine radiations) 17. So people began to discuss matters of grammar, syntax and Arabic poetry, and produced studies on hadth, tafsr, fiqh and kalm (Tafh. I, 193 & 198 f.).
21
Chapter three: Metaphysics

a) Concept of God
In principle, theology is outside the range of human possibilities and beyond mans rational capacities: God is too lofty for analogies to be made of Him with what is thinkable or sensible (H.B. I, 63). Those who try to describe Him resort to a variety of descriptions. Time flows on, and He cannot be described (S.A. Ali, The Medinian Letter, Louvain 1977, 2). Therefore, it is not in the habit of prophets to encourage people t o speculate on Gods Essence and Attributes [...] The Holy Prophet only urged them to reflect on the blessings and mighty power of God (H.B. I, 86). Although the Essence of God actually surpasses human comprehension, it is nevertheless possible to obtain some cognition of Gods Names through ones intuitive anticipation ( dhawq), as Shh Wal Allh can confirm from personal experience. This is a completely bewildering discovery, so he testifies ( Khizana 2). The exceptional benefit of being enabled to obtain acquaintance of divine Names is especially granted to sf gnostics (Tafh. I, 15). While the apprehension of the divine Names, which in contrast to His Attributes are mujarrad (separate from bodily material), appears to be a privilege of a knowledgeable few unfortunately, familiarity with the divine Attributes, being notifications concerning Gods transcendence, holiness, glory and majesty in a language comprehensible to the common man, lies within the compass of our ordinary reason ( Tafh. I, 48). God gave reason some scope for using its own discretion in order to enable it to understand His Attributes (A.Q. 64 f.). Acquaintance with Gods Attributes is also required simply to enable ordinary minds to work towards their own perfection as best as they can (H.B. I, 63). Attributes that evoke an image of divine Lordship are especially useful for the correction of human souls ( F.K. 13). The particular utility of Attributes that describe certain aspects of Gods Essence (as, for instance, living, self -subsistent, knowing) lies in the indication they give of Gods planning (tadbr) and of the best way to guard the order of the world ( Lamha 49). For an analysis of divine Attributes the following restrictive points should be taken into consideration. In the first place, the Attributes of God should be viewed in the light of their final development (i.e. as being realized in the empiric world where they fulfil needs according to the moment). They should not be taken in their primary import. Hence the meaning of rahma (divine mercy) is bestowing blessings, not compassion and mildness. In the second place, terms should be chosen for these Attributes indicating the way a king makes the city-state subservient, since God has rendered the whole of creation submissive. In the third place, anthropomorphisms can only be used on condition that they are not taken in their literal sense. They should merely bear the meaning they have in common parlance like, for instance, stretching out ones hand, which means in idiomatic language generosity. Moreover, these anthropomorphisms should offer not the least occasion for the idea that animal slurs are cast on Gods Essence. Hence one can say of God that He sees and hears, but not that He tastes and touches, because the latter two verbs have sexual connotations in Arabic. In the fourth place, one should make as much use as one can of comprehensive terms for Attributes, such as All-provider and Fashioner of all existing things (H.B. I, 63). In the fifth place, one should never term God the Universal (kull), since the Eternal has no parts or whole. The ascription of wholeness to Him is a pleonasm. The whole is included in His Oneness [...] He has separated Himself from the universal that is imperfectly formed and awaiting His grace for its survival, and from the particular that is restricted and limited. The universal and particular are, in fact, categories used by our reason and products of our perception (B.B. 101 f.). In the sixth place, one should reject the use of human attributes as confirmation of similar divine Attributes that might give occasion to false doctrines like ascribing to God a son, weeping, impatience, etc. (F.K. 13). The Delhi divine had a double responsibility. On the one hand he had to enlighten the general public and on the other he had to initiate a spiritual elite into the mysteries of the Unseen World. A different approach to theological subjects was obviously required for each group. If the average people were allowed to speculate freely on God, they would go astray and would mislead others (H.B. I, 64). In his instructive standard book Hujjat Allh al- bligha, Shh Wal Allh preserves reticence with regard to the Names and Attributes of God therefore. In his esoteric work al-Khayr al-kathr, however, he takes the liberty of dwelling at length on the Names of God after having strongly dissuaded those who are not naturally gifted with a bright intellect from reading the book. We are told the most fundamental aspect of the divine Names is the circular course they take: they depart from Gods Essence, appear in the creation, and finally return to their starting point. For that reason Shh Wal Allh distinguishes between Starting Names ( asm' bad'iyya) and Returning Names (asm' àwdiyya). Both categories of Names manifest themselves on different ontological levels. The more the lower Starting Names descend, the more they become unfolded, i.e. appear as particular configurations of Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
22 the Names on the preceding level. Consequently, they become like a polished mirror for the realities above them (Khizna 2). Conversely, the more the higher Returning Names rise, the more they condense the configurations of the Names at a previous stage. The Starting Names are found on six levels. The first is the level of Huwa (He). It points out that He is He, i.e. irrespective of any kind of relation. The only Name applicable to this stage is Allh. The second is the level of Oneness. It concerns the Names al-hayy (the Living), al- qayym (He Who supports the cosmos), al-haqq (the Real) and al-nr (the Light). They define the level of divine Essence and are configurations of it. The third is the level of Unity, i.e. the level of the shu'n (internal modes of being, calling for their externalisation). To this level belong the Names al-majd (the Glorious), al-àzm (the Inaccessible), al-àl (the High), al-kabr (the Great) and al-jall (the Majestic). They establish to some extent Gods grandeur, which according to a statement ascribed to Mohammed (see Muslim, al-Birr wa'l-Sila 136) represents His cloak. The fourth is the level of unity-in-diversity (whidiyya). To this level belong the Names al-ghan (the Independent), al-wsi` (the Omnipresent), al-qaw (the Strong), dhu'l-tawl (the All-sufficient) and al-mubrak (the Beneficent). The fifth is the level of the Names of divine Love. This implies the Names al-rahmn (the Benefactor), al-rahm (the Compassionate), al-barr (the Benefactor) and al-qdir (Ordaining according to what wisdom requires). The sixth and last is the level of Names referring to the ever-renewing divine Will. To this level belong the particular Names al-bri' (the Creator), al-rziq (the Sustainer), al-musawwir (the Bestower of forms), al-hd (the Guide), al- ghaffr (the Indulgent), al-qbid (the Restrainer), al-bsit (the Dispenser), al-khfid (the Abaser of the proud), al-rfi` (the Exalter of the believer), al-mubdi' (the Creator ex nihilo), al-mu`d (the Resuscitator), al- muhy (the Creator of life) and al-mumt (the Creator of death). Three strata are apportioned to the Returning Names. The first stratum encompasses the Names al-`lim (the Knowing), al-smi` (the Hearing), al-khbir (the Sagacious), al-basr (the Clairvoyant) and al-shahd (the Witness). These Names are in fact so distant from God Himself that in the perspective of these Names He looks upon the world as being seperate from Himself. The second stratum encompasses the Names al-mlik (the King), al-d'im (the Everlasting), al-muta`l (the Exalted), al-sabr (the Steadfast), al-shakr (the Rewarder), al-halm (the Forbearing), al-rashd (the Leader who directs with justice), al-hamd (the Praiseworthy), al-bq (the Eternal), al-whid (the One) and al-writh (the One who remains after the creatures have perished). All that had been incongruous in the preceding stratum is now made harmonious. The Names of the third stratum are al-qudds (the Holy), al-salm (the Giver of peace), al-samad (the Impenetrable) and al-subbh (the All-perfect). After this stratum there is only the Essence of God, into which these Names are ultimately absorbed. In rounding off his exposition on the Starting and Returning Names, Shh Wal Allh summons the reader to behave in a humble and beseeching way towards the Returning Names. He is entitled to this , for the world is on the verge of passing away (Khizna 2). Later on, as we can gather from a passage in the Tafhmt-i ilhiyya, the Delhi savant had to apologise for having overstepped his bounds by advancing the theories given above concerning all sorts of distinctions that one may make between the divine Names ( Tafh. I, 49). So it should not surprise us to find a more traditional view of Gods nature in this later work. Now he speaks of five categories of divine potencies, again proceeding from a low level to increasingly higher ones. The first is the level of the idfiyyt (Attributes of correlation). They produce effects in the phenomenal world and are of all five categories the closest to created beings. The second is the level of the sift thubtiyya (steady Attributes). These have no special relation with the phenomenal world. To them belong the Attributes of life, hearing, sight and so on. The third is the level of the shu'nt (potential Attributes) which are folded up in the divine knowledge. Before Attributes are actualised they are shu'n (in posse). Hence they form the basis of the two categories mentioned above. The fourth is the level of the salb (privative Attributes). They are twin and uterine brothers of the shu'nt but one step nearer to the mafhmt, i.e. the level of mental images that is contrasted with the level of external realities. The fifth is the level of the Attribute of divine self-consciousness (tahaqquq). This is the mother of all Attributes and the center which unites all levels that reflect the divine revelatory radiances (tajalliyyt) (Tafh. II, 40). In the controversy about the primacy of substances or adjectives for the characterisation of Gods Essence, Shh Wal Allh seems more disposed to accept the Mu`tazilite point of view18 than the notions prevalent among the Ashàrites. In a discussion of this delicate subject, he states that to his mind the standpoint of the hukam' rabbniyyn (scholars wise in divine matters) is the most plausible, since they maintain that the Knowing precedes knowledge and the Hearer the power of hearing. What fits best with their view is to say that in one respect the Name is identical with the object named (musamm), and in another respect the Name is neither identical with nor different from the musamm (Khizna 1)19. Although the Delhi scholar holds the idea that Gods being in the possesion of knowledge, wisdom etc. is of secondary value, he nevertheless deems it relevant to discuss substance Attributes separately. Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
23 The first substance Attribute to which Shh Wal Allh turns his attention is the divine knowledge. Gods knowledge, so he argues, is not like our knowledge. By means of our sensory perceptions we examine a thing in respect of its non-essential properties. Thus we find it under the aspect by which we look at it. By means of sacred knowledge, however, the Self-existent examines a thing with respect to its intrinsic constituents and the origin of its existence. In short, His knowledge comprises all that can be known, the universals as well as the particulars (B.B. 102). Accordingly, God knows Himself by al-ìlm al-hudr (i.e. gaining consciousness of His Self). Included in that self-knowledge is knowledge of all His Attributes as well as of all things created by H im (Tafh. II, 43). So it is possible to distinguish two aspects of divine Knowledge: one of a general ( ijml) character, which has to do with an inner urge towards self-consciousness and self-identification, and one that is concerned with details (tafsl), which has to do with location in being and the unfolding into modes of being ( shu'n), which are differentiated into different contingent beings. In this way, knowledge is obtained concerning contingent beings that are found in the phenomenal world ( Tafh. II, 50 f.). The second substance Attribute to which Shh Wal Allh turns his attention is the divine Will. The divine Will arose from Gods desire to effect unity in the world order which emanated before the Will itself. And that is because there ought to be coherence between successive modes of existence. If unity of the world order is pursued, then such a coherent sequence of modes of existence must terminate in a Will that is an outflowing manifestation (ifda). Thus the world order will have its point of union in this Will (Khizna 2). A specific feature of this Will is its constant production of new manifestations. Daily events rely on it. In this way, from the breasts of the archangels who are responsible for the management of the creation, there is a continuous outflow of al-asm' al-hditha, i.e. temporal Names by which a proper course of events is brought about. In a tradition reported by Ab Hurayra we read: When a matter is decided by God in heaven, the angels flap their wings in submission to His word. The sound produced by their flapping resembles the sound produced by a chain pulled over smooth stones. When fright is removed from their breasts, they say to each other: What on earth has your Lord said? The reply given to them is: He has spoken the truth. He is the Lofty, the Great One (Bu. Tawhid 32). This tradition means, so Shh Wal Allh elucidates, that the archangels ask for detailed decrees ( qadar) from the source of determination (qad') in the same way as prophets ask for knowledge from the source of the revealed law (Khizna 2). Although an educationist by nature, the Delhi divine has no desire to reduce the significance of existential determination (qad'): Existential determination is a truth imprinted on everyb ody, on people of the East as well as of the West, whatever their religion or creed, since it forms part of their ordinary knowledge [...] There are people who dare to contradict existential determination and are of the opinion that thereby the requital of good and evil for man is tantamount to injustice. For our part, we maintain that mans deeds and the requital resulting from them are all included in Gods existential determination ( B.B. 111 f.). This tenet covers five stages. Firstly, God decided in pre-existence to bring the world into being, taking into consideration the salutory purposes effecting the good in relation to their time of coming into existence. Secondly, God registered the destinies of all created beings fifty thousand years before He created the universe. Thirdly, when God created Adam to be the father of the human race, He produced the moulds of the latters descendants in the World of Prefiguration, deeming them capable of observing religious duties. Fourthly, when the spirit is breathed into a foetus, the accompanying angels come to know the future actions of a person, whether he will perform the acts of one whose angelic side overcomes his bestial side, or the opposite. And finally, before the occurrence of an event, the divine command descends from the Holy Enclosure to the earth and a prefigurative (mithl) form of the event is transferred. Thus Gods decisions are spread over the earth. But this faith in Gods absolute predeterming power does not produce a depressive effect on the believer, for it implies that thus man becomes alive to the universal planning which integrates the universe (H.B. I, 65 f.). The prophetic saying: In His hand is the balance ( mzn) which may go down or rise (Bu. Tafsr srat al- Hd, ch. II), points at a divine planning which is based on choosing what is the most expedient. If conflicting processes are at work in something that is about to occur, then God takes decisive action in order to carry through an equitable adjustment ( H.B. I, 167). Shh Wal Allh certainly allows some flexibility in the application of this dogma however by distinguishing between two different kinds of predetermination: an irreversible one and one left in suspense. The first one refers to the disposition of the universe as a whole. Its predeterminate course brooks no delay. The second one refers to the disposition of the human individual. Accordingly, prayer of invocation ( du`') and planning (tadbr) are of use for him. As to the latter possibility, it is preordained for every embryo what age it will reach , but spurs provided from outside figure in this predestination. Such spurs, including pious goodness and behaving with consideration, lengthen ones life ( Khizna 3). In respect of the prayer of invocation, Shh Wal Allh points out: Sometimes it is disclosed to a gnostic (`rif) that there is a pre-determination (qad') attached to something, indicating that it will happen in such a manner and that the Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
24 decree (qadar) of it appears irrevocable. Then this gnostic puts a fervent du`' to God and persists in praying until the decree is changed and something different happens in accordance with the gnostic's inner drive (himma) to ascend as high as possible on the path towards God ( Fuyd 38th Vision). Still the du`' has its limitations, since the du`' is merely of use to what is not fixed by an irrevocable divine decree. So [...] the du`' of Abraham on behalf of his father and the du`' of Noah on behalf of his son were not answered, because the disbelief of the two for wh om intercession was made was already predestined (Tafh. II, 108). The third substance Attribute to which Shh Wal Allh turns his attention is the divine Speech ( kalm). It is the basis of the revealed Law and the origin of prophetic revelation ( wahy) (Khizna 2). Wahy is inspiration into the mind by means of a dream or creation of indispensable knowledge while someone is concentrating his mind on the Unseen World ( H.B. I, 65). The Speech of God is one of the planes of the divine Will, if viewed as an outpouring into the regions of divine consciousness. In the outpouring of Speech, a sacred form is granted to each actuality [...] Further, God speaks only by means of the outpour of meaningful concepts which sound in the ears of the hearers like real speech and audible letters20. This is what Shaykh Abu'l-Hasan al-Ashàr refers to when saying the Speech of God is an internal Speech (kalm nafs, i.e. Speech without words) (Khizna 2). A noteworthy quality inherent in divine Names is their capacity to produce an accordant effect on human individuals. This happens in the process called tahaqquq bi-asm'i 'llhi (self-realization by means of Gods Names): By tahaqquq is to be understood, so Shh Wal Allh sets forth, that the worshipper passes away from himself and gains a permanent relationship with God [...] Subsequently, Names of God enter into him. Thus powers of those Names are manifested in his soul and the universe is submitted to him in accordance with those powers (Tafh. I, 230). There are various sorts of tahaqquq. These include in the first place tahaqquq by being acted upon and by receiving an effect, as e.g. happens with Names like al-mughn (the Enricher from whom creatures derive their perfection), al-mu`t (He who gives) and al-munìm (the Benefactor) [...] Then a gnostic often turns the face of the mirror of his heart towards these Names by reciting them or by concentrating on their realities as they are substantiated as luminous bodies in the World of Prefiguration [...] Accordingly, it is implied by divine wisdom that at that time God makes earthly processes subservient so that he becomes somebody who is provided with material or spiritual possessions (Tafh. I, 232). These include furthermore: tahaqquq by assimilation, as for instance happens with Names like al-àzz (the Powerful), al-àzm (the Determined) [...] Then a gnostic often recites such Names or concentrates on their realities as they are substantiated in the World of Prefiguration [...] so that on account of that a connecting link, deposited in him in an opposite correlation to this particular Name, is eventually activated (Tafh. I, 232). From actual experience Shh Wal Allh was acquainted with this second kind of tahaqquq: as one of the favours of God to me. Once a tahaqquq occurred to me with the Name al-hayy (the Living), that is to say that I witnessed its reality substantiated in the Holy Enclosure [...] Consequently, I settled down in the forces of the celestial spheres and chose from them the force ascribed to the planet Venus. Thereupon Venus came down to me while I took that force as companion. So Venus added a bit of the duration of the age as foreordained to me in the womb of my mother (Tafh. I, 233).
b) Cosmology
Placing the issue of creation in a historical context the Delhi scholar sets forth that at all times people have tried to coin for the relation between God and the universe the nearest simile and clearest metaphor. Various suggestions have been made. Greek philosophers spoke of uqnm (transcendental aspect) and sanam (corporeal form); others (sc. the Hindus) used the term hull (Gods indwelling in creatures); while a third group, the Christians,believed in divinitys putting on the dress of man. On the one hand, such expressions afford some clarification, on the other hand they may also obscure the issue; or rather, the mischief they produce is greater than the benefit that can be derived from them [...] because they led the common people to think all sorts of kufr (Sat. 45). Relating the 27th Vision,with which he was favoured during his stay in al-Haramayn, Shh Wal Allh records: While I was waiting for an elucidation of the tradition in which the Messenger of God was asked by Ab Razn al-Ùqayl: Where was our Lord before He created the creation? and replied: He was in the dark mist (àm') with no air below Him and no air above Him,the following mystery was disclosed to me: A glaring light spread over the whole area of the remote world of àm', i.e. the realm of primordial matter. This light (i.e. the tajall a`zam), he explains, is the first manifestation and locum tenens of the divine Essence, and the jet d'eau of the powers of the Self-existent. It is anterior to time and has a firm grip on not-yet existence (àdam), in which continuously renewing issues of the divine Will (required by the changing conditions of time), are manifested. When afterwards I kept reflecting on this, I suddenly realized that for the divine Essence it is necessary to reveal the potentialities ( isti`ddt) it envelops. Subsequently, Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
25 at that place on the ontological level of the Self-subsistent the potentialities of the divine Essence appeared in a mental shape. Through this appearance, three kinds of entities were formed at that level: 1) the latent realities (a`yn) of the things contingent; 2) the modes of being (shu'n) the Self-existent reveals in every genre of existence; 3) the epiphanic forms (barzt) of the universal theophany of the Self-existent. More details of al-àm' are supplied in another passage of Shh Wal Allhs writings. There he expounds: Àm' is the disposition existent in primary matter, i.e. the capacity to assume all incorporeal and corporeal forms. It subsists in al-Rahmt4 (realm of al-Rahmn) [...] It is like a mirror for the Rahmt in which the latter shows Its beauty. By virtue of this quality it is called primordial matter; but in view of its being sustained by al-Rahmt it is named body; and in respect of its being the origin of all phenomena (thr) it is called Universal Nature (tabà kulliyya) (Tafh. I, 158). When within the tabà kulliyya the elements and celestial spheres came into being the individual pecularities, requirements and powers of the tabà kulliyya were imparted to those elements and celestial spheres. When thereafter the minerals, plants, animals and man originated, the nature of the elements and celestial spheres was transferred into them. In consequence of this, the former (minerals, plants, animals and man) function merely as mirrors in order to reflect the individual peculiarities and movements of the celestial spheres as well as the nature of the elements ( Fuyd 11th Vision; Ta'wl 104 f.). In addition to individual characteristics of celestial spheres ( aflk),earthly events and psychic experiences can mirror peculiarities of planets (sayyrt).Thus, for instance, inspirations from above descending upon perfect people may take with them the influence emanating from a special planet. In the Gospels a story is told with the following contents: Once there were sellers of doves in the temple. This enraged God. He made the soul of Jesus an instrument for the transmission of His wrath. With a lot of trouble Jesus succeeded in obtaining a colt, which he mounted. The disciples accompanied him as a body guard. In this way they reached the temple. He rebuked the dove-sellers severely. And the fear of God fell upon them. They stopped their activities, and some of them took to flight. This was one of the most important events announced by former prophets: by talking of a rider on an ass (see Zechariah IX, 9) they had hinted at this manifestation of Jesus. When this occurred there was the planet Jupiter standing in the sign of the Pisces hidden in the physical constitution of Jesus ( Haw. 36). And if parts of Saturn become operative, the ties of an advanced gnostic with this world and the next are severed while the colour of the Love of the divine Essence spreads over him. When he is connected with parts of the sun, his capacity to subject and rule increases. He becomes a tadall (means to faciliate peoples spiritual evolution) of God on behalf of His creation, and an elixir for someone who seeks a cure as soon as contact is established with the cosmic reality that correlates with Saturn standing in conjunction with Jupiter (Fuyd 26th Vision). Minerals, plants, animals and man as such are actually material forms characterised by specific effects. Thus the mineral form is in its structure peculiar to the four earthly elements and in its essence to the celestial spheres; the vegetable form is peculiar to all that which grows from water and earth and to what is produced by itself and by its own kind; the animal form possesses the faculties of sensation, movement, will and acting on a decision of the heart; the human form is marked by the use of speech, having the potential to evolve socially and economically, doing most excellent works, and coming to resemble fully the Origin of all existence. The most noble form, however, is the nafs ntiqa (reasoning soul) constituting personal identity: by it Zayd is Zayd and Àmr Àmr (B.B. 16). Apart from the tradition of Ab Razn al-Ùqayls interview of the Prophet, the Qur'nic imagery of al-Rahmn Himself sitting upon the Throne (Qur'an X, 3) is used by the Delhi divine in elucidation of what is to be understood by cosmogony. al-Rahmn (the Merciful One) is Gods most significant Name, the seal of the Names, and encompasses all realities which arise from non-being (B.B. 13). It is the channel through which by means of eternal theophanies the divine Essence proceeds to endow the universe with stability and realization (Tafh. I, 51). So providential ordering (ìnya) and planning descend from al-Rahmn (B.B. 25). It is to be designated as the first outpouring entity. In reality, it is the result of subgh, a being overfilled with the divine Essence which, like an overflowing fountain5 vomits foam ( Tafh. II, 39). By the Peripatetics it is called al-àql al-fa``l (active Intelligence) (Tafh. I, 46). Yet, Shh Wal Allh deems the assertion that the existence of the universe rests upon the àql fa``l a not very felicitous way of putting it. In general, he is not in favour of assuming the existence of intelligences as being a kind of creative and regulating powers that govern the universe, as is affirmed by the same philosophers. To be frank, he declares, there is no need of an intermediary, consisting of intelligent substances in which the form of things would be stamped. Such substances are merely hypothetic matters, existing only in the mind of the person who has invented them (Fuyd 45th Vision). The Delhi scholar also rejects the view of the common man who is under the erroneous belief that the world subsists on its own and is established as an isolated item. On the contrary, the world is to be regarded as an exemplary representation projected from the side of the Self-existent and an illustration of His perfection (Khizna 1). God created it like He is Himself, i.e. purely good. So it enables Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
26 Him to display His beauty (Tafh. I, 158). Hence, when the Creator fell in love with Himself, the creation appeared; the object of love was His own beauty ( Tafh. I, 10 f.). al-Rahmn sat Himself upon the Throne which is upon the waters. The Throne is the origin of the forms which come to inhere in matter. Water is the source of matter, inasmuch as a typical trait of its capability is to take on any form (Khizna 3). The first thing al-Rahmn decreed by means of the Throne in respect of water was the creation of the elements and the celestial spheres (aflq). The spheres can function as corporeal forms of an agent (fìl) and the elements as corporeal forms of a recipient ( qbil)(Tafh. I,46). Subsequently, matter which is fit for a mineral form cohered from the elements and condensed. With matter in this receptive condition a mineral form flowed over it from al-Rahmn6. In the course of time the mineral form became receptive in its turn. In this receptive state it turned to al-Rahmn holding out its hand like a beggar, extending fervent supplications to Him for a further evolution. Thereupon the more complex vegetable form flowed over it from al-Rahmn. Thus, due to its material constitution life of the lowest type emerged. After that, according to the same procedure al-Rahmn poured down the animal and human forms. A fully developed type of life became the result of the outpouring of the animal form, while resemblance with the Origin was the fortunate issue of the flow of the human form from al-Rahmn (Tafh. I, 122; B.B. 18 f.). After having gained its full expansion, the evolutionary process itself has not yet attained its final point. In contrast to the Western theory of evolution, Shh Wal Allh maintains that the universe with everything it contains pass through a cycle: Everything emanated from al-Rahmn is ultimately absorbed again into al-Rahmn. In reference to this conception of the universe he relates the legend of the phoenix: I have to come to know that in the most remote parts of India there is a bird with a long neck [...] called qaqnus (phoenix). It [...] continually changes from one state into another. When still being very young love stirs up from within its heart, and it begins to sing. Then it is so moved by the song that it is filled with ecstacy, and is itself at last consumed by fire [...] Then the spring rain falls upon its ashes and lo! another bird arises. This process goes on ad infinitum (Lamha 17). Well then, in exactly the same way there is a continuous succession of dawrt, cycles of worlds which alternately arise and decline. Hence, as soon as the appearance of the most refined form, i.e. the human individual, has been effected, a process of decay sets in: all existing things fade away, so that only the Throne and the water remain. Next, the wind of an nihilation begins to whip these two also, on account of which they too become non-existent [...] Thus the realm of being becomes waste and empty. Then after a period of complete emptiness, al-Rahmn makes a fresh start and displays His activity of outpouring (jd). Consequently, He recreates heaven and earth as they had been before. The calculation of such a cycle ( dawra) is not given to man, and not even to a heavenly agent (Tafh. I, 46 f.). Though the notion of cyclical time is not unknown in Islam, it is more likely that in this case Shh Wal Allh is influenced by Indian thought with its primordial rhythm of creation-destruction-creation ad infinitum (M. Eliade in Eranos Yearbooks, New York 157, vol. 3, p. 179), since he does not speak of cycles of manifestation alternating with cycles of concealment as propounded by Ism`l cosmologists. Again another much less spectacular cosmological approach we discover in the discussion concerning the ontological difference between thubt (latent transcendental determination fixed in and by the divine Mind) and wujd (approaching phenomenal reality). The Delhi savant expounds that this can be sensualized in the seed of a tree. The tree itself is latently determined before it is actually found in the world outside. The universe itself, we should further ascertain, passes through three ontological levels. Necessitated by God, it is first at the level of the divine Mind, i.e. the stage of thubt. Next, it enters an intermediate level, called al-nafs al- kulliyya, i.e. the stage of wujd. Arriving at this level, it can neither be described as properly eternal because it has left the divine Mind, nor can it regarded as created because it has not yet acquired existence in fact. After that, the universe descends into the realm of matter and becomes manifested in bodily forms (Tafh. I, 107 f.,159, 165 & 192). Among the various designations Shh Wal Allh uses for the universe, the most characteristic one is certainly al-shakhs al-akbar (the Most Large Person). The idea that the universe is to be regarded as an enlarged version of man is in the Muslim context not very original. At most the term itself might be called original. Muslim thinkers and gnostics prefer to qualify the universe as al-insn al-kabr (meganthropos). The witnessed and verifiable realities, so the Delhi scholar explains, are actually 'one Person', emanating from one Principle, having one system which sustains the Person just as the system of growth and nutrition sustains a single plant (B.B. 12). The `lam al-mithl functions as the intellectual centre of this Most Large Person; the hazra al-quds serves as the faculty by which It is enabled to participate in the knowledge of Its Lord (Fuyd 4th Vision); on Its mind falls the tajall a`zam (i.e. reflections of Its creator) so that divine notions enter Its brain; the nafs kulliyya, the animating principle of the sensible world, stands for Its rh (vital principle) while the celestial spheres,elements and three kingdoms of nature represent the organs of Its body. In addition to this, It also disposes of a nasama (airy spirit) which flows in the organs of Its body, i.e. the elements and the spheres. This nasama is in the possession of three faculties: Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
27 1) an intellectual one which attends to the issue of planning (tadbr); 2) a physiological one: there is no body which can dispense with heat or cold; 3) a stimulative one that impels the other two faculties to action ( Tafh. I, 46 & 53). The Most Large Person may exhibit remarkable human features, but Its likeness with the Divine is even more striking. Does not a tradition beloved by the sfs mention that man is created in the image of al-Rahmn (Bu. Isti'dhn 1)? So Shh Wal Allh thinks himself justified to advance the daring statement: With God the universe has a cohesion of a rather esoteric nature so that in a state of rapture one may presume that the universe be identical with God (Tafh. II, 42). The most simple approach Shh Wal Allh pursues in expounding cosmological processes is the classification in the categories of ibd`, khalq, tadbr and tadall. As in the case of the evolutionary process of elemental, vegetative, animal and human forms, these four phases are direct continuations of each other. Each of them builds on the previous one: Ibd` has khalq as complement, while tadbr is the completion of khalq (Lamha 35). Ibd` (absolute origination) is the effusion of a thing from the nothing preceding into self-realization (tahaqquq) [...] Ultimately, ibd` rests on the divine necessity of Gods expressing Himself (Lamha 34). The first thing called into existence is the haqqa Muhammadiyya (Reality of Mohammed), from which all other essential realities are ramified (Fuyd 45th Vision). It is the stretched cord by which the whole universe is firmly tied (Fuyd 16th Vision). Other objects created ex nihilo are the Pen (typification of divine operative knowledge), the Tablet (typification of divine receptive knowledge), the Throne (representing the source of tadbr) and the primordial water (depicting the material for the creation of heaven and earth) ( Tafh. I, 55). Khalq (the bringing into existence from an existing thing), the final issue of ibd` (Ta'wl 63), denotes a free disposal over matter and form so that many forms materialize. As a result the celestial spheres, elements and all species endowed with their characteristics and effects came into being ( Lamha 34 f.). Forms, however, are phenomena defiled by the limitations of time, place and condition ( B.B. 17 f.). Consequently, khalq consists of a gushing forth of impure entities that belong to the transient world (Khizna 1), and is in fact an inferior activity which is not properly applicable to the divine Essence ( Tafh. I,47). Next, as a sequel to khalq there is the divine creational activity of tadbr (planning). It works effective changes in the world so that what happens in it is in conformity with universal expediency. Accordingly, for instance, God causes rain to come down from a cloud to produce vegetables for men and cattle ( H.B. I, 12). Tadall (descending after being high as said of Gabriel when he approached Mohammed: Qur'n LIII,8), the complement of divine creativity, representing God's coming to the rescue when universe or mankind have run into trouble. It results in disclosure of knowledge, right guidance and perfection of souls, and presupposes the establishment of patterns by which peoples welfare is insured ( Lamha 34). It is actually a means of facilitating mens spiritual evolution (Fuyd 3rd Vision). One of its products is the Qur'n (Tafh. I, 185). Tadall is based on matters accepted unreservedly and easily verifiable. Hence the Messenger of God was not an angel, the Holy Book not written in a language foreign to the Arabs, and the Ka`ba not built of light (Fuyd 4th Vision). The tadall itself is of many periods and phases. In the beginning of our history events were determined by the powers of celestial spheres and elements only. The inaugurator of this epoch is said to have been Hermes Trismegistos, the Greek name applied to the Egyptian god Thoth. To him are ascribed works on astrology, medicine, alchemy and magic. It is in this age that knowledge of the movements of the stars and their pecularities welled up in the brain of Idrs (Hermes). In this era the milla (institutionalized religion) of the majs, the fire worshippers, came into existence, and the sciences pursued were astrology, medical art, and black magic. Thus some time elapsed. Then angels started to appear gradually. By the time they had become numerous and their knowledge and will power had developed harmoniously, the laws of astrology became more and more inoperative. From now on the restraint and letting loose of causal processes were the business of the mala a`l. Accordingly, Abraham,the inaugurator and exponent of this second epoch, awakened to the insight that it would be better to divert from the stars and to concentrate henceforward upon the mala a`l. In the course of time men fell into the tight grip of the angels. They became devoted to God by salt, ritual purity, belief in the angels, heavenly books and messengers of God. The Ka`ba came to function as a substitute of a former temple of the sun and the moon. In this age the milla of the hanfs (followers of the original monotheistic religion) was established. Due to the steady adherence of the will power of succeeding prophets to the angels, the influence and moment of the `lam al-mithl where the mala a`la reside, increased continuously. When at last Mohammed appeared on earth, the sky, heaven and earth were completely filled with the mithl form of the tadall. Consequently, if at present somebody wishes to acquire ìlm,ma`rifa (gnosis), or a divine perfection, this mithl form, i.e. the spiritual shape of Mohammed (as may appear in dreams), is for him the most appropriate source (Lamha 50, Tafh. I, 66 ff.). And in as much in the future the lights of the mala a`l will accumulate and their number will grow, the knowledge of God in this earth will become increasingly Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
28 penetrating and intimate. The Prophet himself has hinted at this subtle point in his statement: When the time of Resurrection gets near, the visions of the believer will be rarely hallucinatory (Mu. Ru'y 6) (Fuyd 15th Vision).
c) Wahdat al-wujd (Unity of Being)
If one finds it difficult to analyze and reconstruct Shh Wal Allh's ontological ideas,it is indeed comforting to discover that the Delhi divine himself appears to have difficulty in defining wujd (being). The nature of wujd,so he notes,has no contrary,and since we know things only by their opposite,it is difficult to find out what exactly wujd is supposed to be (Lamha 9). On the other hand,Shh Wal Allh repeatedly declares that wujd is a matter,a quality that can be conceptualized. Thus wujd becomes conceivable by what is in front of it, i.e. in case the realities which are the source of many different effects are surveyed in a comprehensive way [...] Such an observation forms in the mind a concept of what is termed wujd (Lamha 2). In short,wujd is an entity confirmable in the quiddities (mhiyyt),in the opinion of Shh Wal Allh the equivalent of actual entities (Lamha 8). In the controversial matter of whether wujd and mhiyya are identical or distinct,the Delhi scholar notes a fundamental difference between God on the one side and the contingents ( mumkint) on the other side. The wujd of the Self-existent, so he states, is identical with His Essence ( dht) in the sense that His Essence is wujd and wujud is mhiyya (Tafh. I, 168). On the level of conceptual analysis, however, wujd in contingent beings is distinct from mhiyya, so that in our minds we can conceive of the quiddity of something and at the same time doubt its actual existence, and we can think of wujd independently of mhiyya (Lamha 8). The mhiyyt (quiddities), he maintains, are actually embedded in two categories of wujd: 1) integral wujd which spreads (munbasit) over the structural forms of the things existent (mawjdt) in the external world7, and precedes the actual entities (i.e. the mhiyyt). Actual entities are,in fact,devolutions and moulds of integral wujd as such. They are the outcome of a link - of which the existence is known but the quality unknown - between the ever-spreading wujd and the quiddities, which are modes of being (shu'n) and epistemic forms (i.e. a`yn thbita) of this ever spreading wujd; 2) wujd which is derived (muntaza`) from a comprehensive examination of the actual entities ( Maktb 11 f.). For, in front of it there is something which can be ascertained empirically (Khizna 1). In other words, being of this kind is not an invention of ones fancy ( Lamha 9), and not without actuality; rather it is a reality since it is derived from many realities (Lamha 2). According to Shh Wal Allh, the term wujd can also be taken in two other senses: 1. wujd that is a se (f nafsihi). It is the outcome of tahaqquq (divine self-consciousness), taqarrur (divine self-objectivation) and turning into a thing (i.e. the Absolute obtains thingness). 2. wujd that is ab alio (bi-ghayrihi). This is wujd by way of a trope only (bi-tarq al-majz), i.e. seeming. At first sight one may think that mhiyyt endowed with both substance and accidents are embodiments of wujd that is a se. But on further consideration it appears that contingent being has no share in wujd that is a se. It is, in fact, nonexistent by itself and of no account. Only by an ìlla (effective cause) - and that is location in being - it can become a phenomenon (Tafh. II, 50). Further, in wujd different levels can be distinguished possessing, so to speak, various degrees of light quantum, in the same manner as the intensity of sunlight differs from that of moonlight. The highest proportion of wujd is found in the powers of Lht (the World of divine Essence). Next comes the level of al-wujd al-àql (Being in the cognitive existence), i.e. the stage at which God becomes conscious of Himself. Then follows the level of wujd munbasit, i.e. the First Emanation. Linked with it is the level of the spheres and elements. At last we have the level of the three kingdoms of nature (animal, vegetable and mineral) whose relation to the spheres and elements is like the relation that boils,swellings,fever and headache have to the body of man (Lamha 24). At the very outset of his divinely appointed mission, however, Shh Wal Allh still seems to be somewhat reserved towards the aspirations of the wahdat al-wujd adherents, as we may gather from the first vision vouchsafed him during his stay in Haramayn. In this vision he is invited to act as an arbitrator between two rivalling parties,to wit people who practise dhikr and yd-dsht (constant concentration on God) and advocates of wahdat al- wujd. In his verdict he accuses both parties of one-sidedness and incompleteness. The major shortcoming of the latter is their deficiency in the praise and love of God and their insufficient awareness of God's transcendence. Consequently, their souls do not become refined and they do not attain to their potential perfection (Fuyd 1st Vision). But later, when the Delhi divine is asked for a second time to pronounce an opinion on a controversy involving the ontological ideas of Ibn al-Àrab, he appears to have come very close to the latters position. This is no subject for surprise, because since the days of his sojourn in Haramayn he had increasingly adopted in his own expositions the vocabulary of the mystic philosopher whom he held in such high esteem: Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
29 Ibn al-Àrab's range of spiritual knowledge is more vast than that of any other protg of God (wal) (Tafh. II,33). It was a letter from an acquaintance, named Afand Ism`l b. Àbd Allh al-Rm al-Madan, which induced Shh Wal Allh to reconsider his position with regard to the doctrine of wahdat al-wujd and to compose a monograph on it. The question put to Shh Wal Allh in the letter was whether it would be possible to bring about a reconciliation between the concept of wahdat al-wujd entertained by Ibn al-Àrab and his followers,and the doctrine of wahdat al-shuhd (unity-in-experience,wherein everything but God goes out the mystic's consciousness) held by Ahmad al-Sirhind (1564 - 1624) and Mrz Mazhar Jnjnn (1700 - 1781). First of all,so the Delhi savant argues in the study asked for, one should recognize that wahdat al-wujd and wahdat al-shuhd are terms referring to two different matters, i.e. : 1. discussions about mystic experiences. One might say that this sf has attained the stage of wahdat al-wujd and another one the stage of wahdat al-shuhd. In the first case one is immersed in the all-encompassing Reality, in which the world is absorbed in such a manner that all ethical values, on which knowledge of good and evil is based and of which revelation and reason offer an explicit explanation, may be hidden from one's observation. Mystics sometimes remain at this stage till God rescues them from it. Wahdat al-shuhd implies that lover and Beloved are joined together but their individuality is preserved. This stage is higher and more perfect than the former; 2. ontological questions. Here metaphysicians reflect on the relation between the transient and the eternal. According to one group of them it is like this: The world consists of accidents which have their point of meeting in one and the same substance, in the same way as waxen models of man,a horse and an ass possess wax as common substance. The nature of wax remains the same under all conditions. Although the models would have no existence at all if wax were not added to them,they are named after the form they assume. According to another group of metaphysicians the whole point is, that the world consists of a series of emanations from the divine Names and Attributes reflected on mirrors of antipodal nonentities, like power being the antipodal entity of weakness. Thus when the light of divine Power is reflected on the mirror of weakness,the latter becomes contingent power. The same applies to the other Attributes. This is also the situation with wujd. The theory of the first group is called wahdat al-wujd,and that of the second wahdat al-shuhd (Maktb 5 ff.). Typical of Shh Wal Allh's mentality is that he rather prefers to argue in favour of a reconciliation between both theories.To that end three points ought to be taken into consideration: a) one should realize that presumed disagreements between the ontological views of Sirhind and Ibn al-Àrab are,in essence,a question of terminology; they do not touch the very root of the matter. It is a mistake to surmise that Ibn al-Àrab and his followers,or even the learned,would not endorse the teaching of wahdat al-shuhd as is explained above. That is because, when all tropes and metaphors which impede proper understanding are cleared away, the sum of this theory is that the contingent realities are insignificant and deficient, whereas the Reality of the Self-existent is most perfect and significant,so that the conclusion is obvious that the contingent realities are non-entities and that the various forms of the things existing are (as is taught by Ibn al-Àrab c.s.) manifested in the Reality of the Self-existent (Maktb 7)8. b) It is absolutely necessary that Ibn al-Àrab's views are properly interpreted. Unfortunately, in the course of time confusion and misunderstanding of what is implied by wahdat al-wujd arose on account of incorrect conclusions and erroneous explanations of Ibn al-Àrab's teachings. Not only Sirhind but also faithful followers of the Shaykh al-akbar are guilty of such misconstructions. Among the latter Sadr al-Dn al-Qnaw (d. 1263) and Àbd al-Rahmn Jm (d. 1492) are particularly to be blamed. From the wahdat al-wujd concept they drew the mistaken inference that al-wujd al-munbasit (the First Emanation) is identical with the Self-existent.In this way they fail to differentiate between the One who manifests Himself (zhir) and that which is manifested (mazhar)(Khizna 2). As for the occasional divergences from Ibn al-Àrab's views which Shh Wal Allh notices in Sirhind's dissertations,he first of all reproaches his harbinger9 for citing at times Ibn al-Àrab incorrectly in his volumes of letters called Maktbt (Tafh. I,169). Further,Shh Wal Allh prefers to use Ibn al-Àrab's technical terms instead of those coined by Sirhind, as he regards it of little use to study metalanguage (istilh) devised by the latter (Tafh. I,169). It is certainly significant that as soon as Sirhind avows to differ from Ibn al-Àrab, the Delhi scholar immediately shows partiality for the latter: There ar e statements of Sirhind in which he says that he has found assertions of Ibn al-Àrab and his followers which he considers to run counter to his own sentiment. When declaring this, so he concludes, Sirhind commits a lapse of thought; but, so he adds in extenuation, it is excusable: Scholars may commit lapses, yet this does not need to detract from their prestige (Maktb 28); 3) contradictory theories about the relation between God and the universe can also be reconciled, if one recognizes that its authors are like the blind men of the parable. By touching and tasting various parts of a Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
30 tree they tried to discover its nature. One of them gets hold of a leaf, another of a branch, again another of a flower, and a fourth one of the fruits. Reporting on their findings, one says: The tree consists of smooth parts; another states: No,it is something like a bunch of twigs; in the opinion of a third it is soft and delicate, but to the fourth it appears to be extremely rough and hard. In the end an arbiter, who possesses sight, tells them: All your statements as such were correct, but they were wrong in their limitation ( Maktb 4 f.). Similarly, on one occasion a mystic will give consideration to the being ( wujd) of the material world, on another occasion to the being of the spiritual world, and then again to the being of the World of Omnipotence. Every time he makes use of a phraseology that fits with the relative reality; and it is not necessary that by all these phraseologies the same things are said [...] So the statements of the mystic may differ while in essence there is no contradiction ( Tafh. I,19). Surveying Shh Wal Allhs metaphysical notions as a whole, it appears that actually a sort of eclectical method has been adopted. Everybody may find something to his taste. Traditionally orientated people can accede to what is said on the subject in the reference book Hujjat Allh al-bligha. Sfs and adherents of falasifa who had a spiritual affinity with Neo-Platonic thought will be easily satisfied with the numerous emanative terms used. Ashàrites may discover a great resemblance between Shh Wal Allhs concept of an irda mutajaddida (divine Will adapting itself to the changing conditions of time) and their atomistic philosophy, while Mu`tazilites will be happy with the statement that Allh's creational actions are determined by what is most salutory for men. Hindus in Shh Wal Allh's environment could even assume that the man of Delhi gained inspiration from their cosmologies when he speaks of an unending sequence of arising and perishing worlds.
_________________ {1} {2} {3} {4} al-Rahmt is the foundation of the actualization of the phenomenal world ( nst). Through the combination of al-Rahmt and al-nst are generated: the celestial spheres and elements; next,that which forms a plane tangent to the World of Spiritual Entities; that which forms a plane tangent to the bodily world,i.e. the three kingdoms of nature (Tafh. I,157) {5} Elsewhere Shh Wal Allh explains in this connection why he prefers to use similes of streaming water or spreading light: The relationship of the universe to its Maker is not like that of a building to its architect,who constructs something of cement and then takes his hands off it... No,it is to be compared to the relation of the sun to the earth which illumines the earth with its light without ceasing ( Lamha 21). {6} For a more detailed description of this initial stage of evolution see H.B. I,33: When the elements (sc. water,fire,earth and air) are still in the embryo stage and mix together in greater or lesser proportions,they become compounds,either of two elements like steam,vapour,smoke,mud,whirling dust,char-coals... ,or of three elements like loam,watermoss; or of four elements. These compounds possess characteristics acquired from the components they are composed of. They are called things existing in the atmosphere. Then a mineral form appears. {7} The relationship of al-wujd al-munbasit to existing objects is similar to the relationship of writing with ink to written letters (Lamha 7). {8} It is noteworthy that present-day Western scholars are inclined to agree with the Delhi scholar and also like to minimize the discrepancies between Ibn al-Àrab's thought and Sirhind's own interpretation of wahdat al-shuhd (see H. Landolt in Der Islam,50,19,1,S. 61),whereas Shh Wal Allh's compatriots generally maintain that he is in the wrong and that it is impossible to reconcile the ontological views of both mystics (see B.A. Faruqi,Hadrat-i Mujaddid k nazar-i tawhd,Lahore 1967,passim). {9} I.e. an irhs (litt. pedestal). In the same manner as Shuàyb was hailed an irhs of Moses and Zachariah an irhs of Jesus (Tafh. II,72),Sirhind happened to be an irhs of Shh Wal Allh. First,the light of prophethood gleamed faintly over the former,after that lights of the Invisible World effulged over the latter (Tafh. II,68).
31
Chapter four: Psychology

Psychology,as a rule,attracted hardly any attention from traditional Muslim scholarship. Yet,one exception has to be made. Throughout all ages Muslims endowed with mystical leanings have continually felt a particular need to acquire insight into human nature. Sf scholars like the Ikhwn al-saf' assigned the 'science of the souls' (ìlm al-nafsniyyt) a place in their encyclopaedia. This stands to reason,for the development of mystic experience is a process which passes through successive levels of mental and psychic perceptions. Thus the Delhi divine states that through knowledge of one's innate dispositions (isti`ddt) the mystic can find the most appropriate path for attaining full development ( H. XVIII). The more that is known of latfas (spiritual centres of a subtle substance),the better a soul can be refined. And whoever is ablest in discerning their various peculiarities is also the ablest when people ask him for guidance (A.Q. 14 f.). Incumbent on gaining some idea of the structure of latfas is a preliminary study of the essence of the rh (human spirit) (A.Q. 22). If properly analyzed this appears to be composed of three constituents: 1. a fine pneuma (nasama) produced from the steam of the four humours (blood,phlegm,yellow bile and black bile) (B.B. 32)1. It streams in the flesh and bones like the fire in charcoal or the perfume in a rose (A.Q. 24). Or,as is elucidated in another version: When food has reached the stomach where it is cooked,it generates nasama which as a delicate substance travels to the liver,where it is cooked for a second time. The cooked matter is then portioned out among the four humours. Next,a delicate substance emitted from the blood is drawn to the heart where it is collected in a cavity. From there a portion of it ascends to the brain,and is there divided into ten portions. Five of them are for the 'external' senses,i.e. the faculties of sight,hearing,smell,taste and touch... The other five are for the 'internal' senses,i.e. the faculty of the hiss mushtarik (the Aristotelian sensus communis) that coordinates the percepts of the individual 'external' senses,t.w. the faculty of retentive imagination (khayl) which reproduces the objects of sensory perception,the estimative faculty (wahm) which perceives the insensible forms connected with the impression of sensible objects,the faculty of retaining concepts ( ma`n),and the talent of knowing how to combine and dispose freely of the concepts and objects of sensory perception. The portion of the nasama which flows down to the liver is distributed over the organs and potencies that pervade the body for stimulating procreation and growth,for providing nutrition and shaping. Then there is a portion which simply remains in the heart in order to enable it to control the potencies of the brain and the liver. For all these distributive activities Shh Wal Allh uses the metaphor 48. of a city-state. In it the liver functions as the chief administrator who is responsible for the receipts and the expenditure; the brain accomplishes the task of a pundit who advises a king; and the heart is the king himself who rules autocratically and gives orders to the armies of man's disposition,on account of which tendons and muscles are strained ( B.B. 33 f.). An interesting parallel of these physical aspects,attributed to the nasama,can be recognized in the Ayurveda theory of the five prna's. These 'organic forces' equally regulate the nourishment,digestion,reproduction and movements of the body. The earthly body of man is the 'riding animal',i.e. the substratum of the nasama,and the nasama in turn can function as the substratum of the divine rh,which has its domicile in higher worlds. In this way the nasama may serve as an intermediate screen between the divine rh and the earthly body to disclose latent dispositions of the human body in the manner of a fierce sun which bleaches t he robe and darkens the bleacher (H.B. I,18 f.). The nasama,as we have seen,seeks to acquire food,drink and sexual pleasures. In this capacity it represents man's lower self,being inclined to the earth. On the other hand,it possesses also a side which is directed in an opposite direction,feeling drawn toward the world of the holy ( H.B. I,19). The latter aspiration can be furthered with the assistance of the nafs ntiqa,the second constituent of the rh; 2. the reasoning soul (nafs ntiqa). While elucidating the hidden meaning of Mohammed's mi`rj (midnight journey to the seven heavens), Shh Wal Allh states that the root idea of his riding on the flying steed Burq was nafs ntiqa having taken its seat on the nasama,i.e. the animal perfection (kaml). So the riding on the Burq was a symbol for the triumph and dominance of the properties of his nafs ntiqa over his animal nature (H.B. II,206). In another work the Delhi scholar declares the nafs ntiqa to be the connecting link between the àyn thbita (transcendental archetype) - which is a purely holy entity - and the nasama which belongs to the objects of this tainted world (Tafh. I,43). In origin,the nafs ntiqa is an ebullition from the nafs kulliyya,the Universal Soul which acts as the rh of the Macrocosmos (Atyab al- nagham,41 f.). Whenever the breath of life is blown into an embryo,there is the moment in which the nafs ntiqa arises as a bubble on the ocean of the nafs kulliyya. This is a cosmic Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
32 event,and in that very hour a human individual is structured in accordance with the position of the sun or the planets (A.Q. 27 & 113). Thus the nafs ntiqa represents the kernel of a person's personality: That by which Zayd is Zayd and Àmr Àmr (B.B. 16). In addition,it orders men's lives and from it special qualities,like the faculty of pursuing general welfare (ra'y kull) arise (A.Q. 26). Its focus of attention is the tajall a`zam (Most Supreme Theophany) (Tafh. I,141) which resides at the heart of the nafs kulliyya (A.Q. 117). Its basic occupation is not conceptual thinking (taàqqul) as the 49. Hellenistic philosophers affirm; nay,it applies itself to ìlm hudr (immediate knowledge) (Khizna 4). Another peculiarity of the nafs ntiqa is its ability to receive revelations of angels and visions of the hazra al-quds through the intermediary of the celestial spirit,i.e. the third constituent of the rh (A.Q. 34); 3.rh samw(celestial spirit). This is a bubble on the surface of the `lam al-mithl (A.Q. 117). Because of its presence in the hazra al- quds,all individuals - men of letters as well as illiterate people - are naturally drawn towards the hazra al-quds: Their happiness is in inclining to and gaining affinity with the hazra al-quds; their misery is in turning away from it and in clinging to the earth (Tafh. I,248). In fact,the whole basis of retribution in the next world lies in whatever degree this part of the rh feels attracted to the hazra al-quds (A.Q. 31). Turning back to the question raised in the beginning of this chapter concerning the make-up of latfas,Shh Wal Allh expounds: It is in the combinations between the nasama and the two subtle constituents (namely the reasoning soul and the celestial spirit) that the five latfas,perceptible to man's intellect,are generated. These are the concupiscent soul,heart,intellect,spirit that is turned to transcendence and purity,and 'inmost being' (sirr),i.e. the highest level of the intellect. The first three mentioned have their stand fixed in the nasama,but from the nafs ntiqa and the rh samw they receive refreshing outpourings... ,just as the body receives refreshment from the liver by means of mesaraic veins ( A.Q. 34 f.). The concupiscent soul has most affinity to the nasama,the heart to the nafs ntiqa,and the intellect to the rh samw. Characteristic of these three latfas is their having the ability to acquire refinement by the practice of exercitia spiritualia. Through such refinement their capacities become sublimated,and their dependence on the tabà,the biological side of man, decreases (Hama`t 107). The two remaining perceptible latfas,the sirr which lies above the intellect and the rh which lies above the heart,are so to say sublimed configurations of the intellect and the heart. While the intellect can obtain certainty about the generally accepted articles of faith,the sirr is able to embrace higher truth of the pure Transcendental. While wajd,a kind of ecstacy, can be attained by the heart,the latfa of the rh may enable man to achieve direct spiritual contact with the Prophet after the example of Uways al-Qaran (H.B. II,90). Beyond the five perceptible latfas there exist five (in the `lam al-mithl) concealed latfas,named khaf (arcane one),nr al-quds (sacred light), hajar al-baht (gem ofstupefaction),akhf' (most hidden),and anniyya kubr (full-fledged selfconsciousness). Whatever proceeds from these concealed latfas cannot be perceived by the intellect or wijdn (a natural a-priori reason). For this purpose there is another extremely delicate and sensitive organ,which in the idiom of the sfs is called dhawq (intuitive anticipation) (A.Q. 132). If an advanced mystic comes under the control of the concealed latfa, called nr al-quds,he 50. is given over to the tajall a`zam,the source of all divine epiphanies; and he will walk in the way of the heirs of prophecy...,the saints and theosophists. In case he is dominated by the concealed latfa with the name al-khaf,his mind will be focused on the nafs kulliyya. This will lead him on the path of the major wal-hood (wilyat-i kubr). And if the concealed latfa,termed akhf',becomes the prevailing element,the mystic will receive information from the tajall a`zam as well as from the nafs kulliyya. This privilege is preserved for a muhaddath (somebody who is inspired with true visions). Yet,with an even more exalted state the mystic is favoured,if the concealed latfa,called an,holds its sway. Then he sees the whole universe in himself ( A.Q. 79 - 83). In al-Qawl al-jaml,an early writing on mysticism,Shh Wal Allh sets forth that God created in man six latfas as single entities designating modes and aspects of the nafs ntiqa. This concerns the qalb,rh,sirr,khaf,akhf' and an'. Then we are told that once his father ,Àbd al-Rahm,in explanation of them, drew a circle and said: 'This is the qalb'. Thereupon he drew in this circle another one and said: 'This is the rh'. And he carried on with it till he finished a sixth circle,on which he said: 'This is the an'(ego)(Q.J. 105). Six concentric circles,the outermost for the latfa of the qalb,the innermost for the latfa of the true self. This provides a symbolism for the journey of a mystic who,starting from the qalb and passing along ever more inward latfas,progresses to his true self,and in consequence realizes self-identification with God. For,he who learns to know his inner self by ìlm hudr (immediate Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
33 knowledge not acquired through the canals of ratiocinations),has by this knowledge learnt to know his Lord (Khizna 9). Deeper and deeper is in religious language an alternative expression for higher nad higher. Hence we also meet a conception of latfas according to which they are credited with finer qualities the higher they are plced in the human body. Then the latfa of the nafs is considered to house under the umbilicus,a proper locality for sensuality being the junction of stomach and temperament ( mizj). The qalb lies two fingers under the left side of the breast and the rh under the right side of it. The sirr is situated a little higher in the middle of the chest; the khaf is to be found in between the eye-brows,and the akhf' in the dura mater. Of equally increasing grandiosity and bliss are the mystic states experienced when the seeker of God ascends along these latfas. At the stage of the qalb there is merely dhikr (the commemoration of God by means of repetition of a certain formula). Reaching the rh a hudr (the presence of the mystic's heart with God) is tasted. At the level of sirr,mukshafa (unveiling) is granted,on account of which the sf sees the realities of the `lam al-mithl with his physical eyes. At the height of the latfa called khaf,one enjoys mushhada (contemplative witnessing) and recognizes that his dht (essence) is related to God's dht. Arrived at the zenith of the akhf',one 51. will receive information from the tajall a`zam,the source of all divine manifestations (Khizna 9). Once or twice Shh Wal Allh's mystical teachings give forth a curious smell of Indianism. And it is not in the least surprising if we discover an instance of it when he is still under the charge of his rather liberal father. So the six concentric circles he drew in front of his son offer an unmistakable parallel to the so-called cakras (wheels,circles) we are informed of in Hindu Tantrism and Yoga practices. They are located in the same,or approximately the same places in the human bodies as the six latfas discussed above. The manipra-cakra lies at the level of the umblicus; the anhata-cakra is found in the region of the heart and the vishudda-cakra in the region of the throat; the jn-cakra is situated between the eye-brows; at the top of the cranium the saharra-cakra is located (M. Eliade,Le Yoga,Paris 1960,244 f.). Left to the end,we now shall try to expound the most evolved and perhaps at the same time most personal notions the Delhi savant has developed in the domain of psychology. To begin with,he classes what are considered the three basic components of every human individual (i.e. the nafs shahwiyya,qalb,and àql) in the category of the perceptible latfas. The nafs shahwiyya (concupiscent soul) has its residence in the liver. This potency is required for the preservation of the body and to its activities belong eating,drinking,sleep and cohabition. It is the aperture through which Satan whispers suggestions,tempting to evil,impurity and fierceness. The qalb is a psychic center,which has its support in a fir-cone shaped lump of flesh lying two fingers under the left side of the breast. It is the origin of the emotions and it has the capacity of making decisions. Angels use it as the aperture for their inspirations. The àql resides in the brain. It covers the area lying between the concrete and the abstract. If,for instance,it observes individual human beings,it is able to mould the concept ofa universal human form. Recollecting things of the past and planning for things of the future are part of its functions (Tafh. I,171). One of its distinguishing marks is sure knowledge in respect of m,atters closely related to traditional doctrines like faith in the unseen and belief in the omnipotence of God (H.B. II,90). By means of the mesaraic veins these three latfas are provided with a system of intercommunication. By virtue of this possibility of interaction,each of them may share in the special properties of the other,or may make its influence felt on the others: If both the heart and the intellect are governed by the nafs,then a great many evils will result... But if the heart and the nafs obey the intellect,then praiseworthy qualities will arise (A.Q. 42 f. and 77). Quite often such interpretation is indispensable in giving full scope to man's potentialities: If there were no cognition of the displeasing or pleasing effect of vilifying or winning words,no anger or love would be roused; if there were no receptivity of the heart,no religious belief would develop (H.B. II,88). Further,through a process of refinement,these three 52. latfas can regain their original constitution. The changes worked in this way are described by our author as follows: Still in the grip of the turbulent instinctive disposition of human nature,the intellect has to sanction the things which come to it in a fashion adopted to human nature. After its refinement,however,it obtains such a certain belief in what is presented by the Law that it is as if it were a matter of empirical observation... Still rooted in human nature the heart has to love benefactors and patrons,to hate odious enemies,to faqlear what is harmful and to hope for what is useful. After its refinement,however,it loves God,it fears His punishment and hpes for His reward. Still in the grip of turbulent human nature,the nafs revels in lusts and seeking ease.After its refinement,however,repentance,self-abnegation and religious strictness are its characteristics (H.B. II,91)2. Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
34 Another characteristic feature of these three perceptible latfas are the respective maqmt and ahwl they engender. As a rule,Western scholars of Islam,are accustomed to discuss maqmt and ahwl in the context of the Sf Path; maqmt representing the stages of progressive spiritual development and ahwl being the 'states' which come over a mystic during his journey. In the expositions of Shh Wal Allh,however,these two collective terms figure primarily as psychic and ethical notions,though at times provided with a ,mystic flavour. They are said to be fruits of ihsn (sincere worship of God) (H.B. II,88). When qualities of an angelic nature have become acquired traits ( malakt),of which the actions follow a recurrent pattern,they are to be termed maqmt (moral habits). And if these actions appear like bolts of lightening,as is the case with visions,voices from heaven,they are called ahwl (states which descend unexpectedly (H.B. II,91). A fundamental element of the maqmt and ahwl pertaining to the àql is sure knowledge (yaqn) in respect of matters concerning the Muslim creed as,for instance,the articles of Predestination and Resurrection. The maqmt resulting from yaqn include: a) shukr (gratitude): coming to realize all the material and spiritual benefits one owes to one's Creator; b) tawakkul (trust in God): which implies not worrying about making a living3; c) hayba (to stand in awe of God): comes from the contemplation of God's revenge and terror; d) husn al-zann (to think well of God): proceeds from the acknowledgment of God's benefits and favours; e) tafrd (isolation from the world in order to focus all attention on God): is enfolding oneself in the dhikr (remembrance of God) to such extent that it is as if one sees God with one's own eyes. Then gloomy imaginings of one's soul disappear; f) ikhls (to make God the exclusive object of faith); g) tawhd (the experience of the Oneness of God); h) the position of a siddq (zealous persevering believer who is 'as kindred to a prophet as sulphus is to fire') or muhaddath (man who is inspired) (H.B. II,92 f.). To the ahwl connected with the àql belong: 53. a) the tajall ('radiance') of God's Essence,God's Attributes,and mandates of God's Essence. That refers to the Hereafter and Its occurrences. Hence,on certain occasions one may obtain a mental representation of Paradise and Hell; b) reliable clairvoyance (firsa) and inner speech (khtir) which appear to correspond with reality; c) wholesome vision; d) sweet experience of confidential talk with God; e) muhsaba (analysis of the soul); f) consciousness of one's own insignificance opposite God's majesty ( H.B. II,94 f.). Maqmt pertaining to the qalb are: a) concentration on one's thought on the Hereafter and consideration of things of this worldly life as despicable; b) exclusive love of God; c) God's calling a worshipper's attention to infringement of good manners by blame,and by assent once he again turns to the righteous path; d) becoming a shahd (martyr) or a hawr (apostle)(H.B. II,95 - 8); Ahwl specific of the qalb are: a) sukr (intoxication),i.e. that in the àql and then in the qalb the light of faith begins to shine so strongly that the affairs of this world lose all significance; b) ghalaba ('overcoming'). There are two types of ghalaba: the ghalaba dìyya (being overcome by an inner urge). An instance of this is Ùmar's opposition to the treaty of Hudaybiyya (in March 628) because of undue zeal; and the ghalaba dìyya ilhiyya (being overcome by a divine urge). A case of this is the divine urge which Ab Bakr received in his heart to restrain the Prophet from continuous prayer,as is recorded in the battle of Badr (March 624). Then he seized Mohammed by the arm and sai d: Stop (sc. your constant entreaty will annoy your Lord,for surely God will fulfil His promise to you); c) the preference of obedience to God above obedience to anything else; d) the ghalaba al-khawf (being overcome by the fear of God)(H.B. II,98 f.); Among the maqmt of the nafs that becomes overpowered by the light of faith Shh Wal Allh reckons: a) tawba (repentance). Its two major effects are hay' (shame): the squirming of the nafs at the appearance of God's majesty and wara' (abstinence from anything doubtful): turns the nafs away from confusion; b) zuhd (renunciation); the awareness of the disgracefulness of being occupied with what exceeds man's daily wants. God has given zuhd as a means for perfection of the nafs,but He has not introduced it as a Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
35 statutory obligation (H.B. II,99 ff.). Ahwl distinctive of the nafs are: a) ghayba (absence from all except God). This means that for the nafs all carnal appetites disappear; b) mahq (annihilation). This indicates that on account of an 54. inclination of the nafs toward the àql that is filled with the light of God,one can go without food and drink for an unusually long period (H.B. II,102). The two remaining perceptible latfas after the three just mentioned,are the sirr which lies above the àql,and the rh which lies above the qalb. Their higher position enables them to watch their lower placed partners closely. Both of them are sublimed configurations of àql and qalb. If the two reach their original residence and ascend to their zenith,they witness the tajall a`zam. The most sublime state reserved for the rh is indicated as hubt ('descent'). It is comparable to the state of a nightingale,which when in the presence of a rose,is overcome with emotion. Visions are a product specific of the sirr; the state characteristic of this latfa is 'intimacy' (uns) (A.Q. 36,75 & 104). A trait peculiar to it is that of discerning one single design (tadbr) in the cosmos (Tafh. I,20). For the traveler on the path (slik) leading to the divine Essence,the latfas serve as a kind of landmarks on the upward path. At every latfa which he reaches,he experiences the influence of the determants peculiar to it. If,for instance,the latfas of rh and sirr gain mastery over him,he enjoys spiritual delights,obtained from intimacy of the rh and the knowledge of the sirr,on account of which he turns away from all material pleasures (Tafh. I,231). For the ascent from the one latfa to the other he ought to usethe common methods of spiritual training. So frequent meditation exercises are a means for passing from the àql to the sirr (Tafh. I,136). As to the way upwards,three levels are to be distinguished: the wujd zulmn (man's gloomy existence in this world),the wujd rhn (spiritual existence) and the wujd ilh (divine existence). If one succeeds in passing the five perceptible latfas,the stage of wujd rhn is attained and he becomes the Perfect Man (al-insn al-kmil). For a further continuation of the journey,however,the slik has to resort to the concealed latfas. Only through them the wujd ilh can be reached. This is an undertaking which is to be reserved for an elite,and it is surely too dangerous for a common man. The latter should confine himself to the cultivation of perceptible latfas (Tafh. I,181; A. Q. 135 f.). In elucidation of capacities inherent to the concealed latfas,the Delhi divine sets forth: peculiar to the khaf is the discovery that one and the same reality streams in all existing things. A characteristic quality of the latfa termed nr al-quds is its ability to become acquainted with the disputes of the mala a`l and the decisions decending from them. A specific property of the hajar al-baht is its inexplicable evanescence into the tajall a`zam in consequence of which man becomes one of the instruments of God (Tafh.I,181 f.). If the akhf' becomes the prevailing element in a mystic,he will receive information from the tajall a`zam as well as from the nafs kulliyya. Yet he is favoured with an even more exalted state if the concealed latfa,called anniyya kubr (full-fledged self-consciousness),holds its sway. Then he sees the 55. whole universe in himself. No longer do divine knowledge and revelations filter down from above,but now he finds them in his inner self (A.Q. 124 ff.). This is the level of the major wal-hood (al-wilyat al-kubr) (A.Q. 37). When he has reached this stage of al-tawhd al-dht (Oneness in the Essence),he possesses al divine Attributes except self-existence and eternity. In fact,he remains an àbd (servant) as before. Nevertheless,h e is freed from the erroneous impression that àbd and rabb (Lord) are two different realities (Tafh. I,169 f.). Another interesting quality which Shh Wal Allh ascribes to the latfas is the aptitude to function as reflectors of the several categories of God's Attributes. The more delicate a latfa is structured,the more sublime is the nature of the divine Attributes reflected on it. Upon the qalb falls the reflection of the idfiyyt,the Attributes lowest in rank. They comprehend secondary actions flowing out from God's Essence. The thubtiyyt,the Attributes properly speaking as life,hearing ,sight are mirrowed upon the rh. The shu'nt ('potential' Attributes) which are,according to the Delhi scholar the germ forms of the idfiyyt and the thubtiyyt (Khizna 5),project their lustre upon the sirr. It is the khaf which receives the reflection of the salbiyyt,the 'privative' Attributes which accentuate divine transcendency. And finally upon the akhf' the 'mother' of all Attributes,t.w. the Attribute of divine self-objectivation,is reflected (Tafh. II,41). Besides the recorded varied figuring of the latfas in the mystic's quest of his very identity,a final aspect worthy of mention is the function they perform in Shh Wal Allh's classifications of history. In the so-called historic religions the hour of birth,the era of the founder's appearance,is taken for the most crucial event in the history of mankind. This is the pleroma tou chronou,the fulness of times. A somewhat Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
36 illogical issue of this belief is that by the adherents of these religions,the prenatal period in general is evaluated much more highly than the postnatal ages. The Christians,for example,will without hesitation acknowledge a Moses or Isaiah as conveyers and exponents of authentic divine revelation. But the office with which they credit an Augustine or a Luther is that of 'father of the church' at the most,and in the process of revelation as such the latter will never enter. In orthodox Islam the same is true: The advent of Mohammed is viewed as the terminative p[oint in an extended revelatory period,in which former prophets also officiated as agencies of God. The events after the blessed times of the Messenger of God are,however,of a considerably lesser religious significance. This is implicative of the well-known doctrine of Mohammed's being the seal of prophets. Shh Wal Allh's exposition of the five taghayyurt,deteriorations,is in complete agreement with traditional views,as can be pointed out in the history subsequent to the death of the Prophet. The first taghayyur is the transfer of power to Ab Bakr; the second the death of Ùmar who was the bolt 56. on the door of fitna (civil war); the third,the murder of Ùthmn,was the worst,since it turned out to be the dividing line between the age of order that preceded it and the chaos and anarchy that followed; the fourth is the establishment of the Àbbsid caliphate in Irq; and the fifth the end of the Arab dominion and the arrival of the sway of non-Arabs,whose rule is like that of the Zoroastrians but with the difference that the former still observe the salt and confess the shahda with their tongues (Izla I,157): I myself being born in the final stages of this fifth deterioration do not know wha t,after this,God has in mind for the future (Izla I,148 f.). This theory of the five tagayyurt is set out in a work in which the Sunn standpoint is expounded over against the Sh` principles. However,in another book of his which contains various teachings of an esoteric nature,the Delhi savant discloses that in his personal judgment the mission of Mohammed does not represent a final event of sacred history,but merely a phase to be followed by periods of further developments of God's designs. The days in which he himself lives he experiences as the most advanced evolution of divine Revelation.The argumentation for the existence of progressive phases in God's revelations to humanity is based on a demonstration of a coming into operation of perceptible and concealed latfas in a sequence of increasing subtleness and quality. The human form,so Shh Wal Allh holds,is founded on the completion of the latfas of qalb,àql and nafs. Accordingly,the human race with Adam as the first man came into existence... In the following epoch the qalb and the àql of man were charged with getting to know the truth of God... For the provision of livelihood (being an activity of the nafs) people were allowed to ride animals... ,to eat their meat,to drink their milk and to use their wool for clothing... Our prophet Mohammed marked the end of this epoch and,at the same time,he became the inaugurator of a new period4 which was an expansion of the foregoing one. In that new era the gracious eyes of God turned to the rh and sirr. Hence in that time the beloved,the perfect and the favoured was that man,in whom both of these latfas were alert... Next,at the time of Ibn al-Àrab the gracious eyes of God turned to the latfa,named khaf... The spiritual leaders of that age were inspired knowledge of tawhd (unification with God) and the world's vanishing into one Reality (the theory of wahdat al-wujd)... Finally,in our days the gracious eyes of God turned to the latfas,called hajar al-baht and anniyya kubr (Tafh. I,123 f.). Consequently many prerogatives,like a full command of all facets of mysticism as well as an all-encompassing knowledge of the sharà and of all that pertains to prophecy,had been bestowed on Shh Wal Allh,himself being a chosen one of this last epoch,since both of these latfas operated on him. Of this period it was said that up to the West rays of light were shining,and'the earth was irradiated by the light of its Lord' ( Qur'n XXXIX,69) (Tafh. I,199). Thus the Delhi scholar ejaculated enraptured: My Lord conveyed to me that after me there would be found no one having attained nearness to God but I would have had a hand in his moral education and spiritual training,until the 57. moment that Jesus comes down from heaven (Tafh. I,120). {1} Or,according to an earlier exposition: from the delicate stream that arises from a cookingpot in which the various elements are found (A.Q. 24). It should be borne in mind that in Islamic medicine humours are called 'daughters of the elements'. A third version given of its arising: engendered in the heart from blood that has been refined (Tafh. I,247) agrees with the account of al-Ghazl who states that it is a subtle substance coming forth from a ventricle of the physical heart ( Ihy ùlm al-dn,Cairo n.d. III,2). The specific contribution of the Delhi scholar to this topic consists of the choice of the term nasama and the elaborate application of it. {2} In A.Q. 83 f. the effect of the refinement of the nafs is said to be samha (generosity),while the effects Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
37 mentione as resulting from the refinement of the heart are sidq (sincerity),adab (good breeding) and wajd (ecstatic experience). Fruits of the refinement of the intellect are a conviction concerning the tajall a`zam,inward revelation (kashf),perspicacity (firsa) into what is about to happen,and a correct interpretation of the Qur'n and traditions. {3} However,absence of any concern about earning one's livelihood is in contravention of the shar` (revealed law) (Q.J. 27). {4} In our age another Muslim Indian thinker Sir Muhammad Iqbl has eiterated and reformulated the same idea,arguing: ... the Prophet of Islam seems to stand between the ancient and modern world.. In him life discovers other sources of knowledge... The birth of Islam... is the birth of inductive intellect (The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam,Lahore 1954,126).
38 58.
Chapter five: Mysticism

General evaluation. Although almost every page of his writings carries a mystic flavour,the Delhi divine nevertheless emphasizes strongly that sfism as such is not soul-saving,and that conformity with the Holy Scriptures is a conditio sine qua non for its validity: Not one of us is someone who fights shy of the profession of scholars... Sfs blinded by passion,who do not ponder on Qur'n and hadth,are brigands and robbers of the dn (archetypal religion) (Tafh. II,202) In the wake of the Christians ,he superadds elsewhere,nowadays descendants of the great saints make fantastic claims with regard to their ancestors,assigning to them a nearly divine status (F.K.35).The sons of prs cherish all kinds of personal opinions and abandon the Path God revealed to Mohammed for the benefit of mankind. How stupid are the folks,who posing as sfs,wear women's dress,contemplate the divine beauty,preferably reflected on handsome boys,drink wine and bang (intoxicating drink prepared of hemp-leaves),listen to spiritual music and participate in the ecstatic experiences of dervishes ( Tafh. I,112 ff.). I say to those who mortify the bodily appetites,... quote apocryphal traditions and diverting tales in their sermons,... and offer medical prescriptions supplied with diabolic suggestions,... that you might do better to impart ihsn (sincere worship of God)(Tafh. I,215). History of mysticism After close examination of his writings it turns out that Shh Wal Allh discovered seven distinct periods in the development of Muslim mystic practice and thought,t.w. 1) During the initial period of Mohammed's blessed community ( umma) (i.e. the era of the Companions and Successors) the faculty of the limbs and organs was dominant; that is to say the heart faculty was totally engrossed in the activation of the energies of limbs and organs. What was discussed by the people of this community pertained to issues concerning the outward form of the Law ( A.Q. 111). To their mind ihsn meant the performance of salt,fasting,dhikr,Qur'n-reading,hajj,sadaqa and jihd. None of them was accustomed to hang the head upon the bosom in a comtemplative mood... Kashf,i.e. 'revelation' that is observed while awake by the faculty of imagination (khayl), miracles,intoxication and raptures were seldom found in them; and if they were seen,it was by chance,not on purpose ( H. II); 2) After the era of the Companions and Successors,there appeared certain people who opted for over-meticulousness and extreme rigidity... The utmost effort should be made to tame the fury of both the carnal and the aggressive self. Therefore they renounced sexual intercourse,delicious food and fine clothing... This is the mysticism of the ordinary men: not knowing where to draw the line when performing their exercitia spiritualia 1... The sf,who first took this line of action and laid down the rules for it ,was Hrith b. Asad al-Muhsib (d. 857) (A.Q. 70 59. f.). In that epoch connection with sf masters was established by collective dhikr along with listening to poetry,teaching and keeping to the rules required for the refinement of the soul,not as yet by the institutes of the khirqa (the assumption of a patched frock) and bayà (taking the vow of allegiance to one's pr)(Intibh I,2 f.). 3) In the time of the sf leader al-Junayd Abu 'l-Qsim al-Baghdd (d. 910),or shortly before it,mysticism began to reveal different aspects. Now people's principal goal was to be attached to God with heart and soul... Accordingly,they experienced states of theophany and of being veiled,of intimacy ( uns) and estrangement (wahshat)... In this period tawajjuh - a term which indicates that a soul concentrates on the Ultimate Reality to such extent that it is coloured by the colour of God - had not reached its final point. People were certainly overwhelmed by the lights of obedience and worship of God,but still the spiritual state of tawajjuh appeared only occasionally like flashes of lightning (H. II). al-Junayd,the 'Lord of the Sect' was the first person to loose himself from the extremely rigid practices and who,by adopting a middle course,was able to place every spiritual exercise where it rightly belonged... In short,the refinement of the five perceptible latfas is fundamental for traversing the sf Path by the method of Junayd ( A.Q. 72 f.). In this era the customs of the khirqa and bayà were introduced (Intibh I,3). Consequently,this epoch beca me the epoch of the tarqa (religious brotherhood) (Tafh. I,77). 4) In the generation of Shaykh Ab Sa`d b. Abi'l-Khayr (d. 1049) and Shaykh Abu'l-Hasan Kharaqn (d. 1033) another new form was given to mysticism. Through jadhb (trance) the spiritual state (nisba) of tawajjuh was attained in full,on account of which people discovered that there is only one Essence,upon which all things depend. They were absorbed in that Essence and they were coloured by It. They no longer needed to be occupied with awrd (supererogatory liturgies), waz'if (daily offices) and strenuous exercitia spiritualia. So they renounced the world completely (H. II). Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
39 5) In the age of al-Shaykh al-akbar Ibn al-Àrab (d. 1240),or shortly before it,the intellectual power of mystics expanded and,passing beyond the stage of psychic emotions,they engaged heart and soul in search of the highest realities in order to find out the stages of self-unfolding (tanazzult) of the Self-existent,the circumstances at the beginning of this process,and so on (H. II). 6) Thereafter a perverse sect appeared in Islam. These people as,for instance,Sadr al-Dn al-Qnaw (d. 1263) and Àbd al-Rahmn Jm (d. 1492),thought that God would be identical with the world and the world would be identical with God,and that no Account or Punishment will occur. According to us,man realizes by nature that God is Unique,approving and disapproving,forgiving and punishing ( Tafh. I,206). 7) Hinting at himself in veiled terms,the Delhi divine discloses: After many ages once again another terminator and inaugurator of a mystic period was born. He analysed and classified the various stages of man's development to perfection,putting all of them in 60. their proper places... He also sifted out the types of knowledge which have been divulged by the divine will for the good of the whole world and of which the seal of prophets is the source ...,and he hopes,God willing,that by his hand new life will spring up (Tafh. I,77 f.). The mystic venture In the Hama`t,a type of handbook for the practice of a sf,the behavioural pattern for a slik (wayfarer on the sf Path) is expounded as follows: He should perform 50 rakàs (bendings) in a 24-hour period,i.e. 17 for the obligatory salts,12 for the rawtib (salts which are recommended and are part of the so-called sunna rtiba,'established norm'),11 for the salts repeated during the night,2 for the salt pertaining to the sunrise,4 for the forenoon-salt,and 4 for the salt at the sun's decline. The fasts he ought to observe are those on the ' Day of Àrafa',the Àshr',the three days of every month mentioned in the traditions (= the 13th,14th and 15th of every lunar month),the three 'white',i.e. moonlit,days) and the first six days of the month Shawwl. As for the sadaqa (voluntary offering),he should feed a poor man every day from his own resourses,and,besides the sadaqa at the end of Ramadn,he should clothe a poor person once a year. As regards his comportment in daily life,he should not distinguish himself from his own companions and family. If he belongs to the class of ùlam',he should behave as one of them; if he belongs to the guild of artisans,he should act as one of them,and if he belongs to the military people,he should follow their conduct (H. V). This last rule is usually termed khalwat dar anjuman (solitude in society),a principle dear to the Naqshband order. In elucidation of it Shh Wal Allh observes: Distinguishing oneself by the dress of a dervish gives other people the impression of hypocrisy and show ( Q.J. 92). The spiritual itinerary (sulk) itself can be properly compared with the combustion process of ice: melting all the while it becomes water and then becomes water-vapour (Sat. 34). Mystics,so the Delhi savant explains,are transformed from state to state. It happens like this: Below the ice a fire is kindled so that it melts and becomes water. After that,the heating continues till the coolness of the water disap-pears,becomes tepid,hot and gets the effects of fire,i.e. of cooking,giving pain and causes blisters in the body of man. Yet,in spite of all these changes the water remains water,though through them the similaritry between water and fire increases. In the same way the 'effacement' ( fan') and 'subsistence' (baq') of the mystics is not a discarding of the human form,but rather a withdrawing from qualities of an animal nature and an appoaching nearer to human qualities of an angelic nature. After that,they rise to the rank of the jabart (World of Omnipotence) (Sat. 40). Thus they reach the spot in the hazra al-quds ('Holy Enclosure') which is reserved for them. Finally,they rise to the realm of the lht (World of the divine Essence) (Sat. 34). Or to put it more elaborately: The essence of the mystic 61. journey,as we are told elsewhere,is that the rule of one latfa gains mastery over another one. Then two fans are thinkable: 1) the fan of the wujd zulmn (man's gloomy existence in this world) by which the rule of the latfas of qalb and aql gains mastery over the nafs shahwiyya (concupiscent soul),the nafs sabuìyya (ferocious soul) and the nafs ammra (evil-prompting soul),which are attached to customs and usages. Accordingly,the mystic traveller is no longer governed by carnal lusts and habits... Next,the latfas of rh and sirr gain mastery over him,on account of which he is overpowered by spiritual delight,obtained from intimacy of the rh and knowledge of the sirr. Consequently,he turns away from all material delights... 2) the fan of the wujd rhn (spiritual existence) by which either the rule of the anniyya kubr (full-fledged self-consciousness),which is dispersed over all existing things,gains mastery over the mystic wayfarer,and his own anniyya sughr (minor ego) fades away; or the rule of the hajar al-baht (gem of stupefaction valued for its magic properties) ,which by diving into the tajall a`zam returns to the origin from Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
40 whence it gushed forth,gains mastery over him (Tafh. I,230 f.). If,however,we want to discuss the mystic venture in detail,the following stages the wayfarer has to pass can be noted: 1) the preparatory period of tahra (purification). The method to be followed for this is that the slik chooses a place of seclusion,eats and drinks in moderation,performs the ghusl (major ritual ablution) repeatedly... and fixes his mind to the light which is spread in the atmospheric mass. In a few days the light of tahra will shine... A distinguishing characteristic of its appearance is the enjoyment of ease,peace of mind and a friendly environment (Tafh. I,221 f.); 2) the performance of dhikr. In the opinion of the majority of mystics the two most preferable patterns of dhikr are the dhikr of 'negation and affirmation' (stating: 'no divinity save Allh')2 and the dhikr of the 'Name of God' (whereby the word Allh is ejaculated continuously)... In order to bring his spirit into a state of utmost tension,the wayfarer should dwell on thoughts of death ,reading edifying stories,and listen to admonitory words or pleasant melodies. Next,he should perform two rakàs...,and should say: 'No divinity save Allh' with the tongue; and it should be done in the way that at the start 'no' is said from below (i.e. the navel) and 'divinity' in the brain (as if it came from the pia mater,the delicate inner vascular membrane that invests the brain),thereupon driving 'save Allh' forcefully into the heart... The negation not only contemplates affection but God,but also any existence but God... It is indubitable that if someone of a wholesome and affectionate nature performs dhikr in the directed manner for one or two hours,he will acquire complete tranquillity of mind, will be troubled no more by disturbing thoughts,and will befilled with a true yearning ( shawq) (H. VI). In respect of the highly debated question whether the Central Asian shaykhs of the Naqshband brotherhood (the so-called Khwjagn) only practised dhikr in a low voice or also accepted the vocal method,Shh Wal 62. Allh declares: Some followers of the Naqshband order assert that the Khwjagn forbade the vocal dhikr. The real facts of this case are that the Naqshband leaders practised the vocal as well as the dhikr in a low voice,the vocal dhikr even more frequently. When,however,they perceived that by the Hanaf school the vocal dhikr was regarded 'reprehensible',they gave preference to the dhikr in a low voice (H. VI); 3) the murqaba (spiritual communion with the divine Attributes). After having attained the state of a true yearning (dhawq) and having experienced its effect on his heart,the wayfarer should reduce social intercourse,keep aloof from worldly affairs and give up pleasures and the like,so that this state becomes full reality for him and devoid of any phantasy. Then he enters upon the stage of murqaba. In the general opinion the essence of murqaba is that the wayfarer's mind is completely concentrated on the divine Attributes3 ... so that eventually he himself and everything else,from right and left,from above and below,on the inside and on the outside is encompassed by the Almighty,... and he sees the splendour of God's light shining from all sides (H. VII). After that,two courses are available to the wayfarer: 4) the course of sulk and the course of jadhb (trance).Sulk refers to the cultivation of ethical qualities like humility,purity and passionate love of God (ìshq).In contrast to the course of jadhb,it is corroborated by the sharà (H. IX). The route of jadhb4, the other choice the mystic traveller can make,refers to the tearing of the veils of the specifications of being in order to reach the Ultimate Reality. It penetrates to the very Beginning in a retrogade motion by the way of one's ego. Then the nafs kulliyya,the Universal Soul and the divine Names are reached; and finally it leads to the Essence of God. The course of the jadhb consists of three parts: a) the tawhd af`l (Oneness in Action). It is the discovery that the universe in all its movements and in all its actions - as though it were a marionette - depends on the direction and activity of One Person (sc. God); b) the tawhd sift (Oneness in the Qualities) that appears after the tawhd af`l. This refers to the recognition that there is an archetype contained in the various forms of the phenomena as,for instance,the idea of a universal man implicit in the multiple human individuals; c) the tawhd dht(i.e. becoming conscious of one's oneness with God).When the wayfarer contemplates his own ego and dwells further on it,he will through his ego reach the root of being. Subsequently,the state of tawhd dht descends upon him like a thunderbolt (H. IX). Of the curious experiences one has with this state the following report is made: When the mystic reaches the hayl (primary matter) of everything and the origin of all,he himself becomes the origin of all that exists... and receives the power to create... This manner of creating means that he is able to manifest himself in whatever shape he chooses... Consequently,an advanced gnostic ( `rif) is in a position to become earth,water,air or fire,and to assume the shape of... a mute animal,a plant...,an 63. Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
41 angel,heavenly body or a star... Having attained that state he possesses all divine attributes except self-existence and eternity (Tafh. I,169 f.). Characterization and evaluation of tarqas In the summing-up of his expositions of the ashghl (meditation technics) of various brotherhoods prevalent in 18th century India Shh Wal Allh declares in his early writing al-Qawl al-jaml: The goal of all tarqas is the bringing about of a predisposition (hay'a) in the nafs ntiqa which they name nisba ('relationship') since it establishes an affiliation and connection with God... Its most distinguishing feature is its being a condition in the nafs ntiqa that engenders affinity with the angels and a longing for the World of Omnipotence (`lam al-jabart) (Q.J. 108). In the Hawmi` the characteristics of the different sf leaders are enumerated: The fundamental nisba of Àbd al-Qdir al-Jln (d. 1166) was the nisba of Uways-hood5 ...;the fundamental nisba of Khwja Bah' al-Dn Naqshband (d. 1389) was the nisba of yd-dsht (concentration on the reality of God which is stripped of sounds, words, ecstatic emotions and so on)...; the nisba of the early masters of the Chishts was the nisba of nr,tahra and sakna (tranquility owing to a light descending from God) permeated with elements of the nisba of ìshq,while the nisba of the Chisht masters of the intermediate period was the nisba of ìshq permeated with elements of the nisba of nr and sakna,... the nisba of the later Chisht masters became the nisba of ìshq permeated with portions of the nisba of tawhd (consciousness of one's oneness with God). The nisba of the Suhraward order is that of the light of purity and the light of divine presence permeated with elements of the nisba of yd-dsht (H. XVI). As for Shh Wal Allh's personal taste,at least before 1732 he seems to have an unmistakable preference for the so-called Mujaddid line of the Naqshbandiyya order. For in a treatise written in that year we read: In India the most illustrious and pure and the least heretical tarqa is surely the Naqshband-Mujaddid silsila. It has two branches,one starting with Khwja Ma`sm (d. 1688),the third son of Ahmad Sirhind,generally known as Mujaddid-i alf-i thn ('Renewer of the second millenium'); and the other with Shaykh Adam al-Banr (d. 1643). With both branches I have a firm tie (Introduction of the Risla muqaddima saniyya fi'l-intisr li'l- firqa al-Sunniyya,Khuda Bakhsh Library,Arab Ms. 3660). But later,in reply to a question of his disciple Khwja Muhammad Amn al-Kashmr about the preferability of the respective Indian tarqas he makes a more differentiated pronouncement. Then he advances the opinion that the particular excellence of the Naqshbandiyya order6 lies in its performance of murqaba. The best method of obtaining inner light,however,is offered by the followers of Àbd al-Qdir al-Jln. For a proper application of the preaching of the ancients to conditions of the present,the Chishts are the right people. Suhrawards are to be preferred for their admirable adherence to the Qur'n and sunna (Kalimt-i tayyibt 160). In this connection it might be also 64. relevant to point to the ambivalent attitude the Delhi scholar adopts towards the ritual of sam` ('hearing',i.e. listening to spiritual music),so dear to the Chisht sfs. He acknowledges that by listening to elegant verses combined with delicious melodies and well-measured cadences wonderful predispositions arise in man's soul. The sounds of tambour and rebeck produce an effect as inebriating as that of wine. Therefore the majority of people striving after ecstasy are very keen on sam`. Yet the methods which the Lawgiver Mohammed prefers for the removal of man's stolidity consist of listening to sermons,the recital of Qur'nic verses,and meditation on subtle points in prophetic traditions or edifying stories ( H. XV). ______________________ {1} In view of people who in their zeal in performing most harsh practices allow a noble member of their body like the hand and foot to shrivel or render a human potency like sexual lust inoperative by cutting off the penis,Shh Wal Allh observes that 'such people do not know what worship is,and they are not aware that altering God's creation is a sin with whic h the Merciful is not pleased (B.B. 119 f.) {2} This dhikr contains many esoteric senses: 1) the removal of plain idolatory; 2) the removal of hidden shirk ; 3) the lifting of veils from the knowledge of God (H.B. II,72). {3} (To this end) some masters of the Naqshband order advise him to visualize a totally empty space or a vast light (Q.J. 82). {4} The gate of the jadhb has been opened by Àl. For that reason the chains of descent in the brotherhoods go back to him (H. XI). {5} By this nisba information is supplied about God's rule of the Universe and spiritual bonds are formed with the souls of sf masters and even with the spirit of the Prophet ( H. XI). {6} Another special merit of this order is that,while later mystics are not inclined to pay attention to the Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
42 injunctions of the sharà,the masters of the Naqshband maintain that one ought to keep the scope afforded by the sunna (A.Q. 87).Further,the Naqshbands are the strongest in keeping the animal soul in subjection and mortifying it by yd-dsht. It is like this because Shaykh Bah' al-Dn himself was appointed as a moral therapist in central Asia where the people had a most vigorous animal nature ( Tafh. I,85).
43 65.
Chapter six: Ethics

In order to lay a solid foundation for any exposition on moral philosophy,one needs first of all to determine the criteria to be applied to the moral category of 'good'. In Islam the crucial dilemma is this: Is a thing good because God has designated it as such or has He designated it as such because it is good? Shh Wal Allh apparently prefers to avoid making a choice on this issue. Rather,he likes to suggest that both assumptions hold good. Certainly,it is unquestionable that it is ultimately dependent upon God's decision whether something is to be regarded as good or repugnant (Tafh. I,146). It is wrong,however,to think that God is like a master who is fond of giving senseless orders with the sole purpose of testing his servant's obedience. On the contrary,reason can in most cases discern the considerations of expediency contained in the divine commands and prohibitions (H.B. I,4 f.). Still,the designs of God's management extend beyond the sense deducible from most of His prescriptions. The very principle on which God created mankind is that the human individual should come up to the authenticity (sihha) specific to man (H.B. I,51). Consequently,good is all that is in consonance with man's inherent nature (fitra),and vice is as repugnant to the agent as the braving of an ass ( Khizna 8). Man's felicity consists in giving full scope to the properties which are part of his nature( H.B. I,36). All that leads to a correct evaluation of one's self,self-confidence and dignity,is righteous and appropriate ( B.B. 52). Sin is in essence a deviation from true humanity (Ta'wl 18). When something yields what it should not yield,or does not produce what it ought to produce,we have to do with evil ( H.B. I,12). Therefore,according to the Delhi savant,is smearing the eyelids with kuhl (antimony used for blacking the eyelids) a permissible beauty treatment,because it accentuates properties allotted to the human species; but depilation or shaving the beard is reprehensible,for in that way changes in God's creation are effected ( H.B. I,107 & 182). In agreement with and at the root of this moral creed is the function God's legislative activity is credited with,namely to be the complement of His destination of things in the universe ( Sat. 24). And if somebody raises the objection: Why is man under the obligation to perfo rm the salt and to obey the Prophet,and why is he prohibited from adultery and thieving?,he is to be given the answer: These things are prescribed and forbidden him in precisely the same way as the herbivore is ordered to eat grass and is forbidden to eat meat,and beats of prey are compelled to eat meat and are denied the consumption of grass ( H.B. I,24). 66. Man's inherit nature has at its command excellences of three kinds: 1) ìffa (abstinence from trival and exciting pleasures),i.e. not becoming immersed in sensual delights,either by one's nature or one's practice. God regards believers who achieve this quality as godfearing and pious people; 2) tafarrus (discerning the intrinsic character of metaphysical truths). By virtue of this endowment the mind can quickly deduce knowledge from Qur'nic verses,and can corroborate intuitively the reality of the Self-existent,the mission of the prophets,and the truth of the Resurrection; 3) sakna (inner peace owing to a light descending from God). To its effects belong persistence in the duties of worship,endurance (sabr) in adversities,indignation at the enemies of God,and a stable psychic state (Tafh. I,34 f. & II,112). Biologically,man belongs to the class of animals. Since his happiness depends on a full development of the potencies inherent in him,it is logical that the animal potency should not become divested of its own nature,should not belie its temperament and should not adopt a course of conduct contrary to its true character (A.Q. 51). In man this potency is created in two ways: 1) as that of a violent and stubborn beast,like a sturdy stallion; 2) as that of a weak and flimsy quadruped,like a gelded animal ( H.B. I,26). If these two types strive for an amelioration of their inner life,the former will resort to harsh disciplines and strenuous fasts and vigils,while the latter will apply himself to dhikrs only (H. XVIII). Equally,the angelic potency in man is created in two ways: 1) like the mala a`l,whose most conspicuous characteristic is their becoming coloured by the knowledge of God's Names and Attributes,and their endownment with the gnosis of the World of Omnipotence; 2. like the mala sfil,whose characteristic is to be stirred up as will-less beings by impulses showering down upon them from above (H.B. I,26). The former are able to interpret divine language,the latter to read hidden thoughts of others (ishrf)(H. XVIII). As for the interrelation of the angelic and animal potency,again two possibilities are given: Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
44 1) a state of tension (tajdhub) wherein each one strives passionately to meet its own needs. If one predominates,the influences of the other are diminished,and vice versa; 2) an inner integration of the angelic and animal potencies ( istilh). This can be realized if the angelic potency renounces its own higher goals and gets down to the level related to qualities as,for instance,rationality,generosity of the lower soul,proper sex behavior, preferring the general good to his own benefit,fixing the attention on the hereafter rather than being content with the fleeting life,whereas the animal potency,for its 67. part,tries to rise above its own ends and to aim its efforts at what is not far from the interests of the general community (H.B. I,26). People in whom this symmetry between both potencies is found are,as a rule,well-mannered. Rarely do they become excited. They conform faithfully to the injunctions,but when trying to reach a higher degree of perfection they travel at the speed of a little ant ( H. XVIII). Among men in whom the angelic and animal potency are on strained terms four groups are prominent: 1) when a superior angelic potency of the type of the mala a`l and a powerful animal potency are in a state of tension the most eminent characters appear in the form of prophets, zealous devotees,and heroes of war; 2) if an angelic potency of a lower rank and a powerful animal potency are in a state of tension within a person,he stands more in need of practising austerities than other people. With these,however,no performance of any extraordinary acts like miracles will ever be noticed; 3) a tension between a superior angelic power and a weak animal potency produces individuals who withdraw from the world in order to please God; 4) people who withdraw from the world for the sake of the Herafter 1,however,develop from a tension between an angelic potency of a lower rank and a weak animal potency ( H.B. I,27 & H. XVIII). Then,to categorize believers in accordance with the standard of ethical and religious values the Delhi divine also makes use of designations chiefly derived from the Qur'n. Here again he distinguishes four groups: 1) the mufahhamn (those who are instructed by God and the mala a`l)(cf. Qur'n XXI,79). This is the highest class. They are the type of integrated personalities,equipped with a well-balanced and harmonious disposition. From the side of the mala a`l they receive divine information and exalted experiences. Although after Mohammed prophethood was closed in principle,some elements of it continue to exist in the institution of mufahham- hood. Consequently,for the appearance of a mufahham similar conditions for a renewal of religion, guidance of people and so on are required as in the case of the mission of a prophet. So the mufahhamn have become lights,em bodiments and representatives of prophethood ( H. XIX & H.B. I,84); 2) the sbiqn (outstrippers),inter alia mentioned in Qur'n IX,100. They are either people whose latfas of rh and sirr have gained mastery over their qalb,àql and nafs,or individuals who refine their qalb and àql with the aid of the sacred Law. The inner integration of their temperament ( mizj) implies that their animal nature is not too weak and their angelic nature not too low a level ( Tafh. I,188 f.). Among them can be counted: a) the mufarridn (persons who retire to lead a solitary religious life). A distinctive trait of theirs is that their bearing appears to be confined to the remembrance ( dhikr) of 68. God,always accompanied with a sound mental attitude and a proper self-control,while this remembrance takes possession of their whole bodies and powers ( B.B. 159); b) the siddqn (zealous persevering believers).A distinctive trait of theirs is that their deeds appear to be in entire conformity with their words. In addition they always display sound judgment,prudence and firmness of character; c) the shuhad' (martyrs). A distinctive trait of theirs is that the strength and energy spent in the cause of God and against the enemies of God are taken for granted and not taken as something enforced upon them. Their hearts,so to speak,are replete with lending help and support to the faith ( B.B. 158). He who is killed for the cause of God,takes along with him two characteristics: his nasama (spirit) in its entirety remains alive... The divine mercy... with which the Holy Enclosure and the angels near to God are filled up,enshrouds him (H.B. II,172). d) the rsikhn fi'l-ìlm (persons who are firmly grounded in knowledge). A distinctive trait of theirs is that their knowledge seems to have descended from God directly into their very hearts,and seems to emerge as fire struck with a flint (B.B. 158 f.); e) the ìbd (true worshippers). An excellent example of this group is Ab Dharr al-Ghifr (d. 652),a favourite companion of the Prophet: Already in the pre-Islamic period he used to pray to Allh in a way Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
45 approved by God. When thereupon he became a Muslim,the teaching of worship in the right manner and the teaching of the repudiation of polytheism appealed to him right away ( B.B. 159); f) the zuhhd (ascetics). They are the people whose carnal faculty is highly purified ( A.Q. 67). In their eyes the world is a nonentity and worldly-minded men are,according to them,like the dung of camels; g) persons who have the capacity of functioning as a successor of the prophets . Such a successor ( khalfa) is driven to spread the religion of God and to relieve God's creatures of inquities; h) people with a fine character (ashb al-khulq al-hasan). These are the persons who perfect magnanimity by generosity,humility, forgiveness to those who do them an injustice,endurance in the face of odd situations; i) those who bear a resemblance to angels ( mutashbihn bi'l-mal'ika). These are the people who always observe the rules of purity,never cease praying,speak little and sleep only for a short while (since the greater part of the night is reserved for praying)... Thus they begin to discover angels and start to converse with them face to face (B.B. 159 f.). 3) The ashb al-yamn (Companions of the Right),inter alia recorded in Qur'n LVI,27. Their qalb and àql are only partly reformed since their angelic nature is of a very low level and their animal nature very weak (Tafh. I,189). Among the Companions of the Right,to whom the majority of believers belong,can be reckoned: 69. a) those who bear a resemblance to those who excel in good works. They apply themselves assiduously to reach the status of those who excel,but their disposition is too weak to succeed. They are not self-reliant. Consequently,their ambition lies in acquiring good habits; b) those who are imitators of zealous persevering believers. They are concerned about nothing but sitting down in the latter's presence and listening to their speech; c) those who are imitators of martyrs,of people detesting heretics,refuting Mu`tazilites and the like; d) imitators of people who are firmly grounded in knowledge. Those do their utmost to write down knowledge concerning religious laws and to absorb knowledge coming from the Prophet,but for the understanding of those laws they do not go back to the primary sources... They are not disposed towards such research; e) imitators of people who retire to lead a solitary religious life. Their tongues have become loose by the commemoration of God,whether they understand the inner meaning of it or not. Their knowledge of God is second-rate; f) imitators of people with a fine character. These are of moderate virtuousness; g) imitators of true worshippers. They use to perform all sorts of acts of supererogation; h) imitators of ascetics. At a certain moment in a lonely place they may think of God and His punishments so that tears flow from their eyes. Thereafter,however,they become occupied again with their family,property and means of subsistence so that they forget God and His punishments almost totally; i) imitators of those who bear a resemblance to angels. These are in the habit of taking extraordinary pains in cleansing their bodies,in observing purification and disciplining themselves ( B.B. 160 ff.). In short,there exist many kinds of ashb al-yamn. All of them can succeedin eliminating crookedness of their souls and are capable of acquiring some sort of salvation ( H. XX). 4) The ashb al-a`rf (people of the elevated places,i.e. the heights between Paradise and Hell). Mention is made of them in Qur'n VII,472. There exist two kinds: a) people who are sound in body and disposition but have not received the message of Islam as,for instance,inhabitants of high and inaccessible mountains. They do not attribute associates to their Lord,nor do they deny Him or believe in Him... being merely interested in things by which profit is gained. When they die,they return to a state of unconsciousness,and they do not suffer punishment or reap reward ( H.B. I,116 f.). b) persons of limited intelligence like small children, lunatics,insane people,silly fools,peasants and slaves. They are hardly able to know and worship their Lord, resembling water which,because of its liquid quality,cannot adopt any characteristic shape. They dispose of as much faith as the Prophet considered to be sufficient for a negro slave girl who 70. pointed to the sky when he asked her: 'Where is God?' ( B.B. 163 f.). As we have noticed above,recognition of the interdependence between man's angelic and animal nature is imperative if we wish to get a clear perception of the constitution of the various moral categories in which mankind is divided. Also,and that may sound the more paradoxical,animal appetites appear to be Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
46 supplementary constituents of virtues specific to man,since the latter have as a substratum,out of which they grow and develop,the instincts which the human being has in common with the abn al-jins,i.e. his fellow animals. So man is in the lucky possession of surplus virtues(al-akhlq al-fdila),seven in number. They are,in fact,the result of the influence of three special capacities on the substratum of animal instincts. These three extra qualities,which are lacking in animals,are named al-ra'y al-kull (motivation to act for the general weal),zarfa (sensitivity to art and beauty), and takammul (inner urge to self-perfection). On account of these three incentives the homo sapiens is enabled to refine his environment and his own self. Valour (shajà),for instance ,originates in the transformation of anger sublimated in the pursuit of the general weal (B.B. 28 ff.). One of the universal purposes this virtue can serve is the jihd. The second one of these seven virtues called ìffa (displaying a proper sexual behaviour) is actually the outcome of al-ra'y al-kull's refining influence on the urges of our sex instinct. Ìffa in Shh Wal Allh's idiom certainly does not convey the connotation of chastity and continence. Àff,so the Indian ethicist argues,is the man of a strong sexual need and a passionate love of women3, whereas it is exactly the natural and seemly attitude for a woman to possess a conforming sense of attachment to one man only: Hence,there is a universal agreement that it is honourable for a man to possess several wives,but that it is immoral for a woman to have several husbands at the same time. This is the only correct ìffa (B.B. 41 f.). Further,when the lower impulses of arrogance and conceit are polished by al-ra'y al-kull,its result is the virtue of samha (gentleness). A gentle person is dignified, enduring, controlled,confident of the future, selfreliant ,energetic, undaunted,generous,forgiving,not acquisitive,unassuming,and mild-mannered (B.B. 43). If,however,the passions of arrogance and conceit are refined by zarfa,the outcome is consistency in conduct (al- samt al-slih). This fourth of the seven virtues consists in a stable firmness of the heart in exercising control over external behaviour and thought,so that on the one hand no sudden delusive idea or momentary impulse,which might divert man from his habitual proceedings,arises and on the other hand no inconsistency in way of behaving is displayed. Another object of sublimation are the organs of animals and men that produce sounds. If zarfa penetrates into a strong voice,articulate and coherent speech can be effected. When al-ra'y al-kull and the 71. urge of self-perfection have a firm grip on it,the result of it is an availability of the fifth virtue,to wit a mastery of language which enables man to communicate the most profound mysteries. In this way the tongue acts as a mirror of the mind. This function,however,is not a monopoly of the tongue. Man's limbs are capable of the same,so that his external behaviour correctly reflects what is in his mind. If such has become an aptitude of a person,he possesses the sixth virtue,designated by the Delhi scholar as diyna. This is surely a private interpretation of the term,for usually it denotes qualities such as piety and integrity. In the terminology of Shh Wal Allh diyna stands for the capacity to co-ordinate man's cognitive faculties with his external behaviour so that his bodily gestures give an adequate expression of his state of mind. The seventh ability which marks the superiority of human potentialities over the animal disposition as such is hikma (wisdom). It is attained when the pursuit of the general weal and the inner drive toward self-perfection dominate man's excursions into all different fields of knowledge... It stimulates the mind to gain an over-all estimation of knowledge which it receives from intuition, ratiocination or divine light,as designed for mankind,and is called shar` (sacred Law)... Wisdom should not be understood to consist of subtle speculations - a speciality of philosophers and their imitators - nor of issues involving deep intuition... - a speciality of sfs and their like. Wisdom is rather that which guides people to a sound disposition in their workaday life and which concerns practical knowledge ( B.B. 30,38,40 & 46 f.). The human being,however,is not merely a refined animal being of a higher evolutionary stage; he also occupies a middle position between animals and angels. While angels can only be righteous and 'knowing' (i.e. acquainted with the Law) and animals do not have any notion of justice and knowledge of the Law,man as intermediate has been entrusted with taklf,with being accountable. Consequently,he has the potential of perfection,not the actuality of it (H.B. I,19 f.). To that end God has committed an angelic and an animal power to each individual's charge. In view of this disposition,the human individual has available to him two ways of improving his moral standard: 1) sloughing off his animal nature,turning to the World of Omnipotence ( jabart) and avoiding human contact. This is the method approved by adepts of illuminative Wisdom ( Ishrqiyyn) and by mystics striving after trances (the majdhbn); 2) correction of one's animal faculties. In this case animality is 'wrapped up',aspects of it are still retained as a base. For this second way the model guides, imms,are the abovementioned mufahhamn,the highest class of men,who take on the supervision of religion and the world at the same time,favoured as they are by the light of prophethood (H.B. I,52 f.). Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
47 The latter approach,consisting in the refinement of man's animal nature,is undoubtedly to be preferred. It is easier. The sloughing off that nature anyway requires the practice of 72. rigorous austerities,an exertion beyond the capacity of the majority of people. Of more avail to society is,if by following in the footsteps of the mufahham,prophetic ends of general welfare are pursued. Conversely,the adoption of the first method results in sainthood,which is clearly of very limited utility to economic and social life. If the second course is adopted,the most commendable line of conduct is to focus one's attention on the primary kinds of virtues,four in number being the best 'fabric' in which to 'wrap' animal nature. These virtues are precisely the ones which all prophets have exhorted the people to acquire. There can be no question of any abrogation (naskh) or change with regard to these virtues (A.Q. 52). The four primary kinds of moral excellences,advanced by the Indian scholar,are purity (tahra,nazfa),humility (ikhbt,khud`),submission of the carnal soul (samhat al-nafs),and rectitude (àdla)4. Purity affects the most remote depths of the soul,refines it and links it up with angels,so that an affinity with them is created. Thus,purity prepares the soul for gaining moral perfection (H.B. I,54 & 174). By dhikr and recitation of the Qur'n the second fundamental virtue,humility,is nourished. When a man devotes all his efforts to realizing God's presence throughout his being,... he experiences the same feeling of awe as do the rabble in the presence of kings... and gets into the same frame of mind as the mala a`l when standing in front of the bewildering majesty of their Creator ( H.B. I,54). Through humility he may obtain a glance at the World of Omnipotence in which the radiant light of divine Names and Attributes is seen (jabart)(H.B. II,67). Thus,humility prepares the soul for the acquisition of perfection in knowledge,i.e. the capacity to absorb divine knowledge. Endurance and firm resolve are essential to the gaining of the third virtue,samhat al-nafs,by which man attains complete independence from the impulses of the carnal soul (A.Q. 93). If this virtue has particular references to the impulses of the belly and sex,it is called ìffa (abstinence from trival and exciting pleasures); if it concerns the incentives of ease and enjoyment of life,it is named ijtihd (religious strictness); and if it refers to promptings of restlessness and impatience ,it is qualified as sabr (voluntary resignation); if relating to lust for revenge,it is termed 'forgiveness'; if it regards impulses of greediness,it is named 'munificence' and 'continence'; and if it bears on instigations to transgress the Law,it is named taqw (fear of God). The fourth cardinal virtue,àdla,is primarily concerned with man's socio- political conduct. It is,to use Shh Wal Allh's own words,the property to establish in an easy way a fair and salutory order in family and society. Like samhat al-nafs,àdla is a comprehensive attribute,including a series of praiseworthy and useful sub-qualities. For if àdla is connected with man's personal behaviour,his ways of sitting, standing,sleeping,speaking and dress,it expresses adab 73. (urbanity); if it has to do with care of property,it is called kifya (good care); if it pertains to household management,it is termed hurriya (common sense); if it refers to public issues,it expresses statesmanship(siysa); and if it bears on sociability,it is named 'civility' or 'solidarity' (H.B. II,68 f.). In conclusion,the Delhi savant remarks that there may seem to be some incongruity between samhat al-nafs and àdla,or as we should say,between personal ethics and social ethics,but he warns against putting up a sharp division between them. The prophets used to point out that both virtues are to all intents and purposes complementary: samhat al-nafs rests on àdla,and àdla is made complete only by samhat al-nafs (H.B. II,84). For the cultivation of the four primary virtues,Islam supplies the appropriate means. Salt,connected with the purity of cult,offers room for the expression of humility and purity. The institute of zakt is eminently suited to the development of samhat al-nafs and àdla (H.B. I,164). The constitution (hla) composed of those four cardinal virtues is called fitra (properly developed disposition) (H.B. I,55). There are,however,three perilous veils that may prevent man from reaching such a disposition,to wit: 1. the physio-biological impulses of man (tabà). They are occasioned by hankerings of the body after things like food,drink,sexual intercourse,and so on. The concupiscent soul ( nafs) submits to the orders of the body,harbours a secret love for those hankerings and fails to heed the original nature of man (B.B. 113 f.); 2. customs. These are an impediment if man's concern is to imitate the speech,style of dress,character,and social behaviour of the intelligentsia. In that case he will lend his ear to what he hears from his entourage instead of paying attention to information coming from the World of Omnipotence (B.B. 193)4; 3. Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
48 misconceptions about God (jahl bi'llh). Their substance is that man may have a mistaken concept of God because of his inability to think abstractly,which is due to his having no proper talent for intellectual intuition and speculative thought (B.B. 114). The worst fallacies into which he can then fall are: a) to believe that God is in the possession of human attributes; b) to imagining that human creatures can possess divine Attributes. In the first case we have to do with anthropomor- phims,in the second with attributing associates to God ( H.B. I,57). To put it briefly: the real aim of man's morality is sa`da (the ultimate felicity of human beings) which is achieved through the acquisition of virtues and refinement of the soul. Issues characteristic of it are nobility of character,sound supports for raising cultural and social standards,fine arts and high rank ( H.B. I,50). Winding up I should like to lay bare some striking features of Shh Wal Allh's ethical system by means of a comparison with 74. Muslim moral philosophies of an earlier date. First of all,there is a notable difference regarding the characterization of vice and virtue. In the concept of classical Muslim ethicists like Ibn Sn (d. 1037),Miskawayh (d. 1030),al- Ghazl (d. 1111),al-Ts (d. 1274) and al-Dawwn (d. 1501) vices are a question of a 'too much' (ifrt) or a 'too little' (tafrt),and virtues are actually was'it,the media between vices and their opposites. This view,of course,is directly borrowed from Aristotle's famous idea of the golden mean between two extremes which themselves are to be avoided. Munificence e.g. constitutes the happy medium between avarice and squander. Conversely, by Shh Wal Allh vicious men are considered as qsirn,as people who fall short. To him vice is more a matter of a lack,a deficiency in one or another virtue (B.B. 48). Murder is a vice,because a divine aspect is wanting in it. It deprives man of life and is as such contrary to the very intention of God Who is the bestower of existence ( Khizna 8). Further,there is a different opinion in respect of the aim that must be striven after in moral training. According to the classical Muslim ethics all effort should be spent in checking and suppressing al-nafs al-shahwniyya,the concupiscent faculty,and al-nafs al-ghadabiyya,the irascible faculty,with the help of al-nafs al-ntiqa,the reasoning soul of man. It is in fact,as stated by Ibn Sn,a fight for supremacy between the body,which is in possession of physical power,and al-nafs al-ntiqa,which has intellectual power at its disposal. In the mind of the Indian scholar,however,the character of a person should be firm,untroubled and steady. For,if this be the case,the physical constitution (mizj) of the body and man's ethical qualities (akhlq) will reach perfection (B.B. 38). Mind and body are not antagonists,but are in friendly correlation to each other. Indubitably the most conspicuous divergence from his ancestors is Shh Wal Allh's evaluation of the so-called basic Platonic moral excellences,to wit hikma,shajà,ìffa and àdla. In his ethics the first three of them function on the lower level of al-akhlq al-fdila (surplus virtues),i.e. they are part of the additional qualities which animals lack,and are not qualified to serve as attributes to elevate man to the angelic sphere. Only àdla has a corresponding place in the systems of both: the Hellenizing classical Muslim moral philosophers and the Delhi divine. Still,in the ideologies concerned the term àdla has markedly different connotations. According to the former it describes the state of a person who in general obeys the moral laws. Many individual qualities,such as sakh (munificence),hilm (restraint) and sabr (self-control) Ibn Sn classes under the comprehensive idea àdla. Although in the opinion of Shh Wal Allh the notion of àdla occasionally might have any connection with the refinement of the individual soul,this virtue primarily refers to man's socio-political conduct. It is the very property to establish in an easy way a fair and salutory order in family connections as well as in society (H.B. II,68). The same datum of different implications of àdla is explicative of yet another remarkable difference of view. While for the Greeks and their 75. Muslim adepts the saint-philosopher represents the ideal of virtue,in Shh Wal Allh's thought this role is played by the mufahham,the inheritor of prophetic talents. For him the prophet is superior to the saint exactly by reason of his value and utility for human society ( Kalimt-i tayy ibt,Delhi 1891,164 ff.). __________________ {1} Deeds performed to earn Paradise are valued much less by mystics - if not rejected with disdain - than acts testifying to one's love for God (A. Schimmel,Mystical Dimensions of Islam,North Carolina Press 1975,39). {2} According to Muslim exegetes this Qur'nic verse refers to people whose good and evil deeds are equal in number and who must remain the last to enter Paradise (J.I. Smith and Y.Y. Haddad,The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection ,New York 1981,91 & 218). {3} If,however,passionate love of women induces men regularly to repudiate their wives and continuously to Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
49 contract new marriages,they do not differ factually from whoremongers (H.B. II,138). {4} Yet,one should not be too critical of customs. They may also render momentous support to the believer. A proper conveyance of the principles of belief in the Unity of God throughout the ages is extremely difficult,for it concerns an article of faith that can only understood by intuition ( wijdn). Only very few people have a full grasp of it. If there were no customs,belief in the Unity of God would be renounced. Moreover,those who are fully occupied with their work and lack inner peace would not concern themselves with the message of God if there were no customs. Nobody,therefore,should give up customs,unless he is endowed with reason and is well versed in making logical inferences on account of which his mind can dispense with the need for customs (B.B. 195 f.).
76.
Chapter seven: The Life to Come

In the level of existence (nash'a) qualified as 'the place of Return' (ma`d)(i.e. the Last Life) Shh Wal Allh distinguishes four stages: 1. the intermediary stage (barzakh)(i.e. interval of time between death and Resurrection), 2. the Grand Resurrection (al-qiyma al-kubr), 3. the Day of Judgment (yawm al-dn) and 4. Paradise and Hell (Khizna 9). No longer having his earthly body at his disposal as a 'riding-animal',man at his death becomes like a rider whose horse is taken away (Sat. 25). The soul is no more agitated by external factors like hunger,thirst or anger,so it can reflect colours of the World of the Holy ( `lam al-quds) (H.B. I,31). At that time the angelic nature becomes prominent while the animal nature weakens ( H.B. I,34). In this state he can only perceive with the help of inner senses such as the hiss mushtarik (sensus communis)(enabling him to hear without an ear,to see without an eye,and so on. In afterlife it produces ethereal shapes), wahm (power of abstraction) and idrk (logical comprehension) (Khizna 4). In the intermediary stage the nafs ntiqa is still in need of a residu of the nasama (physical constitution being in the possession of nerve-centres that can absorb painful or pleasant sensations),so that man can be punished or pleased (Tafh. I,166 f.)1. The trial to which man is subjected in the grave is different from the account to be rendered to God at the Day of Judgment: In the grave people are examined as to their singularities (akhlq) and habits (malakt),whereas during the Last Judgment they will be questioned about their actions and religious convictions (Khizna 9). Deeds which deserve requital in the grave are fastened to the 'exterior' (zhir) of the nasama,while deeds to be requited at the Resurrection are fastened to the 'interior' (btin) of the nasama (Tafh. I,234). In Hell only deep-rooted vices originating from the inner self will be punished,and not adventitious bad habits developed,for instance,under social pressure,such as making a show of one's works to men in order to be praised by them,and so on ( Tafh. II,61). In the intermediary stage two kinds of requital are realized: 1. the experience of delight or pain there is gained from good or bad habitudes... Such an experience can be 'without a veil',as an ill person experiences sudden sensations; or 'behind a veil',as a sleeping person sees his rage in the form of a wild beast,his bilious temperament in the form of fires and flames; 2. inspirations effected by angels who are appointed at that place to confer favours or to torment. Thus these angels appear to him as solacers or desolators ( Tafh. I,252 f.). 77. As a consequence,most people of Mohammed's blessed community who,as a rule,possess only slight animal characteristics and a weak angelic nature endure punishment for the greater part in the grave,so that they will be assembled on the Day of Judgment as 'little burdened ones'. Those who are in the possession of a vehement animal nature - as is mostly the case with people of preceding religious communities led by a prophet - will incur more punishment at the Resurrection than in the grave; or rather,they may not even be punished at all in the intermediary stage,but only at the Resurrection (Tafh. I,234). When in this manner some time has passed in the grave,the nasama becomes increasingly weaker in its structure and qualities, whereas one's nafs ntiqa begins to awake from a deep sleep. In the view of the Delhi savant the entourage of the grave can rightly be compared with a dream-world. Hence on the Day of Resurrection man will be transferred from this state of dreaming into a sphere of existence where the objects witnessed are an objective reality,and not of a subjective character like a dream. While during his stay in the grave man gets rid not only of typical features of his character but also of his body,at the time of his Resurrection from the dead he will appear to have at his disposal a mental power and a bodily shape that are specific to the human form. On the Day of Judgment nobody will be blind,deaf-and-dumb or suffer in similar fashion. He who happened to have had all kinds of delusions before,will now possess a sound mind,able to grasp adequate knowledge of God (B.B. 140,148 & 152 f.; Tafh. I,253). Still,one should not think that the 'Gathering' (hashr) of the bodies and the reinstatement of the souls in them on the Day of Resurrection will be a new life. No,it is simply a comp lement of the former genre of existence,in the same way as indigestion is the consequence of overeating. Were it otherwise,people on that Day would be different from those who led a earthly life and would not be punished for what they had done (H.B. I,37). The reason why the dead may acquire a perfect shape at the Resurrection is that the souls are supposed to put on a bodily garment composed partly of corporeal elements and and partly of constituents of the World of Prefiguration (H.B. I,19). As a consequence,an other-worldly body is more perfect and talented than a this-worldly body. In this world there are predicatives which only pertain to the body and others which
51 merely regard the mind. In the Hereafter,however,all predicatives are applicable just as well to the body as to the mind. There one might say: 'My body understands' like one says: 'My mind understands' ( Khizna 3). In such an environment conceptual matters ( ma`n) can take on a corresponding bodily form,as happened to David,to whom angels appeared representing two disputants in a lawsuit on whom he had to pronounce judgment. Subsequently,he realized that this symbolized his violation of Uriah's wife ( Qur'n XXXVIII,21-24)... Most occurrences of the 'Gathering' will be of this kind... There the souls all alike will witness conceptual objects that have assumed a visible form. Accordingly,the true 78. guidance promulgated through the mission of the Prophet will be represented by a cistern (sc. that of Kawthar,at which believers quench their thirst when entering Paradise), and the deeds for which the souls are held liable will be represented by the scale with a weight ( H.B. I,37). On the Day of Resurrection the World of Prefiguration (`lam al-mithl) will be disclosed to man... If we wish to describe in common parlance the scenes which most of the people in this World will witness,we can say in the words of the messenger of God (see Mu. mn 299): On that occasion,God will gather the people. And they will see Him without having doubts about seeing Him. And He will say: 'Let everybody follow the thing he worshipped'. He who worshipped the moon will then follow the moon; he who worshipped idols will then follow idols. Subsequently,he and the other pagans will fall into Hell. Alone the community of Muslims will be left,while there are still hypocrites amongst them. God will come to them in a shape different from the one they know. Then He will say: 'I am your Lord,so follow this shape'. The believers will cry out as the frightened Mary did when Gabriel suddenly appeared befor her: 'We seek refuge from you with God' ( Qur'n XIX,18). They will remain standing till their Lord will come to them in a shape they know. Thereupon He will lead them to Paradise (B.B. 152 f.). In another passage Shh Wal Allh gives the following more detailed account of this visio beatifica: On the Day of Resurrection God will be seen by the believers in two ways: 1. He will reveal Himself in a manner which will be even more convincing than what reason deems credible. It will be as if it is a beatific vision with man's physical eye. There is, however,no question of a being opposite,a geographical place,a colour or a perceptible form. This is the kind of vision taught by the Mu`tazilites and other people. This view as such is correct; but the mistake they make is to consider this interpretation of the the beatific vision the only thing possible (sc. leaving no room for other explanations); 2. He will assume various shapes for them (Tafh. I,145)2) each of which will be adjusted to someone's private belief,...,as is the case with somebody who sees everything as red,when he holds a red glass before his eyes,and sees everything as green,when he holds a green one before his eyes,while the thing observed is in both cases one and the same object (Lamha 53). In Paradise bliss consists of two degrees: 1. Physical delights in the form of food,drink and sexual intercourse. All this is imprinted upon the World of Prefiguration,due to the fact that it functions as a mirror for the Corporeal World. 2. Being attracted to higher regions (B.B. 154). Then two possibilities are left open to the blessed one: a) to ascend by means of his hajar al-baht. Thus he will reach his home where the Most Supreme Theophany ( tajall a`zam) is constantly reflected. This is man's union with God; b) to ascend by means of his nafs ntiqa. Thus he will attain its 79. region of origin,the nafs kulliyya (Universal Soul). Finally,he may become a virtual image ( sha'n) of the Divine Being (Tafh. I,128)3. ___________________ {1} For,when sojourning in the grave two angels will come to him,one named Munkir and the other Nkir. They will question him on his religion and on Mohammed. If he is a firm believer,he will reply: 'My religion is Islam and Mohammed is the servant and messenger of God'. A door will be opened for him towards Paradise,and a space will be made there for him as wide as the eye can see. A voice will say to him: 'Sleep the sleep of a bride'. But if he happens to be an unbeliever or a hypocrite,he will reply to the questions put to him: 'Alas,alas,I do not know'. At that moment his grave will be made so narrow that his ribs will be pressed together,and he will be struck with hammers of fire ( B.B. 150). {2} The same idea is cherished by Ibn al-Àrab. See Toshihiko Izutsu,Sufism and Taoism,Berkeley 1984,83. {3} In Tafh. 1,227 this cycle of human existence is depicted as follows: The very beginning of human life is the moment a tiny piece of God's love becomes an individual nafs ntiqa and is transported to the world here below. After its earthly life it experiences a second birth and becomes a jewel for the rays of God's Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
52 World of Omnipotence. The nafs ntiqa itself becomes a mere appendage like a sixth finger of a man's hand. Finally,the nafs ntiqa is annihilated,the jewel hidden and the rays vanish. At that moment God terminates the journey. The cycle has come to an end. The tiny piece of God's love has returned to its beginning,and relaxes from the hardships of the journey.In Sat. 24 we read that for every individual who comes into the world here below there is a cyclical process to go through. In the beginning he is an incorporeal àql. When the appointed time has come,he descends into the world of the senses along the same stairs as he will ascend as soon as he has completed the duration of his earthly life. Then he will reach the same point as he started from,and he will again become the same separate àql he originally was.
53 80.
Chapter eight: prophetology

Man,the Koran teaches,was created as a Homo religiosis (Qur'n XXX,30). A dahr,a materialist,so Shh Wal Allh infers,is someone who rejects the knowledge of God granted him by birth ( H.B. I,79). In other words,Islam has,in principle,no need of a founder of religion or of a religious guide. However,and that is also underlined by our author,man is neither an angel nor an animal. An angel cannot do anything but act righteously,and an animal is bound to follow his instincts without any commitment to ethical rules of conduct. Man is a combination of angel and animal. He possesses angelic leanings and animal passions ( H.B. I,26). History shows that from time to time people deviate from true humanity. Then wrath is roused against them in the mala a`l. Nevertheless,agents are sent to warn them in order to give them the chance to mend their ways. For God has several tongues at His disposal and many modes of expressing His solicitude. Pouring His wrath upon a people in one tongue does not preclude the possibility of His showing solicitude for them in another tongue (Ta'wl 18). On that account,the divine Manager does not leave the affairs of mankind to take their own course. On the contrary,He is full of eternal grace to men and wants to establish a good order. For that reason He has sent prophets (Tafh. I,179). In Islamic mysticism a controversial subject is the proper evaluation of prophet and saint. To whom of these holy men preference must be given? The Qur'n is silent on this point. In contradistinction to the Old Testament account,in the Qurn frailties of prophets charged with a divine mission are seldom or never mentioned. On the contrary,in the Muslim scripture an unmistakable tendency is found to depict prophetical figures as saints. In the days of Shh Wal Allh the question whether primacy should be granted to the prophet or the saint was of great moment. The followers of Ahmad Sirhind stood up for the superiority of the prophet,because they stressed the need of a strict obedience to the sharà in order to counter the heresies introduced by the Moghul emperor Akbar. The admirers of Ibn al-Àrab,however,took wilya (sainthood) for the basis of all spiritual ranks. In the thought of Shh Wal Allh himself the prophet plays a most prominent part. Still,his great regard for the prophet does not prevent him,as will be expounded at the end of this chapter,from adopting in his prophetology several views of Ibn al-Àrab. There are several kinds of prophets,but they have at least one significant pecularity in common: God did not create for their spirit (rh) and body a sra mizjiyya (form composed of the four humours of the body,namely black bile,yellow bile,phlegm and blood),but a jaww (ethereal) form in contradi stinction to 81. non-prophets whose acts and innate dispositions are dense (wathq),proceeding as they do from a constitution of a blend of humours. Part of this prerogative is that they gain a tajall dht (manifestation of God's Essence) through a 'sloughing off' (insilkh)1 of this loosely attached ethereal form. Accordingly,when they concentrate their being upon God,at times this form of them fades away ( Tafh. II,15). Other properties with which every prophet is equipped are: 1. affinity of his hajar al-baht with the tajall a`zam; 2. affinity of his faculty for retentive imagination (khayl) with the mala a`l due to which he gains knowledge from the mala a`l; 3. affinity of his ordinary abilities with the mala a`l through which he gains immunity from sins,purity,piety and righteousness; 4. social engagement of his reasoning soul (nafs ntiqa); thus his reasoning soul is in the possession of the capacity that when its shadow falls on our phenomenal world, mankind is favoured with the blessings of both moral training and well-ordered polity; 5. the capacity to keep three faculties of one-self in balance,that is to say that his concupiscent faculty,in the case of being profuse and abundant,is subdued by his leonine faculty; that his leonine faculty,in the case of fierce violence and 'boiling',is subdued by his rational faculty; and that his rational faculty,in the case of stiffness and drowsiness,is subdued by the mala a`l; 6. enjoying good fortune through victory over his enemies,winning the affection of beloved people,and continuance of his milla (religious community) and reign for a long period (Qurrat 328; Tafh. I,240); 7. the seven virtues (which mark the superiority of human potentialities over the animal disposition as such) are fully developed in him. In addition to this,he dedicates himself to a world higher than this world,for in his very nature he is attuned to the World of Prefiguration,and his personage resembles the ideal human form because of the universal plan the divine Giver has in mind as seen in His gifts; 8. all his knowledge is a gift bestowed by God,and not the outcome of any brainwork or reflection pertaining to the cultivated habits of a human being. It is utilizable knowledge,not suited to abstract thought2; 9. he is endowed with a mentality that preserves from disobedience to the Law which has come from the Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
54 Creator; 10.he is capable of performing miracles. This may happen in many ways. Firstly,being distinguished from other people because of an inherent perfection gained by his contact with the Unseen World,wonderful acts may appear from his body and psychic disposition which are not to be expected from other people. Hence he possesses the gift of reading hidden thoughts in others,find his prayers answered,receives reliable announcements of glad tidings,has the capacity to do hard work as,for instance,walking long distances or being strenously active,is able to 82. produce effective charms,to keep complete control of the situation and to apply the technique of inductive divination (firsa). Secondly,if in the Unseen World it is deemed necessary that the prophet make a successful appearance so that his prestige is enhanced and his position strengthened,then he will gain victory over his enemies,and subdue them. Their hearts will be seized with fear... Thirdly,after contact with the divine Sources,his mind is broadened; its knowledge and aspirations are now reckoned among the means of identifying the divine pre-determining Decree. Fourthly,if atmospheric occurrences take place through celestial processes of causality,the Source of the human species may consider them to be a remedy for the corruption by which human society is afflicted. Subsequently,the Chief Planner of the universe turns these atmospheric phenomena into a punitive miracle of the prophet (B.B. 175 f.). A striking instance of this is the Qur'nic story of Slih and the she-camel. In the World of Sovereignty,Shh Wal Allh explains,every wickedness takes the shape of an animal,since wickedness possesses a natural affinity with animals... At the request of Slih the wickedness of the people appeared in the shape of a she-camel. When they had killed it,the wickedness (like a soul which is no longer confined to a body) spread on all sides. A hurricane arose,accompanied by earthquakes. In this way,the punitive wonder was adopted to the environment of the Thamdites (to whom Slih belonged),since they lived in a region of mountains and caves (Ta'wl 21 f.). According to common Muslim creed,prophets need to dispose of evidentiary miracles ( mu`jizt) in order to prove their identity and to silence opponents. But Shh Wal Allh disagrees with orthodoxy in the postulate of their being a conditio sine qua non,and declares against it: In our opinion this is not a general rule. Vital for a prophet,however,is the disposal of signs to which people can give full credence. That may be a sylogistic demonstration (burhn),a heavenly book,or a mode of conduct (samt) distinct from that of other people (Khizna 5). Besides,various so-called 'miracles' that are thought to be occurrences infringing upon the customary course of things,turn out to be normal phenomena when observed3 more closely. To give an example. Many Muslim scholars imagine that the words the moon is split in Qur'n LIV,1 refer to a miracle God performed for Mohammed. But according to the Delhi savant it is not necessary to assume that the moon actually split in two. In corroboration of this,the view of Ibn al-Mjishn (d. 829),a Mlikite jurisprudent,is cited,stating: This phenomenon was occasioned by a cohesion of small particles of water into,so to speak,one plane. Behind it there was a mountain or a dense cloud. Together they produced the effect of a mirror. When the moon was reflected in it,people observed two moons in the sky. Since a part of the reflected and a part of the real moon were concealed,two halves were seen in the sky (Ta'wl 103 f.) 4). 83. Shh Wal Allh exercises more caution in regard to orthodox scholars than in the case of his elucidation of the moon's splitting when he deals with the story of Mohammed's mi`rj (ascent to heaven): The journey by night to the Furthest Mosque in Jerusalem,and then to the Lote-tree in the Seventh Heaven took place in a bodily way while the Prophet was awake. This occurred however in a zone lying between the World of Prefiguration and the world below... There spiritual entities (ma`n) may assume a bodily shape. Hence all these events bear a metaphorical meaning (H.B. II,206)5. Another device to present preternatural events in a more or less plausible way is to resort to psychological and almost Freudian interpretations of wonderful prophetic tales. Thus we find the following version of the creation of Eve: Sensual tendencies were also alive in Adam. So he began hanker after a female of his kind,and in his excited state he imagined the form of a female. Accordingly,out of his imaginative vision woman came into existence (Ta'wl 13). In the career of Mohammed6,in the archetype and evolution of prophethood,Shh Wal Allh discerns the following stages: a) A preparatory one. At first,before his actual prophecy, three suns began to shine; i.e. three qualities which are also met in a hakm,namely hikma (wisdom),ìsma (purity of character) and qutb btin (potential leadership),developed within him (Tafh. II,13). Thus he became fit for Gabriel to descend to him with Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
55 revelations. b) Next,a divine robe of honour (khilà) is thrown on his human form (Tafh. I,177). Then three stars in the shape of wahy(revelation),hifz (protection),qutb irshad (effective leadership) arose in opposition to the three suns earlier present. Wahy (revelatory process)7 is so to speak sublimated hikma; its concrete effect was eloquent and admonishing preaching. Hifz (protection),i.e.ìsma on a higher level, implies a shunning of vices and a showing of commendable acts. In qutb irshd (effective leadership) the abilities contained in the qutb btin found full scope. Consequently, when these stars began to shine for the Prophet along with the three suns,he was commanded to proclaim the message of God to both men and jinns. c) But when his attachment to the higher world continued to increase and his noble character was progressively polished8, the three stars turned into shining full moons. At that time it was said to him: Utter openly that which with you are charged (Qur'n XV,94). In this way he was ordered to oppose and argue with the unbelievers in Mecca. d) Next these full moons became,on account of his strong attachment to the angels,'inward' suns. Then he was told: Leave is given to those who have been wronged (an inaccurate citation of Qur'n XXII,39); and he was commanded to emigrate to Medina. From that moment he belonged to the Messengers of firm intention (àzm). e) In the last phase of Mohammed's prophetic appearance there did not remain any spo t on earth but Divine Light had entered 84. therein in a most brilliant form (Khizna 6). So he fulfilled a double mission; a limited one on behalf of the sons of Ism`l,and a universal one for the whole world ( H.B. I,84)9. In Shh Wal Allh's prophetology the usual discussion whether prophecy is a natural gift or merely a divine favour is evaded,as well as whether it can be acquired by human effort or whether it depends entirely upon heavenly interference. The reason is that,on the whole,the interest of the Delhi scholar is not focussed on subtle distinctions between the domains of God's activities and those of man. In his system of thought all attention is drawn to the interrelation of cosmic, divine,terrestrial and human powers and effects. In the universe anything and everything is mutually correlated,a premiss emerging from the concept of wahdat al-wujd. As for the appointment of a prophet two complementary conditions ought to prevail: 1. The presence of a man with extraordinary properties. For the receipt of wahy he needs to possess special intellectual gifts such as,for instance,a close spiritual affinity with the mala a`l; and for the sake of the preservation of his working knowledge he should be in the possession of ìsma (purity of character)(Izla I,51). Such a personality becomes an instrument that God wants to have for Himself alone. Hence He declared to Moses: I have brought you up for My own sake ( Qur'n XX,41)(H.B. I,24). 2. On earth there must be a situation that presses urgently for the mission of a prophet. Only when both conditions are met,God will decide from above the seven heavens to reform the people and to rectify the crooked by putting into the heart of the most wholesome and most righteous of men the impulse to preach correct knowledge to his people so as to rouse them to actions of moral improvement (Izla I,51). An occasion calling for the appearance of a prophet is an absolute necessity. Thus,had there not been the perverseness of the Ninevites,Jonah would not have become a prophet (Khizna 5). In the view of the Delhi savant there have been three crucial moments in history when the intercession of a prophet was particularly required. Accordingly he distinguishes three periods of jhiliyya,paganism,instead of two as is done in current Muslim theology. Besides the epochs between Adam and Noah,and between Jesus and Mohammed,he marks out a third one,to wit the era after the public appearance of Hd and Slih. At that time we see the emergence of communities with worshippers of stars and pantheists. It is eventually Abraham who succeeds in dispelling this darkness of religious decay by his fight against astrology ( B.B. 188 f.). These actions of reform,it should be noted,had still a wider import than being merely a refutation of false belief. They occasioned simultaneously a turn in the history of religious thinking. In the period after Adam righteous believers used to 85. assume the existence of particular potencies in heavenly bodies which determined the course of events on earth. Idrs is to be looked upon as the first astrologer ( Ta'wl 17). From the time of Abraham,however,believers began to recognize that apart from cosmic powers it were particularly the angelic forces which had a regulative function in the history of the world. In this new age knowledge trickled Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
56 from them upon the minds of the leaders of humanity and so sharàs came down for the guidance of mankind (Ta'wl 28). The tajall a`zam,being the jet of water of the powers of the Self-existent,the Delhi scholar sets forth in another writing,has various sha'ns,as God states: 'Every day He is in a (new) mode of being (sha'n)(Qur'n LV,29)10. Hence the prophets,as interpreters of eternal language,announced the sha'n which had arisen in their age and on account of which they had been sent... It is because of this that the views of prophets differ in respect to laws,the mystic path,the hereafter and so on. In this way one may understand why the statements of Jesus about spiritual delights to be enjoyed in the Hereafter differ from ... remarks of Mohammed which make mention of bodily delights in the life to come that will be derived from food and drink,sweet ladies and smart clothes. So the sha'n of which Jesus was the interpreter went by the hajar al-baht and the organs of spiritual communication,called sirr and rh,whereas the sha'n of which Mohammed was the interpreter was adjusted to less refined organs of spiritual communication (as the nafs,qalb and àql) (Tafh. I,116). Similarly,the type of prophetic miracles was adapted to the spirit of the age. People in the time of Moses were fond of magic. Consequently,God provided Moses with the miracle of the staff and white hand. People in the time of Mohammed were renowned for poetry and rhetorics. Accordingly God sent down the miracle of the Qur'n (Tafh. I,81 f.). To my mind,this is a very important viewpoint of Shh Wal Allh. In the West an often repeated objection to Islam is that this faith would not know of a God who is continously acting in the history of men,and that the idea of a constant divine concern for mankind would be alien to the teachings of the Qur'n11. Well then,the Delhi divine argues,Abraham acted not only as a preacher but functioned also as an instrument of God's progressive revelation. This evolutionary theory is still more explicitly developed in Shh Wal Allh's exposition of the sciences which he finds explained in the Qur'n. The third science consisting of the calling attention to God's favours to men,demonstrated inter alia in His creation of heaven and earth is a knowledge with which Abraham was especially endowed. The fourth science pertains to reminding the people of the 'Days of the Lord',i.e. events Allh caused to happen in order to reward the obedient and to punish the sinner. That kind of instruction became the privilege of Moses. The fifth science relates to the reminder of death and what follows upon it ,i.e. eschatology. Insight into that knowledge was revealed to the seal of prophets,Mohammed (H.B. I,55). The prophets provide further benefit by means of their life 86. stories insofar these tales also may denote significant 'basic ideas' ( usl). To demonstrate this point the Delhi scholar composed his Ta'wl al-ahdth. The title is derived from Qur'n XII,6 where Jacob says to Joseph: And God will teach you the elucidation of tales ( F.K. 46). And when the same Joseph states: Thou (o God) art my wal (Guardian) in this world and the next (Qur'n XII,101),he implicitly - so Shh Wal Allh concludes - regards himself a wal Allh (a favourite of God). And that gives the Muslim Indian mystic cause to discover a close affinity between himself and Joseph,and to express the hope thar he might become an 'expansion' of that godly man (Khizna 5). In other words,we are given to understand that that just as Joseph in his capacity of wal Allh had been taught the explanation of events prefigured in dreams,the Delhi scholar - being an expansion and namesake - has been endowed with equal talents enabling him to disclose the deeper meanings of the prophetic stories. Let us consider a few examples. Reared in a pagan milieu,Abraham at first had faith in divine powers of the heavenly bodies. But afterwards he is shown that their setting points out that they did not create him. Here the root idea is God's jealousy. The story itself is merely the outward form ( Tawl 4 and 7). The Qur'n tells us that at a given moment God commanded the angels to prostrate themselves before Adam. The underlying idea of the myth,it is argued in this treatise,is to explain that by prayers and pleadings in favour of the sons of Adam the angels are actually worshipping God. Hence Adam and his sons are a qibla for their worship (Ta'wl 13). You should realize,so we read in the Introduction to the Ta'wl al- ahdth,that whenever God from the Primal Level where He resides brings down knowledge upon mankind via the tongue of a human being,it is not communicated by tropes and allusions,... but put in terms of everyday occurrences. This happens in the same way as when knowledge of what is about to take place is infused in a person's senses. He then receives a dream made up of voluntary or compulsory actions and of inanimate or animate bodies somehow indicating what is about to occur... (After all) all things that happen in the world are virtually dreams; they are made up of root ideas and indistinct shapes. One of the root ideas implies that God wants His worshippers to live prudently by means of inspirations,transformations (effected in the properties of elements,as for example in the fire which produced a cool effect as soon as Abraham had been thrown into it by his opponents) and contrivances... Accordingly,He selects from the course of events the one which at that very moment furthers the object of pursuit in the best manner... The event which then appears represents the 'outward shape' and the dream as such,while God's prudent management represents the root idea and the purport of the dream ( Ta'wl 3 ff.). Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
57 Likewise the prophets appear to be valuable for the illustration of mystic experiences. To the mind of Shh Wal Allh they can function as proper prototypes in an ascending progression of stages on the road a mystic travels to reach ecstacy. The way 87. itself is marked by seven daw'ir (regions12), which have to be traversed one after the other (Tafh. II,62 f.). The first of them is the d'ira of faith. This is the province where Adam resides as the exemplary model. Faith implies obedience to God with heart and body. This was an occupation specific to Adam who aimed at the correction of his lower soul (nasama) for which he had to fight with the Devil (Tafh. II,71). The nasama as such often tries to draw man's reasoning soul ( al-nafs al-ntiqa) to lower impulses. Consequently,if the nafs ntiqa wants to come into closer contact with its origin,the nafs kulliyya (Universal Soul),it must loosen its fetters with the nasama. Now that is exactly the activity,in which the mystic traveller is engaged in the second d'ira,called sharh al-sadr (expansion of the breast)(Tafh. II,64). Having attained this level a believer no longer cares for property,leadership,delicious food,fine clothes,women,personal revenge ( Tafh. I,39). By reducing the power of the nasama he follows the example of Idrs (Enoch), who is the prophet belonging to this d'ira. In the third phase,named qurb al-nawfil (proximity to God reached by supererogative works),the nafs ntiqa is prepared for the receipt of theophanies. In that stage one becomes,as is stated in a famous hadth quds (which gives words spoken by God),the ear,eye and foot of God. The exemplary model in this territory is the prophet Noah,as he is the prototype of the fighters of moral depravities. The fourth d'ira,designated as qurb al-wujd (proximity attained during an overflow of God's pure Being),is marked off by hikma,which is insight into creation. Besides,it supplies immediate knowledge concerning the divine Names and Essence ( Tafh. II,161). This is the speciality of Abraham and Joseph. Then follows the region of the qurb al-far'id (proximity to God reached by a punctual fulfillment of religious duties),on account of which God irradiates Himself in the mirror of the àyn thbita (Khizna 4). The examplary model in this domain is Moses to whom God manifested Himself in a fire as he was of a fiery nature (Tafh. II,106). The sixth d'ira is characterized by qurb al-malakt (proximity brought by association with the world of angels). The foundation of this way of approaching God is the hadth quds: If God loves a creature,He tells Gabriel. Then Gabriel conceives loves for him,and makes the name of the chosen one known to other angels,whereupon they conceive love for him (Mu. al-Birr wa'l-sila 157). Here we are on the ground of Jesus,an angel walking on earth ( Ta'wl 76). He is the prototype of a being coloured by the dye of God,a property he inherited from the breathing of Gabriel ( Khizna 5). The last d'ira is that of kaml (full maturity). This is the field of Mohammed (Tafh. II,70). One of the characteristics of the qurb al-kaml is that God takes care of His servant either openly or in secret,so that the management of the latter proceeds in accordance with divine wisdom... Another typical feature is that the means of communication the angels use for him are the same as applied by Mary (cf. Qur'n XIX,26): intimations instead of actual speech 88. (Tafh. II,123). In view of the teachings prophets have to propagate,the Delhi divine remarks: You should realize that prophethood has to comply with people's fitra (inherent nature)... Every nation and every climatic region (iqlm) has its own fitra upon which its affairs are based. Thus it is part of the fitra of Hindus to find the slaughter of animals repugnant and to believe in the eternity of the universe. It is of the nature of the Semites and Persians to permit the slaughter of animals and to believe in the createdness of the universe. Consequently,a prophet sets out to see what kind of creeds and customs people maintain,and he sanctions and adopts what suits the refinement of souls,rejecting what injures them... Hence it is certainly not a matter of surprise that the modes of action of prophets differ in accordance with the different material they have to deal with (Tafh. I,68)13. Another characteristic of their instruc tion is the habit of prophets not to broach subjects that are beyond the mental range of the people... On that account they do not require people to call up a picture of their Lord through epiphanies and visions,or by means of logical demonstrations and reasoned arguments...,inasmuch as this is only possible if people practise austerities,or frequent the society of scholars for a long period... Equally it is not their habit to discuss matters which are not relevant to the refinement of souls and the rule of the community as,for instance,the explanation of natural phenomena... For that reason God diverted the attention of the people from the question they had brought before the Prophet concerning the cause of the wane and increase of the moon. Instead He gave an exposition of the advantages of calendar months saying: 'They (the new moons) are times appointed for the people and the pilgrimage' (Qur'n II,189) (H.B. I,86). Besides having to exercise restraint in consideration of the limited mental range of the average believers,the Prophet appears equally cautious in mystical affairs. He confines himself to exposing only the Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
58 first two of the seven stages (daw'ir) of the journey a mystic might like to accomplish . People could become confused if the five remaining lofty ones were also dealt with. Moreover,the actual mission prophets had to execute was limited to leading mankind from the darkness of their bio-physical nature to the light of the first two stages,i.e. of mn and sharh al-sadr. Then they are fit to enter Paradise (Tafh. II,138 f.). In conjunction with this,another comparable issue one should be careful with is an evocation of the senses. The reason why Mohammed himself did not practise poetry was its possible entanglement and mix-up with religious exhortation. Both of them overpower the soul,but unlike poetry religious exhortation gives full scope to man's fitra,created in him by God (Tafh. II,127). Curiously enough,it is not merely mankind that profits from the appearance of prophets. God Himself may make excellent use of them for His own ends,since He badly needs these functionaries as a substratum for the revelation of His Names and Attributes. 89. Hence the àyn thbita (archetypal individuality) of a prophet can typify one of the manifold aspects of the Divine Essence. Adam,for instance,appears to be a living symbol of the Divine Name al-murd (the Purposer), that is to say He Who is busy with creating,as this prophet was intent on procreation and cultivation of land. Idrs is the earthly manifestation of the Name al-subbh (the Transcendental),a qualification still higher in rank than the Name al-qudds (the Holy) which is represented by Noah. The difference between the two is the same as found between the meanings of àdam (non-presence in the world) and salb al-wujd (deprivation of existence). On that account the people of Idrs were not destroyed as were the people of Noah. For the same reason Idrs acquired proximity to God through the higher worlds and Noah through the lower worlds. Abraham is a perceptible counterpart (timthl) of the Divine Epithet al-hayy al-qayym (the Living and Self-subsisting). He acquired this perfection in a rudimentary form,while the Lord of the Messengers obtained it in an unfolded fashion14. This is why Mohammed's institutionalized religion (milla) is called the milla of your father Abraham (Qur'n XXII,78)(Khizna 5). One major issue of the prophetic mission is intercession: The shafà,so Shh Wal Allh explains, is actually a full manifestation of a fascinating Epithet of God,namely al-hayy al-qayym,of which Mohammed has become the earthly representation.The object of this Attribute is to obliterate the evil deeds written down in the Scrolls (with the register of good and bad deeds that are to be presented on the Judgment Day). Every prophet is entitled to intercede according to the quality of his perfection and proximity to God. The nearer people are to the prophets the greater the chance is of their intercession being granted. On that account it was prescribed by the Law that benedictions and blessings be pronounced on them ( Khizna 9). Our prophet realized that the main aim of his mission was to act as an intercessor for the believers and to serve as a medium for very special mercy on the Day of Judgment.So he has retained the most significant intervention... for that Day (H.B. II,75). Nonetheless,according to the Delhi scholar,the intercession of both,Mohammed and Jesus,will prove to be of analogous importance: At the investiture of Jesus in the time of the Resurrection there will be a most illustrious intercession for his followers,and at the investiture of our Prophet there will be an equal one for his people. Both of them are jets of water of the same turbulent river and both of them are musical sounds of the same sonorous flute (Tafh. I,118). In the controversy on the priority of the prophet or the saint,it is obvious that the Delhi savant underlines the eminence of the former. Similarly,his acknowledgment of the relevancy of the sharà is evident. But this does not imply that he follows unconditionally the line of Ahmad Sirhind and that he would be impervious to the thought of Ibn al-Àrab. The explanation of the significance of the prophets he offers in al-Khayr alkathr shows a striking resemblance with elucidations found in Ibn al90. Àrab's Fuss al-hikam, containing a summary of the teaching of the prophets from Adam to Mohammed. And when by calling himself an Uways he gives expression to his spiritual attachment to the Prophet (F.K. 141),he is again in complete agreement with Ibn al- Àrab who as a disciple of the legendary al-Khidr joins the ranks of the sfs designated Uwayss ( cf. H. Corbin, L'Imagination creatrice dans le Soufisme d'Ibn Àrab, Paris 1958,26).And just as the latter he claims for himself the ability to discern intuitively between the basic teaching of religion as has been handed down by Mohammed and which part of the traditions has been crept in and tampered with (see the final lines of his autobiography al-Juz' al- latf). And when he argues that the relation of the pre-existent Mohammed to the other prophets and his heirs is similar to that between a whole and its parts (Fuyd,11th Vision),he repeats the teachings of his great predecessor ( cf. A.E. Affifi,The Mystical Philosophy of Muhyid Din Ibnul Arabi ,Lahore n.d.,72).The most suitable indication,however,of his attitude of compromise in the dispute on the primacy of the prophet or the saint is that he credits himself with the function of a hakm,i.e. the connecting link between the prophet and the wal (Khizna 4). Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
59 _______________ {1} The prophets slough off their humanity and thus move toward the angelic stage (Cf. Ibn Khaldn, The Muqaddimah,tr. F. Rosenthal,London 1958,I,199). Moreover,apart from being distinct in character,prophets also differ in quality and success. In general,the following two major classes can be distinguished: a. The great ones. These are they who voice the language of the epoch and are born under the conjunction of the two propitious planets Saturn and Jupiter). Triumph and victory a inseparable from them. b. Those who preach in order to force proof on the people,and act in accordance with God's wont when assigning and announcing a disaster before it actually happens ( Tafh. I,102). Further,a major difference between Mohammed and the other prophets is that the tadall àzm (God's mighty preservation) remained with him after his death in contrast to the other prophets who were cut off from it as soon as,at the end of their life,their mission had been accomplished or terminated. That is because at the Resurrection Mohammed will be a witness against all people as well as an intercessor for the sinners amongst them (Fuyd,10th Vision). {2) The prophets were umms,i.e. men whose hearts were not spoilt by outward intellectual achievement and learning. Umm-hood of prophets implies that they did not classify the primeval and eternal Names of God... They considered them as belonging to one and the same level... Reference is made to them in God's Word: 'Say,all things are from God' (Qur'n IV,78) And they considered the renewing Names (asm' mujaddida) which come after them and have to do with location in being and guidance as belonging to a different level. Reference is made to the latter 91. in God's Word: 'Whatever good visits you is from God; whatver evil visits you is from yourself' ( Qur'n IV,79)... The prophets kept aloof from making any mention of a`yn or nufs ntiqa,and they only began to explain the properties of the nasama (Tafh. II,155). The same holds true of their knowledge of esoterics. Mohammed and the other prophets gave no indications concerning speculative mysticism ( ìlm haq'iq). They merely offered information about the practice of sfism ( ìlm-i sulk) and the refinemnt of the soul (A.Q. 22). {3} Cf. Tawl 8 f.: You should know that when God in His rule of the world displays a breach in the course of nature,He nevertheless does this within the framework of the customary sequence of natural events,however unstable this may be. On this account breaches in the course of nature still have slight natural causes. It is as if these natural causes are always there whenever God's decree is executed,for a violation of the laws of causes and effects gives God little sat isfaction (H.B. I,17). {4} This hypothesis is qualified by the present day scholar Muhammad Zhid al-Kawthar (d. 1952) as one of the eccentricities of the Indian divine,and rejected on the ground that the practice of the enchantment of the eye is unworthy of a prophet (Husn al-taqd,Cairo 1948,97). {5 ) It is obvious,so Sayyid Ahmad Khn concludes from this passage,that Shh Wal Allh was not sure that the mi`rj did take place in a bodily way,though he does not say so plainly. He speaks of a mi`rj with a barzakh body,from which it follows that this did not occur with an ordinary body. Thus his view agrees with those who claim that it was not performed in the body (Sayyid Ahmad Khn, Tafsr al-Qur'n,Aligarh 1895,VI,66). {6} I.e. when the third phase of Mohammed's evolution was entered upon and he had started his earthly existence. Initially,in the first phase he existed as the so-called haqqa muhammadiyya (Reality of Mohammed),representing the first thing created by God. From this all other realities derive. Accordingly,his Reality is the connecting link between God and the remaining realities. The second phase is named al-rh al-muhammadiyya (Spirit of Mohammed). Thus all prophets derive their knowledge from the rh of Mohammed which functions as the intermediate link between them and God (Fuyd,45th Vision). {7} I.e. wahy khaf,Mohammed's own ideas,as opposed to wahy jal,t.w. the Qur'n (cf. Marcia K. Hermansen,The Conclusive Argument from God,Leiden 1996,410). {8} Shh Wal Allh,however,is too faithful to the traditions to assign any kind of impeccability to Mohammed. Commenting on the prophetic saying: There is at times some sort of cloud upon my heart ; on a day like that I seek forgiveness from God a hundred times (Mu. al-dhikr wa'l-du`' 36),he declares: The cloud points out that the Prophet was enjoined to adopt the same kind of soul as that of the average believer... ,so that he might offer a clear example for the believers when laying down rules for them ( H.B. II,76). {9} Accordingly,In consideration of the completion of this 92. universal mission the Prophet obtained laws in addition to the Torah such as,for instance,those pertaining to Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
60 poll-tax,land-tax,expeditions against the polytheists and measures of precaution against falsifications of the Holy Writ (H.B. I,123). {10} By sha'n I mean that commensurate with divine wisdom the Universe has periods and phases. Whenever a new period arrives 'God makes known in every heaven what is to be its task' ( Qur'n XLI,1),and the mala a`l make arrangements consistent with this wisdom,pass relevant enactments for men and tell them what will serve the public interest (H.B. I,80).11) Cf. for instance L. Gardet in EI (New edition) I,406: (In the Qur'n) there is,strictly speaking,no progressive revelation of Allh. {12} These regions parallel the seven celestial spheres,and refer to the story of the mi`rj (Mohammed's ascension to heaven),a favourite sf symbol to express the mystic finding during the advancement from one stage to another on the sf path. This again an instance of Shh Wal Allh's dependence on Ibn al-Àrab since the latter similarly stocks the spheres with a prophet into whose mouth he puts a part of his mystical system (Cf. A.E. Affifi,The Mystical Philosophy of Muhyid Dn Ibnul Arabi,109 f.). {13} Just like a doctor who for his prescriptions has to take into account particular conditions of his patients. So he commands the youth something he doesn't the old man ( H.B. I,89). {14} Abraham's acting as the prototype and model for Mohammed is not only the Qur'nic way of presenting the matter but also the view held by Muslim orthodoxy. In this connection,it may be interesting to note that,nothwithstanding this,in the opinion peculiar to the Delhi scholar it is Moses,and not Abraham,who bears the closest likeness to the Seal of prophets: In consideration of the abundance of all sort of abilities,of the prophets Moses most resembles our Messenger (Khizna 5). Among the prophets... Moses and Mohammed alone have reached th e highest level in the art of legislation,have perfectly commanded the injunctions of the sharà,and have comprehended all aspects of divine instruction (B.B. 175). 93.
61
Chapter nine: People of Eminence

A. Kmil (Perfect Man)
A person belonging to this grade is he upon whom the light of the Divine Man(i.e. the prototype of the human species)is reflected,so that in respect of knowledge and mystic experiences he becomes dyed with His dye without being commanded to strive after perfection; the impulse to follow the right direction arises spontaneously in his heart (B.B. 172). These are the minds of which the mala a`l avail themselves for their ends, and which appear to belong to prophets,authors of a new doctrine and fighters of injustice ( A.Q. 165). These extraordinary talented persons are not,however,merely useful instruments at the service of the mala a`l; on the contrary,they themselves may enter into the ranks of the latter as soon as after death the course garments are thrown from their bodies. For it not as common people think,that a Perfect Man who dies is lost to the world. Quite the reverse,he (who beforehand was composed of accidental qualities) now becomes a pure substance and still increases in perfection ( Fuyd,11th Vision). Having joined the mala a`l they become the 'stomach' for the bounteousness of God,the 'ears' for hearing many prayers of the inhabitants of the earth,and the 'tongues' for many a suitable inspiration ( Lamha 43).
B. Hakm (Wise Man)
In the class immediately below the prophets are hakms. They function,so to speak,as an intellect in a state of latency for the benefit of prophecy which in that way can be transformed into an active intellect ( Khizna 7). Accordingly,they are experts in moral science and in kno wledge pertaining to the second stage of man's socio-economic development,in which human society develops into a city-state (B.B. 172). So they possess a refined practical knowledge in the fields of ethics,domestic management and politics ( Izla II,2). Next,they serve as an intermediary between saints and prophets. The prophet as an umm (whose mind is a tabula rasa free from preconceived ideas) receives instructions directly from God. The hakm gains them indirectly,i.e. through his àyn thbita (archetypal individuality). The saint also acquires them indirectly,not through his àyn thbita which is of a transcendental level,but through his inmost being ( sirr) which is bound to his empirical existence (Khizna 4). Hakms are favoured with the possibility of gaining a very close proximity to God by means of an overflow of God's pure Being (qurb al-wujd). They are characterized by an extraordinary submission of the carnal soul (samha al-nafs)(Tafh. II,66). The origin of the hakm's knowing God is the àyn thbita; when he watches his àyn thbita,his eye penetrates to God. As a result 94. he acquires hikma,ìsma and wajha (Khizna 4). Hikma (wisdom) is the science by which the true nature of the existing things can be perceived (Tafh. II,24). It is revealed in its earthly dimensions by clairvoyance (firsa),vigilance and quickness of understanding. The principle lying at the root of ìsma (purity of character) is that he who seeks God by qurb al-wujd,cannot reflect anything evil in his character or doings. Its mark is ìffa,i.e. abstinence from trivial and exciting pleasures. Wajha (i.e. being held higher than other people in the eyes of God) is,in essence,a being gifted with the capacity to divest oneself of one's earthty shape so that the reasoning soul (nafs ntiqa) can assume its original form. Its characteristics are dignity,assurance and authority (Khizna 7). It is necessary that a hakm be self-possessed,i.e. attaches but little value to a particular mood or exhiliration,and refrains from the cultivation of fine arts such as music and poetry,by which somebody may be wholly taken up (Khizna 7 and 4). Further,a hakm shares in the prophetic knowledge of the 'tablets' (specimens of the 'Guarded Tablet' on which the decrees of God with reference to mankind are recorded) (Khizna 3). A hakm differs from a prophet in at least three respects: 1. He does not approach the Truly Good One by means of the qurb al-far'id (proximity to God reached by the punctual fulfillment of religious du ties),but by means of the qurb al-wujd (Khizna 8). 2. A prophet is led by wahy,a hakm relies on his dhawq (intuitive anticipation)(Tafh. II,121). 3. Because the prophet has to concentrate on the revelatory processes as such,he has hardly any time left for the elaboration of the information received by revelation,such as the substantiation of ethical rules and the like. This now is a task reserved for his heir,the hakm,in his capacity of materialized intellect (Khizna 8). Is it surprising that Shh Wal Allh,being called through divine visions to act as a renewer,considered himself a typical representative of the hakm-family? Speaking of himself he tells us: Eleven ages after the hijra there was a man,gifted with inner light (zak),who began to apply himself to the qurb al-wujd. Thus he Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
62 became an imm (leader) of the pious and an ìsm (loop-shaped handle) for the hakms,and he prayed to God that He might make him the seal (i.e. the last) of the infallible hakms (Khizna 4).
C. Wal (Protg of God)
The task of the wals is the establishment and propagation of the esoteric elements of religion,of which ihsn (sincere worship of God) forms the nucleus. Characteristic of the wals are miracles wrought by means of the God-given talents of inner revelation (kashf),thought-reading (ishrf),spiritual power over one's novices (tasarruf),and answer to prayer (H. I). They are inferior in rank to the hakm. Unlike the latter the wals cannot give effective guidance to the community as a 95. whole,because they are not in the possession of both theoretical and practical knowledge,a combination essential to leadership. They are either of the type Homo theoreticus as,for instance,Ibn al-Àrab,or of the type of Homo practicus like the founders of sf orders,but never both in one (Khizna 7). A wal is also secondary to a prophet, for the prophet's range of effectiveness and utility is much wider than that of the wal; many more people experience the wholesome influence of prophets ( Kalimt- tayyibt 164 ff.). The Delhi divine bases a second argument in favour of the superiority of prophethood over saintliness on the assumption that the prophets are nearer to God than the saints ( Tafh. II,151 & 20). Other distinctions observable between prophets and wals are: a) The prophets know God as the Necessary Cause (so that they have an insight in God's predestination and planning) and Purpose (because of which they are acquainted with God's will,commands and prohibitions). They are wholly merged into His will. The wals know God only as the Necessary Cause and they are completely absorbed in this divine aspect. b) The prophets obtain a knowledge of the statutes of the sharà at the moment they are formulated,whereas the divine institutes given to wals already received their fixed form long ago. c) It is proper for prophets to marry,since their standing places them under obligation to have a social and a family life. For wals it is more suitable to remain celibate,as they are dyed with the dye of sanctity and sublimity (Khizna 7). The structure of their ìsma,therefore,is different from that of the prophets1. Because of their ascetic attitude towards life they are by nature men of devotion,continence,and insensitive to sexual attractions. It does not make any difference to them whether they are confronted by a charming lady or a wall. Prophets,however,do know sexual passions. Consequently, ìsma has to be spread over them as a protecting garment (Tafh. I,260 f.). An illustration of this is the case of Joseph,in whom a flame of love for the wife of Potiphar leapt up. Then a burhn (manifestaion of truth) was sent by God to protect him (Ta'wl 34 f.). By the way,it is interesting to note that Shh Wal Allh holds the prophetic ìsma to be of a more sublime nature than that of the wals. He seems to feel more sympathy for really human people than for 'unnatural' renouncers of the world. d) Both prophets and wals are ordered to show the right way and to give guidance,but the command the prophets receive refers to universal purposes,whereas the guidance of wals pertains to individual cases and particular situations (Tafh. II,212). e) Revelations to a prophet are of an ethereal nature,whereas revelations to a wal are constituted of an earthly structure. Unlike what happens to a wal, the inner revelation of a prophet is realized by a tunnel which opens into the Reality of God. So the prophet is a beloved of God upon whom the inner revelation is poured out. Since the wal is a man with a strong mental acuteness and an intense purity,the inner revelation is reflected by him. A prophet has duà (prayer of request) at his 96. disposal,and not himma (inner drive) which is a prerogative of a wal. For that reason a prophet has at his command the qurb al-far'id (attaining proximity to God by complying with the ordinances of God),and a wal a special aptitude for qurb al-nawfil (attaining proximity to God by supererogative works)(Tafh. II,46). Through a qurb al-nawfil man is enabled to see himself in the mirror of God,so that he is coloured with the colour of the mirror,i.e. the majesty of the Self-existent. Effects of this qurb are pride,glory and dominion. In the event of qurb al-far'id,however,man is put in a dependent position: he cannot know the very Essence of God of his own accord and has to bide the moment that God will manifest Himself in his àyn thbita. Characteristics of this qurb are feelings of impotence,humble submission and a waiting attitude ( Khizna 4). f) A wal is the recipient of ilhm (inspiration),a prophet of wahy (revelation). The difference between ilhm and wahy is that in statements produced by an ilhm,in contrast to what is revealed by a wahy,heresies might be included. Wahy,however,is all truth without any trace of falsehood ( Khizna 2) and provides sure knowledge (Sat. 17). It is ilhm if somebody's disposition is prepared for God's teaching in a special way; if Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
63 the Universal Divine Planning prepares the emanation without such a preparation,it is wahy. All that God conveys through wahy forms part of religious rules,and all that with which He inspires wals pertains to ways of obtaining access to God (Tafh. II,28). g) When on his journey to God a mystic leaves the first stage of wal-hood2,two possibilities are open to him: either to follow the way of the inheritors of prophethood,or to take the path of full-fledged wal-hood. In the first instance he is fascinated by the tajall a`zam,by means of which he rises to the dht baht (Pure Essence of God),in the second case his spiritual eye is fixed on the nafs kulliyya,and from there he ascends towards the dht baht (A.Q. 122 ff.). Various types of wal can be distinguished according to their psychic disposition. These are those: a) whose nasamas are more prominent than their nufs ntiqa; and through their nasamas they go off into trance (jadhb). Representatives of this category are Najm al-Dn Kubr (d. 1220),founder of the Kubraw order,and Ahrr (d. 1490),a well-known Naqshband of Central Asia; b) whose nufs ntiqa are more prominent than their nasamas; through their nufs ntiqa they are thrown into trance. Characteristic of them is that they are more amply endowed with spiritual knowledge ( ìlm) than with spiritual intoxication (hl). To them is to be reckoned the celebrated sf al-Junayd (d. 910); c) of whom the àyn thbita preponderates. To this class of saints belongs Ibn al-Àrab,the great mystic philosopher (d. 1240)(Tafh. II,131). His range of spiritual knowledge was wider than that of any other wal. He affirmed the existence of esoteric prophethood and the termination of legislative prophethood after the death of the Seal of prophets (Tafh. II,33 97. f.). Another classification of wals can be made,if the source of their impulses is taken into consideration. Then two levels can be distinguished: a) a higher level. Here an inner urge is evoked by an inspiration from God when He wishes to promote human welfare. At that time the wal,now being of a prophetic status,is equipped with divine laws ( nms) by the intermediary of the mala a`l; b) a lower level. This refers to wals who receive stimuli from the mala sfil ('Low Council'). Their main function is to become a refuge and a point of union for the people ( Fuyd,43th Vision).
D. Caliph
Shh Wal Allh characterizes him as follows: Typical of the c aliph is that he is of all men acquainted best with running an empire,waging a holy war and administrating the sharà (B.B. 174). He sees that justice is carried out on earth and injustice is removed from it as far as possible. This can be done because the light of God envelops him... When people join him,a fire of love for them is lighted in his heart. No resort has to be made to political or military force (B.B. 172 f.). Three categories of caliphs can be distinguished: the khss (lite); the `mm (ordinary type) and the jbir (despotic ones). The four rightly guided caliphs typify the first class of the illustreous representants of the caliphate. They were among the direct heirs of Mohammed and had to fulfil a very special mission. When the Prophet died,some of the activities pertaining to his prophethood were not yet accomplished. The two main unfinished tasks were: a) compilation of the Qur'n from texts written on straight palm leaves and thin whitish stones; b) phrasing rules given by the Prophet which had not yet been divulged to the people ( Izla I,262). Consequently,the divine Will had directed that their completion was to be brought about by the agency of some individuals from his community... An allusion to this is found in God's Word,stating: 'God has promised those of you who believe and do righteous deeds that He will surely make you successors' (Qur'n XXIV,55), and in His Word 'like the seed that has put forth its sprouts' ( Qur'n XLVIII,29). Similarly,Moses appointed Joshua caliph and it is told how divine promises3 were fulfilled by the latter (Izla II,3). In elucidation of this point the author makes use of the simile: The caliph of a prophet is like a flute in the mouth of a flute-player (Tafh. I,243),and says : Just as the production of a high tone and the fine quality of a melody by the flute-player who raises the flute to his mouth,are credited to the player (and not to the flute),so the work done by the caliphs as successors to the Prophet,who was called back by God before his mission was completed,is in fact credited to the Prophet; the caliphs themselves are considered as mere organs of the Prophet (Izla I,9f.). Hence the period of the caliphate (of the 'rightly guided' caliphs) constitutes the prophetic era. (The 98. only difference between the two epochs is that) in the days when Mohammed was still alive,the Prophet gave lucid verbal explanations,whereas in the days of the caliphs he sat still and made signals with his hand Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
64 or head (as he wont to do when appearing to his followers in dreams; cf. Tafh. II,248) (Izla I,25). Further,the Delhi divine draws a distinction between public and spiritual caliphate. Public caliphate undertakes the jihd,administrates the law,looks after the preservation of the restrictive statutes of God (hudd),collects and distributes tithes and land tax among the rightful claimants ( Tafh. I,13). Spiritual caliphate,on the other hand,gives instruction in the sharà,Qur'n and sunna,enjoins what is known to be good and censures what is evil,and explains how spiritual perfection can be attained (Fuyd, 36th Vision). And when the capacities of a public and spiritual caliphate are united in one person,we are confronted with an exponent of the lite caliphate (Izla I,260). The fruits of perfect intellectual power in a prophet include wahy,and the fruits of the same capacity in a caliph include reliable inductive divination (firsa),the status of a muhaddath (one who is inspired with true visions),and of a siddq (zealous persevering believer)4. The fruits of perfect practical power in a prophet include purity of character and finding the right way; and to the fruits of the same capacity in a caliph belong integrity,continence and being kept free from sin... The excelling disposition of a prophet,if both powers are united in him,results in miracles and extraordinary experiences as,for instance,the mi`rj (ascension); and to a caliph of a similar disposition belong stages of progressive spiritual development,lofty experiences,miracles,answer to prayer and the effect of his sermons upon men (Izla I,263 f.). Embarking upon the intricate question whether the era of the lite caliphate ends with Ùthmn or also includes the tumultuous reign of Àl,Shh Wal Allh quotes Mohammed's statement,related by his Companion Ab Bakra (d. 671): 'After me there will be a caliphate of thirty years'. So Àl is to be included,for if the true caliphate had ended with the death of Ùthmn,its duration comes up to twenty-five years only (Izla I,142). As for the order of merit with regard to the four 'rightly guided' caliphs,the Delhi scholar accepts the view of the great majority of Muslims: The most eminent personality of the umma is Ab Bakr,then comes Ùmar,followed by Ùthmn and Àl (Khizna 10 and Tafh. I,148). The main criterion to determine their order of merit is the amount of utility each of them had for the umma. Just as the superiority of a prophet over a saint is founded on the fact that the former has more ways of serving the community than the latter,and more individuals are benefited by a prophet than by a saint,so the superiority of Ab Bakr and Ùmar over Àl rests inter alia on their giving wider currency to the revealed Law and achieving a greater multiplicity of military victories for the sake of Islam (Kalimt-i tayyibt 166). Shh Wal Allh typifies their personal relation to the Prophet 99. as follows: Ab Bakr followed the example of the Messenger of God in the cycle of qurb al-kaml (proximity to God reached by 'perfection'). This attitude is characterized by the concentration of one's being upon God (tawajjuh) and is comparable to yd-dsht (constant concentration on the reality of God) as practised by saints. Ùmar followed the example of the Prophet in gaining proximity to God by the fulfilment of the prescribed religious duties5,while Ùthmn imitated the Prophet by achieving qurb al-wujd (proximity attained during an overflow of God's pure Being),being enabled to do this by an ideal natural constitution. Àl also became firmly rooted in the qurb al-wujd. He obtained wisdom in legal matters and gained ascent to the World of Sovereignty.So he was charged with expounding the sacred Law and archetypal religion (dn) revealed to the Prophet (Tafh. I,39 f. and II,73),and he has deflected the fire of prophethood,of which the flames shot up in the opposite direction so that they vanished into butn (esoteric meanings)6(Tafh. I,76). In his definition of what is to be understood by 'ordinary caliphate' Shh Wal Allh enumerates most of the principal constituents of the lite caliphate: It is general leadership in lieu off the Prophet,directing its attention to the enforcement of religion by means of a revival of the religious disciplines,through undertaking the Holy War and matters connected with it (such as the training of armies,fixing the salaries,assignment of spoils to its participants),by means of taking charge of judicature,and so on ( Izla I,2). Yet,there is one basic distinction between the two categories of caliphate which has far-reaching consequences. Instead of being appointed by a designation of the Prophet,an ordinary caliph is elected by the people,with the unpleasant risk that a caliph is selected with all kinds of human fallibilities and may even lapse into tyranny. One of the most probable weaknesses of an ordinary caliph is that he might be satisfied with having founded his knowledge and sense of justice on his private opinion only ( Izla I,10). In the course of time the two main corrupting elements in the process of the caliphate's deterioration appeared to be: 1. the increase of property which excited the spirit of greed; 2. the growing preference to follow solely one's own discretion without any desire to consult other people (Izla I,144). Although the Umayyads could not always exercise a stable rule and their caliphs,without any exception,did not come up to the standard of their position,they nevertheless proved to be better qualified as rulers than Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
65 the Àbbsids whose methods were marked by despotism and arrogance. The latter modelled their conduct upon the customs of Persian kings and Byzantine emperors ( H.B. II,212). The condition of the caliphate worsened still more during the reign of the non-Arab monarchs who succeeded the Arabs. Their government turned out to be similar to that of the Zoroastrians (Izla II,157). Although in his capacity of serving as a model to the Muslim 100. community a caliph has,in principle,to comply with the most rigid standards,this does not mean that,if he happens not to possess all the qualities needed for a proper execution of office,one should immediately raise opposition to him. For the disposition of a caliph most likely involves strife and affliction of which the disadvantages might be greater than the benefits to be hoped for. However,as soon as he is guilty of kufr (infidelity) by rejecting one of the basic institutions of religion,it is not only allowed but it is even imperative to fight him (H.B. II,150).
E. Muhaddath (man who is inspired)
The Delhi divine gives the following explanation: A muhaddath can be inspired in two ways: sometimes he receives suggestions from the universal soul,and impulses of the full-fledged self-consciousness (anniyya-i kubr) percolate upon him. At other times he receives suggestions from the holy spirit (rh-i quds),and impulses of the mala a`l descend into him by a system of the mesaraic veins. Consequently,he impersonates the felicitous integration of two life-styles,that of full-fledged saint-hood and of the inheritors of prophethood (A.Q. 37). Thus muhaddath is an epitheton that can be applied to a prophet,an intimate Companion of Mohammed,and a particularly privileged believer. As for the first category,we are referred to Jonah: Jonah was originally a muhaddath - and not a mukallam (spoken to by God through wahys) prophet. Isaiah sent him to the people of Nineveh. At that time he was not yet independent of his lower self (nafs),but God wanted to clothe him with the garb of rectitude,so that he would belong to the righteous messengers (Qur'n LXVIII,50). During the resistance of his umma (sc. the Ninevites),the desire rose in him to pray for their perdition... However,their repentance was accepted (by God). Therefore he was in great confusion... When he recognized that his orientation was wrong,he was afflicted with all sorts of trial,till in the end... he was dressed with the garb of rectitude and being no longer dependent on his lower self (sc. his personal sympathies and antipathies) he was sent to his people ( Tafh. II,119). From that moment he received wahys (Tafh. II,123). Ùmar is,as we know from the traditions (see Bu. Anbiy' 54; Mu. Fad'il al-sahba 23),the very prototype of a muhaddath. When somebody in the umma,so we read in one of Shh Wal Allh's arguments,in his very nature resembles the prophets to a similar extent as an intelligent student resembles a practised teacher,he is a muhaddath if the resemblance refers to intellectual capacities. He is a man whose mind dashes towards the mines of knowledge in the World of Sovereignty as fast as he can,in order to derive from it all kinds of knowledge God has prepared to serve as a sharà for the Prophet and as a means to the reform of mankind. An allusion to this is made in the tradition which relates that the Prophet saw in a dream how - after having quenched his thirst - he gave the milk (symbol of knowledge) to 101. Ùmar (H.B. II,93). The third group of people who can be qualified as muhaddath are believers endowed with the gift of tafhm (interior revelation) (Tafh. II,121). Their stages of progressive spiritual development,comprising ìsma (purity of character),wisdom,gift of speech,missionary zeal,fighting against evil,and professing the right articles of belief are comparable to those of prophets. The Messenger of God once said: 'The vision of a believer is a forty-sixth part of prophethood' (Bu. Ta`br al-ru'y 4)(Khizna 5).
F. Fard (singular man)
Among sfs fard denotes the fourth degree in the hierarchy of the saints. Only three hundred persons,being the total number of the participants in the battle of Badr,would be entitled to it. According to the Delhi scholar their most conspicuous characteristic is their ability to establish particular connections with cosmic elements and entities. People in general,he tells us,appear to possess - in spite of their common share in humanity - remarkably distinctive properties owing to the predominance of a very special feature in their constitution. Thus we find persons in whom the 'plant-form' is predominant. Hence they are known for their exceptional bio-physical powers. Other people are endowed with a predominantly animal form so that their outstanding traits are sensuality,violent motion,passion,libidiousness and gluttony. People in whom the human form prevails are Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
66 blessed with virtues like courage,magnanimity,wisdom and eloquence. Persons equipped with a strong personality are marked by extraordinary mystic experiences,while God sends illuminations in the a`yn thbita of those in whom the àyn-form predominates. Yet,fards do not belong of any of the categories mentioned. Their peculiarity rests on something else. They are distinguished by either: a) a predominating 'water form'7,because of which they resemble a talented physicist who strives to uncover the basic elements of existing things; or b) a predominating primordial matter-form composed of a substance which emerges first from the Rahmt,Realm of Mercy. Such a man bears a close likeness to a matematician ; or c) a predominating Rahmt-form. This is the highest class of fard. Such a person is able to penetrate into the source of things,and he is most akin to a metaphysicien. In short,it is typical of a fard that without any tool he knows the things as they are in their very essence,for the knowledge he possesses dripped directly from the Rahmt, primordial matter or water (Tafh. II,195 f.). When knowledge like this seeps down,a kind of light is manifested in one's soul,although hardly any effect is observed by the world outside (Tafh. I,230). In human society fards remain unnoticed. Still God grants them knowledge and theophanies with which He does not make other people acquainted ( Tafh. I,190). To 102. this end raqqas (fine links) standing in an opposite correlation to the sun,moon,planets and other cosmic forces are deposited in them. Each of these raqqas has a peculiar quality and activity. Thus,for instance,literary talents are developed through the raqqa which is in communication with Mercury. A sense of the beauty with which God has endowed things is acquired through the raqqa correlated with Venus,etc. Consequently,when a fard notices something that might be beneficial to him or to somebody else,one of his raqqas expands towards the cosmic force that may serve the purpose. If,for instance,he wants to inform people of an occurrence in the near future,the raqqa which has a connection with the moon expands (Fuyd,45th Vision). One of the exclusive properties of a fard is that during his earthly lifetime he can take off his earthly form. Then he is in a condition to pass from the land of the living into the realm of the dead,the world of Resurrection,Paradise and 'Holy Enclosure'. After that he reaches God and beholds His face. When later on he dies everybody's death,he will pass through phases he already knows from past experience. Another of his characteristics is that on the approach of death he longs for a solitude and wants to keep away from blemish. The duration of his life lies between fifty and sixty years ( Tafh. II,196 f.). After his death a fard is again enabled to produce miraculous effects. For,when he enters the world of the grave,a yearning for the Universal Nature arises in him,in consequence of which he becomes at time a means for the Universal Divine Planning. Accordingly,somewhere on earth blessings are manifested (Fuyd,45th Vision).
G. Mujaddid (renewer)
In connection with the prophetic saying: 'On the eve of every century God will send to my community a man who will renovate its dn (archetypal religion)' (Sunan Ab D'd II,518),Shh W al Allh states: Every servant of God is definitely in need of a mujaddid to purify his religion from undue assumptions of sectarians. Hence the latter is somebody whom God grants a share of knowledge concerning Qur'n and Hadth so that he is able to explain the secret tenets of the milla (institutionalized religion). Next,he will be clothed with the garb of inner peace (sakna). So he becomes occupied with determining what is to be considered forbidden,imperative,reprehensible,desirable and permitted,and with pruning the sharà from spurious traditions and deductions by analogy. Equally,he guards against an over-rigid observance of the Law as well as against neglect of it. Then God will make people anxious to acquire knowledge from him (Tafh. I,29,40 and II,133). Shh Wal Allh discerns an interrelation between the offices of a mujaddid and a was (legal guardian). Both of them are heirs of Mohammed. One of the tasks of a mujaddid is to discuss legislative matters in the light of the sublime normative custom of the early community without the application of a reasoning by analogy,while a was has the duty to discuss the hidden 103. significance of the injunctions of the sharà. Similarly,the methods used by them both have to be adapted to the different circumstances. If eloquence is highly valued by the people,the elucidations should be offered in a very eloquent manner. If the language of demonstrative proof appears much in favour of the people,the explanations should excel in sound reasoning ( Tafh. I,78 & 82). If one wishes to fix the date of the appearance of a mujaddid one should,so the Delhi scholar argues,take a space of time of roughly - but not exactly - a hundred years; and one should count from the death of the Messenger of God ( Tafh. I,40). The Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
67 view that one has to count from the date of the hijra... is unfounded (Tafh. II,114). In this way Shh Wal Allh tries to corroborate his claim of being himself appointed as a mujaddid of the 12th century,since the year of his birth is 1114 A.H. A hardly covert allusion to his divine election is made in the following passage: We want to entrust you with important information,to wit that God has predestined grace for these days. He wants to pour forth important kinds of knowledge in our time... Thus,at the very moment the lights of prophets and saints were united in the 'Holy Enclosure'...,it has the necessary result that the Universal Soul descended into a soul endowed with inner light who... would reform the world as a whole ( Tafh. I,100). All veils of mystery are lifted on p. 40 of Tafh. I,where we are told that at a certain stage of his spiritual journey God clothed him with the robe of mujaddid-hood: Consequently,I became acquainted with the methods to reconcile conflicting opinions. And I was notified that we have to do with 'distortion' (tahrf) if people exercise individual opinion in the sharà as such,but that it is a blessing when a qd gives judgment according to his own discretion.
H. Ùlam'
In Shh Wal Allh's 21th Vision,recorded in the Fuyd al-Haramayn,we read: I asked the Prophet's permission to refute criticism leveled against some sfs by ùlam' of Mecca and Medina,but I did not obtain it. I found that the ùlam',who act according to their principles,somehow occupy themselves with the refinement of hearts and the spread of true knowledge and faith are closer to Him,more respected and beloved by Him than the sfs,although the latter are people who practise fan' and baq',go into trances (jadhb),and... may reach lofty stages such as the gate of consciousness of one's unity with God ( tawhd). In explanation of this divine preference,the Delhi scholar argues,is the fact that there are two paths leading to Eternal Life: 1. the path which has been conveyed to mankind by the Prophet. It is supplied by various means. Through ritual acts of devotion the limbs are put into a correct state,while psychic faculties are sublimated by means of dhikr,purification of the heart and love of God and the Prophet. Further,by the distribution of true knowledge,by enjoining what is known to be good and censuring what is evil and by advocating the public interest people are set right... 104. 2. the path which establishes a direct link between God and His worshipper,in such a way that,wherever he may have been born,he will find it; and with whatever he may be blessed,he will be blessed with it without any medium. For him who travels on it,the only concern is to be conscious of the reality of his ego and,in consequence of this,to become conscious of the Divine. On the way there are experiences like fan' and baq',jadhb and tawhd. As for the second path: we are of the opinion that the Prophet had no high regard for it and did not like it very much,for he himself advised for the following of the first path. Though in this way Shh Wal Allh was corrected in his original predilection for fellow-sfs and was told by the Prophet that God does have a preference for ùlam',he still deemed fit to regard the latter with a critical eye. One should guard oneself against associates of those who - instead of confining themselves to the study of the Qur'n and prophetic sunna - concern themselves with Greek lore,morphology,syntax and semantics,or historical investigation. They are,actually ùlam' longing for the splendour of the present life; it has nothing to do with faith (Tafh. I,214 & 37).
I. Philosophers
More than once Shh Wal Allh raises his warning voice against the Greek philosophers who influenced and shaped Muslim thought to a considerable extent: Beware of caring for people who call themselves falsifa. God has made them to go astray,in spite of their knowledge,and ensnared them in their intellectualism,so that they cannot find a way to escape from it. If you want to go to the heart of things and determine hidden meanings,their knowledge will be of no use to you. True knowledge is gained from the spring of the sharà together with pious deeds and seeking proximity to God ( Khizna 10). Similarly,contemporary philosophers are deviating fro m the right path: Although the metaphysians (ma`qliyyn) of our time may comprehend abstruse points,they are really far from divine grace... With respect to them one can state that by applying themselves to novel sciences they remain excluded from the legacy of prophets8(Qurrat 161). These people are afflicted with all sorts of doubt and confusion,making the Day of Resurrection 'a thing forgotten and ought of sight' ( Qur'n XIX,22)(F.K. 40). They are worse than dogs,for a dog does not sniff at an old bone. These worthless people sniff and lick at bones that are two thousand years old. The cause of their erring is that our intellect ( àql)(on which solely rely) is deficient... It badly needs the additional help of the dhawq (intuitive anticipation). The àql is merely an apparatus of analysis and abstraction; the dhawq perceives the unity behind the multiplicity (A.Q. 142 ff.). Another heresy is their assumption of a hierarchy of separate and independent intelligences9 ,each lower Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
68 one emanating from a higher one. Their postulate of ten intelligences,being a kind of creative and regulating powers that govern the universe,cannot be 105. right because the stage of the àql (in which God at first ordered the existence of the universe) is prior to the universe in its present shape (nafs kulliyya). The àql-stage is the level of thubt (transcendental determination), and the nafs kulliyya represents the level of wujd (actualization) (Tafh. I,192). Another fallacy of the philosophers is to maintain that the divine Will is identical to the divine Essence. In this way they infer that an uncreated attribute can take created forms (which is an obvious incoherence). This error can be avoided by postulating the existence of an intermediary,to wit the tajall a`zam which implies that the divine Essence is in the possession of an irda mutajaddida (i.e. a Will causing continuous processes of renowation in the universe)(Sat. 11). When holding that carrying out or refraining from an act merely rests with a heavenly maslaha (consideration of expediency),the philosopher's view of the free will,so Shh Wal Allh claims,turns out to be too narrow: They observe only a part,whereas various other aspects remain hidden from them. They are veiled from witnessing the zone called 'Holy Enclosure' (hazra al-quds) where consensus of the mala a`l concerning the doing or omitting of facts are achieved. Those consensus are based,among other things,on a valuation of deeds performed by men on earth... A clear argument against them is that when,for instance,one of us stretches out his hand for a pen,he is doing that purposely and intentionally...,although in principle everything happens according to a heavenly maslaha... Two things are equally true: a) a free will results from causes; it cannot fail to show up its cause... b) a free will is at liberty to delight in considering the possibilities open to it without being concerned about 'what is beyond that' (H.B. I,67 f.).
J. Mutakallimn (scholars in the field of scholastic theology)
Shh Wal Allh's opinion on the mutakallimn appears to be nearly as unfavourable as in the case of the philosophers: The heresies suggested by the mutakallimn are without any foundation and should not be adopted from them (Khizna 10). Instead of being content with simply noting the 'final' manifestations and operations of the divine Attributes as they are observed in the phenomenal world,the mutakallimn also try to view them from their base-side as they subsist in the Essence of God by speaking in metaphors (B.B. 103). In particular,the Mu`tazilites are denounced. They are qualified as 'heterodox' ( H.B. I,135) and 'aftergrowths' (like weeds on cultivated land),for ultimately this group holds many doctrines which would be unacceptable to the first generation of the Muslim community (Kalimt-i tayyibt 174 and Qurrat 314); this is contrary to the teachings of al-Ashàr which resemble those of the Companions of the Prophet ( Khizna 10). True,al-Ashàr himself belongs to the mutakallimn,but among the orthodox he enjoys a much better reputation than the Mu`tazilites,and the 106. Delhi divine strives hard to defend him. He often establishes a surprising agreement between his own theories and those of al-Ashàr: Is not what the latter says about the 'capacity is with the act'10 exactly the same as what Shh Wal Allh himself has demonstrated when arguing that the contingencies rely on God to the same extent ar light relies on the sun? (Khizna 10). And indeed,if the Delhi scholar endorses al-Ashàr's tenet of the kalm nafs (internal speech inhering in God's Essence of which the revealed Qur'n is an expression)(Khizna 10),he contradicts the Mu`tazilites who reject this theory. Further,contrary to the Mu`tazilites he affirms that prayers for the dead and alms given on their behalf are effective ( H.B. II,32),holds that God forgives a believer even if he died without repenting his grave sins ( Husn al-àqda 13) and that saints can work miracles (Khizna 7). Yet,the matter is not as simple as Shh Wal Allh wants us to believe. Thus,for instance,problems already arise as soon as he has to deal with the thorny question of how to determine the criteria for good and bad: When al -Ashàr says,so we read,that the goodness and badness of human deeds is fixed by the sharà, he means that this is in accordance with actual practice. So far,it seems,Shh Wal Allh agrees with al-Ashàr's point of view,but then he continues: Conclusive as to what is good or bad is,to my mind,the fact from the beginning of times something has been good or bad and that human reason can make this clear and prove it,and that when the sharà came down,good and bad could be verified for a second time (Khizna 10). Here al-Ashàr's opinion is complemented by the Mu`tazilite standpoint. Shh Wal Allh's professed Ashàrite stand,however,becomes the more disputable at the moment we discover in his writings at least as many views agreeing with the Mu`tazilites as with the Ashàrites. Instances of conformity with Mu`tazilite teachings are also: a) Once,in a discussion of the visio beatifica (the question whether God will be seen with the eyes of the Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
69 faithful in Paradise) he explicitly declares that the Mu`tazilite conception of it is right ( Tafh. I,145). b) When Shh Wal Allh states that only God and those firmly rooted in knowledge can explain matters which are ambiguous (mutashbih)(H.B. I,110),it means that like the Mu`tazilites he places in Qur'n III,7 the pause after ìlm,and not after Allh,and accordingly reads: No ne knows the interpretation of what is mutashbih save only God and those firmly rooted in knowledge. A distinctive trait of them is that their knowledge seems to have descended from God directly into their very hearts and emerge as fire struck with a flint (B.B. 158). So they are in possession of ìlm ladun (knowledge imparted directly from God)(Husn al-àqda 27 f.). c) In his Hujjat al-nubuwwa 145 f. the Mu`tazilite al-Jhiz (d. 869) observes:The principal characteristic of the Arab people was rhetorics; thus the inimitable Qur'n became the miracle of Mohammed. The Delhi savant uses exactly the same argument: 107. People in the time of the Prophet were busy with poetry and rhetorics. They owed their renown to them... Accordingly,God sent down the miracle of the Qur'n... Thus He proved to be the supreme authority in the dispute by checkmating them on their own ground ( Tafh. I,82). d) The Delhi divine follows in the track of the Mu`tazilite Abu'l-Hudhayl (d. 840),when he holds that God's Attributes are identical with Himself (Tafh. II,18),and not an addition to the divine Essence. e) The emphasis Shh Wal Allh lays on man's being placed in the state of accountability ( taklf). The unjust,mentioned in Qur'n XXXIII,72 (the famous passage stating that man accepted the 'trust' which heavens,earth and mountains refused to carry),is he who does not practise justice though he is capable of doing so. Unlike an angel who is perfect in esse,man is perfect in posse (H.B. I,19 f.). f) The superiority of angels over prophets (Khizna 3) as is the opinion of the majority of the Mu`tazilites (see A.J. Wensinck,The Muslim Creed,London 1965,201). g) The reluctance to apply naskh to Qur'n verses is in agreement with the Mu`tazilite way of thinking,as for them naskh may introduce a principle of mutability in the divine Will (L. Gardet,Dieu et la destine de l'homme,Paris 1967,217). ________________ {1} A heterodox view,since Sunns hold ìsma to be exclusive of prophets. According to Shh Wal Allh the concept ìsma implies that besides prophets other people may also be disposed by nature to truthfulness,continence,self-restraint and performing good deeds (Tafh. II,21). {2} At this stage the heart of a mystic experiences expansion of the heart free from any contraction,elective affinity without disturbance,and ecstacy without losing consciousness. His intellect becomes acute and receives superior knowledge of the Unseen through clairvoyance,illumination,voices from heaven, and the like. And his soul gains tranquillity (H. XIX). {3} Islam's victory over Jews,Christians and Zoroastrians is to be reckoned among the divine promises realized by the first three caliphs. It is announced in Qur'n IX,33: that He may make the religion of truth victorious over every other religion (Izla I,14). {4} A siddq is... as kindred to a prophet as sulphur is to fire (H.B. II,93). He perceives the very root of things by merely hearing the words of the prophet.Consequently,acknowledging the truth of the prophet unreservedly and without any desire for a confirming miracle,is a requisite of this status. The very prototype of a siddq,a faithful witness of the truth,is Ab Bakr who used to hear the sough of Gabriel when a revelation descended upon the Prophet ( Izla II,3 and H.B. II,93). Because of this special spiritual affinity to Mohammed,Ab Bakr is to be regarded as the most 108. eminent caliph and even superior to Ùmar. {5} In the eyes of Shh Wal Allh Ùmar was a kind of super imm,considering the fiqh of the imms of the four schools to be only a commentary on what was already established by the ijtihd of this caliph (Izla II,85). In contradistinction to Àl,Ùmar seems to have a keener feeling for the confessional import of religion than for its spiritual aspects,as the author infers from comments he made during the hajj. Once Ùmar declared while he kissed the Black Stone: I know very well that you are but a stone that neither helps nor hurts. If I had not seen the Prophet kiss you,I would certainly never kiss you (Mu. Hajj 248). Thereupon Àl observed: There is a benefit in kissing it. The Delhi scholar explains this anecdote as follows: The difference of opinion has to do with the different functions Ùmar and Àl had to perform. Ùmar was responsible for keeping religious practice free from corruption. So his remarks were made in refutation of idolators. The special task with which Àl was entrusted was to uncover hidden symbolism. Accordingly,he perceived that an imperishable shape had been effused upon that stone,since it Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
70 was said originally to have descended from Paradise ( Tafh. II,171 f.). {6} To give one example: The saying 'There is no god besides Allh' has many butn. First,the repulse of plain idolatry; secondly,the repulse of secret idolatry; thirdly,the removal of impediments which bar the way to obtaining knowledge of God (H.B. II,72). {7} Held to be the most fundamental element in the Universe. Up till the present day,there are Arabs who distinguish types of human beings according to the one or the other predominating element (See H. Granqvist,Birth and Childhood among the Arabs ,Helsingfors 1947,173). {8} Exceeding the bounds of prophetical lore,however,is an aberration of which Shh Wal Allh himself cannot always steer clear. In this respect the way in which he apologizes for having discussed two possibilities of the origin of the world is significant: Do not protest too loudly against the argument we just made. Leading Sunnites also treated difficult subjects which were never broached either by the Companions or the Followers. Still they remained good Sunnites. Similarly,with our intuitive anticipation we enter on intricate questions which these leaders have never taken up or even summarily indicated,as those questions were not yet of topical interest (Khizna 2). {9} These ùql are deemed to be the originators of the movement of the nine spheres around the earth. They bring God's management of the universe into operation. The main objection Shh Wal Allh has to the ùql of the falsifa is the assumption that they are independent substances that act on the universe. It is Rahmn,however,who is the actor; and the ùql are to be regarded as aspects and modes of the Ultimate Reality. When they rise to the world of divine Essence (Lht),they vanish into It; and when they descend to what is close to multiplicity,you find them actualized as Names (Tafh. I,168). 109. {10} I.e. that he for whom God does not create the capacity to act ( istità) cannot acquire a thing,whereas the Mu`tazilites hold that the capacity is before the act and is power over the act and over its opposite,and does not make the act necessary.
71 110.
Chapter ten: Quran

The Genesis and Purport of the Qur'n
You should know that when in pristine ages the tajall a`zam (the Most Supreme Theophany) became distinct on the plane of Ultimate Reality, a perfect emanation of It appeared there like the appearance of light on the body of the sun. That perfect emanation represented the guidance of the human souls by revelatory knowledge... After that, because of the reflection of the tajall a`zam which became distinct in the center of the heart of the mala a`l, this perfect emanation got another shape. Five kinds of knowledge were fixed: the remembrance of divine bounties; the appointment of the Days of the Lord and the Requital at the Resurrection; polemics against dis-believers; the establishment of the rules for worship; economics and polity. Subsequently, when the Prophet was sent into the world,those kinds of knowledge were clothed in the garments of Arabic,and the original style of sras and Qur'n verses were fixed in the mind of the Prophet by unseen help which arose from the heart of the Holy Enclosure... And for their communication the Prophet became an instrument of God... Thus the Qur'n is uncreated by its origin, but originated in time by coming down and being revealed in the language of the Quraysh... It came down through the intermediary of angels, is recited by the tongues of men,is written down on copies of the Qur'n... and has been articulated through the agency of the mala a`l (Kalimt-i tayyibt 166f.) The i`jz (inimitability) of the Qu'rn in content and form regards: 1) a stylistic insuperability. For at the time it was composed the Arabs were riding at full speed in the arena of eloquence, rivaling each other in the composition of thematic odes ( qasdas), orations, missives and argumenta tions. Their manner of expression, however, was restricted to those four genres of literature only. If in addition to this datum you bear simultaneously in mind that in the estimation of his compatriots Mohammed was an umm (illiterate), it is indeed nothing but miraculous that from his mouth such a new and unique literary language could proceed; 2) a provision of intuitively acquired knowledge about ancient times,legal systems in the past and earlier religions as recorded in prior works of history; 3) a provision of remarkably accurate information about future events ( F.K. 134). In Khizna 6 Shh Wal Allh distinguishes three levels of evolution of the Qur'n in its created condition: 1) The Qur'n reached the stage of becoming created at the moment when through the ism mutajaddid (Name with renewing force), which the Delhi divine equates with the Holy Spirit,the Word of God entered Mohammed's heart. This happened in the period previous to his prophetic appearance. 111. 2) It is only at the time of his factual prophethood that the divine words, present in the `lam al-khayl (world of imaginative thought) as internal speech (kalm nafs),appeared in the world of articulation and were put into intelligible,forceful speech and literary style. 3) At this time the Qur'n was assimilated by Mohammed's faculty of comprehension. This happened for the sake of the development of the sharà. Nevertheless,the superior literary form of the Holy Book was not an end in itself; indeed,it had an immediate relevance to the historical setting of prophetic activities. For God knew that in case people are dedicated to rhetorics, the Word of God would not prove effective among them as long as it is not of extraordinary eloquence (Sat. 21). Besides, not only as regards the form but also with respect to the content, Shh Wal Allh discerns a noteworthy adaptability of the Qur'n to the era of its revelation. Know that in our opinion adequate knowledge is that which meets the requirements of the age, and that the Qur'n ... has come down in accordance with the conditions of the moment; i.e. conformably to 'the fulness of time' ( dawrat al-kaml) it has brought down practical wisdom, admonition, knowledge of good works,God and the Hereafter,instruction concerning dhikr,du`s and the stages of people striving after perfection ( Tafh. II,166). You should be aware, so the Delhi scholar argues in another writing,that the Qur'n was sent down for the correction of the Arabs as well as non-Arabs,for townspeople as well as inhabitants of the desert. Hence divine wisdom required that... what was said about God's Attributes and Names.. should be understandable without a training in metaphysics and scholastics... and that for God perfect human qualities,which were generally known and of which people were proud,should be chosen instead of Attributes with too subtle a meaning (F.K. 12 f.). When discussing the 'collection' of the Qur'n, Shh Wal Allh makes a comparison between the disorderly state of the Holy Book on the death of the Prophet and the short poems and qasdas taken down in notebooks,which a poet leaves in the hands of his friends at his death. These literary compositions are in danger of becoming lost, if the leaves of these notebooks land in water or fire,just as a flock of birds is Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
72 already widely dispersed by a soft gust of wind (Izla. II,5). Therefore,in the time of Ab Bakr and Ùmar all the sras were collected into a single volume which was called mushaf (collection of written leaves). Meanwhile the Companions had divided the sras into four categories: 1) seven of the longest ones; 2) sras containing 100 or more verses; 3) sras containing less than 100 verses; 4) the sras entitled mufassal (i.e. from the 49th chapter to the end). During the reign of Ùthmn two thirds of the sras from the third category were transferred to the second one in conformity with the sense and context of the verses. Copies of this mushaf were sent to different parts of the empire to be treated as the final and canonical version of the Qur'n (F.K. 113 f.). 112.
Qur'nic Teaching
For the elucidation of the teachings imparted by the Qur'n, the Delhi scholar introduces a division of his own into five kinds of information. In the Holy Book one finds: 1) normative categories required for religious practice, mundane affairs,household and political economy; 2) polemics with four groups of erring people: the Jews,Christians,polytheists,and lukewarm followers (munfiqn); 3) reminding the people of the benefits of God by explaining how heaven and earth were created,and by pointing out that,thanks to divine instruction man can acquire the necessities of life by means of techniques required to control natural phenomena; 4) reminding the people of the Days of the Lord ( ayym Allh)1, i.e. the lessons of history; 5) reminding the people of death and what happens after it at the Resurrection,the Day of Reckoning,etc.2 After this stock-taking of Qur'nic learning, Shh Wal Allh continues: The exposition of those ùlm is rendered in the style of writing used by the Arabs of early times, and not by those of later days. Hence, the legislative and terse verses of skilled authors are not deemed necessary, nor are the rules for provisos observed, as is done by scholars versed in the science of fiqh principles. In the polemical verses it is thought essential to refer to generally known data and to deliver profitable sermons; but in them no rational arguments are produced as is done by logicians, and no attempt is made at a close coherence between successive subject-matters, as is the rule with literary men in later times (F.K. 11 f.). On the contrary, the Delhi divine points some ninety pages further on to a complete disregard of any systematization as characteristic of the Qur'n; sometimes even a dislocation of verses has taken place. Thus, for instance,in Sra II the coming down of verse 144 (We see you often turn your face to heaven; now We shall turn you to a direction that shall satisfy you) must have preceded that of verse 142 (The fools among the people will say: What from the direction which they used?)(F.K. 106). Instead of offering a coherent line of thought when expounding sundry aspects of its message the Qur'n prefers to give instruction through repetition, and the five categories of learning mentioned above are dealt with over and over again for the sake of istihdr,i.e. a vivid evocation of its designs before the mind of the people addressed. In that manner the ideas to be conveyed come so clearly to the imagination of the one spoken to that he tastes their subtle shades, and they eventually overpower his heart and mind...,as happens with a poem which,after having understood its meaning at a first reading,we recite every now and then in order to taste its delicacy each time afresh. It is on account of this delight that we like to repeat it (F.K. 130).
Qur'nic Style and Language
However, if we wish to give some characterization of its mode of expression,the Qur'n should be compared to a collection of 113. edicts which rulers issue to their subjects from time to time,as the situation demands... Precisely in the same way the King of kings sent down sra after sra upon His Messenger for the guidance of His servants according to the requirements of the moment ... Since there is a most remarkable resemblance between the style of the sras and that of royal edicts3, the pattern of an edict is chosen for the exordium and final part of the sras. Thus,some edicts begin with the praise of God,others with an explanation of the motive for its being issued,and others again with the name of the sender and the person addressed. There are also short missives and extensive royal orders without a heading... Exactly in the same manner God allows one sra to begin with celebrating the praise of God, another with an explanation of the motive for its being written,as for instance: A sra which We have sent down and in which We have set down the obligatory statutes (Qur'n XXIV,1),and again another with the name of the sender and the addressed,as for instance: The revelation of the Book is from God... We have sent to you the Book ( Qur'n XXXIX,1 f.). And there are also Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
73 sras of the category of short missives and orders without a heading as for instance: When the hypocrites come to you (Qur'n LXIII,1)(F.K. 112 - 5). When referring to instances of Qur'nic 'liberties' flouting all grammatical rules, the Delhi divine recommends ignoring the linguistic laws set up by Sbawayh and al-Farr', and relating the language of the Qur'n to the idiom of the ancient Arabs,who were not averse to syntactic licence ( F.K. 157). Similarly, in the matter of Qur'n prosody the standards of Arab poets are not strictly observed. The latter take the àrd (the last foot of the first hemistich), by which correct meters are distinguished from faulty ones,as a measure of the lines of a poem and apply to them the rules of qfiya (rhyme) which fix the final consonant and vowel. But the Qur'n verses, so the Delhi divine argues,are based on a meter and qfiya which are not fixed in all details, on account of which they lead to a more natural manner of expression. In view of the differe nt and varying literary tastes found among people like, for instance, the Indians, Greeks and Arabs, this testifies to very wise divine management. And when God wished to speak in the same language as man, created from a handful of earth, He turned His mind towards that flexible and elegant form of style, and not towards figures of speech appreciated by one people but not by another,... neither towards norms which may change with time (F.K. 118 ff.). Ta'wl (exploration of the basic ideas in Qur'nic tales) and Tafsr (exegesis of the Qur'n) On the first discipline, so we are told by the Delhi scholar,I wrote an essay, entitled Ta'wl al-ahdth (A Mystical Interpretation of Prophetic Tales). Here ta'wl indicates that the predispositions of a prophet and his people as well as the regulations which God deems expedient for a given epoch, form the base of prophetic stories (F.K. 163 f.). The Qur'nic account of 114. Moses and the enchanters is an example which shows how predispositions of people in a prophetic milieu might be taken into consideration by divine interference. The expediency of providential rule in the situation at the Pharaoh's court is evident if one realizes that the sorcerers were attacked and overpowered by their own weapons (Ta'wl 46). An illustration of the adaptation of divine action to the predisposition of a prophetic individual is that in the valley of Tuwan God spoke to Moses in a fire; this was in consonance with the Moses' fiery nature (Ta'wl 45). In the opinion of Shh Wal Allh the basic starting-point for a correct tafsr is to let the Qur'n narratives speak for themselves and leave out one's own views ( F.K. 147). Teachers are advised by him to see that their disciples first study the Qur'n without a commentary or translation (Tafh. II,245). Should somebody strive after true faith, he should read the Qur'n as it clarifies itself ( Tafh.I,37). An application of this principle that the Holy Book is understood best if it be its own commentator is the following: According to an explanation of the Companion Ìyd b. Himr, in Sra XV,9 the 'protection' of the Qur'n means 'keeping it undamaged'. Against this exegesis the Delhi savant sets his opinion that a proper understanding of the verse can only be obtained if it is combined with Sra LXXV, 16 - 19. Or, to put it in other words, the 'protection' referred to in Sra XV,9 is the 'exegesis' of the Qur'n,as it is explained in Sra LXXV,16 - 19. In that passage 'collecting' refers to the 'collection of the Qur'n into a book' at the time of Ab Bakr and Ùmar, the 'recitation' to the 'divine concern to provide reciters of the Qur'n in the umma of the Prophet', and 'upon Us devolves the making clear of it' by 'supplying in every epoch people capable of elucidating it' (Izla I,50 f.). A correct appraisal of the self-explanatory nature of the Qur'n texts affords the exegete not only a useful independence of commentaries stemming from the Companions, but it is also helpful in view of the urge often felt by Muslim scholars to adduce information from Jewish and Christian traditions in elucidation of succinct references in the Qur'n to Biblical events. It turns out that in these cases the Qur'n itself proves able to supply material to fill the gaps. Thus, for instance,the condensed report of Jesus in Sra XIX,21 (And We will make him a sign to mankind,and a mercy from Us) can easily provided with some more detail by what is recorded in Sra III,43 (And I have been sent as an apostle to the people of Israel,saying: Now have I come to you with a sign from your Lord)(F.K. 147 f.). Shh Wal Allh disapproves of reading more into the Qur'n than is intended: The allusions and subtle indications which sfs4 discover in the Qur'n do not actually belong to the dicipline of tafsr (F.K. 158). The ultimate end pursued by Qur'n exegesis is to win an assent to the message of the Qur'n. Therefore,one should refrain from adding words of one's own (F.K. 146). With a similar carefulness in regard to the proper sense of the Qur'n texts Shh Wal Allh warns against overrating the 115. explanatory value of the so-called asbb al-nuzl, occurrences in the days of Mohammed which are said to have occasioned the revelation of certain Qur'nic passages. In this field one should proceed with caution: Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
74 Scholars of hadth append to Qur'n verses many things which are actually not asbb al-nuzl but arguments of Companions that they advanced in support of a private view when they had controversies on the correct interpretation of a particular Qur'n verse. Yet in two respects asbb al-nuzl might be useful: 1. The understanding of certain passages would be difficult indeed if one did not have them at one's disposal. An instance of this is the story told on account of the strange phrase (no blame) used in Sra II,158 in connection of traversing the distance between Saf and Marwa seven times during the ùmra (Little Pilgrimage). Once À'isha was asked: If running between Saf and Marwa is obligatory,what is the sense of 'No blame' attached to it? She replied: There were people who avoided it,because they thought doing it was a sin. Therefore it is said: 'No blame'. 2. Sometimes asbb al-nuzl can be of help in the illustration of universal truths,implied but hidden in Qur'n verses merely stating which came down like this (i.e. without any mention of the moment and reason of their descent). Then the very intention of the enigmatic context is to bring to light the proper purport of the Qur'nic passage by means of an illustrative story from the time of the Prophet (F.K. 69 ff. and 76 f.). When discussing the mutashbiht (the 'ambiguous' Qur'n verses) as opposed to the muhkamt (the 'perspicuous' verses),Shh Wal Allh is two-tongued. Putting himself on a par with the average believer,he scorns the efforts of the mutakallimn in explaining the mutashbiht dealing with anthropomorphisms or eschatological subjects,and declares: My course is that of Mlik b. Anas (d. 796),of Sufyn al -Thawr (d. 778),or Ibn al- Mubrak (d. 797) and the other ancients,and that is to take the mutashbiht at their face value without engaging in hermeneutic ingenuities (F.K. 156). Knowledge of the mutashbiht should be left to God, for it concerns issues of too speculative a nature,about which unanimity can never be gained in the umma (B.B. 204). In his capacity as a gnostic, however,the Delhi divine claims that for him the mutashbiht have become perspicuous because of his having been a witness of the Holy Enclosure and having become conversant with its processes (Fuyd,25th Vision).
Tahrf (distortion of the texts of the Holy Scripture)
The charge of falsifying the texts of the Holy Scripture or the garbling of their meaning is in Islam usually directed against the ahl al-kitb or against the Sh`s (by the Sunns) and the Sunns (by the Sh`s) In the first case it pertains to words of the Bible, in the second to readings of the Qur'n. Here again Shh Wal Allh shows his orginality by taking Jews, Christians and Muslims conjointly to task for tampering with their Holy books. Instead of merely accusing those who are outside the pale 116. of his own community his criticism is levelled at his co-religionists as well: Tahrf is spread in all sorts of groups. Among the sfs teachings are divulged - and this applies especially to views pertaining to the doctrine of tawhd - which cannot be brought into line with the Book and the sunna... As for the fiqh of the jurisprudents,you often do not know what made them settling things as they did... And where is the end if I start to mention the errors of the philosophers and poets,the rich and the common people who worship idols and make the tombs of saints places of worship and festivities? ( Tafh. II,135). To the causes of tahrf belong: a) Laxity (tahwun). The essence of this is that the generation following the disciples of a prophet neglects the salt,follows its lusts(cf. Qur'n,XIX,59)and does not care for the spread of the acts and articles of faith... Subsequently,another generation tainted with still more indifference follows it,so that nearly all religious knowledge falls into oblivion... On that account the religious community of Noah and Abraham disappeared... b) Forced hardness (taàmmuq). The essence of this is that when one of the umma learns of a command or prohibition of the expounder of the sharà (sc. Mohammed)... ,he extends the regulation to a somewhat comparable case... Thus, when the expounder of the law prescribed fasting to check the passions and forbade sexual intercourse for a period,people thought that was also forbidden to kiss one's wife... Then the Messenger of God disclosed the wrongness of this conclusion5 and explained that it was an instance of tahrf. c) Excessive strictness (tashaddud). The essence of this is that rigorous forms of worship,not imposed by the expounder of the sharà,are chosen such as... the observation of celibacy... This is a disease of Jewish and Christian recluses. d) Advancing an arbitrary personal opinion not founded on logical reasoning for reasons of public convenience (istihsn). The essence of this is that when somebody might have discovered that for every rule given by the expounder of the sharà a rationale and an appropriate application is provided and that legislation is founded on this base, he still seizes the opportunity to avail himself of certain inner meanings of the legislation in order to introduce regulations which he thinks expedient for the people. Thus, for instance, when the Jews thought that the expounder of the Torah had ordained heavy punishments as a Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
75 prevention of crimes and believed that the penalty of stoning to death in case of adultery (see Deuteronomy XXII,21) would give rise to dissension and squabbling,so that in it there would be a greater evil,they regarded the blackening of the face and skin with coal a suitable substitute for stoning. Accordingly, the Prophet explained that this was a tahrf (see Mu. Hudd 15)... e) The following of an (unauthentic) ijm`(consensus). The essence of this is that when among religious authorities, there are people of united opinion to whom common men accord their confidence, assuming that they are mostly or generally in the right; so the people believe this unanimity to be decisive 117. evidence for the validity of a law, while it is not based on the Book and sunna. This kind of unanimity is unlike the ijm`, which the community agreed on... The Word of God says in respect to this unauthentic ijm`: And when they are told,'Follow what God has sent down', they answer,'No; but we will fol low the usages which we found with our forefathers ( Qur'n II,170). The only argument the Jews have for their denial of the prophethood of Jesus and Mohammed are the inquiries that their ancestors made into the life stories of the two,and did not find them fulfilling the conditions of prophethood. And the Christians have many laws which are at variance with the Torah and the New Testament. The only ground for it is the ijm` of their ancestors. f) Reliance on the teaching (taqld) of somebody who is not 'preserved' by God from what is not right, i.e. who is not a prophet whose infallibility is established. The essence of this is that when one of the ùlam' has used discretionary reasoning (ijtihd) in a legal matter, his followers believe that he is surely,or at least most probably,in the right. In this way they can even act in contrary to a sound tradition. This kind of taqld, however, is not the same as the taqld,on which the umma is agreed... (and which implies that the man of ijtihd who is relied on) has carefully examined what the Prophet has stated on that very issue... g) Mixing of two religions so that in the end the one cannot be distinguished from the other. This can happen when someone who previously professed another religion enters the Muslim community, but still retains an emotional attachment to branches of knowledge of this former group. Consequently, he tries to introduce such matters into the Muslim community... Such matters which have crept into our religion include: lore of the Israelites, admonishments of preachers of the 'heathen darkness', philosophy of the Greeks,imprecations of the Babylonians,histories of the Persians,astrology,geomancy and defensive apologetics (H.B. I,120 ff.). h) Instead of assigning to a word its obvious mean ing ,to choose a meaning you yourself think proper. The Prophet has already alluded to this,saying: 'Presently people will be found who will name wine by another designation and fornication by another appellation. And they will assert that this is not what God has forbidden in His Book. So there is no objection to it for you (Ibn Mdja, Ashriba 8). Have you not met people who assert that intoxicating liquor prepared from honey and the like is not wine at all,and then declare it lawful? (B.B. 127). Naskh (withdrawal) On the delicate subject of naskh,the repeal of a former heavenly decree substantiated into a Qur'n verse by a newly revealed message,the Delhi scholar has again a lot to say. To begin with: there are various abrogations of regulations, including the following: a) progressive developments in the personality and status of a prophet. After his military expedition to Tabk in 630 when he 118. declared solemnly: We have returned from the inferior type of jihd (with the object of the expansion of Islam) to the superior one (i.e. the inner struggle against one's evil inclinations). Herewith the Prophet wanted to imply a return from the world of perceptible forms to the world of the non-material (Khizna 6). So Mohammed attained a rank higher than the previous one. b) changes in the spiritual state of a prophet. An example of this is given in the tale of Abraham and the sacrifice of his son. For, when Abraham had come very near to the Holy One, he understood that the universal aspect of sacrifice would have its concrete expression in the sacrifice of his son who was the best qualified for it. Therefore, the divine Name which manifested Itself in his innermost being, ordered him to make this sacrifice. But as soon as he recovered from the immersion into his innermost being, he confined himself to the substitutive sacrifice of an animal. c) a situation requiring new statutes because of rites that have become obsolete,as was the case,for example,with transmutations in the ways of zakt. At first, it consisted of an àtra (ewe offered as a means of purification to a pagan divinity during the month of Rajab); next, the appointing of a special time for a sacrifice was repealed,and after that only the dhabh (victim detined for immolation) remained in force. Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
76 Finally, the institute of nisb (minimum amount of property liable to payment of the zakt) was introduced (Khizna 8). In an excursus on the purpose to be derived from Qur'n II,106 (And for whatever verse We repeal or cause to forget,We bring a better or the like of it),Shh Wal Allh argues that two sorts of naskh can be distinguished: 1.Pertaining to the individual reasoning ( ijtihd) of the Prophet. As we readily understand, Mohammed himself made a regular study of the implications to be inferred from the ordinances sent down from above. But then it might happen that God completed or corrected the results of His Messenger's research. An instance of completion is the revelation of the passage concerning the qibla which had to be changed (see Qur'n II,144). Another divine correction of prophetic ijtihd can be reconstructed from an abrogation of a prescription mentioned in a hadth,viz. with respect to the prohibition of making nabdh (an intoxicating drink made of dates and barley) except in animal skins (see Bu. Ashriba 8). Lateron he recognized that the intoxicating attributes characteristic of an alcoholic beverage are its bubbling and evaporating, and not the effect of something extraneous to it like a certain container of the drink. 2. Pertaining to the requirements of the moment. In the course of time certain laws may lose their relevance on account of which they are revised or repealed. Thus, for instance,at the time when the Prophet emigrated to Medina the fellow emigrants could no longer count on assistance from their blood relations. Consequently, the Qur'n was revealed basing inheritance on a relationship of brotherhood. God explained the benefit of this when He said: Unless you do this, there will be sedition on the 119. earth and great corruption (Qur'n VIII,73). But when Islam got a stronger hold and kinsfolk of the emigrants joined them, hereditary right was founded again on consanguinity. When towards the end of this excursus Shh Wal Allh arrives at the question which meaning is finally to be attached to the words the better or the like in Qur'n II,106,he first concludes that through the establishment of Islam in the Medinian period Mohammed became the caliph of the nation. Accordingly, he proposes taking the better as a reference to prophethood enhanced by caliphate (political rule by the Prophet); on the other hand,the like would merely imply that laws change with the situation ( H.B. I,123 f.). In another work,i.e. al-Fawz al-kabr (pp. 56 f. & 151) Shh Wal Allh starts with the observation that the concept early Muslims held of the naskh-principle differs to a great extent from the views of later generations. The Companions and Succeeders took naskh in a literal sense, i.e. of 'removal',and not in the more restricted sense of the scholars who admit a larger share of speculative reason in the principles of religious law (usliyyn). According to the latter naskh merely denotes 'removal of a provision' in an earlier Qur'n verse by a later Qur'n verse. The occasion for it could be: either the circumstance that it was no longer obligatory to act on a certain provision,or the situation that the discovery of a particular meaning in one Qur'n verse suddenly threw new light on the purport of another Qur'n verse,on account of which its former interprtation was abolished,or the fact that at a given moment the incidental character of a certain stipulation in a Qur'n verse is recognized so that a general application of it is no longer desirable. But if naskh is understood in the more extensive sense attached to it by representatives of the first Muslim generations,it can be applicable to instances such as the 'removal' of astrology and geomancy,or the abrogation of particular religious customs dating from the time of paganism such as the clipping of an ewe's ear to consecrate it or setting a she-camel at liberty to pasture freely,after having brought forth females (Khizna 10). So with the Companions and Succeeders reason got a wide domain to wander in for the application of naskh; and as a result of that one came to the pretty total of 500 repealed Qur'n verses!. After this exposition of the two chief currents in the early history of Islamic naskh practice,the Delhi scholar himself in this case6 gives preference to the viewpoint of the later generations,simply because it results in a considerably lower number of repealed verses. And in imitation of Ab Bakr b. Àbdallh b. al-Àrab (d. 1148) and Jall al-Dn al-Suyt (d. 1505) he reduced their number to a score. But the Delhi savant deems even twenty too great a number. If the procedure of tawjh be adopted, a further reduction is possible. In origin, tawjh (i.e. providing a wajh, an alternative decision) designates a method applied in fiqh,for deriving rules from decisions of the founder of a madhhab. But Shh Wal Allh makes it a new art, by 120. which contradictions between indications or between the 'rational' and the 'traditional' can be suspended and divergent issues can be made congruous { F.K. 153). To give one of the applications of this kind of tawjh by which he manages to render plausible the redundancy of naskh: There is no need to regard Qur'n III,102 ('Fear God with the fear that He deserves') to be abrogated by Qur'n LXIV,16 ('Fear God,then,as much as you can'),because the former verse relates to shirk,kufr and other matters of Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
77 faith,whereas the latter bears upon religious practice,for instance if somebody cannot perform ablution with water,he may do it with sand(F.K. 61 f.). By thus searching out the wajh (contextual motive) implied in the verses which are still supposed by al-Suyt to be nsikh and manskh,Shh Wal Allh succeeds in abating the total number of naskh-cases to five only. Namely Qur'n II,180 cancelled by IV,12; II,240 by II,234; VIII,65 by VIII,66; XXXIII,50 and LVIII,12 by LVIII,13. Among other kinds of privileged learning concerning the Qur'n the Delhi scholar also reckons: a) his translation of the Qur'n into Persian,called Fath al-Rahmn (F.K. 164). In the preface he says that first of all his translation is meant for the sons of craftsmen and soldiers. As soon as they have attained the age of discretion they should make use of it,lest they are misled by the discourses of heretics or become confused by the idle talk of philosophers and Hindus; b) the art of drawing prognostications from verses of the Quran ( khawss al-Qur'n).On this charismatic gift Shh Wal Allh comments: Formerly, people used to speak of two categories of Qur'nic khawss: du`'7and the like;magic (sihr) and the like - God forbid! -. But for me a door for a direct pouring of divine knowledge had been opened beyond that traditional lore. All at once the most beautiful divine Names, most sublime Qur'n verses and benedictory du`'s were put in my lap as a personal gift. Here an institutionalizing of magic practices is obviously denounced. And the argument continues: The selection or composition of Qur'n verses, divine Names and du`'s (to be used in an emergency) is subject to criteria for which no rule can be fixed (i.e. it is all a question of a charisma to be accorded by the Unseen World)(F.K. 164 f.). It should be noted that although the Delhi divine rejects Black Magic 8) and an uncharismatic use of khawss in the passage quoted, he does not generally condemn magic as such. Elsewhere,for instance,he gives the advice: Let somebody visited by disease seek healing with the aid of perfect charms (ruqan)on which Qur'n verses and Names of God are written (B.B. 59). For Mohammed himself urged the peo ple to do so,in order to keep them from invoking the help of idols,as they were used to in pre-Islamic times (H.B. II,34). With great respect reference is made to al-Shdhil (d. 1258) and al-Bn (d. 1125) who are said to have substituted prognosticati on by stars and the like for fumigations (in view of a spell), recitations of divine Names and of appropriate Qur'n verses (Tafh.I,89). 121. To put it briefly, in the course of time there seems to have been some development in Shh Wal Allh's views of magic. This can be gathered from a comparison of notions concerning the hurf muqatta`t (mysterious letters) as they are set forth in one of his early writings, and in later works. In Hawmi`, a commentary of the famous hizb al-bahr of al-Shdhil, the Delhi divine points to the effectiveness of magic proper with respect to those enigmatic letters with which 29 sras begin. If an evil-doer appears and his terror and power get the upper hand, one should pronounce kf, h',àyn and sd (letters at the beginning of sra XIX) and at every letter one should close a finger of one's right hand; then one should say: 'Our protection'. Next, one should pronounce h', mn,àyn,sn and qf (at the beginning of sra XLII) and at every letter one should close a finger of one's left hand: then one should say: 'Our guardianship' ( Haw. 52). In later works we also find expositions of the hurf muqatta`t, but without any magic context. Then it is stated that they represent names of sras summarising their contents, and the effort is concentrated on tracing the symbolic sense the letters contain. Thus alif,lm,mm at the beginning of sra II indicate that the unspecified world of divine mystery (ghayb) becomes specified in the soiled empirical world. This becomes understandable,so we are taught,if we realize that the alif,which points at the ghayb of the transcendental world,is used in Arabic for questions about matters we wish to be informed of,for instance in respect of things still to be specified. The lm indicates specifying; hence this letter is added where there is a question of rendering distinct. And the mm,because of its uniting the lips when being pronounced,points to soiled primary matter (hayl),in which all kinds of essentials are untied and kept together and which,after leaving the world not conditioned by time and space,came into our empirical world. Therefore, alif,lm,mm hint at a transcendental outpouring which,entering into the world where things are particularized and bound by space,becomes specified in items compatible with the prevalent customs and ideas of the people,and sets out to remove the hardness of hearts by admonition and to fight evil thought and bad customs by defining good and evil (F.K. 168 ff.,Khizna 10). __________________ {1} Also a Qur'nic phrase (see Sra XIV,5). In illustration of such lessons God chose histories which were already well-known and the contemporaries of Mohammed had become familiar through an age-long Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
78 intercourse with Jews; and not curious or strange tales,nor Persian or Indian stories teaching immorality. The divine Wisdom behind it is that the attention of common people, when they hear stories of rare events,is drawn to curious details... and not to the essence of those stories (F.K. 44 f.). {2} The third category of Qur'nic lore was a 'support' (ùmda) by which Abraham in particular was sustained,while the fourth one was an insight with which notably Moses was favoured. But 122. knowledge of this fifth branch of Qur'nic learning was reserved for Mohammed (H.B. I,55). This last remark is indeed very true,since the Old Testament is almost silent on eschatological issues. {3} See also Tafh. II,123 and Khizna 6; The literary style of the sras resembles partly the style of a missive (risla),partly that of a qasda (polythematic ode with a characteristic tripartite structure). The three parts into which a sra can be divided are; a) an introduction,b) the filling material,i.e. the tales and c) the conclusion. {4} Likewise Shh Wal Allh disapproves of the endeavours of Mu`tazilites to read an allogorical meaning into Qur'nic anthropomorphizations and eschatological images. One ought to rest satisfied with the literal meanings of the terms used (Ta'wl 82). When,however,in a later writing he sets forth that the balance,which will be set up for the Day of Resurrection (Qur'n XXI,47),stands for the divine attribute of the faculty of discrimination by which good and bad actions are discerned (Khizna 9),he himself,in fact,appears not averse to the interpretative methods of the Mu`tazilites. {5} See Mu. Siym 62: À'isha related how the Messenger of God kissed one of his wives while he was fasting,and then she smiled. {6} An interesting exception,for as a rule Shh Wal Allh,being an admirer of Ibn Taymiyya,exhorts to follow in the footsteps of the first Muslims and to keep away from the practice of the ùlam' of later ages. {7} Invocations to which miraculous effects of an apotropaic nature are ascribed. They are also termed hizb (litany chanted during a liturgical session), and in that case often bear the names of great mystics,like Àbd al-Qdir al-Jln,al-Shdhil. {8} This is implied in the interjection: 'God forbid!'. For an explicit denunciation of sihr as being 'concealed evil' see B.B. 78.
79 123.
Chapter eleven: Hadith

The Importance of the Traditions The hadths form the foundation of knowledge. No nobler task can one set oneself than to try to become a muhaddith (scholar versed in the hadth) (Fuyd,24th Vision). Muhaddiths are more beloved by Mohammed than sfs, though the latter may surpass the former in the refinement of spiritual qualities ( al- Durr al-thamn fi'l-mubashshirt al-nab al-amn,11th tradition). Traditions provide the material for the following sciences:theology,ethics,cosmology,angelology,jurisprudence, eschatology, knowledge of prophetic tales,the science of spiritual perfection,of actions of moral elevation which bring man into contact with God,and the exegesis of the Qur'n ( Khizna 3). Consequently,the science of Tradition is the mainstay and principal part of sciences which offer established truths ( H.B. I,2). And in the curriculum of the Delhi savant laid down for posterity,he stipulates that as soon as a pupil has acquired sufficient proficiency in Arabic,he should be thaught the Muwatta of Mlik b. Anas (Majm'a-i wasy-i arbaà,p. 80). The Traditions as such ought to determine the line of conduct to be adopted (Khizna 10). So the 'raising of hands' at the beginning of the three forms of magnification (i.e. of bowing,coming back to the erect position and prostrating) of the salt is incumbent,since the Traditions in support of it outnumber those opposed to ( H.B. II,10). Equally,private investigation should submit to views found in the traditional literature. If the theses I framed in respect to astrology and divination,so Shh Wal Allh declares,turn out to be at variance with what is recorded in the sunna,then of course the opinion of the latter will prevail(H.B. II,195). The orally transmitted Tradition is actually the only means to preserve religion to the end of time,and there is no recovery if it is affected by corruption ( H.B. I,171). Hence,provisions derived from the sharà are to be tested by the sunna; if they do not agree with it they are to be rejected. An expert of jurisprudence is only reliable when he is a traditionist as well,as is the case,for instance,with the Shfi` faqh al-Bayhaq and the Hanaf faqh al-Tahw (Tafh. I,28). At the same time Shh Wal Allh possesses enough sense of reality to admit that the Companions,the virtual suppliers of Traditions,were not blameless. Nonetheless,we are deemed to remain silent about their faults in order to avoid disruption of the Muslim community's solidarity (Tafh. II,244). Valuation of the Collections of hadth Shh Wal Allh classifies the various collections of hadth under the following categories,according to the authority to be assigned to them: 1. To the highest level belong the collections in which the two 124. virtues typical of traditions (i.e. that of soundness and repute) have attained a perfect form. They are considered mutawtir,i.e. handed down by so many transmitters that there could be no collusion. The criterion for concurrent traditions (tawtur) is not the number of transmitters,nor their status,but rather the certainty in the hearts of the people which follows the hearing of the report ( H.B. I,149). The only three collections that can be reckoned to this supreme class are the Muwatta' of Mlik b. Anas who interprets the traditions from the point of view of practice,and the Sahh of al-Bukhr and Muslim. The Delhi scholar wholeheartedly endorses the view ascribed to al-Shfi`,that after the Book of God there is no book as sound as the Muwatta'. If you want to have an idea of its worth then you must compare the Muwatta' with works like the Kitb al-thr of Muhammad al-Shaybn (d. 805) and the Aml of Ab Ysuf (d. 798) (both famous Hanaf jurisprudents). You will recognize that between them lies the distance between the East and the West (H.B. I,134). It is,in fact,the instrument and foundation of the school of Mlik,a support and capital of the school of al-Shfi` and Ahmad b. Hanbal,and a lamp and latern of the school of Ab Hanfa. You should also realize that collections of the musannaf type (i.e. arranged in chapters according to different topics) such as the Sahh of Muslim,the Sunan of Ab D'd and al-Nas',and what in the Sahh of al-Bukhr and the Jmi` of al-Tirmidh is connected with the fiqh are but so many extracts and appendices of the Muwatta' itself,in as far as these works supply additional isnds for the traditions stated in the Muwatta',be they mursal (a tradition in which a Successor quotes the Prophet directly), marf` (a tradition traced back to the Prophet whether or not the isnd is complete),or mawqf (with an isnd going back only to one Companion) (Musaww I,5). Besides,it is only by means of the Muwatta',that the door of ijtihd (ability to reason the Law) can be kept open ( Musaff 12). In that connection,we have to bear in mind that the Muwatta' as such is rather a corpus juris than a corpus traditionum. Its intention is not to sift and collect the 'healthy' elements of traditions circulating in the Islamic world but to illustrate the law,ritual and religious practice (I. Goldziher,Muslim Studies,London 1971,vol. II,198).In line with this is also Shh Wal Allh's notion that the public interest (maslaha) represents a more valid basis for human behaviour than the mere Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
80 preference of a legist. 2. The second category reaches the rank of mustafd (widely spread) traditions which are well-known and transmitted by three or more Companions. Works like the Sunan of Ab D'd,the Jmi` of al-Tirmidh and the Mujtab of al-Nas' belong to it,and the Musnad of Ahmad b. Hanbal is counted as approaching this category closely (H.B. I,133 f.). 3. Thirdly we have musnads (with traditions arranged according to the names of the transmitters), jmi`s and musannafs which were compiled before,in,or after Bukhr and Muslim's lifetime. They contain traditions which are sound,good, weak,ma`rf 125. ('recognized',i.e. weak,yet known because confirmed by another weak tradition), gharb ('uncommon',i.e. resting on the authority of only one Companion),shdhdh ('anomalous',i.e. a tradition from a single authority which differs from what others report),munkar ('objectionable',i.e. of weak authority contradicted by a weaker one) or maqlb ('transposed',i.e. known to have come from a person other than the soi-disant reporter). Among scholars these traditions do not enjoy such a good reputation,though they are not to be rejected outright. To them belong the Musnads of al-Taylis (d. 818),of Àbd b. Humayd (d. 864) and Ab Àl alBazzz (d. 1034),and the Musannafs of Àbd al-Razzq (d. 827) and Ab Bakr b. Ab-Shayba (d. 849). The very aim of the compilers was to collect whatever seemed secure but without applying any correction ( H.B. I,134 f.). 4. The fourth category comprises collections composed in later times. Here one finds inter alia products of prattling preachers and heretics as well as stories from Israelite sources. The most trustworthy traditions in this category are the weak but suspicious ones. Evaluating these four catego-ries,Shh Wal Allh states: The muhaddiths only place confidence in traditions of the firth and second rank... For consultation in matters of faith and morality one should not touch traditions of the third rank,unless one belongs to the able critics who are acquainted with the names of the transmitters and the defects in the isnds of the traditions... As for the traditions of the fourth rank... sectarians such as the Rfidites (an extremist Shà faction), Mu`tazilites,etc. can easily extract from these evidence for thier points of view; but in the disputes of the scholars of hadth they cannot be adduced as references ( H.B. I,135). 5. If so desired,still a fifth rank can be superadded,having no basis in the four preceding ones. They contain ingredients which shameless people among specialists in religious law, sfs and historians foisted into their religion. Thus they have produced in Islam a great calamity ( H.B. I,135).
Deduction of the legal import carried by the Traditions Mohammed himself warned the people to proceed with caution in respect of directives of the Prophet,bearing in mind the factual relevance of the statute treated. So two categories of statements carrying unequal authority are to be distinguished in the traditions: 1.Concerning things pertaining to the prophetic mission as for instance information about the Hereafter,regulation of the canonical rites,and the like. In this case the line to be taken is formulated in Qur'n LIX,7: Adopt whatever command the Messenger gives you,and refrain from whatever he forbids you; 2.Concerning issues not connected with the prophetic mission such as for instance pronouncements on medical questions or methods of the fertilization of a palm-tree. On the subject of such 126. empirical matters the Prophet declared: I am only a human bei ng; whenever I give you a command in religious affairs,you should obey it,but whenever I give you a direction based on my personal opinion,then keep in mind that I am only a human being (Mu. Fad'il 140) (H.B. I,128). Thus the advice offered by the Prophet. The umma on its part,however,so the Delhi scholar continues a few pages further on,deduced conclusions from the hadths either by sticking to the literal meaning of the texts,or by drawing inferences via personal discretion. Leading appliers of this second method were Ùmar,Àl,Ibn Mas`d (d. 652/3) and Ibn` Abbs (d. 686). Both practices have their specific deficiences and need each other to fill in the gaps. Possible dangerous consequences of the first method are: a) that a general bearing is attached to a rule which was merely meant for a special,restricted situation; b) that an incidental advice which may have been made in the emphatic voice in order to stimulate to utmost exertion,is taken to imply an absolute command or prohibition. Weak points characteristic of the second method are: a) the chance that a statement from another Companion later discloses that the independent reasoning (ijtihd) had been mistaken. Thus,for instance,Ibn Mas`d and Ùmar were both of the opinion that tayammum (performing the ritual ablution with sand instead of water) does not purify a man who is sexually Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
81 defiled. Then,however,Àmmr b. Ysir (d. 657) records the event on a journey in which the Prophet had told him that his rolling in the dust was a sufficient purification in the present conditions(Mu.Hayd 110-3); b) that often the inference of a good idea by common consent of the leaders of the Companions turns out to be in conflict with the principles of the sharà. In view of this state of affairs,so Shh Wal Allh concludes,it is necessary for him who nowadays deals with fiqh to be versed in both ways of understanding a hadth (i.e. expertise in both the reports themselves and the methodology for interpreting their legal implications) and to be able to connect the two (H.B. I,131 f.). A problem,with which every faqh will inevitably be confronted,is the apparent contradictions between various traditions. When tackling this vexed question,Shh Wal Allh begins by setting up two preliminary principles: 1. one should proceed from the premise that the inconsistency discovered is not real,but only produced by our mind and wrong understanding; 2. unless contradictions are too obvious to negate,one may adopt any line of conduct prescribed in a tradition. When,however,in our eyes two traditions seem to conflict - one stating that the Prophet acted in this way and another reporting that he acted in that way - and concern customs and not matters of worship,they are actually not opposing one another; one of them mentions something that is recommendable and the other something that is permitted... In keeping with this criterion one 127. ought to settle questions whether one has to raise the hands during the salt to the ears or merely to the shoulders... Or there may be a hidden reason for legislation because of which at a given point of time one course of action is obligatory,and at another moment the other course of action is prescribed; or a mode of procedure is obligatory at one time,whereas at another moment there is a dispensation from this obligation. Hence it is requisite to search for the rationales (ìlal)... and if the rationales appear to be different,one ought to act accordingly. To give an example: Once a young man asked the Prophet whether he was allowed to kiss his wife during the fast. The answer was in the negative. It was,however,conceded to an old man. From the context we can gather that it was refused in the first instance because of its being harmful to the soul; but with the old man, who was too strict on himself,the case was otherwise... When,however,it is impossible to reconcile two contradictory traditions or to explain them by each other,and when nothing is known of an abrogating factor (naskh),then they turn out to be undeniably opposing one another,so that one must make a choice between the two. An instance of it are the traditions treating the questions whether a wud' is required or not after touching one's privy member; or whether a marriage is permissible for a pilgrim in the state of temporary consecration when performing the pilgrimage,or not. Still preferable is the tradition which is based on more transmitters,or authorized by a transmitter who is a specialist in religious law,... or whose the text is more convincing and without ambiguity,or whose the rule and rationale are more in conformity with the injunctions of the sharà (H.B. I,138 f.,173). A study of hadths also proves that a lot of disagreement existed among the Companions and Successors themselves about the legal import deducible from acts and statements of the Prophet. The Delhi divine,however,is in no way abashed by this condition of things: I declare that at a given moment God inspired me with a criterion ( mzn) to indicate the cause of any difference of opinion among the members of the religious community of Mohammed... In consequence of this,a treatise useful for this purpose has come into being which I have called 'Fair Elucidation of the Cause of Disagreement' (Insf 2 f.). In the exposition that follows we read: You should realize that the Messenger of God has not composed legal works in his blessed age and did not discuss laws at that time as today's faqhs are doing... The line usually taken in the entourage of the Prophet was like this: When,for instance,he performed the wud' in the presence of the Companions,they simply imitated him and did not receive any additional explanation of a special basic element or preferred mode of behaviour... They rarely put questions... During his lifetime they interrogated about thirteen matters which are all recorded in the Qur'n... From the context they used to infer the purpose of a thing,whether it was permitted or a desirable act,or an abolished rule,and so on. With such indications and indicia they could manage... Once,after the death of Mohammed,the Companions had dispersed over various 128. regions,each one had become the model in the place they settled; so they were asked on many occasions for a legal opinion about questions arisen. Each of them answered according to what he had retained in his memory or had deduced from the behaviour of the Prophet. When that Companion had retained nothing in his memory about a certain matter and had no deduction available,he tried to find his own solutions to legal problems (Insf 3 f.). Thereupon various legal differences arose among them owing to the following causes: Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
82 a) One companion had heard a rule referring to a certain affair or a legal opinion,but another Companion had not. So the latter tried to find his own solution... An instance of this is what the Imm Mlik relates about Ab Hurayra in Muwatta II,89,namely that to the latter's persuation the fast will not be valid for him who starts a day in Ramadn in the state of major ritual impurity. He held this view until some wives of the Prophet told him that he was wrong,and that the Prophet did fast even if in the morning he were in a state of grave pollution. Consequently,Ab Hurayra retracted his opinion... b) Differences in evaluation. Companions had observed a certain activity of the Prophet. The one made the conclusion that it was to be valued as a means of drawing near to God,while another Companion considered it merely an ethically indifferent action... c) Disagreement based on a conjecture (wahm).When,for example, people saw the Messenger of God performing the pilgrimage,some of them imagined that he did this as somebody who performs the hajj as such,others that he did so as somebody who combines the ùmra (Little Pilgrimage) and the hajj without a break,and again others that he did so as somebody who performs the ùmra first,then enjoys the freedom of normal life,not assuming the state of ritual consecration again until the last minutes of the hajj... d) Disagreement because of inadvertence and forgetfulness. An instance of this is what is related by tradition about Ibn Ùmar (d. 693) who had asserted: The Messenger of God once performed the ùmra in the month Rajab. When À'isha learnt this,she stated that Ibn Ùmar was under a misapprehension (Bu. Ùmra 3). e) Disagreement owing to a hasty conclusion. An example of this is the statement handed down from Ibn Ùmar that the dead will be tormented by the lamentation of his family over him. Thereupon À'isha remonstrated that he had not caught the true purport of the words of the Messenger of God spoken when the bier of a Jewess passed before him and the members of her family were bewailing her: They are weeping over her while she is tormented in her grave. From these words Ibn Ùmar had understood that the torment was actually related to the lamentation (Mu. Jan'iz 25). f) Disagreement in respect of the rationale of a rule. An instance of this is the rule concerning standing up on seeing a bier. One says: it is done out of respect for the angels - then it applies to every dead person,a believer as well as an infi-del; another says: it is done out of respect for death - then again it applies to every dead person -; but someone else mentions: a bier carrying a Jew was brought past the Messenger of 129. God. Then he stood up,because he did not like having it higher than his head - then it applies only to an infidel (Mu. Jan'iz 78). g) Disagreement because of a different reconciling of two conflicting rulings. An example of this is that the Messenger of God granted permission to contract temporary marriages in the Year of Khaybar (i.e. A.H. 7) and then forbade it. Later in the Year of Awts (i.e. after the battle of Hunayn in A.H. 8) he again permitted it and then forbade it. Ibn Àbbs states: 'The dispensation was on account of a state of emergency. Yet the prohibition continued to exist. The majority of the Companions, however,held that the dispensation was a temporary concession and that the prohibition has abrogated this' ( Insf 8 f.,11-14). h) Disagreement due to different ranks of eminence. One Companion was a rightly guided solitary,another a caliph,again another a faqh,and again another a super-faqh 1} (Khizna 10). In short,the Companions of the Prophet held different views ( madhhib); and similarly the Successors derived from them whatever each of them thought proper for his own use... Thus everyone of the Successors entertained his own opinions and every region had its own appointed imm as,for instance,... al-Hasan al-Basr (d. 728) in Basra and T's b. Kaysan (d. 724) in Yemen (Insf 15 f.). Disclosure of Underlying Ideas (asrr) in the Texts of Hadth As we have found before this,part of Shh Wal Allh's vocation was to expose asrr contained in traditions. Thus the prophetic saying: 'He who beats the cheeks,tears the front of his garments,and cries out as people did in pre-Islamic times,does not belong to us' (Bu. Jan'iz 36 & 39) appears to cover three aspects,t.w. a) a psychological ground: by excessive mourning grief is the more intensified; someone afflicted by bereavement is like a sick man whose illness should be cured and whose pain should not be doubled; b) a religious feature; immoderate lamentation may indicate unwillingness to resign to the divine decree; c) a moral aspect: making a public show of one's sorrow was a bad custom dating from pre-Islamic times,so it should be discontinued (H.B. II,38). A spiritual interpretation is given of the tradition stating: 'The souls of martyrs having ascended to Paradise abide in the crops of green birds which are perched on lanterns hanging from the Throne' (Mu.Imra 121). Here the Delhi divine elucidates: They are birds,because they summarily reflect properties peculiar to angels in the same way as birds reflect properties peculiar to animals upon the earth. They are green because this is a colour which is delightful to see ( H.B. II,172 f.). Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
83 On the other hand in his exegesis of traditions Shh Wal Allh also knows how to display commonsense. With reference to the prophetic statement: 'When one of you yawns during the salt he must restrain it as much as possible,for the devil enters through 130. his mouth' (Mu. Zuhd 59),he says: I declare the meaning of this is that yawning may occasion the entering of flies and the like which disturb the concentration of one's mind a nd create a diversion (H.B. II,13). In explanation of Mohammed's argument that one ought to clean the nose three times if one performs ablutiion for the devil spends the night in the innermost part of one's nose (Mu. Tahra 23),he says: (I declare:) It means that a clogged nose may cause dullness and nightmares ( H.B. I,175). _________________ {1} See also Tafh. I,213 which reports that the Companions differed because of their different pattern of life. Among them there were soldiers,artisans and merchants who had to work for a living and 'were journeying in the land' (Qur'n IV,101),as well as devotees and ascetics who had made themselves free from occupation.
84 131.
Chapter twelve: the Sharia

Birth of the sharà
As soon as the point was reached in the process of creation that man's external form and properties had become manifest, special provisions were made for him: When the Crucial Moment,which in the Revelation is called 'the Blessed Night wherein all things are disposed in wisdom' ( Qur'n XLIV,3 f.) had come,a concentration of spiritual entities (consisting of laws for mankind) was generated in the World of Sovereignty (malakt) which is composed of the moral rules (ahkm) for the human species combined with the requirements of the moment (H.B. I,25). God's legislative activity is in fact the complement of His destination of things in the universe (Sat. 15). Legislation sees to it that man's angelic and bestial potentialities function properly and remain in a state of equilibrium so that bliss will ultimately become his share in the Hereafter. With this end in view,divine Providence prepared 1}two kinds of directives: 1. measures designed for situations,actions and ethical qualities which are not conditioned by time and place. Consequently,the irtifqt (devices for futher progress) were instituted,and the principles of good and evil were established,by which men are inspired in the same fashion as nature inspires bees and sparrows; 2. rules adapted to changes of time and place. For that purpose various sharàs were revealed in the course of history (Tafh. I,239) The varieties of sharàs are comparable with rainwater that comes down from heaven. When reaching the earth it is immediately affected by regional conditions on the spot. Hence,ponds in the first and the second climate (region of the terrestrial sphere) contain different kinds of water (Tafh. II,23). The fixation of the times for the salt furnishes an example of how provisions of the sharà are adapted to natural conditions. Regions with a moderate climate are kept in mind,in which day and night are of the same length and where the customary division of time is by one fourth of a day,i.e. a period of three hours (H.B. I,188). Equally,the customs prevalent in an area are considered: in the Islamic regulations regarding ritual food,account had been taken of what the ancient Arabs did or did not like to eat (Khizna 8). In consequence of the principle that a sharà ought to fit in with existing local practices and religious observances,the prophets,as bearers of a sharà,had to sort out what might still be usable material for the refinement of souls (Tafh. I,68). Abraham started by refuting astrology when he saw that the people to whom he was sent used the Ka`ba as a temple of the sun,moon and other heavenly bodies,but the building itself he left intact,and the rituals he made obligatory were more or less the same as the ways of worship to which people were accustomed in the days of paganism ( Tafh. I,67). Similarly,the pre-Islamic 132. usage of the walma (wedding dinner-party) was allowed to continue because of the many beneficial contingencies it contained. Some correction had to be made in it,however. Thus the Prophet forbade the use of this institute as a means of emulation in dignity,resulting in a total dissipation of property (H.B. II,130). On the other hand,pre-Islamic Arabs could also suffer from excessive scrupulosity. For instance,they thought it forbidden to carry on trade during the hajj-period,as it would affect the pious intentions of a pilgrim. In Qur'n II,198 (No grievance can be held against you,if you seek bounty from your Lord during the pilgrimage),this misconception of theirs was rectified ( H.B. II,56). If a custom had to be abolished,the divine management furnished compensations so that people might not become confused. Thus the Arabs of pre-Islamic days used to throw arrows if they needed to find proper times and means for a journey,a marriage and so on. Since it was pure gambling,the Prophet had to repeal this custom.However,as a substitute Mohammed established the institute of istikhra, i.e. the prayer performed with the hope of receiving divine advice and enlightenment through which people are instructed how to manage their affairs (H.B. II,19). In other words,according to the Delhi divine in His revelatory activities Allh proves to be a prudent educator who adopts the rites and rules of obligatory worship to the surroundings and situation of the various tribes and regions. Accordingly,due to dissimilar state s of affairs and distinct considerations of expediency,the legislations of prophets differed... Thus,for example God did not permit the Jews to take spoils (see Joshuah,ch. VI),but He allowed us to do so (see Qur'n VIII,70: Enjoy what you have taken as booty,such as is lawful and good),having regard to our weak economic position ( H.B. I,89).
The Need of a Universal Sharà
On the other hand,one should also realize that a mixing of institutionalized religions ( milal) may give rise to bigotry and squabbles. In this connection Shh Wal Allh refers to critical observations made in Kalla wa-Dimna, the well-known Indian mirror for princes. In an introduction to it the uncertainty of religions is discussed. It represents a situation that calls for a leader who has to unite quarrelsome communities into Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
85 one milla. To this end he ought to supply a model sharà, suitable for inhabitants of the moderate regions,for Arabs as well as non-Arabs. At the same time he should take into consideration the knowledge and standard of civilization of his own people, attaching to them more importance than to those of other nations. All the same he must induce all men to follow that model sharà, for the whole benefit of a standard legislation would be lost if it were still left to every nation separately or to leaders of every age to produce their private sharàs... Consequently, when framing religious,civil and social laws,the best and easiest way for that leader is that he should reckon only with the customs of the people to whom he has been sent. The laws laid down should 131. not be so rigid as to prove a hardship for those who will come later 2},but in the manner that on the whole they might abide by them. The first believers will be drawn to the acceptance of that sharà out of inner conviction and because of its correspondence with their customs,while later generations will be attracted by the exemplary lives of leaders and caliphs of the community. Thus it will happen in a natural way to all people in every age,whether ancient or modern (H.B. I,118).
Practicality of the Sharà
The Delhi divine disagrees with the Muslim philosophers who claim that the phrasing of sharà rules has no significance in itself and should merely serve the purpose of aiding people to understand ethical principles. This is an underestimation of the factual import of divine laws and codes. The truth is that from the standpoint of God such statutes are absolutely indispensable to ordinary people if they have to implement religion (H.B. I,6 & 92). Hence,the divine Law itself has been revealed in the language of common folk (H.B. I,94),and the Prophet usually did not explain a deeper sense than would be implied in the commands and interdictions given. On the other hand,Shh Wal Allh does not want to identify himself with the custodians of the sharà who content themselves with those forms. As in so many cases the right solution appears to be to steer a middle course: An acknowledgment of the relevance of moulds and forms for divine injunctions does not release a scholar from the duty of inquiring which ideas and spirit may lie at the root of them ( H.B. I,92). One of the primary aims Shh Wal Allh had in view with his standard work Hujjat Allh al-bligha is precisely to elucidate the various sound reasons for the obligations God has imposed upon His worshippers. Thus,for instance, considerations of expediency,recognizable in the rule that sand,and not another means,has been prescribed for the rite of tayammum (ritual purification with sand,allowed when water is unavailable),are: a) as a rule sand is everywhere in hand; b) as such it is already a cleansing agent for certain objects,like a boot,a sword; c) covering one's face with dust is an expression of humility and fits well with asking forgiveness (H.B. I,180). Equally,it bears testimony to the wisdom of the expounder of the sharà that he cancelled the obligation of a forenoon-salt,since peasants,traders and artisans usually follow their pursuits in the period between dawn and mid-day (H.B. I,188). In explanation of the rationale behind the prohibition of zin (unlawful fornication),the Delhi scholar argues: Masculine types,like male animals,have a craving for females and brook no rival in their sexual intercourse; but unlike their fellow creatures men do not fight each other because of it... For intuitively the human being feels that such internal fights would lead to a demolition of their cities... Consequently,it is suggested that he keep to his own wife and not start a fight for 134. the woman set aside for another. This is the very basis of the interdiction of zin (H.B. I,81). Because of this the science of fiqh is the most noble,profitable and comprehensive of all disciplines ( Musaww 4). However,this does not alter the fact,that we still meet regulations in the Law,of which the grounds seem adventitious. An instance of this is the arbitrarily fixed minimum amount of property liable to payment of the zakt-tax. It is not clear why God decided this share for us instead of another amount (H.B. I,130). Nevertheless,nobody is at liberty to suspend obedience to a rule prescribed in a sound tradition on the ground that one cannot understand what the good of it might be. The Prophet,after all,has a more reliable grasp of things than we have. The reason,according to Shh Wal Allh,why Mohammed mostly abstained from disclosing a deeper meaning implied in commands and prohibitions lies in the circumstance that in the opinion of statesmen subjects of a nation judge the practicality of laws by their visible results,lacking the competence to form a correct conception of the motives for introducing certain rules. For the same reason the rightly guided caliphs devoted greater efforts to establishing the forms of the true religion than to their spiritual dimensions. So the saying of Ùmar is handed down: Even when I perform the salt,I calculate the tributes of Bahrayn or ponder how to equip an army (H.B. I,102 f.). Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
86
Typical Traits of the Sharà
In God's laws of legislation and of procreation public weal outweighs private interests. The coitus interruptus e.g. is considered reprehensible,though not forbidden,for it is in a person's private interest to practise it with a woman captive,whereas it is not in the interests of the general community,to which continuation of posterity is vital (H.B. II,134 f.). Further,the sharà aims at the happy mean,and avoids extremes. There are,for instance,people who have a distaste for all sorts of binding up and prefer to leave their hair dishevelled; and there are people who appear entirely occupied in adorning themselves. In this matter the Prophet pursues a just middle course,when advising: Do the opposite of what polytheists do,let the beard grow and clip the moustache (H.B. II,191). Then,God's injunctions aim at rendering matters easy for man,and He declares: God means ease for you,and desires not hardship for you ( Qur'n II,185). Once the Prophet said to Ab Ms and Mu`dh b. Jabal,when he sent them to Yemen: Be easy with the people and do not make things difficult... This purpose may be substantiated in various ways: a) for the rituals no basic principle or condition should be imposed that will be hard for people. Therefore the Prophet stated on a certain occasion: Would I not have thought i t a burden to my community,I would have prescribed brushing the teeth before every salt; b) religious duties should also include habits which they can 135. glory in,like the custom to keep mosques clean,the practice of perfuming oneself on Fridays,reciting the Qur'n in a melodious way,calling people to prayer by someone with a nice voice,and so on; c) being relieved of what arouses a distate,like the leadership in prayer of a slave,or a Bedouin; d) if anything burdensome had to be imposed,it should be administered in doses. Correspondingly,À'isha relates: At first,the sras XLIX till CXIV,were revealed in which mention is made only of Paradise and Hell; not until people had come in crowds towards Islam laws were enacted concerning what was forbidden and what was permitted. Had the prohibition been revealed in the beginning: You should not drink wine,people would have said: We will never cope with it!; e) Mohammed avoided doing things on account of which people might become disconcerted. For that reason he has omitted some acts which by themselves were desirable. Thus he stated to À'isha: Had your people not been pagans in the recent past,I would have torn down the Ka`ba (Mu. al- hajj,399)(H.B. I,111 f.); f) in order to facilitate things for men the Prophet could pronounce alternative decisions,like giving alternate provisions for expiation. However,in the case of alternative precepts there is always the possibility that in God's judgment one of the two alternatives is more meritorious than the other,just as an ordinance as interpreted strictly (àzma) is superior to availing oneself of a dispensation ( rukhsa)(Ìqd 29 and 24). Equally,a rukhsa in respect of the qibla (direction of prayer) is given to the one who in the darkness calculates it as precisely as possible (H.B. I,103); g) another inference from the principle of 'rendering easy',drawn by the Delhi reformer,is his rejection of forced hardness and excessive strictness in respect of duties prescribed by the sharà. Both attitudes,so he warns,lead to tahrf ('distortion',sc. of what is intended by the injunctions). As an example of forced hardness he mentions the erroneous view of certain people that the consumption of a light meal shortly before daybreak would infringe the law of fasting,while taking a vow of celibacy is given as an instance of excessive strictness (H.B. I,120). In avoiding forced hardness,the Delhi scholar concludes,and by not multiplying to excess the ways of registering the limits,the Prophet has observed a great expediency,viz. the consideration that these matters go back to circumstances which in broad outline are met in common convention (ùrf)... In such circumstances the Prophet has referred men to their own good sense,so that a harmonious society could be built up (Ìqd 41 f. and 45). To this end a judge of the sharà has to fulfil the following conditions: He should never have been a slave,is a male,both adult and sagacious,qualified and with a competent knowledge of juridico-human relations and of the artifices of the disputants in their litigation. He must be at the same time strict and forbearing (H.B. I,47). 136.
Evaluation of the Madhhib (schools of religious laws)
By nature Shh Wal Allh did not favour the principle of taqld very much,i.e. being obliged to follow the legal decisions of a particular madhhab. In a passage in his autobiography he tells us that in the period between the death of his father and his journey to the Hijz he felt most affinity with the jurists,found among the experts of the science of hadth (al-Juz' al-latf 27). In other words,at that time he was a ghayr muqallid,i.e. somebody who considered himself not bound by obedience to any of the four schools,and who was Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
87 free to seek guidance in matters of religious faith and practice from the authentic traditions. However,because of experiences with teachers belonging to different legal schools,his stay in Haramayn brought him another way of thinking. In a vision,divine guidance made it clear to him why he had a rooted dislike of taqld,and why not- withstanding he had to take heed of this institution ( Fuyd,33rd Vision). In another vision he had the opportunity of asking the Prophet himself which madhhab should be given preference. Then he was told that all madhhabs are of equal value. Not a remarkable verdict in itself,as it is the dominant view of Islam that a man of sound scholarship will never give preference to one madhhab over another. This opinion is usually based on the saying of Mohammed that disagreement in religious matters is a blessing for the community. Yet for the Delhi savant discord in the umma of his days was rather a curse than otherwise. Accordingly,the argument used in that same vision for the equivalence of the four schools appears to be a different one. Here the Prophet indicates that,because all of them care for the fundamentals of Islamic legislation,they are equally valid. The Prophet proved to have no interest at all in the so-called fur` (the body of positive rules),derived from the sharà; and in view of this lack of interest on the part of the Prophet the divergencies between the schools are to be taken lightly ( Fuyd,10th Vision). It is the 46th vision that,in the end,affords Shh Wal Allh a mysterious insight into the truth of the madhhabs and their relative value. A clear distinction is made between the Hanaf and the other schools. Whether the Hanaf or the remaining schools carry greater weight depends on the criterion applied. If we judge of them from the aspect of their relative agreement with the very purport of the statements made by the Messenger of God and his Companions,the other madhhabs are to be preferred. On the other hand,if all attention is concentrated upon the requirements of the time present and the taste and conditions of the non-Arabs,the Hanaf school is far preferable to the others. A final solution is received in the 31th vision: Thereupon a method was revealed to me showing how I could bring the Hanaf fiqh into harmony with the sunna; and that is by selecting from the three most authoritative Hanaf scholars (sc. Ab Hanfa,Ab Ysuf and al-Shaybn) the view that fits in best with the traditions. From works written after the Fuyd al-Haramayn we can gather that the Delhi scholar became more and more fascinated by the 137. working-method of al-Shfi`: The madhhab of al-Shfi`,which gets to the root of things,is among the four the most in agreement with the sunna. This imm,in deed,quickly discovers the rationales (ìll) and designations (asbb) (given by the law maker for an injunction) (Khizna 10). In his survey of the causes of divergencies between the schools,Shh Wal Allh concludes that the madhhab of al-Shfi` appears to have at its command the most qualified lawyers capable of independent reasoning,is the best provided with qualified Qur'n exegetes and experts of hadth,is the best at verifying the statements of the founder, the strongest in distinguishing between the opinions of the founder and the points of view of his associates,and the most scrupulous when giving certain opinions and points of view preference over others ( Insf 77 f.). Mazhar Baq has established that in 70 out of 80 decisions of Ab Hanfa,which he rejects,the Delhi prefers the view of al-Shfi` (Mazhar Baq,Usl-i fiqh awr Shh Wal Allh,Islamabad 1973,40). In the meantime,year by year the conviction grew upon him that under present conditions the right course for Muslim India was to combine the schools of Ab Hanfa and al -Shfi` into one madhhab. For this purpose the rules of both schools should be examined in the light prophetic traditions recorded in compilations of traditions; whatever be founded in complete conformity with them should be retained and whatever appears to be without a basis or confirmation should be discarded ( Tafh. I,212)3}.In the end of his life he felt called upon to a still vaster assignment. In the preface of his last book he confesses to have been directed by the spirit of the Prophet to try to accommodate all four madhhabs (Muqaddima-i Musaff 3). Accordingly,his two commentaries on the Muwatta',entitled al-Musaww and al-Musaff,are the concrete results of this endeavour. Mazhar Baq has worked out that in these two works the opinion of al-Shfi` is valued the highest 133 times,while Ab Hanfa,Mlik,and Ahmad b. Hanbal score only 21,19,and 5 respectively (al-Rahm,May 1965,36).
Ijtihd and Taqld
Shh Wal Allh is not exactly an adherent of the doctrine of the closure of the door of ijtihd (independent reasoning concerning a legal or theological question,based on the interpretation of the Qur'n and the custom of the Prophet): The simpletons of our time,so he complains,are totally averse from ijtihd. Like she-camels,in the nose of which a piece of wood is put to guide them,they do not know whither they are going. Ijtihd is actually a fard kifya (a collective duty,the fulfilment of which by a sufficient number of individuals excuses the other individuals from fulfilling it) for every epoch,since every age has its own countless specific problems,and cognizance of the divine decisions with respect to them is essential Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
88 (Musaff I,11). Qualifications required for ijtihd are knowledge of the Qur'n and sunna with regard to juridical and moral rules,expertise in the field of ijm`,of the conditions required 138. for qiys,and of the mode of rational and discursive thinking. One should also have a sound knowledge of Arabic,of abrogating and abrogated verses in the Qur'n. But for ijtihd the sciences of defensive apologetics (kalm) and jurisprudence are not required ('Iqd 9 f.). The Delhi jurist himself claims to hold the office of a mujtahid within the boundaries of a madhhab (F.K. 39 f.). The occupant of this office is qualified to exercise ijtihd whenever an affair comes up for which he does not find an unequivocal judgment of the founder of the madhhab. He has the right to elicit judgments in the same manner and by proceeding analogously the verdicts of the founder for deriving responses in new cases (Ìqd 17). He has acquired so much knowledge of the Qur'n and prophetic traditions that in the case of disagreement with views of former jurists he can give preponderance to the view he thinks weightier. Though his equipment may not be as perfect as that of a mujtahid in the strict sense,still someone like him can harmonize the opinions of two with one another,if he knows their proofs ( H.B. I,157). As is mentioned above,the Delhi divine had little liking for taqld,i.e. the assumption that the work of interpretation and expansion had been exhaustively accomplished by the great jurists of the past,and accordingly the privilege of ijtihd was replaced by the duty of unquestioning adoption of their legal decisions: I swear by God that He is too lofty and too righteous to charge men with observance of a particular law till the Day of Resurrection,and then impose it upon them as if they were blind in mind,not able to distinguish between what is true and what is baseless ( Tafh. I,209). On the other hand,Shh Wal Allh - as a rule on preserving the just balance - has written a chapter in his Ìqd under the title 'Emphasis on adopting the lead of the four schools and a serious warning against with-drawing the association with them' (Ìqd 53). And in another treatise he sets forth that under certain conditions a particular madhhab may be the only one fit to be followed strictly. Thus e.g. in India and Transoxiana,where no Shfiìte,Mlikite or Hanbalite jurists are available,an unlettered person is bound to conform to the rules of the Hanafite school,having no other choice (Insf 70). And in the Hujjat Allh al-bligha (I. 154) he even goes to the point of contending that it is a boon to the umma of his days when a consensus appears to exist concerning the lawfulness of taqld. At the same time Shh Wal Allh is able to formulate reasons why it might even be very expedient to rely on the statutes of only one madhhab. They are: 1. the agreement of the umma that for the knowledge of the sharà people need the support of the ancestors; 2. the prophetic command: Conform yourselves to the collective body of the Muslims; 3. since the ages which were memorable for blessedness are past,people must be withhold from trusting in evil ùlam' who follow their private heretic tendencies (Ìqd 54-7). 139. Still limits to the allegiance are required. Taqld is correct only as long as the mujtahid,in whom one puts his trust,issues decisions that are in agreement with the sunna. Taqld is naturally unjustifiable if one assumes a legal scholar to be such a perfect expert that he never can fail (Ìqd 121 ff.). After all,every ijtihd of each mujtahid,even though he be a Companion of the Prophet,may be liable to error ( Izla I,19).
Ijm` and Qiys
In the mind of Shh Wal Allh only a very limited period of existence is to be allotted to the factual functioning of ijm`,i.e. the consensus of opinion among mujtahids on a regulation imposed by God: On issues,which had remained unsolved in the time of the Prophet and Ab Bakr,an ijm` was reached during the days of Ùmar; whatever has been left unsettled by Ùmar will continue to be controversial till the Day of Judgment,and no conformity about it can ever be reached ( Qurrat 59f.). In a later work Shh Wal Allh extends the period up to and inclusive the caliphate of Ùthmn (Izla I,283). It is unimaginable that in later epochs all the legists dispersed over the whole Muslim world could assemble simultaneously in order to fix a communis opinio on legal questions. At the most we can claim that before the establishment of madhhabs we still may have to do with an implicitly understood (sukt) ijm`. Accordingly,the Delhi scholar refuses to endorse the generally accepted interpretation of Mohammed's saying: My community will never agree upon an error as implying a confirmation of the validity of perpetual ijm`-activities. In his opinion these words merely indicate that there will always be a group of people in the umma who will maintain the command of God (Izla I,113 & 118; Tafh. II,118): They are the divine Proofs (hujjat Allh) on earth,though they may be small in number (Insf 92). Ijm` does not mean,so Shh Wal Allh warns in another place,that each individual is entitled to produce a ra'y (personal opinion) by means of his own reflection which turns out to b e based on an expediency of the time instead of on the sacred Law of Islam ( Izla I,56). As for the method of qiys (judicial reasoning by analogy),Shh Wal Allh makes a distinction between the Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
89 procedure pursued by the Prophet and the more restricted possibilities the legists of the community have at their disposal: When God had revealed to His Prophet a statute of the sharà and had demonstrated the good reason of it,the latter was qualified to operate with the salutory purpose ( maslaha) (set out to him),and to take the maslaha as the rationale (ìlla) and pivot of the statute. This was the qiys practised by the Prophet. But the qiys left to the umma is to find out the rationale underlying a statute,and to take that as its pivot (H.B. I,108). The qiys of its learned scholars,however,is not valid for a showing up of a maslaha (H.B. I,130). The most essential reason why,according to the Delhi scholar,the notion of maslaha must be kept out of the hand of Muslim jurists,is that it does not constitute the chief element of laws. By maslaha is to be understood information about 140. character-building,offered by the divine Lawgiver and realizable through the acquirement of ethical qualities (like e.g. sagacity and bravery) that are beneficial in this world and the next. The principles of good and evil,which the Lawgiver laid down to this end,are as such not supplemented with fixed quantities (maqdr),nor with specific restrictive ordinancies.It comprehends the refinement of the soul through the acquisition of the four virtues,t.w. purity,humility,munificence,and justice. However,along with the appearance of Messengers of God knowledge of far'id (obligatory religious duties),systems of law,and restrictive ordinances were introduced. By means of maqdr instantiations (maznn)4} as well as precise and well-known marks were laid down for maslahas (salutory purposes). Apparently,divine wisdom thought it more relevant to provide the common folk,who do not feel happy with abstract reasonings,with concrete injunctions than to leave them with general ethical lines of conduct which they themselves would have to work out (H.B. I,129 f.). Besides,the number of specific rules imposed is so great that it becomes impossible for the masses to comply with all the requirements of good upbringing and most excellent standards,because this would be imposing something impossible for those who are charged with all kinds of jobs. Here the legal concept of illa can bring relief.Ìlla denotes the most proximate reason and rationale for a ruling (hukm). Thus e.g. kindling of evil acts is the ìlla for the hukm that it is prohibited to drink alcohol. For the establishment of an illa it is necessary to take the clearest possible evidence and definition as criterions of its practicality. An instance of this is the permission to shorten the salt or to break the fast in case of a journey or an illness. Analogous rationales that could have been chosen are,for instance,connected with such strenuous trades as agriculture or blacksmithing,but their evidence is less clear,so that the divine order would be disturbed if they were regarded as an ìlla to break the fast. Trades like these are means of subsistence on which people depend for their survival. Equally,heat and cold are no suitable rationales,since it is difficult to determine which temperature ought to be taken as standard. Consequently,only those easily ascertainable cases have been taken into account that were generally accepted as being excusable hardships in the early period of the umma,to wit a journey and an illness (H.B. I,94 f.). As it is correct to apply qiys by means of an ìlla,it is permitted to perform the salt seated,if during a voyage somebody suffers from seasickness. A concomitant maslaha,on the contrary,can never serve as substitute of an ìlla. The person who omits one of the prescribed salts commits a sin,even if at that time he is occupied with the recitation of a dhikr or other acts of worship. He who drinks wine with the intention of medical use is nothwithstanding sinning (H.B. I,130). In short,jurists hold an individual opinion (ra'y) if they take the expected occurrence of harm or expediency as the rationale of a ruling (Insf 29). Actually,people fascinated by the niceties 141. of ra'y are not Sunnites at all (Khizna 10),for ra'y in connection with the sharà leads to tahrf (falsification of a text) (Tafh. I,40; II,133). Hence the prophetic verdict: He who inserts in our religion something that is foreign to it,is to be repulsed (Bu. I`tism 3) also has a bearing on anybody who makes use of istihsn (advancing an arbitrary personal opinion not founded on logical reasoning for reasons of public convenience) (H.B. I,169)5}. ___________________ {1} I.e. in the space lying between the hajar al-bahts of the mala a`l and the tajall a`zam,the forms of the sharàs were prefigurated (Qurrat 328). {2} Hence the Prophet urged the people not to inquire after all kinds of legal details so that specific aspects could be kept to a minimum and later generations might not feel troubled by rules which did no longer meet the requirements of the age (H.B. I,91). {3} This passage in the Tafhmt is quoted by the Pakistani divine Abu'l-Àl' Mawdd in his monograph Tajdd wa ihy'-i dn (Lahore 1963),107. The logical inference that Shh Wal Allh was apparently not Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
90 adverse to talfq (jurisprudential harmonization) has moved the Turkish divine Hseyn Hilmi Isik to great indignation: Upon reading these lines in Mawdd's book, a moslem who knows his religion and sect get s infuriated. In truth,we cannot believe that shah Veliyyullah would think so ignorantly and so indecently (The Religion Reformers in Islam,Istanbul 1970,211). {4} The maznn take the place of the principles of righteousness and sin; they are their embo diments and perceptible counterparts (H.B. I,92). {5} Here again Shh Wal Allh underlines a favourite idea of al-Shfi`: He who engages himself in istihsn,the latter declares indignantly,wants to become a lawgiver (Insf 29). Istihsn is a principle in particular adhered to by the Hanafites.
91 142.
Chapter thirteen: True and False Religion

The essential text for the establishment of what is to be qualified as 'true religion',is the Qur'nic verse which states that pure faith stands for what is consonant with man's inherent nature (fitra) created in him by God (Qur'n XXX,29). The very mainstay of an upright worshipper is his fitra,for he knows that his Lord has deposited in it true knowledge and genuine consciousness of God (B.B. 99). Anyone who denies the knowledge which God has put in man's inherent nature and on which the imposition of religious duties is based,is a zendik ( Maktb,9 f.). The worst misfortune of man is to become a materialist (dahr) (H.B. I,79). The fitra virtually amounts to the dn (archetypal religion) which does not change with the current circumstances 1} and on which all of the prophets are in agreement (H.B. I,25). Thus there is a concurrence of opinion among the prophets that no copartners should be attributed to God in man's worship and seeking of aid; that He predetermines all events before He creates them; that Resurrection,Paradise and Hell are realities (i.e. not mere symbols). Equally,there is unanimity on all sorts of rituals,matrimonial affairs,matters of social justice, opposition to the enemies of God and the application of tireless zeal to missionary work. Divergency of views only exists with respect to details of rites and statutes. Thus,for instance,according to the law of Moses one should turn one's face toward the temple of Jerusalem during the salt,whereas the law of our Prophet enjoins that this be done in the direction of the Ka`ba. The law of Moses ordains all committers of illegal intercourse to be stoned to death; the sharà of Mohammed,however,restricts this punishment only to an adulterous muhsan (a free person who has concluded a valid marriage); for others the infliction of lashes will suffice. Differences in legislation were usually due to the divergent situations prophets were faced with. Accordingly,God made booty unlawful for the Jews (see Joshua VI,18 f.),but declared it legally permissible to us in view of our weak economic position (see Qur'n VIII,69) (H.B. I,86- 9). A difference in rules could also arise from considerations of expediency (maslih) which had to be observed in consideration of the diversity of people's dispositions. Hence the Friday was instituted as a special day for the Arabs because of their being illiterate and uneducated. For the Jews,who were enlightened enough to understand dogmatic grounds,the Sabbath was made compulsory because of the tenet that God rested on this day from His work of creation ( H.B. I,89). Apart from that,the Prophet himself had an aversion to theorizing,and used to say: People before you were ruin ed because of their profusion of inquiries and disputations (Mu. Ìlm 2) (H.B. I,91). Although man is endowed with a religious nature,he usually 143. appears unable to acquire the means of seeking proximity to God ( iqtibrt) on his own. Consequently,it became incumbent on God's grace and care for the human race to establish institutionalized religions (milal) (B.B. 181). In the course of time,however,new actions on the part of God became imperative. People,separated from each other through differing rites and institutions of their particular religion,began to vilify each other and to make war on one another. So the truth was hidden. In such conditions there is an urgent need for a rightly guided leader (imm rashd) who will deal with the dissentient religious communities as an intelligent caliph deals with oppressive kings. In fine,now the hour has struck for the arrival of a religion to abolish all other religions. Requisite to the success of such a religion which renders any other religion redundant,is the establishment of a sharà that can supply the necessary material for an in-born religion (madhhab tab`) suitable for occupants of moderate climatic zones,whether Arab or non-Arab. Moreover,the imm who introduces this religion should take in to consideration the knowledge and the standard of civilization of his own people and should give them more importance than those of other nations... Consequently,when framing religious,civil and social laws,the best and easiest way for this imm is to reckon only with the customs of the people to whom he has been sent ( H.B. I,118). God,so Shh Wal Allh sets forth in another writing,wanted to reform the Arabs through the agency of the Prophet and the remaining parts of the earth through the agency of the Arabs. Accordingly,it was necessary that the rules of the sharà were adapted to the customs and habits of the Arabs ( F.K. 48). Should the imm have to control a community of which its members do not yet as a whole adhere to this exemplary religion,the Delhi divine,deems it expedient to divide the subjects into the following three categories: 1. those who are both outwardly and inwardly obedient to the prescriptions of the archetypal religion ( dn); 2. those who willy-nilly are obedient to the imm and powerless to rebel; 3. despicable infidels (kfirs) whom the imm will employ for harvesting, threshing grain and similar work,like beasts are employed for ploughing and carrying burdens. The imm should prevent members of other religions from performing their rites in public. In addition,infidels should not receive the same treatment Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
92 as Muslims in matters as retaliation (qiss), blood- money (diyt),matrimonial affairs and participation in leadership positions,in order that this will drive these others to embrace Islam 2} (H.B. I,119). By the persons of the second category are undoubtedly meant the so-called munfiqn ('hypocrites'). Shh Wal Allh distinguishes two main groups: 1. Those who profess the creed with their tongues but in their hearts are happy with kufr (infidelity). The Qur'nic verdict: They shall be in the lowest stage of the fire of Hell ( Qur'n 144. IV,145) refers to them. 2. Those who are lukewarm in their Muslim faith. To them belong: a) the people who always adapt themselves to the customs of their environment: If they live among Muslims,they become Muslim,and if they find themselves amidst infidels,they become infidels; b) those whose minds are so much taken up with worldly pleasures that no scope is left for love of God and His Messenger; c) those who are so wrapped up in acquiring the necessaries of life that they have no time to pay attention to the Hereafter; d) those who have misconceptions and doubts about the mission of our Prophet,although they still do not remove the yoke of Islam from their necks. Grounds for their doubts regard aspects as: the Prophet's appearing to be subjected to the laws of human existence as anybody else,the fact that the establishment of the religion of Islam had come about through wars of conquest,and so on. Among them also can be counted contemporary scholars of the rational science having their hearts filled with mistrusts,as e.g. with respect to the reality of the life to come; e) people who,out of exclusive affection to the members of their own clan,render assistance only to them,to the detriment of other Muslims and the cause of Islam3}. The first group of munfiqn commit the nifq (dissimulation)of faith; they are fated to Hell. The people of the second group are guilty of nifq of conduct or morals(F.37 ff.). Only for a time they are punished with infernal torments. Thereafter they enter Paradise (Khizna 10). The Delhi divine distinguishes the infidels into four categories: 1. Star-worshippers who are of the opinion that... worshipping the stars would be beneficial in this world,and that raising pressing needs to them is legitimate (H.B. I,59). 2. Worshippers of saints. Anyone who goes to the tomb of Mu`n al -Dn Hasan in Ajmer,or the shrine of Slr Mas`d Ghz in Bahr'ich in order to get an urgent desire gratified commits a sin graver than murder or adultery. Nay,it is equivalent to infidelity (kufr). People's worship of their living shaykhs,or of their shrines if they are dead,is one of the worsest diseases of our time. The foolish blindly follow the example of the Hindu infidels who worship idols. What people have devised in the matter of shrines,taking them as grounds where melas (fairs) are held, belongs to the worst heresies (Tafh. II,45,63 f.). 3. Polytheists. Their basic error is that they adhere to certain holy persons and angels whom they believe to be intermediaries of God and the very fulfillers of their needs. Yet,they do not attribute copartners to God in respect of the creation of,for instance,the prime elements (jawhir). Equally,they leave the management of major affairs in charge of God only. Further they believe that if God has settled a matter,nobody can prevent it. 4. Jews and Christians. The Christians make the fundamental mistake of endowing Jesus with a property not shared by anyone else,to wit his being created by God without a natural cause... Similarly,Ùzayr (Ezra) is held by the Jews to be without 145. equal,i.e. to be a son of God in a literal sense (Qur'n IX,30). This is totally wrong;it is simply a metaphor. And in former times the term 'son' could mean 'the beloved one','the favoured one' or 'the chosen one' as can also be construed from the context of the New Testament ( F.K. 33). However,by calling Jesus 'the son of God' the Christians believe that he is higher than other created beings and that for this reason he should not be called a 'servant' or considered equal to another person ( H.B. I,59)4}. The Jews believe in the Torah. Their error,however,is that they temper with the text (tahrf),in respect of the language,as well as of the meaning of the Torah; on the one hand hiding verses of it,on the other adding self-devised ones to it. They are not very painstaking if it regards a putting its laws in execution. They suffer a lot from religious bigotry,denying the mission of Mohammed (F.K. 16 & 24). On the other hand,Jews and Christians who lived before the public appearance of the Prophet are to be ranged with the better-class munfiqn who do not belong to the damned but will enter Paradise after undergoing a period of punishment. This inference can be deduced from the Qur'anic statement: We are not to chastice a people until5}We send forth a Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
93 Messenger to them (Qur'n XVII,15) (Khizna 10). Imn (mental comprehension of God) is the quality characteristic of the first category of subjects mentioned above (viz. the people who are both outwardly and inwardly obedient to the dn). The essence and aim of mn is spiritual perfection (ihsn),because of which man becomes an integrated personality: He who strives for spiritual perfection... should devote himself to meditation on the World of divine Essence ( lht)... Thus the worshipper comes to the state of seeing God from a distance... (As a result),God's light and Cloud of Glory (sakna) come upon him (B.B. 112 f.) Shh Wal Allh distinguishes three levels of ihsn. The first one is for men busy with occupations such as crafts, soldiering,and scholarship. This form of ihsn is connected with devotions like du`s (personal invocations) and dhikrs (in which certain fixed phrases are repeated again and again in order to induce a state of inner serenity,of spiritual concentration on God). The second level is for men who desire to walk in the path of Truth. Here the rituals to be performed include fasting,passing the night awake,and recitations spoken aloud.The third level is for him who desires to acquire fan and baq. So he is guided to yd-dsht (constant concentration on the reality of the Self-existent,completely stripped of words and imagination). By applying himself to it with perseverance he is eventually coloured with the colour of Divinity ( Tafh. I,86 f.). Speaking generally,two distinct kinds of faith can be recognized: 1. Faith bearing on conditions relevant to life in this world such as the protection of life and property. Its antonym is kufr (infidelity). Its pillar is formal obedience. So the Prophet stated: He who eats from ritually slaughtered animals,performs his salt and turns his face towards 146. the Ka`ba as we do,is a Muslim who has the protection of God and His Messenger. You should,therefore,not behave unfaithfully to God Who is responsible for your safety (Bu. Salt 28). 2. Faith bearing on conditions relevant to the Hereafter such as rescue from Hell and the attainment of ranks in Paradise. Its antonym is nifq (hypocrisy). Its pillar is every true expression of belief,every laudable act and every virtuous habit. Only in this case do we have to do with faith in the proper sense of the word,and it is this which can increase and decrease (B.B.202;Tafh. II,63). Down to the present day Indian Sunn Muslims have difficulty in considering Sh`s be adherents of the same faith. A salt of a Sunn performed under the direction of a Sh` is not valid and has to be done again. If a Sunn has given his daughter in marriage to a Sh`,he should not figure as leader of the official prayer rituals. In the days of Shh Wal Allh the Sunn-Shà conflicts constituted a constant threat to the stability of the Indian Muslim society. It is,therefore, quite natural that this apostle of unity set himself the task of entering into the disputes of the two parties. One of the most important points of controversy is the individual merit to be assigned to the four 'rightly guided' caliphs. Two major works of the Delhi scholar deal with this. The mere fact that both works are written in Persian and not in Arabic,already indicates that they were chiefly intended for the particular situation at home. This is corroborated by what we read in their introductions. In the Qurrat al-àynayn bi tafdl al-shaykhayn the author begins by remarking that he wrote the work at the instance of his beloved pupil Khwja Muhammad Amn al-Kashmr in order to remove the doubts of people confounded by 'the lustre of heretical views'. In the opening sentence of the Izlat al-khaf' àn khilfat al-khulaf' he states: I declare that in our days the heresy of Shà becomes more and more manifest... and many people in this country are uncertain as to the affirmation of the caliphate of the four rightly guided caliphs. The light of divine guidance,however,made me understand that undoubtedly the recognition of the dignity of their office is correct. The line of argument of the Qurrat al-àynayn,finished about 1740,is that during the reign of the first two caliphs the spiritual atmosphere (nisba) prevailing at the time of Mohammed continued,and exspired with their death. Consequently,Ab Bakr and Ùmar walked in the path of prophethood. The caliphate of Àl inaugurated the era of saintliness and since saints are inferior to prophets,Àl ranked below his predecessors. This is of course a straight refutation of the Sh`s who unanimously regard Àl as the most excellent exponent of the community after Mohammed. Twenty years later,that is to say towards the end of his life,Shh Wal Allh wrote his Izlat al-khaf'. It is a more 147. general and at the same time very exhaustive disquisition on the institute of the caliphate,but the views expounded in it hardly differ from the thoughts set out in the Qurrat al-àynayn. Nonetheless,the Delhi Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
94 author has not always been so confident of his standpoint in this matter. In the Fuyd al-Haramayn,an early book dating from about 1733,he confesses that if it were to obey his inner impulse,he would surely asign a higher rank to Àl,as his affection for him was still greater than the three other rightly guided caliphs (Fuyd,33rd Vision). He renders the following report of a dream in which he is granted the opportunity to interview Mohammed in person: I asked the Prophet about the actual reason why Ab Bakr and Ùmar are to be judged more excellent than Àl,although the latter be of a higher descent,more advanced in sagacity and more stouthearted than the other two,so that the majority of the sfs try to trace their spiritual lineage to him. Then the Prophet made it clear to him that the superiority which stems from the completion of the prophetic mission and which is characteristic of the first two caliphs6},is universal; such in contradiction to sublimity connected with saintliness peculiar to Àl which is 'partial',i.e. of a lower standard ( Tafh. I,246,Qurrat 331,Fuyd,22nd Vision). Besides the visions granted in al-Haramayn,Shh Wal Allh received additional mystical experiences that supplied information about the order of merit of the four great men. After we had contacted the hazra al-quds which is the rallying-point of the spiritual concentrations (himam) of most excellent people,we found the perfection of the souls of Ab Bakr and Ùmar to be different from that of Àl. The rays of the souls of those two shaykhs were like those of a most glaring torch and they were intermingled with the rays of the Prophet's soul... We established simultaneously that the light of Àl's soul in its relation to the Prophet is comparable to the light of the moon that owes its origin to its facing the sun ( Qurrat 330 f.; Tafh. I,244 f.). It is not difficult for Shh Wal Allh to prove that this knowledge about a spiritual origin of the first caliphs accords with Qur'nic teaching. The divine statement: He will surely establish their religion for them ( Qur'n XXIV,55), being a prophecy of the reign of the first caliphs,shows that the Twelver Sh`s are amiss if they assume that an approved religion has to be continuously concealed,and that the imms of the family of the Prophet should constantly practise taqiyya (i.e. dissimulate their religion and hide their religious rituals from their opponents). The same inference can be made from the verse: that He may make the religion of truth victorious over every other religion (Qur'n IX,33). In conformity with divine wisdom this promise was not yet fulfilled at the time of Mohammed. Hence caliphs have been appointed for its realization ( Izlat al-khaf' I,20). On other occasions as well,the opinion of the Prophet is asked for the evaluation of Sh` tenets: I inquired from the rh 148. (spirit) of the Prophet what the latter thought of the Shà which prides itself on showing deep affection towards the family of the Prophet and casting aspersions on the Companions. By means of spiritual speech it intimated that their way of thinking (madhhab) is without foundation and that the baselessness of their creed discloses itself in the conception of imm. If you investigate this,you will discover that in their line of thought an imm is infallible,to be obeyed unquestioningly; he has been appointed for the whole of mankind and receives esoteric revelations; in other words,that he is a prophet or something similar. In fact, the Shà denies the doctrine of Mohammed's being the 'seal of the prophets' ( Tafh. II,244 & 250; Intibh I,8 f.). Yet,on closer examination it turns out that in his appraisal of the Shà the Delhi savant prefers to keep a balance.To counterpoise the voiced disapproval of the Shà as such,a sincere regard is shown for the twelve imms: I saw (during a retreat in a mosque in one of the last ten days of Ramadn) the spirits of the imms originating from the family of the Prophet in the hazra al-quds with a most sublime face and a most beautiful shape. I understood it to be very risky to repudiate them or to be ill-disposed towards them (Tafh. I,107). I have come to recognize that the twelve imms are qutbs (heads in the hierarchy of saints) of one and the same genealogical tree,and that in the course of their successions mystic practice spread about (Tafh. II,245). What is more,Shh Wal Allh's view on the way rightly guided caliphs had to be elected,proves scuriously enough to be more in consonance with Sh` teachings than with Sunn opinions: Men,so he argues,are by nature inclined to follow their lusts and in them Satan flows like their blood. If,therefore,a caliph were to be elected by human ra'y (opinion) (i.e. by the people themselves),it may well be that an unjust caliph,who does not care for the objectives of the caliphate,is chosen... So the institution of a perfect caliphate requires that it is occupied by a wholly reliable caliph who is appointed by designation and hints ( ishrt) of the Prophet (Izlat al-khaf' I,10). Again it is in conformity with the faith of the Twelver Shà but at variance with Sunn persuation when the Delhi divine claims a caliph to be immune to sin ( Izlat al-khaf' I,264). The emphasis he places upon taklf (state of accountability) (H.B. I,19 - 25) is surely more in line with Sh` principles than with Sunn views. And it is in accord with Ism`l tenets when he states that he himself had been nominated as the ntiq (speaking prophet who reveals a new religious law) and a was (legal guardian) of his generation,and that only legal guardians can be credited with a wholly reliable interpretation of the sharà, for knowledge of the sharà from the breast of the Messenger of God falls to their shar e (Tafh. II,135). Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
95 Another concept Shh Wal Allh had in common with Ism`ls was his obstinate belief in progress till the end of history. Thus al-Kirmn (d. 1021) speaks in his work on metaphysical speculation Kitb al-Riyd of the superiority of his own age over the past (cf. pp. 58 f. in H. 149. Corbin's edition of Nsir-i Khusraw's Jmi` al- hikmatayn,Teheran 1953). ___________________ {1} In al-Budr al-bzigha Shh Wal Allh speaks of a universal religion preserved in the World of Prefiguration. From this universal religion particular religions,adapted to the conditions of the time,are continuously pouring out upon a given collective body of men. In addition,God sees to it that the forms of the particular religions are suited to the varying capacities of the individual believers (B.B. 185). 2}In other words,the proselytization programme of Shh Wal Allh only includes the leaders of the Hindu community,and not the low class of the infidels,indispensable and exploitable as they were as subordinate agricultural employees,while their miserable living conditions could at the same time afford a useful and striking illustration of the eminence of Islam (H.B. II,154). {3}In another writing those who are engrossed in poetry or mathematics to such an extent that they cannot make sufficient study of the sharà are also reckoned among the munfiqn (A.Q. 63). {4} For the Christian doctrine of the Trinity Shh Wal Allh manages to furnish an ingenious mystical interpretation. Just as a mystic perceives in himself a luminous point,to wit the hajar al-baht,Jesus discovered in himself three components: a nafs ntiqa which has a correlation with the nafs kulliyya, a rh samaw which has a connexion with the tajall a`zam and a hajar al-baht which has a relationship with the dht baht. On the analogy of this,Christian divines deduced three persons: one called 'Father' representing the central core of the essence of God (dht),the second called 'Son' being tantamount to the nafs kulliyya,and a third called 'Holy Ghost',i.e. equivalent to the tajall a`zam (A.Q. 120 f.). {5} I.e. so Shh Wal Allh deduces,as soon as Mohammed had devulged his religion,it was made obligatory for all people who strive after being consistent with God's will and approval. This implies that,even on the assumption that a Jew or a Christian wants to adhere to the original and true religion without adding anything to it,it is - although an entering into the religion brought by Mohammed and an acknowledgment of his gift of prophecy would not be required for their perfection and proximity to God nevertheless necessary for another reason. The fact is that with the introduction of the true and original religion by the intermediary of Mohammed in the fourth stage of socio -economic development,it was God's intent to deem turning away from it a deed of disobedience and opposition... Consequently,since that moment God's approval and acclaim depend on the obedience to the religion brought by Mohammed and the frank avowal of his gift of prophec y(B.B.199f) {6} It is certainly not without significance,Shh Wal Allh observes in the same passage,that Ab Bakr and Ùmar are buried in the neighbourhood of the Prophet. 150.
Chapter fourteen: religious rites and customs

Sha`'ir
According to Shh Wal Allh,the term sha`'ir (visible symbols) must be taken to mean tangible and concrete entities serving for the worship of God (H.B. I,69). They are adapted to generally accepted views,to what is obvious for everybody and to what the heart can trust implicitly (Fuyd,4th Vision): God directives are founded firstly on the easiest thing and then on what is even more easy ( H.B. I,70). The four most important sha`'ir are the Qur'n,the Ka`ba,the Prophet and the salt... Part of a respectful treatment of the Qur'n is that people listen closely when its verses are recited...,and only touch it after having performed a ritual ablution... Part of a respectful treatment of the Ka`ba is that people may only circumambulate it in a state of ritual purity, ... and that they should keep their face averted from it and turn their back on it when they satisfy a call of nature ... Part of a respectful treatment of the Prophet is the obligation to obey him,to invocate blessings upon him,and to refrain from speaking to him in a loud voice ... The aim of the salt is to arouse people to the consciousness that before God they are in the same position as servants in front of their kings (H.B. I,70). Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
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Salt
In the view of the Delhi divine,excellencies to be attributed to the salt are that of all ways of worship it is the one which is the most important,the best demonstrable,the most widely known and the most profitable (H.B. I,168). So it may relieve needs. Accordingly,the prayer for the petitioning of rain has been instituted; and a special salt has been introduced to remove fear of an eclipse of celestial bodies as well as one whereby a decision is sought with the help of divine inspiration ( istikhra) (B.B. 211). Besides,there is nothing better than the salt for training the lower soul to make the physical nature tractable and obedient to man's reason (H.B. I,73),being a salutory antidote that counteracts the effects of all poisons injurious to spiritual health (B.B. 199). For the goal of all acts of obedience (to which also the salt belongs) is to direct the rational soul to God and to empty it from mean things ... Since (as you know) the limbs obey the khayl (form which is imaged in the mind),the khayl in its turn obeys the wahm (power of abstraction),and the wahm obeys the rational soul. Therefore God prescribed acts of obedience for the limbs in order that from there light would be transferred to the rational soul and concentration upon God would thus become a mental attitude of it (Tafh. II,46). In addition,prayer results in expiation of sins as well as enjoying the company of beautiful damsels in the Hereafter ( Khizna 9). Further,it belongs to the seemly attitudes 151. (tamthl) to be assumed towards the divine Names al-hayy al-qayym (the Living and the Self-subsisting) (Tafh. II,114): Prostrating oneself in prayer is the most extreme expression of respect1}.Consequently,the salt is the mi`rj (ascension) of the believer and the moment at which his angelic disposition becomes liberated from the chains of his animal nature (H.B. II,11). In truth,the alt has been imposed as the pivot of actions which bring one close to God,rather than as a means for reflection on the majesty of God ...,because proper reflection is only attained by high-minded people;and how few they are (H.B. I,73). For the ultimate fixation of the times of prayer various aspects had to be kept in mind. In its preparatory stage the following considerations were taken into account; Since the benefit of salt consists in plunging into the dephts of eye-witnessing the divine world and entering into the ranks of angels ...,there is no more opportune time for it than the four hours of a day in which an influx of spirituality is noticeable,angels descend,the deeds of men are pre sented to God and their personal invocations are answered. These auspicious hours are to be found in the early morning,at the setting of the sun,at the beginning of the night and at midnight. It is,however,apparent that the majority of people cannot be charged with the obligation of a salt at midnight, this being too inconvenient a time for them. Hence,only the first three periods were orignally intended by God to serve for the performance of a salt as can be deduced from His word: Perform the prayer at the sinking of the sun (i.e. the sunset prayer) to the darkening of the night (i.e. the last evening prayer) and the morning prayer (Qur'n XVII,78). Another point to be kept in view,so the Delhi savant continues,is that it is neither proper to have too long an interval between two prayers,so that the spiritual effect of the previous prayer gets lost,nor should the interval be too short,so that people have insufficient time to make a living. Times had to be fixed which could be easily observable for high and low,for Arabs and non-Arabs. This is only feasible if a fourth part of a day,i.e. three hours,is taken as a basic unit (H.B. I,187 f.). In consequence of this the number of salts became six in toto,to wit the morning prayer,forenoon prayer,midday prayer,afternoon prayer,prayer at sunset,and an evening prayer which follows after a fourth part of the night or something similar. Recognizing that peasants,merchants and artisans are from dawn to midday continually engaged in their main activities,Mohammed repealed the obligatory performance of the forenoon prayer ( B.B. 209; H.B. I,188). Similarly,the length of time chosen for a salt should serve the purpose aimed at by the ritual as such: It should be neither too short,so that its intention is not realized,nor too long,so that the performance of it is too difficult for the people given all the actions they have to go through. In total an uneven number of rakàs (bendings of the torso from an upright position,followed by two prostrations) should be made in a day,for uneven numbers are judged to be auspicious ( B.B. 210). Due regard should also be paid to one's conduct: It is obligatory to refrain from 152. talking ... and it is detestable to copy during the ritual the behaviour of animals,which is incompatible with the dignity characteristic of man,such as sprawling on the ground as predatory animals do,pecking as a cock does,or crouching down in the manner of camels; all of these are acts which are inconsistent with humility and decorum (B.B. 210 f.).In respect of the tricky questions whether or not one has to say amn loudly after the Ftiha,and whether or not one ought to raise the hands to the ears or the shoulders at the time of bowing,the Delhi divine discreetly declares that in either case arguments can be put forward. Yet,at the same time he cannot resist remarking that in the traditions the raising of hands as such is more often recorded and corroborated (H.B. II,9 f.).And in some instances he appears to be in flat contravention of the Hanaf,the school favourite in the Indian subcontinent, by virtue of a tradition or on the basis of his own findings,such as with regard to the recitation of the Ftiha behind the imm and the salt over a dead Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
97 person (Anfs 24). The rationale of the communal prayer on Friday,according to Shh Wal Allh,is that in this way the salt,being one of the most fundamental sha`'ir of God is publicized: One day in the week is fixed for it,being a proper interval observed by all communities of the original and true religion. We,however,have preference over the other two communities (sc. the Jews and Christians),for we shall precede them on the Day of Resurrection because of our day of worship2},though we were later in establishing an institutionalized religion (milla) (B.B. 212). Nevertheless,ritual notions of the other communities may occasionally cause some embarrassement. Muslim faqhs all agree that,as a rule,no wud' is necessary after having eaten food prepared by means of a fire; and if a tradition recommends it,it is said to have been repealed. Yet,in this connection camel's meat remains a moot question,since there is no statement available about a repeal of this rite after the consumption of roasted camel's meat. So there are some jurists such as,for instance,Ahmad b. Hanbal and Ishq b. Rhwayh who deem it required. These advocates,as the Delhi scholar explains,are troubled by the knowledge that the Israelite prophets were unanimous in their view that camel's meat is taboo. Hence they consider wud' a relief to people,to whom it is still a trial to eat something that had been forbidden in the Torah,and a happy device to express thankfulness to the Lord for permitting the same to Muslims (H.B. I,177).
Zakt
To establish the expediency of this institute Shh W al Allh states: Zakt,which is a requirement for the cultivation of magnanimity,functions like food which possesses medicinal power. By zakt the urban community is put in good order and God is served ... It repels social injustice,allays the wrath of God,is of value against the punishments in the grave and removes impediments towards the natural progress and development of the 153. human individual,sinds it checks stinginess (B.B. 214). It belongs to the seemly attitudes to be assumed towards the supplementary Attributes of God (idfiyyt) (like the 'Provider',the 'Feeder')(Khizna 8). Accordingly,sometimes the disbursement of money is the most likely location of the divine mercy ( H.B. I,74). In explanation of the prophetic rule that no zakt is due from a Muslim on his slave or his horse (Mu. Zakt 8),Shh Wal Allh elucidates: This is because as a rule slaves are not kept for procreation; likewise in many countries people breed horses to a far lesser degree than other grazing livestock. Thus they do not belong to property which increases (H.B. II,43). In connection with the precept that it is forbidden to pay zakt to the Messenger of God and his family (Mu. Zakt 161 - 7),representing only people's impurities,the Delhi scholar declares: They are impurities because they are an atonement for people's sins ... Hence there are persons of high standing who perceive 'darkness' in alms ... Mystics also sometimes discern this darkness. My father mentioned alms as reluctantly as virtuous people talk of fornication and privy parts (H.B. II,45).
Fasting
If during a certain space of time,which should be neither too short nor too long,people are continuously occupied in remembering God,reciting the Qur'n,fasting,giving charitable gifts and performing the salt,it inevitably poduces a healthy reformatory effect upon their mind and body. Through fasting,one is even more motivated to leave off deceit,slander and vilification. During Ramadn,therefore,the devils are chained,the gates of Hell are locked,and the gates of Paradise are opened (B.B. 216). Fasting belongs to the seemly attitudes to be assumed towards the privative3} predicates of God ( salbiyyt),such as,for instance,the Attribute of al-subbh (All-glorious) (Khizna 8). Its essence is the endurance of physical hardship for the sake of the Worshipped One. The point is that when a man loves somebody very dearly he cares little for his personal comfort and well-being,and pays no attention to it. He desires to sacrifice his love and welfare in behalf of the Worshipped One with the knowledge that He will be pleased with it and his enduring physical hardship is seen and heard by Him ( B.B. 119). Fasting is a great good deed which fortifies one's angelic nature and weakens his bestiality ( H.B. I,74 f.). Among the prophets the way of fasting differed: Noah used to fast for a long period of time ...,Jesus for a day and then broke the fast according to his own fancy ... That was because fasting is an antidote and the dose of the antidote is fixed in accordance with the seriousness of the disease. The hearts of the people of Noah were hardened to a great extent ... Jesus was physically weak, ... while our Prophet was well acquainted with the advantages of the fast and its break,and he knew what was right or bad for himself. So he chose that which was in 154. Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
98
accordance with the exigencies of the moment. For his community he chose various kinds of fasting,such as,for instance,the Àshr'-fast - it is celebrated on the grounds that it is the day on which God gave Moses victory over Pharaoh and his people -, and the Àrafa-fast ( a voluntary fast on the 9th Dhu'l-Hijja) ... The very reason for the excellence of this latter fast over the Àshr'-fast is that by it one plunges into the depths of the sea of divine mercy which comes down on that day (when the pilgrims pitch their camp for the celebration of the prescribed festival assembly) whereas the Àshr'-fast refers to mercy granted in times long past(H.B. II,54 f.).
Hajj
All people have a place of pilgrimage; it may be a sanctuary or a river like the Ganges where the Hindus go on a pilgrimage,or it may be a tree,a semi-desert plain,a tomb, or a porch upon which wonderful signs appeared. Crowds gather there in order to be filled with the beneficent virtue of the venerated object. This is not so much a matter of custom or habitual practice; it is rather a universal propensity to single out an object of worship (B.B. 120). And when a vehement yearning for his Lord arises in man's soul,then the hajj will be the only means to satisfy his longing ... And since it regards distant voyage and implies a troublesome achievement which is only accomplished through great efforts ...,it also expiates sins of a recent as well as or a remote past. It is,however,not merely the individual believer who derives great benefit4} from the hajj. It appears equally to be very useful for the Muslim community as a whole: Just as a body politic now and then is in need of a screening in order to make a distinction between the sincere and the insincere,between the obedient and the rebellious,to consilidate its repute and authority again,and to let its people know about each other,so a religious community is in need of a hajj in order to make a distinction between the reliable believer and the hypocrite,to demonstrate how people have entered the religion of Allh in droves,and to have an opportunity to meet one another (H.B I,75 f.). Shh Wal Allh recognizes in the hajj ceremonies a striking resemblance with the constituents of the prayer ritual. What is explicitly found in the salt is already implied in the customs of the hajj. The pilgrimage,so he establishes, belongs to the seemly attitudes to be assumed towards the divine Names al-hayy al-qayym in an implicit manner,while the ritual prayer belongs to the seemly attitudes to be assumed towards the same Names but expressed in all details ( Khizna 8). For putting oneself during the hajj in the state of ritual consecration (ihrm) amounts to confessing Allhu akbar by which,in both cases,voice is given to sincere devotion and reverence. Such as bending and prostration in prayer,being simply dressed is a manifestation of humility5}. The standing at Àrafa' is particularized by standing erect during the salt,while the ceremony of running the distance between Saf and Marwa seven times and the circumambulation of 155. the Ka`ba are expression of self-surrender to God. Shaving6} is comparable with the emitting of saliva7}. In addition,in respect to the pilgrimage as well as to prayer limits,timings and rules of conduct are fixed for a full effectuation of the spiritual meaning inherent in both of them ( B.B. 218).
Jihd
From sra al-Furqn and other Qur'nic sections it becomes clear,the Delhi scholar concludes,that predominance was not acquired by the Messenger of God in consequence of the presence of an angel who certified his being a prophet,or on account of the descent of a heavenly book upon him while people could see it descending with their own eyes. No,the way it happened was that of worldly kings who gain ascendancy through struggles and wars ( Fuyd,4th Vision). From the explanations given by Shh Wal Allh it turns out that he ascribes at least three objectives to the jihd: 1. to extend the boundaries of right guidance (Khizna 6). Experience shows - as was also the case with Mohammed - that when faith is propagated,people usually do not appear amenable to reasonable arguments.Then it is for their good that jihd is waged against them and they accept faith under compulsion. Their servants and children,at any rate,will keep to the faith out of their innermost conviction ( H.B. II,170); 2. to fight criminality. Jihd implies that God curses a wicked man who does injury to society and whose extinction is more in the interests of the universal welfare than his survival ... The sequel to this is that by the motivation to act for the general weal (al-ra'y al-kull) people become convinced that it is a matter of great importance to deliver oppressed persons from the predatory ones and to fix penal laws for obstinate sinners ...,so that security and peace is restored to the worshippers of God. In this way jihd can be classed under the category of pious actions (H.B. I,76). By means of it the rules for economic activities (mu`malt) and marriage contracts were legislated to establish justice among the people ( H.B. I,5). Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
99 3. to combat idolaters. In a harangue delivered to soldiers the Delhi savant warns: O soldiers,God sends you out for jihd in order to raise aloft the Word of God,to destroy idolatry (shirk) and its adherents. However,you have failed in performing the duty for which He has created you. You have started the training of horses and the bearing of arms for personal gains ... You have taken to drinking,shaving your beards,growing your moustaches,and to wronging innocent people ( Tafh. I,216 f.). And the Muslims in general were cautioned that if they forsook jihd and co-operated with non-Muslims they would suffer severe humilations and people of other re ligions would subdue them (H.B. II,173).
Dhikr,Recitation of the Qur'n and Du`'
When enumerating sundry specimens of devotion Shh Wal Allh first mentions dhikr (remembrance of God by the rythmic 156. recitation of formulas containing God's Names) and recital of the Qur'n. For the cure of false conceptions about God,for experiencing the presence of God ( muhdara) and for the removal of hardness of heart there is no better means than the dhikr. He who listens to the recitation of the Qur'n and lets it act on his soul will become coloured with the experiences of fear, hope, and awe in respect of God's majesty,and will be immersed in God's grace ( H.B. I,76). Along with the du`' (prayer of invocation) they are efficacious stimulants in strengthenin g faith and in acquiring spiritual perfection (B.B. 218).The subject of du`' inspires the Delhi divine to lengthy dissertations as he obviously thinks it a fundamental part of faith: People of all religions and creeds agree that du`' is heard by God and that,as man advances in years,the relationship with God becomes more intensive and delightful ... There exists more than one kind of prayer and its answer. There are: a) The prayer to which a man is impelled when,for the desired result of what is prayed for from the Merciful God,the celestial processes of causality co-operate with the terestial disposition. This can happen owing to the fact that the nufs ntiqa (reasoning souls) of the prayers are polished or lustrous by nature as is the case with prophets... We have discerned many prayers of this type to be answered. For example,Abraham's prayer that God allow him to enter Paradise and save him from Hell,and the prayer of the beloved (Prophet)that God allow him to triumph over the unbelievers after the announcement of the Word of God: Soon the host shall be routed,and turn their backs ( Qur'n LIV,45) ... b) The prayer whereby the soul has adopted an ardent longing for God after a great affinity with the lofty Primary Causes has arisen in the very core of the soul,or the soul is involved in the acquisition of perfection. So,in accordance with this pursuit,prayer prepares the accompanying circumstances and appropriate conditions,on which the generosity of the Merciful God is to be based ... c) The prayer whereby simple and compound divine Names are recited. They are indicative of divine Reality and function,as it were,as a nest for It. Consequently,by invoking them divine potency is engendered which provokes in the hearts of men the desire to do good works and produces the object aimed at,whether the worshipper is aware of it or not ... In this way,mercy is produced in the heart of a rich man so that he spends money lavishly on him who prayed; or sells his property to someone who is in great need of it for half the price. d) Prayer by way of chants and a warding off of misfortunes. The Messenger of God was sent to the Arabs when they practised magic by idols. Hence he corrected their diseased customs and for magic he substituted belief in God's Unity and having recourse to His light (B.B. 137 f.; 219). The best moment for a du`' is the time when blessings are newly made ... If man wishes to take a favourable opportunity,he must apply himself with perseverance to it at daybreak or in the evening; the early morning,i.e. before one becomes busy with all 157. kinds of occupations,may further the acquisition of spiritual perfection,while the evening,i.e. after one has been busy with one's daily routine and after 'darkness' of sins,etc. has come upon the soul,may further the removal of moral filth (B.B. 119). Aqqa (sacrific on the seventh day after birth of a child) and Khitn (circumcision) In the judgement of Shh Wal Allh both pre-Islamic customs were not abolished by Mohammed,since he recognized various valuable points in them.Though circumcision on the seventh day after birth is not an obligation,it is certainly recommendable (EI2,V,20),and often combined with àqqa. It is one of the characteristics of natural religion,and an act of purification and incorporation into the community of the faithful; or to define it,as is done by the Delhi divine: In the Torah it is recorded to serve as a brand which God put on Abraham and his posterity,with a purpose similar to that which kings have in mind when they want to distinguish slaves,whom they do not intend to manumit,from other slaves ( H.B. I,182). Hence circumcision might serve as a suitable counterpart to the Christian baptismal ceremony. And in respect of the àqqa ritual we are told that the hanfs (monotheists avant la lettre) had at their disposal a rite which Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
100 made them realize that the child was a hanf and a follower of the religion institutionalized by Abraham and Ism`l. The most widely known institute introduced by these two patriarchs is the hajj which,like the àqqa ritual,includes the shaving of the head. In other words,by the imitation of this hajj ceremony the àqqa betokens the religion of Abraham. In addition,the shaving off of the hair of the child symbolized the passage of the state of a fetus into that of a child,as the hair is actually the remainder of the embryonic stage ( H.B. II,144f.).
Care of the Dead
Shh Wal Allh's statements as to what is proper and improper in respect of this are not always consistent. In the Hujjat Allh al-bligha we read that prayer on behalf of the dead is prescribed by law,because the intercession of an assembly of believers for the benefit of the dead to a great extent furthers the descent of divine grace upon him ... It is recommended to recite the srat al-ftiha,for it is the best and most comprehensive of all invocations (H.B. II,36). In a later work of his the Delhi scholar maintains that the recitation of the first sra on behalf of the deceased,seeking his aid8}and so on,is of no use. In the same passages he urges confining the care of the dead to the following four activities: 1. displaying kindness to his near and dear,as that in a way amounts to a display of kindness to the dead one himself; 2. paying a visit to his tomb and reading the Qur'n there; thus the bonds with the diseased are reinforced; 3. acting as his agent,and giving alms or manumitting a slave or performing the pilgrimage in his stead; 4. asking God's forgiveness for the benefit of the dead so that He may have mercy on him,may raise him in rank,and may 158. close His eyes on his sins (Khizna 9).
Visiting Shrines of Holy Men
Shh Wal Allh interpretes the rule of conduct dictated by Mohammed: 'I forbade you to visit graves,but now you may visit them' (Muwatta' Dahya 8) as follows: According to me,it was forbidden as it gave occasion for the cult of tombs,but as soon as Islam was firmly established and the convinction had sunk into people's minds that it was absolutely interdicted to worship anybody but God,visiting tombs was allowed. The effective cause for this permit is the useful purpose it serves: It confronts people with death so that they awaken to awareness of the shortness of earthly life ( H.B. II,38). Further,another benefit of crouching down at the shrine of godly people is that in the end one becomes closely united with the saint's spirit and is emerged into it. After having come to one's senses again,one will discover in one's soul all qualities that constitute the nature of the spiritual affiliation with this godly man (Q.J. 102). So it is surely fully in line with these observations when we hear that once during his stay in Haramayn the Delhi savant visited the shrine in al-Safr` (a place between Mecca and Medina) ascribed to Ab Dharr al-Ghifr,the Companion noted for trustworthiness and ascetism. The great event which then occurred to him was that the spirit of the saint appeared to him like the new moon in its third night (Fuyd,8th Vision). Lateron,however,he began to throw doubts on the efficacy of prayers at the tombs of saints. In the Hujjat Allh al-bligha he expounds that at the moment the spirits of perfect people are separated from their bodies,they become like a billow rooted on the spot; no impulse nor inspiration can anymore be expected from them (H.B. II,77). They lose their miraculous power,the chief prerogative they possess,as soon as they die (Tafh. II,75). With the passage of time Shh Wal Allh became increasingly aware of the decadency that had spread over the whole Indian subcontinent. The epoch of heathendom recurred. In this connection the Delhi reformer tells us of his own sad experiences,stating: Lately I have seen weak brothers among the Muslims who choose rabbis and monks as lords apart from God (cf. Qur'n IX,31),make their shrines places of worship,and go on pilgrimage to their graves,their relics and their hills like Jews and Christians used to do ... They credit those who have no claim to these prerogatives with power of intercession ... They snatch elements from Hindu and Zoroastrian religions (B.B. 125). Fierce is his condemnation: Anyone who goes to Ajmr (reknowned for the shrine of Khwja Mu`n al-Dn Hasan Chisht) or the tomb of Salr Mas`d Ghz in Bahr'ich in order to get an urgent desire gratified, commits a sin graver than murder or adultery (Tafh. II,45).
Magic Practices
On this subject the Delhi scholar holds ambivalent views. In his parental home the application of magic arts was not only not unknown,but even strongly recommended. In one of his early 159. Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
101 writings a whole chapter is devoted to useful suggestions ( faw'id) he received from his father Àbd al-Rahm in cases,for instance,of disease: My father used to advise: When somebody comes to you suffering from toothache,headache or flatulence,take a blank board,sprinkle pure sand on it,write with a nail the first three words of a series of eight comprising the letters of the Arabic alphabet on it,press the nail one time extra on the letter alif and recites the srat al-ftiha once. Let him who is in pain meanwhile keep his finger firmly on the sore spot. Then ask him whether he feels relieved. If this is the case,then leave it at that. If not,press the nail on the letter ba and read the srat al-ftiha twice. Repeat your former question. If he is recovered,then leave it at that. If not,press the nail on the letter jim and recite the srat al-ftiha three times. And so on till the last of the ten letters. If he is still not recovered,God may cure him ( Q.J. 123). In an account of the activities of his father,he mentions that at the end of his life Àbd al-Rahm donated his son two hairs of the Prophet as relics (Anfs 41 f.). Shh Wal Allh himself wrote a commentary on the famous hizb al-bahr (Protective Litany of the Sea) of al-Shdhil (d. 1258),called Hawmi` (Drops of a Spiritual Dew). Various magic practices are explained in it. To give one example: If somebody wishes to pass enemies without being seen and without any obstruction,he should recite: 'Now the Word has been proved true against most of them' up to 'so that they cannot see' (Qur'n XXXVI,7 - 9),and he should breathe on pebbles,should throw them towards the enemies,or he should blow in their direction ( Haw. 45). Similarly,he appears to have no objection to the application of spells (ruqan),since it is,in essence,a clinging to words (composed of Qur'nic verses or divine Names) which bear an effect upon the World of Prefiguration ( H.B. II,194). Yet,on the whole,the son is obviously less credulous than the father. When one day Àbd al-Rahm reports that in the street he has met a tailor,living in their neighbourhood,a few days after his death,Shh Wal Allh does not seem very impressed. Such stories about a return from death,so he comments,I also find in collections of traditions and in books of sf masters. All of it comes to this,that those stories refer to somebody who was afflicted with sakta (apoplexy) (Tafh. II,182 f.). It is important to note that in his disquisitions on astrology,talismans and the like Shh Wal Allh often displays reserve. Certainly,it is not open to doubt that occult powers are operating in the universe and that they can be manipulated by man. The whole point is from which angle they are evaluated and to what extent man is at liberty to make use of them: Divine hakms (like me) and common people all agree that stars have an influence on the world of elements. According to the former,this influence is due to specific qualities which God creates in things,such as heat in fire and cold in water ... In the view of the general public,however,this influence should be characterized as taskhr (imprisonment of evil spirits) due to the effusion of 160. the essential properties of stars ... And what is true about the influence of stars is,in the opinion of hakms,equally true of tra (augury),ham (a night-bird that frequents burial places and is believed to demand vengeance not yet taken for someone who has been killed),and àdw (infection with mange and other contagious diseases) ... In other words,when we speak with the tongue of the revealed Law (shar`),we declare that star-worshipping,augury,infection,divination (and so on) ... are all issues of shirk9}. When the common men remonstrate that they (stars,birds,etc.) bear real effects,we reply: 'Does wine not bear an effect on our bodily health? Nevertheless,it is forbidden' ( Tafh. II,147 f.). {1}. Here again the Delhi divine disapproves of extravagancies. He rejects the rite for which Chishts enjoy celibrity,viz. the salt al-ma`ks,the salt of the 'inverted',i.e. the worshipper has a rope tied to his feet and is body is lowered into a well (Q.J. 75). {2}. Refers to a tradition reported by Ab Hurayra. In it the Messenger of God states: We who are last shall be first on the Day of Resurrection, although others were given the Book before us and we were given it after them. It was this day (sc. Friday) which God prescribed for us. With regard to it the people who were given the Book before us come after us,the Jews observing the next day and the Christians the day following that (Mu. Jumà 20). {3}. Denoting the absence of qualities like similarity to anything created, dependence on something else,plurality,etc. {4}. It is at the same time a healthy spiritual exercise since it implies the renouncing of one's be longings and family,and in this way symbolizes man's passing away from this world to the next (B.B. 217). {5}. Because of the uniformity of dress,it is well nigh impossible to distinguish a servant from a master. {6}. If a pilgrim puts himself in the state of ritual consecration,he has his hair and his nails cut and his armpits shaved. {7}. Rinsing one's mouth is part of the ritual ablution before prayer. {8}. But no objections seem to exist to consulting the dead on personal problems,since Shh Wal Allh states as quite an ordinary thing that once he went to the grave of his father in order to take his advice on the line of conduct he should follow with regard of one of his students (Tafh.I,10). Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
102 It is,however,plain kufr to imagine that one can successfully expect provision for one's needs from a dead person (Khizna 8){9}. In his esoteric work al-Khayr al-kathr Shh Wal Allh holds up as a warning the Ishrqiyyn (adepts of illuminative Wisdom) from among the Greeks who out of their agressiveness and arrogance are infused with the worship of light and fire ... and become totally absorbed by the spirits of spheres and stars. But this is all deception (Khizna 1 and 9).
103 161.
Chapter Fifteen: Social and Economic Ideas

Under the circumstances Shh Wal Allh found himself,he was obliged to formulate his thoughts on socio-economic issues. For in this time there are two principle causes for the deterioration of the existing order: a) the depletion of the state treasury due to the fact that people ... having chosen a career in the military or legal world claim a right to it,or persons as hermits,poets and the like who use to live on the donations of kings without doing any worthwhile work ... b) imposing heavy taxes on peasants,merchands and professional people, and raising them until this leads to the ruin and extermination of the submissive ones ( H.B. I,45). Confronted with these hard facts the Delhi educationist now had every reason to stress the indispensability of solidarity for the development of a proper social order. This principle can be applied in various ways,in trade,craft and farming. Thus there are the institutes of mudraba (sleeping partnership,whereby on partner furnishes the capital and the other the business acumen),mufwada (unlimited mercantile partnership,whereby the whole property of both parties is engaged; mutual guarantee as well as procuration are presupposed), ìnn (limited liability company which implies mutual procuration but no mutual responsibility),shirkat al-san'` (partnership of artisans in which,for instance,two tailors or two dyers take equal shares), shirkat al-wujh (credit union,without capital,in which the partners pool the credit and share the profit), musqt (lease contract for palm gardens,in which one partner provides the land and seed,and the other the oxen and labour),and mukhbara (con tract under which one partner furnishes the land and the other the seed,oxen and labour)( H.B. II,116f.). The requirement of solidarity is,in the opinion of Shh Wal Allh,also the main ground for the prohibition of maysir (game of chance) and rib (interest): You should realize that maysir is unlawful gain ... and is not in keeping with civic spirit (tamaddun) and mutual aid (ta`wun) ... Equally rib constitutes ... unlawful gain. For,as a rule,the borrowers are people fallen into a severe state of indigence,mostly not able to pay their debt in time ... When this way of earning money takes root,it leads to the abandonment of agrarian trades and skilled crafts which are fundamental means of earning a living in a healthy society ... Both ways of gain mentioned are tantamount to inebriation,as they are in flagrant contradiction with the principles of God has laid down for earning a livelihood (H.B. II,106). A valuable clue to what is inter alia a divinely sanctioned manner of earning one's livelihood can be derived from the prophetic saying: He who revives dead land becomes its owner (Bu. Harath 15). The idea lying at the root of these words is 162. ... that all property belongs to God ... The whole earth is,in fact,tantamount to a mosque or a hospice assigned to travellers,on which everybody has a claim. Accordingly,the rule 'first come,first served' is here applicabke. Possessory right implies that he who brings land under cultivation has more right to it than anyone else (H.B. II,103). Being aware of the great number of responsibilities with which God has entrusted human beings,Shh Wal Allh points out that man is superior to the other species of animals in at least three respects,to wit: 1. he is intent on general welfare (ra'y kull),whereas animals are merely actuated by sensual lusts and sudden promptings; 2. he is sensivitive to art and beauty (zarfa),whereas animals only desire a thing to meet their needs; 3. he is able to think out devices for further progress (irtifqt) (H.B.I,38). The term irtifq (gaining benefit by) is already found in one of Shh Wal Allh's early writings (to wit Fuyd,11th Vision),but in the Hujjat Allh al-bligha and the Budr al-bzigha it appears to be a fundamental idea forming the basis of an intriguing rudimentary sociology. To this end the very specific sense of 'stage of socio-economic development' is ascribed to it1}. The Delhi scholar distinguishes four irtifqt required for the ultimate establishment of a society as it ought to be and is purposed in God's planning2}: In the first phase of socio -economic development man obtains the power of speech so that he can phrase his thoughts in a natural way,unimpeded by convention. Then the circle is enlarged by making use of tropes in his speech to coin words relating the things conceived in the mind,and by varying modulations in his voice to express various moods,until at last the languages become distinct and different ... It is also in this first phase that he becomes acquainted with edible grains suited to his physical constitution,and learns how to tap wells for those who live in areas far from the water of springs and rivers ...,how to domesticate animals to use them for labour otherwise hard to perform ...,how to prepare a dwelling by screening it from heat and cold,and how to make a garment from skins of animals or from the leaves of trees ... And it is in this phase that man is led to acquire for himself a wife as Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
104 uncontested property to satisfy his lusts and to reproduce his off-spring (B.B. 53 f.). Again another aspect of this stage of primitive culture typical of societies composed of inhabitants of deserts,high mountains and regions far away from sound climates is that man takes to barter and co-operation in some way or another ... (Further,that out of necessity of law and order) he who appears to be the most sensible person and the most formidable with regard to severity,becomes the leader ... and a code of conduct is enacted to settle disputes,to check a criminal and to repulse raiders ( H.B. I,39 f.). To sum up: The first phase represents a stage of development based on the level of 163. animals. However,it excels animal life by the additional qualities of serenity of life,communal sense,sensitivity,and civilization (B.B. 51). At this level man began to apply himself to agriculture and cattle farm. Yet,in this first period it was not due to man to believe in the Hereafter and angels ( Tafh. I,68). In the second stage of socio-economic development we have to do with communities of sedentary people and urban centers flourishing in sound climates ( H.B. I,39). Since compared by the era of primitive civilization the complexity of life increased in this juncture,the need arises for more suitable institutions and prudent measures permitting progress. Thus,Shh Wal Allh comes to the conclusion that the following five kinds of science become requisite: 1. the science pertaining to the way of living,with reference to consistency in conduct and practical knowledge about eating,drinking,dressing,dwelling,etiquette,manner of conversation,way of travelling,etc.; 2. the science of earning a livelihood,which involves the various occupation people pursue,befitting their personal capacities,and the means that help them in their crafts of fellah,carpenter,smith and so on; 3. the science of domestic life,which pertains to rearing children,married life,slavery,responsibilities to relatives,management and manners of companionship; 4. the science of mutual dealings,which concerns purchase and sale,giving presents,tenancy,lending,debt and pledge; 5. the science of co-operation,which relates to surety,silent partnership,commercial enterprise,power of attorney and tenure (B.B. 50). During the second stage of socio-economic evolution human society finally develops into a city-state consisting of small towns which have joined together and in which the inhabitants carry on trade with each other ... Due to that unifying link it is an organic whole with each group of people and each family as the constituent parts thereof (B.B. 70). As soon as a city-state is established,man has reached the third stage of socio-economic development. For the development of a city-state,unity is essential. The instrument of government through which such unity is preserved and developed should be a strong and powerful personality,an imm in the fullest sense of the word (B.B. 71). He is to be assisted by seven public functionaries,to wit a vizier who is responsible for the collection and distribution of taxes; a commander-in-chief; a commander of guards; a qd; a chief muft called 'shaykh al-Islm' whose duty is to uphold religion and spiritual guidance; a versatile intellectual ( hakm) who possesses knowledge of medicine,poetry,astrology, history,arithmetic and the art of composition; and a business manager who takes care of the private financial affairs of the imm (B.B. 84). For the progress of a city-state and its battle against corruption,abuses,disorder and decay the following requirements are indispensable: 164. 1. Judiciary. When ... stinginess,envy and disregard of rights enter into economic transactions,disagreements and disputes are bound to spring up among the members of a city-state ...,there must be an acknowledged institution available to which one may have recourse for an equitable settlement of disputes. 2. The institute of an executive. When people of perverted disposition and pernicious activities prevail over other people and begin to influence them,the city-state becomes depraved and disordered,there should be a strong body to take deterrent and punitive measures against such people. 3. Police and military force. People often move into violent activities such as murder,robbery or rebellion and deliberately try to disturb the peace and order in a city-state ... In order to control such violent situations and preserve the city-state from the misfortune they cause,a defence force,constituted of brave fighters,is essential. 4. Welfare and public works. The city-state has institutes and corporate bodies which,if existent,render it a welfare state,whereas the lack of them makes guarding it defective ... Things to be taken care of,for example,are the protection of the frontier-accesses of a country,the construction of fortresses,walls,markets and bridges,digging beds for rivers,marrying off orphans,safeguarding of their properties,the distribution of alms among the needy,the division of an inheritance among heirs. 5. Religious and moral instruction. Sincere faith and true religion cannot dispense with an informant,though Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
105 both of them are based on such clear proofs that sane people find the way to them by themselves. However,the numerous men of corrupt nature who follow their lusts and passions and oppose the truth,are in need of a man of wisdom,a teacher of religion and a preacher who can urge them to cultivate noble qualities,to manage the house properly,and to conduct themselves correctly towards others (B.B. 71 f.). The fourth and last phase of socio-economic development is the result of quarrels arising between various petty imms and causing heavy loss of life and livelihood. Then there is an urgent need for a very powerful and firm overlord or caliph. Shh Wal Allh compares this situation with the state of emergency which once prompted the Israelites to ask their prophet Samuel for a king (cf. Qur'n II,246)(H.B. I,47). The caliph's function is in general to see that the heads of city-states administer justice properly and do not wage war against one another. To this end,he wields two swords: a sword of subjugation and a sword of affection (B.B. 87). Further,he should have clearly visible symbols of people's loyalty such as prayers for him ... and the convention in our days of having dinar coins stamped with the name of the caliph (H.B. I,48). Great rulers in history,like Alexander the Great,somehow enforced this fourth stage,but it fell to Mohammed to realize it fully by the introducing a religion which would render all other institutionalized religions unnecessary (B.B. 199). In effect,the Prophet was sent to lay 165. the foundation of a universal caliphate and to render his religion victorious over the other ones ( H.B. II,173). So unity of policy and of religion is warranted for all inhabitants of the earth and human society is given its final shape. Yet,at the same time one ought to recognize that social customs as such may constitute a momentuous support,as wel as a great impediment. They yield positive and beneficial results,if they are introduced by guides of human society being in the happy possession of the seven cardinal virtues and if God renders the rest of the people disposed by nature to accept their lead,making their minds like mirrors,in which images of other mirrors are reflected (B.B. 87). If man had not an inner stimulus to follow another man he would not have adopted ethical qualities,and he would not have passed through the successive phases of socio-economic development. The world would have regressed in its evolution,and the majority of men would not have got beyond the level of animal life. Thus the best customs are those by which the ethical dispositions of individuals are improved and which are conducive to a continuous progress of the society. They should be wide instead of narrow in their application. They should not be so rigid that the slightest disregard of a minute detail in practice may lead to unbearable public disapproval. They should pursue a middle course between extravagant luxury and extremely austere way of life as was the case with the customs of the civilized people of the Hijz in pre-Islamic times who preserved moderate standards which kept a happy balance between the austere way of life of the Bedouins and the pompous status of living of Persians and Byzantines in those days (B.B. 87 ff. and H.B. II,126). An additional advantage that customs may offer is that they can be of help in putting a person's faith into practice. This is particularly true of people who are fully occupied with their work and lack inner stability; if there were no customs,they would not concern themselves with the message of Islam ( B.B. 195). However,a custom may as well come to include invalid elements. At least,three cases of this are imaginable,to wit: 1. It may prevent the emergence of ethical qualities in man,if it does not suit the nature of a particular human individual. Thus,if it is based on pettiness or on following a leader,it will prevent a man who is a strong personality from magnanimity and domination,it will prevent the man who is evil or stricken with misfortunes from reforming his ways,since it is only appropriate for such a person if it descends to the level of of submissiveness and pettiness. 2. It may cause moral decadence if a custom is adopted by people dominated by limited perspectives rather than considering comprehensive beneficial purposes. This is the case with customs permitting fornication and sodomy and those allowing women to adopt the fashion of men and men to adopt the fashion of women. 3. It may impair proximity to God,because of its being based either on going to extremes in earning a livelihood,or on plunging into pastimes like flute-playing,chess,hunting acquiring 166. pigeons,etc.(B.B. 88 and H.B. I,49). Other cultural activities strongly deprecated because of kindling the passions are the pursuits of Persian and Hindu literature and of poetics ( Tafh. II,247). When implementing his socio-therapeutic principles,the Delhi critic at times remonstrated with different classes of contemporary Muslim society on abuses typical of their occupations or modes of life. He accuses the rulers of the provinces of living in the same lavish style as the kings of Persian and Byzantium in the days of the Prophet. In consequence of this,they are forced to levy an exhorbitant rate of taxation upon the cultivators,merchants,and the like. The latter suffer from great hardships. If they refuse to pay the taxes,the Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
106 rulers go to battle against them and chastise them,and if they pay,they are reduced to the level of asses and bullocks, ... and are not even allowed an hour to rest from their labours,so that they find no time to take any notice of the life to come (H.B. I,105 f.). A state can only prosper if small taxes are collected and the strictly necessary number of civil servants is taken on. When a majority of the people earn their living as artificers and civil servants,and a minority are cattle-keepers and farmers,economic difficulties will arise A concomitant cause of decline is the pressure on the public treasury because of people who make it a habit to pocket money from it for sham services,contending that they have a claim on it on account of being a soldier,a specialist in religious law (H.B. I,45). Soldiers are told: God has incited you to military action with the object of the expansion of Islam ...,to eradicate polytheism and its adherents,but you have neglected this exhortation, ... and are out for the increase of your property ( Tafh. I,216 f.). In the same passage we find also a fierce denunciation of the amrs (government officers): O amrs,do you not fear God when you indulge in short-lived and trival pleasures and neglect to take notice of your subjects who devour one another? Is it not a fact that you drink wine in public? You cannot deny that brothels,taverns and gambling-dens are set up - still you feel no qualms of conscience -,and that in this vast Empire the hadd punishments fixed for certain crimes have not been enforced for six or seven centuries. In your way the weak one is exploited,whereas the mighty is left untouched. ____________________ 1}. Not found in the dictionaries. Shh Wal Allh nowhere explains this self-devised technical meaning explicitly. The pursued line of thought may be: finding help from the environment (fellow men, animals, materials supplied by nature) for the fulfilment of man's collective needs to an ever increasing extent. 2}. Accordingly,the knowledge concerning man's irtifqt has been deposited in the structure of the Throne of God,i.e. the source of divine planning (Fuyd,11th Vision). 3}. Cf. G.A. Herklots,Qanoon-e-Islam,London 1832,180: they also take out the neeza (spear) on its (i.e. of Husayn's standard) peregrination ... (for Husayn's head was) carried by Ayzeed's order through different cities on the point of a javelin. 167.
107
Epilogue
In life and works Shh Wal Allh represents the last phase of classical Muslim thought,on the eve of modern times. All discussions of the foregoing ages entered into by the falsifa,ikhwn al-saf' (Brethren of Purity),mutakallimn and mystic theorists like Ibn al-Àrab have been wound up in his writings. It is impossible,he establishes,that there can have been found an era more complete than the one we live in (Tafh. II,143). So he specifies his mission in life as follows: Part of the assignments of God's grace to me in this epoch is that the rational,traditional and mystic sciences of the scholars of this community are united in my heart in a harmonious way and stripped of internal inconsistencies,on account of which every doctrine can be put in its proper context (Faysal wahdat al-wujd wa'l-shuhd, Delhi n.d., 3). Significant of Shh Wal Allh's mentality is his preference for the legal thought of al-Shfi` in a community where nota bene the leading school is that of Ab Hanfa. Instead of benefiting from ra'y and istihsn (one's own judgment and arbitrary personal opinion) providing favourite ways out for the Hanafs,the task to be performed by the Shfi`s is to concentrate on the science of usl al-fiqh (roots of legal knowledge) furnished by qualified Qur'n exegetes and experts of hadth in order to verify the statements of the founder. 'Roots' offer a more substantial proof for our behaviour than individual opinions! Another distinctive feature of his realm of thought is the respect he shows for Ibn Taymiyya. This is not surprising given the latter's preference for the happy mean ( wasat),i.e. conciliation and endeavours to integrate tradition,reason and free-will. In reply to a letter from his student Makhdm Mu`n al-Dn of Thatta,in which the latter presses him to write a refutation of objections raised against the doctrines of Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328),Shh Wal Allh first of all affirms that in his opinion Ibn Taymiyya,like Ibn al-Àrab and Ahmad Sirhind,is among the most faithful servants of God ( Maktbt maà manqib Ab Àbd Allh Muh. b. Ism`l al-Bukhr wa-fadlat Ibn Taymiyya,Delhi 1890,27). This high tribute paid to the famous Hanbal theologian and expert of jurisprudence accords with the great influence his views must have had on the shaping of Shh Wal Allh's world of ideas. They have many points in common. When the Delhi divine states that according to him travels to a tomb,a shrine of a saint,or to the Mount Sinai also fall equally under the Prophet's prohibition in Mu. Hajj 415 to undertake a journey for the visit of holy places except for the three mosques: the sacred mosque (i.e. the Ka`ba),the Aqs mosque in Jerusalem and the mosque in Medina (H.B. I,92),he echoes the standpoint of Ibn Taymiyya who declares that if one had vowed to journey to the tomb of Abraham or the Prophet,or to the Mount Sinai ...,one is not obliged to perform it ...,since journeys to places like these are forbidden by the Prophet (Ib n 168. Taymiyya,Majmà al-ris'il al-kubr,Cairo 1323,1903,II,55). However,in the case at issue the Delhi divine appears to be less stringent than his predecessor who also includes the Prophet's grave among the forbidden objects of worship. In the Preface of his Fuyd al-Haramayn he qualifies a pilgrimage to Mohammed's tomb as one of the greatest of all God's graces. In this context one has to bear in mind that the main aim of the Prophet's mission is to act as an intercessor for the believers and to s erve as a medium for very special mercy on the Day of Judgment (H.B. II,75).If the Delhi reformer claims that the very foundation of civilization is co-operation (H.B. II,106),he actually repeats words of Ibn Taymiyya who says: None of mankind can attain complete welfare,either in this world or the next, except by association,co-operation,and mutual aid (Ibn Taymiyya,al-Hisba fi'l-Islm,Cairo 1318/1900,3). And when Ibn Taymiyya puts forward that the choicest men after the Prophet were Ab Bakr and Ùm ar ...,both of whom are such that the sun has never shone or set on any one,safe the prophets (Ibn Taymiyya, al-Ris'il wa'lmas'il,Cairo 1349,1930,I,51 f.),we are immediately reminded of Shh Wal Allh's plea for the undeniable superiority of the first two caliphs. Similarly,his view that the one very weak point of Àl was his lack of statecraft,this is in line with the judgment of Ibn Taymiyya. While discussing the deficiency of man's knowledge of God,the Delhi scholar maintains that though it is impossible for ordinary human comprehension to speak adequately of the divine Attributes man must still be enabled to form a notion of them (H.B. I,63). This stance again agrees with what is set forth by the Hanbal author,namely that though the Attributes of God are contained in the mutashbiht (not clearly intelligible verses of the Qur'n) of which God alone knows the true interpretation,man can nevertheless have some idea of them (Ibn Taymiyya,Majmà al-ris'il al-kubr,I I,29). Further,Ibn Taymiyya appears to have the same disgust of philosophers as Shh Wal Allh: These Aristotelian philosophers,the Hanbal theologian points out,are among the lowest people as far as their teachings and living are concerned (I. Goldziher, The Zhirs,Leiden 1971,17 5). Self-examination proved to Shh Wal Allh that he was a man of moderation by nature: In fact,he confesses,as a rule I do not like discussions in which opposing opinions clash ( Fuyd,33rd Vision). The Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
108 same is said about Ibn Taymiyya: his doctrine was intended to be primarily ... a doctrine of synthesis or of conciliation (H. Laoust in EI2,III,953). Yet in this respect there is an important difference between the two. Ibn Taymiyya's efforts at harmonization are restricted to the integration of àql (reason) and naql (tradition). Speculative philosophy is not included. On the contrary,he is a fierce fighter of pantheism ( wahdat al-wujd) as advocated by Ibn al-Àrab. In a seperate polemic treatise,entitled Haqqa madhhab al-ittihdiyyn aw wahdat al-wujd (Truth about the Teachings of the Exponents of the oneness of being or Pantheism),he exhibits the pernicious effects the doctrine has on Muslim faith. The Delhi scholar,on 169. his part,is charged with a more comprehensive task of synthesizing. He was born in an age in which the effectuation of a coherent interrelation between the rational,traditional and esoteric was urgently needed (Maktb 3). In sharp contrast to Ibn Taymiyya,Shh Wal Allh holds Ibn al-Àrab in great esteem,and appears to have many views and features in common with the Shaykh al-akbar. By calling himself an Uways like the Andalusian mystic he claims for himself the ability to discern intuitively between the basic tachings of religion as handed down by Mohammed and that part of the traditions which has crept in and been tampered with (al-Juz' al-latf 28). And when he argues that the relation of the pre-existent Mohammed to the other prophets and his heirs is similar to that between a whole and its parts (Fuyd,11th Vision),he repeats the teaching of his great predecessor (cf. A.E. Affifi,The Mystical Philosophy of Muhyid Dn Ibnul Arabi , Lahore n.d.,72). When he mentions with approval that,according to Jm (d. 1492),Ibn al-Àrab filled a position higher than sainthood but below prophethood (Tafh. II,33),Jm in fact credits him with the same dignity as Shh Wal Allh intends for himself as occupant of the office of hakm (Khizna 4). Starting from the maxim: God's express will is that we should refrain from disagreement and sectarianism (Tafh. I,206),the Delhi scholar applies the following procedures to resolve,or at least minimize seeming discrepancies: 1. by placing teachings in their historical setting. Every age has its own exigencies and particular ways of expression. So when discussing different theories and doctrines advanced by Muslim mystics in the course of time,one should take into account that all of them were adapted to the current circumstances ( H II); 2. by pointing out that contrarieties may be due to people's looking at an object from a different angle. Thus,for instance,various levels and faculties are discernible in the concept of rh (spirit). It can be viewed in its physio-biological aspects,can be taken as a mithl reality,i.e. the shape the rh receives in the World of Prefiguration before its arrival in the World of Bodily Forms ( nst), and so on. In other words,someone is right in maintaining that rh is a subtle element which streams in a human body like fire in the charcoal,just as the person who propounds that it is set apart from material pollution: every man has a direction in which he turns (Qur'n II,148) (Fuyd,40th Vision); 3. by explaining that incongruities can be the outcome of different phraseologies. In reply to a questioner who asked Shh Wal Allh: 'What do you think of the disparities you come upon in statements of Ibn al-Àrabi, who at one time speaks of Pharaoh's belief and at another time of his unbelief?' (Ibn al-Àrab,Fuss al-hikam,ed. A.E. Affifi, Beirut n.d.I,210 & 212),the Delhi scholar expounds that this is a question of particular phraseologies (alsina). For a human individual,he continues,there are many realities,and every reality has its particular aspects and references. For every particular aspect 170. there is a specific phraseology to interpret it ... At one time a sf gnostic will restrict himself to what is found in the World of Immaterial Entities,at another he will concentrate on what is met in the World of Bodily Forms .. Every time he will use a phraseology that is appropriate for that specific reality,and then it is not necessary that the same things are stated by all these phraseologies ( Tafh. I,19); 4. by preserving a balance between two points of view. In judging the Companions of the Prophet,so we are told,people make two kinds of mistakes. Some assume that all of them were men of noble character and that discord was unknown to them. This opinion rests on pure imagination. Detailed reports exist on their internal quarrels. Others take to criticizing them and to uttering imprecations against them,as soon as their attention is drawn to such conditions. Although Shh Wal Allh himself is immediately willing to admit that the Companions were not exactly impeccable men,he maintains that none the less it might be better not to talk about their slips from virtue lest the umma should disintegrate (Tafh. II,244); 5. by pleading for tolerance in respect of ritual varieties. In disputes whether or not it should be prescribed to say amn loudly,instead of faintly,during the salt and to lift one's hands at the time of bowing,matters must not be put to extremes. For both standpoints,Shh Wal Allh declares there might be something to be said for. Under no circumstances,however,is anybody free to cause much stir among his townsmen on account of such questions (H.B. II,9 f.). Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
109 6. by making what is revealed congruent with the rational (tatbq al-manql bi'l-ma`ql),i.e. allowing flexibility within the traditional stock. Tatbq is,inter alia,a suitable medium for the reconciliation of the proponents of the four juridical schools with each other. As regards the Delhi scholar,it concerns the accomodation of the Hanaf and Shfi` schools. So it constitutes a beautiful effort to reunite the Muslims( H.B. I,8). The fact that he lived in a country in which the Hanaf school is normative did not deter him from applying a Shfi` rule,if he considered it more fitting to a case under consideration. Still Shh Wal Allh's endeavours after moderation are never an end in themselves. This is a good thing,for people whose only aim is to pursue a middle course can be extremely dull,if not annoying,apprhensive as they are of any deviation.The Delhi scholar's sense of balance is harmoniously coupled with a remarkable independence of thought,on account of which he produces many ideas of refreshing originality. It is true that in order to evade unnecessary trouble with heresy-hunters,he occasionally condemns Mu`tazilism,but this does not prevent him from making use of Mu`tazilite doctrines if they agree with his own convictions. When he is asked to write a refutation of Sh` contentions because of political unrest they caused in eighteenth-century India, he complies with the request. Nevertheless several notions especially cherished by the Sh`s, as e.g. the concept ibd`, are recognizable in his 171. dissertations,and apparently their origin did not constitute an insuperable impediment to their possible utility. In fine,the ultimate concern of the Delhi divine was to make an independent inquiry into the basic truths of religion (asrr al-dn). Here again he follows in the footsteps of his famous predecessor al-Ghazl,who inserts in his Ihy' ùlm al-dn elaborate accounts about the asrr of cultic purity,salt,zakt,hajj,and fasting. Both of them were eager to expose the rationale of the various institutes of Islam, thereby enabling their co-believers to assent unreservedly to its tenets and to willingly obey its commandments. The Hujjat Allh al-bligha itself is comparable in many ways,as M.K. Hermansen rightly observes,to al-Ghazl's effort to explain and justify ritualistic aspects of Islam according to insights obtained through the mystic experience of the Sufis (Studia Islamica 63,Paris 1986,p.145). It is not amazing that in later ages orthodox believers could be shocked by interpretations the Delhi revivalist courageously advanced. So Indian ùlam' at times appear unpleasantly surprised by notions entertained by their venerated countryman. When asked about a judgment in the matter of a ritual detail on which Shh Wal Allh dissents from the Hanaf experts,the Deoband juristprudent Àzz al-Rahmn (d. 1928) straightaway rejects the opinion of the Delhi scholar ( Fatw-i Dr al-ùlm Deoband,Deoband 1963,vol. II,228). On the other hand,liberal thinkers,who were unafraid of ideas originating from the West,as e.g. Sayyid Ahmad Khn (d. 1898)(cf. Ch.W. Troll,Sayyid Ahmad Khan,New Delhi 1978,33 f.) and Sir Muhammad Iqbl (d. 1938)(cf. A.J. Halepota,'Shh Walyullh and Iqbl,the Philosophers of Modern Age',Islamic tudies,Islamabad,XIII,1974),as a rule wholeheartedly acknowledge their indebtedness to their compatriot hold in high honour. To this way, for every Western and non-Western student of his thought it is a privilege to trace the impressive achievements he attained in his lofty enterprise.
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172.
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112
Glossary of Technical Terms

àdla,rectitude, àdam,non-being,not-yet existence, àdl,justice, aflk,celestial spheres whirling around the earth like the whorls on a spindle, ahadiyya,absolute Oneness; the One as apart from all possible relations and individualisations, ahkm,instructions,regulations,determinants, ahl al-kitb,possessors of the Scripture: the Jews,Christians and Zoroastrians, ahwl,conditions to which a worshipper is transferred by purifying his nafs; sf states; ways of being; transitory mental states, akhf','most arcane' latfa situated in the dura mater. Through it a mystic receives information from the tajall a`zam as well as from the nafs kulliyya, akhlq fdila,surplus virtues,seven in number: valour,proper sexual behaviour,magnanimity,consistency in conduct,mastery of language,scrupulosity,wisdom, `lm al-ajsm,physical world, `lm al-arwh,world of immaterial entities, `lam al-jabart,the World of Omnipotence,i.e. of archetypes in the mind of God. Things in this world are still in a state of superformal existence in distinction to the lower `lam al-mithl where the objects possess subtle forms, `lam al-lht,the World of the Godhead,the incommunicable world of the divine Essence, `lam al-malakt,the World of Sovereignty,i.e. of the angelic beings and spiritual realities; intermediate between the `lam al-jabart and and the `lam al-ajsm. Here the decree of God takes shape before being translated into physical manifestation, `lam al-mithl,the World of Prefiguration,in which things are shaped before they are embodied in actual existence upon the earth,in the same way as an architect draws the shape of a house on a piece of paper before he builds it in empiric reality, `lam al-nst,phenomenal world,world of bodily forms, àm','dark mist',i.e. the simple hidden pure Essence devoid of qualities and relations; primordial matter, anniyya,I-ness,egoity. It is full-fledged (kubr) if it regards the self-consciousness of the cosmos,and it is in an embryonic stage (sughr) if it concerns the nascent selfconsciousness of souls possessing volition, àql,intellect. A pereceptible latfa residing in the brain. It covers the area lying between the concrete and abstract. One of its distinguishing marks is sure knowledge in respect of matters related to traditional doctrines. It can also refer to the stage at which God becomes conscious of Himself, 176. àrad,accident.It is the opposite as well as the complement of jawhar which is the constitutive form of it, `rif,he who possesses ma`rifa: gnostic, asbb al-nuzl,occasions of revelation, ashb al-a`rf,Companions of the Limbo,being neither in Paradise nor in Hell, ashb al-yamn,Companions of the Right (of the Throne during the Last Judgment): the ordinary believers, ashghl,meditation techniques, asm',divine Names; attributes in action,i.e. powers scattered through the `lam al-amr (world of instataneous creation) and the `lam al- khalq (world of what is created by degrees). They depart from God's Essence as asm' badiyya and return to It as asm' àwdiyya, asm' hditha,divine powers regulating daily happenings, asrr, 'mysteries',underlying ideas,basic notions, thr,effects; external products of God's Names, a`yn thbita,immutable archetypes,i.e. the ontological models which are established in divine Consciousness and upon which the phenomenal things are produced, àyn thbita,essential character of man which determines his fate,transcendental archetype of man's personality, àzma,an ordinance as interpreted strictly, barzakh,intermediate screen between two spheres of existence; interval of time (between death and Resurrection); intermediary, baq','subsistence': after having been annihilated in God ( fan'),the mystic lives through Him and in Him, bast,'expansion'. This may refer to earthly processes of causality as well as to a spiritual state of the sf Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
113 who experiences elation through the widening of the heart, bayà,vow of allegiance of a sf novice to the initiating master by clasping his right hand, burhn,decisive proof; syllogistic demonstration; manifestation (of truth), daw'ir,circles,spheres,regions where prophets reside,and which have to be traversed if a mystic wants to reach ecstacy, dht,absolutely self-subsistent Essence of God, dhawq,'tasting': direct experience,intuitive anticipation, dhikr,remembrance of God by the rythmic recitation of formulas containing God's Names. It may be uttered aloud or in a low voice. Ultimately the worshipper forgets the set forms of words,and thinks only of the Named, dn,archetypal religion, diyna,scrupulosity; the capacity to co-ordinate properly man's cognitive faculties with his external behaviour, du`',personal prayer; invocation to which miraculous effects of an apotropaic nature are ascribed, falsifa,Muslim philosophers who owe a lot to the legacy of Greece, 177. fan',ceasing to exist individually on account of which the reasoning soul can be coloured with the colour of God, faqh,expert of jurisprudence, fard,singular man; a gnostic who is able to establish particular connections with cosmic elements and entities, faw'id,useful suggestions for daily life, fiqh,jurisprudence, firsa,a technique of inductive divination,clairvoyance, fitan,trials of faith whereby the condition of a man is evinced in respect of evil and good, fitra,inherent nature,properly developed disposition, fur`,the body of positive rules derived from the Law,i.e. as It is actually applicable in courts of justice, hudd,God's 'restrictive statutes' concerning offences of which God Himself had defined the punishments in the Qur'n, hadth,having had a beginning,transient;oral tradition which can be traced to Mohammed or one of his Companions. Thus by means of anecdotes we are informed of what the Prophet held as an opinion,or his tacet approval of something said or done in his presence, hadth quds,divine saying not occurring in the Qur'n, hadra,state in which God presents Himself to the heart of a mystic; stage of Being,in which God descends and reveals Himself, hajar al-baht,'gem of stupefaction'. A center in the heart of man which functions as a telescope for the reception of light waves transmitted by divine radiations. Consequently,glaring rays of light spread from this 'gem',and stupify the mind and other faculties of the mystic, hajj,the pilgrimage to Mecca,Àraft and Min, hakm,sage characterised by an extraordinary sublimation of the mind, hanfiyya,monotheism avant la lettre. Before the time that monotheism had become a well-defined doctrine and an established institution,it was the religion in accordance with the natural disposition created in man by God. So it was the faith of people like Abraham,Joseph and the parents of Moses, haqqa muhammadiyya,'the Reality of Mohammed'. In this pre-creation light God deposited all potentialities that will work out till the Day of Resurrection, hay'a,configuration; habitude,predisposition, hayl,primary matter. It is the receptacle of form, hazra al-quds,'Holy Enclosure'. A luminous circle formed by the shining figures of the supreme angels and souls of perfect men convened to take decisions in view of devices considered to be beneficial for the inhabitants of the earth. Thus it functions as the will-power of the universe, hikma,wisdom,prudence. It may consist of practical knowledge or of intuition concerning the divine Essence and Names, himma,spiritual concentration,inner drive, hiss mushtarik,the instrument which co-ordinates the percepts of the individual 'external' senses, 178. Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
114 ibd`,absolute origination,i.e. the divine Essence's producing effects on nafs kulliyya which is free from all impurities, idfiyyt,Attributes of correlation which produce effects on the phenomenal world. The items of the empirical world are in essence partial realities and internal productions of the one absolute Reality, idrk,logical comprehension, ìffa,abstinence from trival and exiting pleasures; displaying a proper, i.e. natural sexual behaviour, ihla,mutation,transformation, ihrm,state of temporary consecration of someone who is performing the hajj or the umra, ihsn,sincere worship of God; spiritual perfection,which consists in adoring God as if you were seeing Him,for when you do not see Him,He sees you, jd,the giving of existence to creatures by God, ijza,licence to transmit the material taught, ijm`,consensus of the Muslim community on a regulation imposed by God, ijtihd,exerting one's effort in order to derive from indications in the Law an opinion concerning a legal rule; use of independent reasoning; religious strictness, ìlla,most proximate cause; rationale, ìlm hudr,immediate knowledge acquired through mystic experience and not through the canals of ratiocination, ìlm husl,'acquired',i.e. discursive knowledge, ìlm ladun,knowledge imparted directly by God through inner perception, imm,head of a city-state,of a school of law; leader of a ritual prayer. In Sh` faith he is a descendant from Àl and Mohammed's daughter Ftima,and functions as a living representation of God. His mere existence is necessary for the subsistence of the world,and it is through him that men are guided and saved, ìnya,providential ordering, insn ilh,Divine Man,i.e. the prototype of the human species, insn kmil,Perfect Man who has realized in himself all possibilities of being, insilkh,'sloughing off' (as the skin of a snake) of possible coverings in order to reveal the true self of man's personality, irda mutajaddida,God's creative will that brings about the changes and continuous processes of renovation in the universe, irtifqt. Irtifq means literally 'gaining benefit by'. Shh Wal Allh coined of its feminine plural a technical term denoting the ways and means people have at their disposal to raise cultural and social standards,and he qualifies the stages reached by their efforts to make a continuous progress simply as the first,second,third and fourth irtifq,i.e. respectively the stages of nomadic life,proper pattern of life,governing of a city-state,and the Caliphate, ishrt,esoteric allusions, ishq,ardent love, 179. ishrf,thoughtreading, ishrk,attributing associates to God, ìsma,divine protection; purity of character, isti`dd,innate receptivity,disposition, istihsn,advancing an arbitrary personal opinion for reasons of public convenience, istilh,metalanguage; inner integration of the angelic and animal potencies, istikhra,entrusting God with the choice between two or more possible options, i`tibrt,subtle indications; aspects, jadhb,attraction by God; trance, jhiliyya,'state of ignorance': the conditions of pagans in the pre-Islamic times, jmi`,compendium of all the different classes of traditions: historical, ethical,dogmatic and legal, jihd,holy war against the infidels; constant struggle against one's basic instincts, jinn,cosmic spirits,generally believed to be part of the world of the unseen, kfir,infidel, kalm,speech; speculative theology; apologetics for the sake of banishing doubts of Muslim intellectuals, kalm nafs,internal speech which is an eternal quality,inhering in God's Essence. The revealed Qur'n is an expression of it, kmil,Perfect Man who is superior to other men because of the appearance of the universal soul in his self Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
115 making the latter an instrument of its will, karmt,charismatic deeds, kashf,'unveiling' of the world of mystery; inward revelation, khaf,'arcane one'; concealed latfa which is found between the eyebrows, khalfa,successor of the prophets in general,and of Mohammed in particular; deputy of a spiritual leader,or a head of an order, khalq,creating,i.e. having a free disposal over matter so that many forms materialize. It is in fact an inferior activity which is not properly applicable to the divine Essence, khawss,exclusive properties; particular aspects, khayl,imagination. It is a retentive and totally passive faculty, khilà,robe of honour. The bestowal of a garment of honour is a standard mark of investiture, khirqa,patched frock,symbol of a novice's vows of obedience. The investiture with it forms part of the introduction into the order, kufr,unbelief, latfa,subtle substance; spiritual centre of a subtle substance, ma`d,'the Return of the souls to the bodies': the Hereafter, ma`n,spiritual entities; concepts,ideas, 180. madhhab,school of law; method of traversing the sf Path; doctrine, view, madrasa,college for higher studies, mhiyyt,quiddities; realities of the possible phenomena; that what makes phenomena what they are,and not something else, majz,not real: being in existence by way of a trope only; earthy, majdhb,the sf who is drawn toward the divine presence in state of ecstacy, majs,Zoroastrians, mala a`l,'Highest Council'. These are supreme angels and the souls of departed prophets and other specifically qualified men. Just as a nervous system regulates the body of a human individual,so the mala a`l regulate the affairs of the human species, mala sfil,'Low Council'. These are auxiliary angels. The sole occupation they are charged with is looking out for what may filter down of orders given by the mala a`l from above, maqm,stage on the sf Path; moral habit, ma`rifa,true knowledge gained by direct experience of enlightenment: gnosis, maslaha,public interest; consideration of expediency, mawld,the three (mineral,vegetable and animal) kingdoms of nature, mawjd,state of conceptual being based by means of the intellect,i.e. by argumentation and inference, maznn,surmised locations, milla,institutionalized religion; religious community, mi`rj,Mohammed's midnight journey to the seven heavens in which he reached the immediate presence of God, mzn,balance; criterion, mubashshira,annunciation in a vision of a joyful event, mufahham,person who is instructed by God and the mala a`l, muft,jurisconsult who gives an authoritative opinion ( fatw). He is not allowed to formulate his response as his personal advice,because the fatw must have an absolute objective character, muhaddath,inspired person, muhkamt,unambiguous verses of the Qur'n, mujaddid,renewer who is supposed to appear on the eve of every century, mujarrad,separate from bodily material: incorporeal, mu`jiza,evidentiary miracle, munfiqn,'hypocrites',lukewarm followers, murqaba,constant awareness of God; spiritual communion with the divine Attributes, musannaf,'arranged'; collection of traditions,organized upon an abstract subdivision in chapters according to their subject-matter, mushhada,contemplative witnessing, musnad,collection of traditions arranged according to the names of the transmitters, Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
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181. mutakallimn,scholars in the field of scholastic theology. They are intent on supplying discursive and reasoned apologia, mutashbiht,not clearly intelligible passages in the Qur'n,treating of the divine Attributes,matters concerning the Hereafter,obscure details in prophetic tales, mutawtir,handed down by large-scale dissemination which guarantees the authenticity of a tradition having so many different chains of transmitters that forgery is regarded as inconceivable, nafas al-rahmn,'Breath of the Merciful'. As words and letters are united in breathing,so the universe is created by God's exhaling the essences and forms of things. Hence it may also indicate a universe which is not yet given definite form: it is only capable,and being ready to appear in any determined form whatever, nafs (shahwiyya),the concupiscent soul which has its residence under the umbilicus, nafs kulliyya,'Universal Soul'. It is the in-between stage the universe passes through. Necessitated by God,the universe is first at the level of the transcendental determination. Next,it enters the level called al-nafs al-kulliyya,i.e. the stage of being that is spreading over the structural forms of the cosmos. Thereafter,the universe descends into the realm of matter ( nst). Besides,it represents the rh (vital principle) of the cosmos. Finally,it is the point of departure and return for all individual human souls, nafs ntiqa,reasoning soul. It is the connecting link between the àyn thbita (trancendental archetype) which is a purely holy entity - and the nasama (lower soul) which belongs to the objects of this tainted world. It represents the kernel of man's personality,orders human lives,and is able to have revelations of angels and visions of the hazra al-quds, nasama,fine pneuma. It stands for the physiological and psychic dispositions of man and universe,conveying potencies of perception,nourishment and growth, nash'a,evolutionary stage; level of existence, nsikh wa manskh,abrogating and abrogated Qur'nic verses, naskh,withdrawal; repeal of former heavenly decrees substantiated into a Qur'nic verse by a newly revealed message, ntiq,'speaking' prophet bringing a revealed message. The first six ones were Adam,Noah,Abraham,Moses,Jesus,and Mohammed. Each of them was followed by a 'silent' one,who being his was (legal guardian) was charged with conveying an esoteric interpretaion of the message of the previous ntiq, nisba,a disposition of the reasoning soul which grants likeness to the angels,on account of which information is received from the World of Omnipotence; spiritual atmosphere that presupposes affiliation and connectedness with God or with godly people, nr al-quds,'sacred light': name of a concealed latfa which is able to become acquainted with the disputes of the mala a`l and 182. the decisions descending from them, qabd,'contraction'. This refers to the feeling of fear and distress to which a mystic is exposed because of the contraction of the heart, qad',divine decree which orders the arrangement of daily occurrences, qadar,existential determination: applies to individual destiny of God's measurement connected with things at particular moments, qadm,uncreated,primeval, qalb,the heart,i.e. the faculty of inner intuition and seat of religious apprehension, qasda,poem with a characteristic tripartite structure, qibla,the direction to Mecca to which the Muslim turns for his ritual prayer; focus of attention, qiys,analogical reasoning, qurb al-far'id,proximity to God reached by the punctual fulfillment of religious duties, qurb al-kaml,proximity to God reached by 'perfection',i.e. acting in accordance with divine wisdom, qurb al-malakt,proximity to God brought by association with the world of angels, qurb al-nawfil,proximity to God reached by supererogative works, qurb al-wujd,proximity attained during the overflow of God's pure Being, rakà,unit of prostrations,genuflections and prayer formulas in behalf of the salt, rsikhn fi'l-ìlm, 'persons who are firmly rooted in knowledge'. A distinctive trait of theirs is that their knowledge seems to have descended from God directly into their hearts, Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
117 ra'y,personal opinion, ra'y kull,motivation to act for the general weal, rh,vital spirit,intermediary between body and soul. It is also a perceptible latfa lying two fingers under the right side of the breast, al-rh al-a`zam,supreme spirit, rukhsa,a relaxation of the strict rule, sbiq,outstripper, sabr,endurance; self-control; voluntary resignation, sadaqa,charitable donation, sakna, a Qur'nic term apparently a rendering of the Hebrew word shekina,the Cloud of Glory,manifesting the presence of the Lord and producing tranquility in the soul; inner peace, salt,ritual prayer, salt al-ma`ks,the salt of the 'inverted', slik,strider of the sf Path, sam`,hearing of spiritual music, samhat al-nafs,submission of the soul, samt slih,consistency in conduct, sha`'ir,visible symbols serving for the worship of God, shhid,'witness',martyr, 183. shajà,valour, shakhs akbar,'the Most Large Person',macrocosmos, sharh al-sadr,expansion of the breast for the favourable acceptance of the truth, sharà,shar`,the sacred law of Islam,comprising the totality of Allah's commands that regulate the life of every Muslim in relation to God and his fellow beings, shawq,yearning, shirk,idolatry,associating divinity with animate or inanimate objects, shu'n,internal modes of being calling for their externalization. They represent a stage prior to the Names and can be defined as the virtual forms of the Names,or modes of being of the tajall a`zam, shu'nt,potential Attributes, siddq,zealous persevering believer who is 'as kindred to a prophet as sulphur is to fire', sift salbiyya,'privative' Attributes by which God's transcendency is accentuated,as He is denied qualities on account of which result taking a form,occupying a place,need and weakness, sift thubtiyya,'steady' Attributes. They are the Attributes properly speaking and are from all eternity implied in God's Essence. By the existence of the universe they have become apparent, sirr,innermost part of the heart which has contact with the `lam al-jabart. It is also a perceptible latfa,and a sublimed configuration of the àql. Visions are a product specific of it, subgh,full expansion. A metaphor either 1) of the cosmogony displaying the result of subgh,a being overfilled with the divine Essence which,like an overflowing fountain,'vomits' foam,or 2) of a mystic who is sedulous in adopting God's Attributes, suhba,master-disciple relationship,which guarantees not only a personal control the disciple's progress but also a constant flow of spiritual energy from the master to the novice, sulk,progression in the sf Path towards the divine Reality, sunna,'beaten track': refers to the practices Mohammed endorsed and the precedents he set; God's wont, tabà kulliyya,'Universal Nature' which as the matrix of the cosmos encompasses all the mouldable materials of the universe, tadall,God's coming to the rescue when the universe or mankind have run into trouble. It results in disclosure of knowledge,right guidance consonant with the conditions of that time and perfection of the souls, tadall àzm,logos, tadbr,universal planning; divinely provided order of the world for the establishment of good provision, tafarrus,discerning the intrinsic character of metaphysical truths, Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
118 tafhm,interior revelation, 184. tafsr,exegesis of the Qur'n, tahaqquq,verification of that which is; self-objectification, self-realization, tahrf,the falsification of a text in a Holy Scripture,or the garbling of its meaning, tajdhub,state of tension, tajall a`zam,'the Most Supreme Theophany': a summary of the realities of the Self-existent,instrumental to reveal the Will of God and to refine the human souls, tajall dht,disclosure of the Ultimate Reality,neither in a mirror nor as a phenomenon,but just as It is, tajalliyyt,'radiances',i.e. theophanies by which various predicaments of the Ultimate Reality are disclosed to the mystic and he can be coloured by the colour or God, takammul,inner urge towards self-perfection, taklf,individual responsibility, talfq,jurisprudential harmonization, tanazzul,descent; stage of self-unfolding. By the process of it Pure Being,devoid of qualities and relations,gradually becomes verified, taqarrur,a thing's coming from potentiality to actuality; self-identification, taqld,the unquestioning acceptance of doctrines of the established schools, tarqa,religious brotherhood; a sf Path to God, tasarruf,control of a certain aspect of the material world,delegated by God to a wal or a mystical leader; spiritual power over one's novice, tashbh, 'likening',i.e. the bringing of God into relation with human characteristics; anthropomorphism, taskhr,subjugation with a view of turning to profitable account, tatbq,adaptaion: removing contradictions,integration of the total Muslim structure, tawajjuh,concentration of the soul on the Ultimate Reality,or on the novice by his spiritual teacher as part of his initiation, tawakkul,trust in God: which implies not worrying about earning one's livelihood, tawhd,affirming of the divine Unity; unification with God and consciousness of one's oneness with God, tawl al-ahdth,explanation of significative events, tawjh,to search out the contextual motive in Qur'nic verses, tayammum,ritual purification by means of sand or dust, timthl,exemplary representation; perceptible counterpart (as,for instance,the hand is in repect of man's practical power); seemly attitude, ùlam',scholar-jurists upon whom the interpretation of the Law rest, ùlm,kinds of knowledge forming the basic principles which make possible reflection and inference as well as the execution of the duties God imposes upon mankind, umma,blessed community, 185. umm,illiterate person whose heart is a tabula rasa,not spoilt by outward intellectual achievement and learning, ùmra,minor pilgrimage to Mecca, uns,intimacy, ùql,intelligences,i.e. a kind of regulating powers governing the nine spheres around the eart. Each celestial sphere has a seperate intelligence of its own, ùrf,common convention. In Muslim legal theory it operates as a principle of subsidiary value, wahdat al-shuhd,unity-in-experience implying that the Beloved and lover are joined together but their individuality is preserved, wahdat al-wujd,unity of Being based on the premise that 'Everything is He' in stead of 'Everything is from Him'. The things existing are to Being as waves to the sea, whidiyya,unity-in-diversity. It is the stage of the a`yn thbita,i.e. the latent realities of the things contingent, wahm,fancy; power of abstraction. It is endowed with the faculty to perceive particular ideas in sensible objects, wahshat,estrangement. A complementary to the experience of uns, wahy,revelatory process, Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
119 wajd,ecstatic experience, wal,protg of God; protector, wasla,means of access; position of a go-between, wasiyya,testamentary disposition; directive for a disciple, wujd, 'the finding by means of the intellect': existence; being.It can be qualified as btin (internal) if one wants to allude to the hidden aspect of being,i.e. the opposite of wujd that has come into phenomenal reality, wujd munbasit,self-unfolding being which follows the stage of being still left in its absolute purity. It stabilizes the contingent realities, wujd zulmn,man's gloomy existence in the world, yd-dsht,constant concentration on the reality of God which is stripped of sounds,words,ecstatic emotions,and so on. A rule which a Naqshband is required to observe during the dhikr- exercises, Yazdn,Persian name of God, zakt,obligatory alms. It is handed over to gain purification, zarfa,sensitivity to art and beauty, zuhd,renunciation of the world
120
Index of proper names

Àbbsid Àbd Allh b. Àbbs (d. 686) Àbd al-Àzz al-Dihlaw b. Wal Allh,Mawln Shh (d. 1824) Àbd al-Rahm (d. 1719) Àbd al-Razzq (d. 827) Abraham Ab Bakr,the caliph (d. 634) Ab Bakra (d. 671) Ab D'd al-Sijistn (d. 889) Ab Dharr al-Ghifr (d. 652) Ab Hanfa (d. 767) Ab 'l-Hasan Kharaqn (d. 1033) Abu 'l-Hudhayl (d. 840) Ab Hurayra (d. 678) Ab Ms al-Ashàr (d. 662) Ab Razn al-Ùqayl (d. 704) Ab Rid Muhammad (d. 1690) Ab Sa`d b. Abi 'l-Khayr (d. 1049) Ab Thir al-Madan (d. 1733) Ab Tlib al-Makk (d. 998) Ab Ysuf (d. 798) Afand Ism`l b.` Abd Allh al-Rum al-Madan Afifi,A.E. Ahmad b. Hanbal (d. 855) Ahmad Khn,Sir Sayyid (d. 1898) Ahrr,Khwja al-Dn Ùbayd Allh (d. 1490) À'isha (d. 678) Ajmr Akbar I (d. 1605) al-Akhskat,Husm al-Dn (d. 1247) Àlamgr II (d. 1760) Alexander the Great (d. 323 B.C.) Àl b. Ab Tlib,the caliph (d. 661) Allard,M. Àmmr b. Ysir (d. 657) Anas b. Mlik (d. 709) Anawati,G.C. Arabs Àrafa Aristotelian al-Ashàr,Abu 'l-Hasan (d. 935) Ashàrite Àshiq,Shh Muhammad (d. 1773) Àshr' Augustine Awrangzb (d. 1707) Ayurveda Babylonians Badr Bah' al-Dn al-Naqshband (d. 1389) Bahr'ich (U.P.) Bahrayn al-Banr,Adam (d. 1643) Baq bi'llh,Khwja (d. 1603) Basra al-Baydw,Àbd Allh (d. 1286) Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
121 al-Bayhaq,Ab Bakr Ahmad (d. 1066) al-Bazzz,Ab Àl (d. 1034) Bernard,M. Bilgrm Blachere,R. Brahmans Browne,E.G. Buddhists al-Bukhr,Muhammad b. Ism`l (d. 870) al-Bn,Abu 'l-Abbs (d. 1225) al-Burq Byzantium Cairo Cambay Chishtiyya Choumi,M. Christians Corbin,H. Daniel al-Drim (d. 869) al-Dawn (d. 1502) Delhi Denizeau,C. Deoband Dieterici,Fr. al-Dihlaw,Sharaf al-Dn Eliade,M. Eve Fakhr al-Nis' al-Farr` (d. 822) Faruqi,B.A. Ftima,daughter of Mohammed (d. 633) Ftima bint Ùbayd Allh of Phulat Fazle Mahmud Friedmann,Y. Gabriel Ganges Gardet,L al-Ghazl,Ab Hmid (d. 1111) Goldziher,I. Gospels Granqvist,H. Greeks Habb Ìrfn Haddd,Y.Y. Hakm al-Tirmidh (d. 908) Hanbal,Hanbalite Hns al-Haramayn Hardwr Hasan b. Àl b. Ab Tlib (d. 669/670) Hasan al-Basr (d. 728) Haydar-i Amul,Bah' al-Dn (d. 1385) Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
122 Herklots,G.A. Hermansen,M.K. Hermes Trismegistos Hijz al-Hill (d. 1325) Hindus Holy Spirit Hd (prophet) Hudaybiyya al-Humayd,Àbd Allh b. al-Zubayr (d. 834) Hunayn Husayn b. Àl b. Ab Tlib (d. 680) Ibn Ab Shayba (d. 849) Ibn al-Àrab,Ab Bakr Muhammad (d. 1148) Ibn al-Àrab,Muhyi 'l-Dn (d. 1240) Ibn al-Hjib (d. 1248) Ibn Ishq (d. 767) Ibn Khaldn,Àbd al-Rahmn (d. 1406) Ibn al-Mjishn (d. 827) Ibn Mas`d (d. 652/3) Ibn Miskawayh (d. 1030) Ibn al-Mubrak (d. 797) Ibn al-Nafs (d. 1288) Ibn Rhwayh (d. 853) Ibn Sna (d. 1037) Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328) Ibn Ùmar,Àbd Allh (d. 693) Idrs (prophet) al-Ij (d. 1355) Ikhwn al-Saf' Iqbl,Sir Muhammad (d. 1938) Ìrq Isaiah Ism`l Ism`l Israelites Isrfl Ithn Àshariyya (Twelvers) Ìyd b. Himr Izutsu,T. Ìzz al-Dn b. Àbd al-Salm (d. 1262) Jacob al-Jhiz (d. 868) Jalbani,G.N. Jm,Àbd al-Rahmn (d. 1492) Java Jerusalem Jesus Jews al-Jln,Àbd al-Qdir (d. 1166) Job Jonah Joseph Joshuah al-Junayd,Abu 'l-Qsim al-Baghdd (d. 910) Jupiter al-Jurjn (d. 1413) Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
123 Ka`ba al-Kalb,Muhammad b. al-S'ib (d. 763) al-Kashmr,Khwja Muhammad Amn (d. 1773/4) al-Ktib,Najm al-Dn Dabrn (d. 1276) al-Kawthar,Muhammad Zhid (d. 1952) Khabar al-Khidr Khwurd,Khwja (b. 1601) Kirmn,Hamd al-Dn (d. 1020) Krishna Kubrwiyya order al-Krn,Ibrahm (d. 1690) Landolt,H. Luther,M. (d. 1546) Madr,Shh Badi` al-Dn (d. 1440) Magians al-Mahbb,Burhn al-Dn Mahmd (13th century) Makhdm Mu`n of Thatta (d. 1748) al-Makk,Ab Tlib (d. 998) Mlik b. Anas (d. 796) Man Mohan al-Marghnn,Burhn al-Dn Abu 'l-Hasan (d. 1197) Mars Marwa Mary,the Virgin al-Mashmd,Yahya b. Yahya (d. 848) Ma`sm,Khwja Muhammad (d. 1688) Mawdd,Abu 'l-A`l (d. 1978) Mazhar Baq Mazhar,Mrz Jnjnn (d. 1781) Mecca Medina Mercury Mk'l Miller,W.M. Mr al-Jurjn (d. 1413) Miskawayh (d. 1030) Mohammed,the Prophet (d. 632) Moses Mu`dh b. Jabal al-Muàmmar,Ab Àbd Allh Muhammad Àshiq,Shh Muhammad b. Shh Wal Allh,Shaykh (d. 1793/4) al-Muhsib,Hrith (d. 857) Mull Amn Allh Mull Shr Muhammad Ms al-Kzim (d. 1294) Muslim,the traditionist Mu`tazilite Muzaffarnagar (U.P.) Najm al-Dn Kubr (d. 1220) Naqshbandiyya al-Nasaf,Ab Hafs Ùmar Najm al-Dn (d. 1142) al-Nas' (d. 915) Neo-Platonism Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
124 New Testament Noah non-Arabs Nr Allh b. Mu'n al-Dn Phulat Pnpat,Qd Than' Allh (d. 1810) Peripatetics Persia(ns) Phulat Phulat,Shaykh Muhammad Phulat,Shaykh Ùbayd Allh Pharaoh Pisces Plato Potiphar Ptolemy Qdiriyya al-Qala`,Tj al-Dn (d. 1734) al-Qasim,Ghulm Mustaf al-Qnaw,Sadr al-Dn (d. 1263) Qutb al-Dn al-Bakhtiyr al-Kk (d. 1236) Rfidites Rjpts Rohtak Sabians Sadhus Sadr al-Sharà al-Thn (d. 1346) Saf Slr Mas`d Ghz (d. 1033) Slih Samuel Saturn Semites al-Shdhil,Abu 'l-Hasan (d. 1258) Shdhiliyya al-Shfi` (d. 820) Shfiìte al-Sha`rn,Àbd al-Wahhb (d.1565) Shattriyya al-Shaybn (d. 805) Sheba,queen of Shem Shà,Sh` Shuàyb Sbawayhi (d. 796) Sinai Sindh,Muhammad Fdil (d. 1732) Sindh,Ùbayd Allh (d. 1944) al-Sirhind Shaykh Ahmad (d. 1624) Siylkot,Shaykh Muhammad Afdal (d. 1733) Starworshippers al-Suhraward,Shihb al-Dn Ab Hafs (d. 1234) al-Suhraward,Shihb al-Dn Yahy (d. 1191) Suhrawardiyya Srat al-Suyt,Jall al-Dn (d. 1505) Please reference: http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html Copyright 2012, Katinka Hesselink, on behalf of the heirs of J.M.S. Baljon
125
al-Taftzn,Sa`d al-Dn (d. 1389) al-Tahw,Àbd al-Jall (d. 933) al-Tahtn,Qutb al-Dn Muhammad al-Rz (d. 1364) Tantrism T's b. Laysn (d. 724) al-Taylis,Ab Dwd (d. 819) Thamdites Thoth al-Tirmidh,Ab Ìs Muhammad (d. 892) Torah Transoxiana Tritton,A.S. Tuwan Ullmann,M. Ùmar b. al-Khattb,the caliph (d. 644) Umayyads Umm Salama al-Urmaw,Saf al-Dn (d. 1294) Ùthmn b. Àffn,the caliph (d. 656) Ùthmn b. Maz`n (d. 626/7) Uways al-Qaran (d. 657) Ùzayr (Ezra) Venus Wafd Allh,Muhammad al-Wqid (d. 822) Wensinck,A.J. Yahy b. Yahy,al-Masmd (d. 848) Yazdn Yemen Yoga Zabd (Yemen) al-Zabd,Sayyid Murtad (d. !791) Zacharia Zamzam Zoroastrians
126
Afterword
Because this book is a sort of last testament of my grandfather, I feel it is suitable to share some of his personal and family history with the reader. My grandfather was born on Juli 18 th 1919 in Modjowarno, Java (now Indonesia). He lived there as the eldest son of a protestant minister till he was 13, moving to the Netherlands. His father and grandfather shared his name: J.M.S. Baljon. Johannes Marinus Simon Baljon. The initials have quite a famous ring in the family. J.M.S the first (1861-190821) was a famous Dutch theologian whose work still show up in Google to this day. J.M.S. the second (1891-197822) was a prominent man in the Protestant missionary world in the Netherlands as well as the Dutch Indies. My grandfather had quite a legacy to live up to and he choose to do that by focusing on the religion he had experienced in Indonesia growing up: Islam. How very much he was his fathers son in his own eyes as well as the worlds can be seen, I think, from t he fact that his earliest articles for the Nederlands Theologisch Tijdschrift (Dutch Theological Magazine) were signed as J.M.S. Baljon Jr. It wasnt till he had found a job at Groningen University that he changed that to J.M.S. Baljon. Since in the magazine the place of residence of the author was always mentioned as well, losing the Jr. will not have confused the readers. Perhaps its suitable that someone who grew up in Indonesia should focus on the mystical side of Islam: Sufism. However, J.M.S. the third didnt study Indonesian Islam, but Sufism in what is now India and Pakistan.
Career
23
My grandfather studied theology as well as Arabic and Sanscrit at Utrecht University from 1939 till 1946, World War II interfering. He studied Arabic and Sanscrit at the School of Oriental Studies in London from 1946 till 1948, not letting himself be limited by the birth of his first child (a daughter, my mother). He gained a Ph.D. in 1949 on his studies of the work Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan. 24 From 1950 to 1957 he was a minister for the protestant church in Blankenham, from 1957 to 1961 in Loppersum. He became UHD at the theological faculty in Groningen in 1961. In 1968 he became lector at the same university for Islam, Indian religions and Urdu. In 1971 he was offered a professorship devoted to Islam at Leiden university where he stayed till he had to retire in 1984. As a member of the synode of the Dutch Reformed Church (Hervormde Kerk) from 1955 till 1957 he was instrumental in allowing women into the ministry. He and his father had fun stressing that if he, a liberal minister, hadnt represented the otherwise conservative part of the country, women would not be allowed to preach in church. Apparently the matter passed only just. 25 He was an advisor to the government (ZWO adviseur) on culture studies (geesteswetenschappen) from 1972 to 1978.
127
J.M.S. Baljon the 3rd Bibliography

No attempt has been made to trace all my grandfathers articles. The following are all the books he wrote or translated. I have included some of the articles which are still in the family archives, kept by my mother Marijke Baljon (married to Hesselink). This list is in Chronological order of first publication.
English
The Reforms and Religious Ideas of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan by J.M.S. Baljon, Jr. D.D. PHD thesis 1949. Several Editions. First Edition Brill 1949, Second revised edition Lahore 1958, reprint Lahore 1964, 1970 (not all reprints with permission). Modern Muslim Koran Interpretation (1880-1960) by J.M.S. Baljon, Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1968 A Mystical Interpretation of Prophetic Tales by an Indian Muslim: Shah Wali Allahs TaWIL Al -Ahadith, translated by J.M.S. Baljon in the Religious Texts Translation Series Nisaba, Volume two, E.J. Brill, Leiden 1973 Religion and Thought of Shah Wali Allah Dihlawi 1703-1762 by J.M.S. Baljon, Leiden E.J. Brill, 1968 Muslim Children in Holland, by J.M.S. Baljon, Iqbal Review, October 1981 Full Moon Appearing on the Horizon , by Shah Waliyullah, translated by J.M.S. Baljon, Ashraf, Lahore, 198826 Indo-Pakistani and Egyptian Muftis on Medical Issues , by J.M.S. Baljon, The Muslim World, Vol. LXXXVI, no. 1, January 1996
Dutch
Stad des Verderfs by Dr. M. Kamel Hussein, translated by Dr. J.M.S. Baljon Jr., K.P. Baljon-van den Ende, De Brug Djambatan N.V. 1961 Moslimse ambivalentie inzake muziek, openbare les gegeven bij de aanvaarding van het ambt van gewoon lector in de Islam en de Godsdiensten van India aan de Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen op dinsdag 13 februari 1968, door Dr. J.M.S. Bajon, Leiden, E.J. Brill 1968 De motivatie van de moslimse pelgrim, Rede uitgesproken bij het aanvaarden van het ambt van gewoon hoogleraar in de Islamologie aan de Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden op vrijdag 13 oktober 1972 door Dr. J.M.S. Baljon, 1972, University Press Leiden
128
Notes
1
Chisht saint and spiritual successor of the famous Mu`n al-Dn Hasan (d. 1236), the founding figure of the Chisht affiliation in India. His tomb is found in Mihrawl, south of Delhi. He was surnamed Kk because during his meditations he fed on small cakes known as kks.
2
Possibly forced by the onslaught of Mongolian hordes (Fazle Mahmud, Life of Shah Wali Allah Dehlavi, Oriental College Magazine, Lahore 1956, vol. XXXIII, 5).
3
A man of tolerant views. In a letter to one of his disciples he makes a plea for paying attention to Hindu religion, stating furthermore that belief in the transmigration of souls need not be qualified as kufr (unbelief) ('Ubayd Allah Sindh, Il- hm al-Rahmn, Azizabad, n.d., II, 29). 4 As in former times, it had been the task of his colleague Àbd al-Qdir al-Jln (d. 1166) to exercise criticism at the court of the caliph (Tafh. II, 149 f.). 5 Presumably indicating that in the Muslim world production of inspired religious writings had stopped. 6 Shh Wal Allh seems to assent more to W.M. Watts view that Mohammed could probably write as much as the average merchant of Mecca (Bells Introduction to the Qur'n, Edinburgh 1970, 36) than to the traditional Muslim opinion affirming that he was entirely illiterate (umm). 7 Though Mohammed had cut off all possibilities of the investiture of a prophet after him, his work was to Shh Wal Allh's mind not yet finished. Apparently, by the assumption of a robe, the insigne par excellence of a prophet, the task of participating in the completion of Mohammeds achievements was also appointed to the Delhi divine. 8 A Yemeni contemporary of Mohammed who was spiritually initiated by the latter from a distance, i.e. without his bodily presence. 9 The adaptation of this term for mystical expositions is unmistakably an idea borrowed from al-Ghazl who uses the same expression in his esoteric essay Mishkt al-anwr, Cairo ed. 1904, 29. According to the latter, this region is called Holy Enclosure because nothing foreign to it can enter. 10 The same simile is used to elucidate the theophany Moses was favoured with in the holy valley Tuwan: Hence the elements of air etc. of that place took the form of fire in order to reveal the message of God in the same way as the form reflected in a mirror reveals the one who looks into it (Lamha 57). 11 So daily occurances, in substance, come about by the outpouring of actualised temporal Names ( asm' hditha) from the breasts of the angels nearest to God, who are responsible for the management of creation (Khizna 2) (note that Names are in fact divine powers scattered all over the universe).
12
I.e. angels of a high rank are rational beings created from celestial elements, while the element of air is the most striking characteristic of the bodies of angels of a low rank (Khizna 3).
13
The bearers of the Throne are four angels: one in the shape of a man and that is the intercessor for men ; another in the shape of a bull - and that is the intercessor for domestic animals -; the third in the shape of a vulture and that is the intercessor for birds -; and the fourth in the shape of a lion - and that is the intercessor for beasts of prey (Sat. 45). 14 Their firm consensus is called strengthening with the Holy Spirit (See Qur'n V, 113, where this qualification is reserved for Jesus) (H.B. I,16). The Holy Spirit stands for the tajall a`zam, and being strengthened with it implies a participation in the blessings of the tajall a`zam (Lamha 58). 15 They have shapelessness in common with minerals and the possession of a rh with animals. 16 I.e. the Prototype of Mohammed, which is the active Principle in all divine and esoteric knowledge (A.E. Affifi, The Mystical Philosophy of Ibnul Arabi, Lahore n.d., 70). 17 In chapter 17 of Ibn al-Àrabs al-Tadbrt al-ilhiyya f islh al-mamlaka al-insniyyailhiyya, the hajar al-baht (the gem of stupefaction) is elucidated as follows: It represents a vital center in the heart of man as a pupil in the eye. As soon as the heart is polished by spiritual exercises, this center becomes visible. Because of the reflection of light waves transmitted by a tajall (divine radiation), light then spreads from this gem and pervades all recesses of the physical body. Because of that, glaring rays of light radiating from this gem stupify and dazzle the mind and other faculties of the mystic. (see H.S. Nyberg, Kleinere Schriften des Ibn al-Àrab, Leiden 1919, 216 f.). 18 According to the Mu`tazilites the attributes may be expressed by adjectives but not by finite verbs [...] for the verb demands an object and suggests something besides God (A.S. Tritton, Muslim Theology, London 1947, 84 f.). 19 The reason why according to Ibn al-Àrab they are one and the same thing is that all the Divine Names, in so far as they invariably refer to the Absolute, are nothing but the object named, i.e. the Essence of the Absolute itself [...] These Names, however, [...] can also be considered by themselves, independent of the Essence to which they refer [...] Considered in this way, each Name has its own reality by which it is distinguished from the rest of the Names. In this respect, a Name is different from the object named. (T. Izutsu, The Key Philosophical Concepts in Sufism and Taoism, Tokio 1966, 92 f.) 20 I.e. kalm lafz (pronounced speech), which is not eternal as is the case with kalm nafs but created.
21 22
Van wolcammer tot Genealogie van de familie Baljon / Balijon p. 20 Van wolcammer tot Genealogie van de familie Baljon / Balijon p. 20 23 The source for the dates and most of the details here is a cutting in the family archives without a mention of where it was published. However, since it lacks correcting notes, I take it at face value. 24 It has proved remarkably difficult to find out precisely when my grandfathers PHD thesis was finished and accepted. The family genealogy Van Wolcammer tot certainly has it all wrong dating it at 1985 (p. 175). A cutting from the
129
Dutch national magazine Vrij Nederland dated April 16 1949 sets the record straight: 1949 must be the year. This is confirmed by the obituary his friend Frederik de Jong wrote for Islamic Studies, Spring 2001 in which he says: He was awarded a Ph.D. in Theology from Utrecht in 1949 for a dissertation entitled The Reforms and Religious Ideas of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan which was simultaneously published by E.J. Brill in Leiden. 25 This is as my mother, Marijke Baljon, tells it. She adds that her father and grandfather relished in the thought that she might preach one day. She remembers thinking that she really didnt want to! 26 I have not seen a copy of this work. However, a cutting in my mothers archives confirms the existence of this book, as do online booksellers who list it.
th

Pensamiento de Shah Wali Allah

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Pensamiento de Shah Wali Allah

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'Religion and Thought of Shah Wali Allah Dihlawi', 1703 1762 Revised ebook edition by J. M. S.

2 Table of Contents PREFACE 4 5

NOTE ON THE TEXT ABREVIATIONS 6

A. WORKS OF SHH WAL ALLH 6 B. PERIODICALS AND ENCYCLOPEDIA INTRODUCTION 7

CHAPTER THREE: METAPHYSICS 21

CHAPTER FOUR: PSYCHOLOGY 31 CHAPTER FIVE: MYSTICISM CHAPTER SIX: ETHICS 43 50 53 38

CHAPTER SEVEN: THE LIFE TO COME CHAPTER EIGHT: PROPHETOLOGY

CHAPTER TWELVE: THE SHARIA 84 BIRTH OF THE SHAR`A 84

CHAPTER FIFTEEN: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IDEAS EPILOGUE 107

Note on the text

B. Periodicals and Encyclopedia

AION BOAS EI 2 IC JRAS MW

Chapter one: Vocational Visions

Chapter two: Extra-scriptural media of divine revelation

Chapter three: Metaphysics

Chapter four: Psychology

Chapter five: Mysticism

Chapter six: Ethics

Chapter seven: The Life to Come

Chapter eight: prophetology

Chapter nine: People of Eminence

Chapter ten: Quran

Chapter eleven: Hadith

Chapter twelve: the Sharia

Chapter thirteen: True and False Religion

Chapter fourteen: religious rites and customs

Chapter Fifteen: Social and Economic Ideas

Glossary of Technical Terms

Index of proper names

J.M.S. Baljon the 3rd Bibliography

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