ADVANCES IN GROUTING TECHNOLOGY

Joseph P. Welsh, P.E.1 and George K. Burke, P.E.2

ABSTRACT From the early days of simple slurry injection to current sophisticated techniques, grouting has played, and continues to play, an important role in remediation and new construction worldwide. As new grouting technology is developed, and existing technologies are refined, the range of applications increases. This paper presents four grouting techniques compaction, permeation, jet and soil fracture that have particular relevance in todays global construction marketplace. A brief introduction to each technique is followed by discussion of recent advances, illustrated by case studies of applications. 1.0 COMPACTION GROUTING

Compaction grouting is the strategic injection of a low-slump mortar grout under relatively high pressure to displace and compact soil in place. This technique was pioneered on the west coast of the United States in the 1950s, and is the only grouting technique to have its roots in that country. Developed to overcome the lack of control of travel and set times associated with conventional slurry grouting, compaction grouting was first used to rectify settled structures. In the late 1970s, the technique was used for the first time in lieu of underpinning to protect surface structures from settlement during soft ground tunneling (Baker et al., 1983) Since its introduction, compaction grouting has been used extensively in the United States as a remedial tool. However, in recent years its use has also been centered on new and different applications in soils previously believed to be untreatable by this method. 1.1 Site Improvement For Liquefaction Mitigation Perhaps the most significant advance in the use of compaction grouting has taken place in seismic regions. Over the past four to five years, the technique has been: Applied on relatively open sites in conjunction with other site improvement techniques, such as vibro replacement stone columns or dynamic compaction, for liquefaction mitigation. Applied on restricted sites as a single site improvement technique to densify soils for liquefaction mitigation. Applied as a remedial tool for seismic retrofit. 1.1.1 Open Sites Typically, on large, relatively open sites, vibro stone column construction or dynamic compaction is used to achieve the majority of the required improvement. However, such sites may also abut, or include, surface or underground structures sensitive to the vibrations induced by these methods. Alternatively, overhead obstructions may preclude the use of large equipment. In these circumstances, compaction grouting, with its small, maneuverable and vibration-free equipment, is effective in achieving the improvement needed without adversely affecting surrounding features. 1.1.2 Restricted Sites More and more, improvement for liquefaction mitigation is needed on smaller, prime urban sites completely bounded by existing structures, where vibratory methods or pile driving are not viable options. Compaction grouting may be used as a single site improvement technique, avoiding the cost of removal and replacement.
1 2

Consultant, Hayward Baker Inc., 1130 Annapolis Road, Odenton, Maryland, USA Vice President, Engineering, Hayward Baker Inc., 1130 Annapolis Road, Odenton, Maryland, USA

1.1.3 Seismic Retrofit Where existing structures are to be expanded, or their use has been revised, or building codes have been upgraded to meet new seismic considerations, compaction grouting is being increasingly used as a remedial tool for liquefaction mitigation. Of particular note is the ability of this technique to be surgically applied to treat only the liquefiable zone, or zones, between competent material. 1.2 Case Study: Century Freeway, Los Angeles, California, USA The 5.7 km Century Freeway consists of an eight-lane, paved roadway, with wide shoulders and two light rail tracks in the median between the eastbound and westbound lanes. The freeway alignment was cut down to 9 m below original ground level for the entire length of the project. This required a system of shallow and deep storm drains to be installed beneath both freeway shoulders for collection and removal of water from surface runoff and the local, shallow groundwater table. Four pumping plants were installed within the project area to remove the collected water and discharge it into local city storm drain systems. Less than two years after the freeway opened, a surface depression developed on the westbound ramp. A year later, three other depressions and sinkholes developed in the ground adjacent to the westbound lanes. It was determined that erosion and piping of significant quantities of granular backfill soils into the deep storm drain system had occurred, primarily at unsealed pipe joints. This had resulted in collapsible voids above and around the storm drains, low-density bedding and backfill soils subject to differential settlement, and seismic risk due to liquefiable fine sands below the very shallow groundwater table (Reed et al., 1998). 1.2.1 Subsurface Conditions Subsurface exploration revealed a range of soil types and conditions, including: Very loose, liquefiable sand zones with corrected blow count values of less than seven. Very loose/soft zones of potentially settlement-prone silts and clays. Zones of existing voids both at depth and directly beneath the freeway pavement section. The California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS) authorized a limited test section to evaluate the effectiveness of compaction grouting in densifying the loose soils and filling the voids. Based on the results of the test section, compaction grouting was specified, initially only for the 4-km section of storm drain alignment designated as Priority 1. However, the success of the grouting program for this section led to an extension of the scope of work to include the total length of the freeway. 1.2.2 Performance Specifications The designated treatment zone extended from 1.5 m below the freeway pavement to 1.5 m below the deep storm drain invert, as shown in Figure 1. From results obtained during the trial program, the specified performance criteria required that: Loose, sandy soil zones be densified such that the average post-grouting. tip resistance was at least 4.8 MPa, with no readings at any depth being less than 1.9 MPa over any grouting interval of 0.3 m. Total cumulative movement of nearby structures (deep drain pipes and freeway shoulders, ramps and active-lane pavement sections) be less than 13 mm. 1.2.3 Compaction Grouting Approximately 870 pre-grouting Cone Penetrometer Tests (CPTs) were performed to depths of 8 m along either side of the deep storm drain to verify pre-treatment soil conditions, allowing the grouting contractor to accurately predict the different soil types and their in situ properties at any given location. The inside rows of grout pipes were installed on either side of the deep storm drain, 0.6 m from the outer drain edge and 2.4 m center to center. The outer rows were installed 0.6 m from the inside rows, 2.4 m center to center and offset 1.2 m from the inner rows. Locations were grouted in 0.3 m stages from the bottom up, using the following cutoff criteria: Maximum allowable pavement uplift/heave of 13 mm. Maximum storm drain deformation or movement of 13 mm. Pressure as measured at the grout pipe header of 3.1 MPa or greater. A volumetric cutoff, empirically determined during the test program.

Figure 1 : Zone of compaction grouting

1.2.4 Verification Testing More than 850 post-grouting CPTs were performed to verify that the specified improvement criteria had been achieved. Results showed that the specified degree of improvement in the loose, granular deposits had been met along the entire alignment, with CPT tip resistance values of at least 1.9 MPa and average values well in excess of 4.8 MPa achieved. 1.3 Case Study: Hamakoshien Condominiums, Osaka, Japan Prior to the 1995 Kobe earthquake, the use of compaction grouting in Japan had been very limited. However, the urgent need for seismic retrofit and soil pre-treatment to prevent future liquefaction-induced damage, coupled with the need to accomplish much of this work under severely limited access conditions, led to the in-depth evaluation of the compaction grouting technique and its subsequent use by a Japanese specialty geotechnical contractor to raise, re-level and stabilize damaged structures. One key project was compaction grouting for seismic retrofit of five, multi-story apartment buildings within a Government housing complex in Osaka. 1.3.1 Compaction Grouting Program The buildings had originally been constructed atop raised floors supported by perimeter walls that were founded on primarily silty sands and sandy silts. As a result of the magnitude 6.7 earthquake, the structures had undergone up to 355 mm of differential settlement, as shown in Figure 2. To provide sufficient reaction for the compaction grouting program to accomplish its objective, the raised floors were removed and replaced with monolithic slabs. Compaction grout locations were drilled through the slabs on a 2.4 m by 2 m primary grid and grouting was performed from the top of competent material at a depth of 8 m up to the underside of the slabs. Initial grouting was designed to densify the soils against future liquefaction. Continued injection achieved controlled heave to re-level the foundations and raise the building. Comprehensive computerized monitoring during compaction grouting included: Pressure cells set in the soil at various depths to log the changes in pressure exerted on the soil during injection of grout.

Real-time readout manometer (water level) survey points at 14 locations around the perimeter of the building Load cells placed on reaction pads beneath the foundations to determine the point loads placed on the building as the re-leveling occurred.

Figure 2 : Settled apartment building In virtually all cases the buildings were re-leveled to within to within 75 mm of absolute level. Standard Penetration Testing (SPT) showed that the soil had been densified to the degree necessary to mitigate future liquefaction damage. Following on the success of these earlier programs, compaction grouting for seismic retrofit has become more widely used in Japan. Of note is the mitigation of liquefaction potential beneath Tokyos Haneda International Airport. In the recently completed first phase of a multi-phase program, compaction grouting was used to improve a liquefiable zone extending from elevation 4 m to 20 m beneath taxiways and runways. The ability to effectively achieve the improvement at depth through smaller diameter surface grout holes, thereby minimizing disruption to flight scheduling, was instrumental in the selection of this technique over the other technically viable options of chemical grouting, jet grouting and sand drains. 1.4 Site Improvement In Karstic Regions In the United States, compaction grouting has long been used to remediate existing sinkholes in karstic regions. In recent years, the technique has also been successfully applied as a pre-treatment measure for site improvement. The potential for sinkhole development presents a unique challenge to foundation design and construction. The zones of raveled soil are typically saturated, very soft or loose, and compressible. Sinkholes or zones of eroded soil can advance within areas supporting building loads. This can lead to

subsidence and structural damage (Stapleton et al., 1995). Compaction grouting has proven to be an effective site improvement tool for : Pre-collapsing existing, deep voids. Filling deep voids. Densifying soils loosened as a result of raveling. 1.5 Case Study: Corporate Campus, Pennsylvania, USA Construction of a new corporate headquarters for a large investment company included six, two- and three-story office buildings as well as multi-story parking structures, extensive on-grade parking and landscaped areas. The greater portion of the 800,000 square meter site is underlain by bedrock of the Conestoga formation, which typically includes solution-prone carbonates that are susceptible to sinkhole formation. 1.5.1 Site Investigation The extensive subsurface exploration program included geologic site mapping, Standard Penetration Testing, Cone Penetrometer Testing, test borings and groundwater observation wells, and seismic refraction surveys. This data allowed site conditions to be evaluated three-dimensionally by the development of digital terrain models, enabling contour plans to be developed showing the approximate top of bedrock and thickness of soft soil zones. From the site investigation, key geotechnical issues were identified, as follows: The potential for excessive differential settlements due to the presence of raveled soil within the stress zone of shallow foundations. The difficulty of installing traditional deep foundations through the steeply dipping and pinnacled limestone bedrock. The potential for post-construction subsurface erosion and excessive structural settlement. Compaction grouting, in conjunction with select soil exchange in shallow zones, was selected for site improvement beneath the office buildings, allowing subsequent construction on shallow foundations. 1.5.2 Grouting Program Minimum ground improvement criteria were established based on settlement and bearing capacity analyses. To meet these criteria, the grouting contractor developed a grid spacing of 4.3 m by 4.3 m, with secondary points at the midpoint of the primary pattern. Casing was advanced a minimum of 1.5 m into competent rock to ensure that grouting was initiated in rock, and not in a boulder. Grouting depths ranged from 6.1 m to 21.3 m, with the average grouting depth being 16.2 m. 1.5.3 Quality Control Real time performance monitoring included: monitoring of grout injection volume relative to site geology and the thickness of the soft zones. Standard Penetration Testing at grid centers and midway between injection points for every 232 m2 of grout area. Average grout takes of 6.5 m3 per hole corresponded well with the site geology and anticipated thickness of the soft zones, with testing confirming that the required improvement was achieved (Stapleton, et al., 1995). 2.0 PERMEATION GROUTING

Permeation grouting is the pressurized injection of low-viscosity soluble grout into sands and silty sands for soil stabilization and water control. The grout infiltrates the pore spaces between the soil particles, effectively gluing the soil mass together to provide increased strength, stiffness and stand-up time, or to decrease permeability. As a soil stabilization tool, permeation grouting is most widely used for tunneling pre-support, excavation support, and utility and structural underpinning. Typically, sodium silicate (waterglass) is the preferred

primary component, with either organic or inorganic reactants used to provide a predictable, controlled and permanent gel. The introduction in the 1950s of tube-a-manchette (TAM) pipes for permeation grouting represented a major advance in equipment refinement at the time, allowing precise, controlled grout injection. For most tunneling projects, TAM pipes can be readily installed from the surface, from shafts adjacent to the target grout zone, or from the tunnel face. However, in congested urban areas, or where surface restrictions apply, these may not be a viable options. In such circumstances, the recently-developed horizontal directional drilling (HDD) method of TAM pipe installation provides an alternative. 2.1 Horizontal Directional Drilling For TAM Installation

Directional drilling is used over great distances in the oil drilling industry and also, over shorter distances, for utility installation. For horizontal directional drilling for TAM installation, the addition of a steerable drill bit provides a precisely-located pilot bore over which a casing can be installed. 2.1.1 HDD Methods There are two basic drilling methods for horizontal directional drilling: The top drive system in which bit rotation speed and drill bit pressure is provided by a drill motor mounted on the drill mast. Use of an in-hole mud motor to rotate the drill bit. A mast-mounted drill head provides the steering rotation and drill bit pressure. In the top-drive system, a slant-faced drill bit affixed to the drill string is rotated to advance the borehole. For steering, rotation is stopped while the bit is forced ahead into the soil. Knowing the orientation of the slanted face of the drill bit allows the direction of the bore to be altered as the bit is pushed into the soil. Alternating between pushing without rotation then rotating the drill string produces a curved bore alignment. For the mud motor system, the drill bit is attached to a rotary motor that is driven by the drilling fluid forced down the drill string. The mud motor is attached to a precisely-curved piece of drill pipe (bent sub) that provides the ability to steer the string. Knowing the orientation of the bent sub allows control of borehole direction. Advancement of the borehole is continuous as the drill bit rotates and the drill string follows the direction of the bent sub. For a straight bore path, the entire drill string is slowly rotated at 20 to 30 rpm while the mud motor spins the drill bit at up to several hundred rpm. To change direction of the bore, rotation of the drill string is stopped when the bent sub is pointed in the desired direction. The mud motor spins while the entire drill string is pushed ahead (Blakita, 2000). Although neither pipe installation system offers any distinct advantage over the other, the HDD system itself offers a number of advantages related to the soil stabilization activity, compared to drilling and grouting from the tunnel face or surface drilling: Fewer surface disruptions. Elimination of surface construction noise, dust and traffic disruption. Less environmental impact. Subsurface boring eliminates the risk of damage to underground structures and utilities. Pre-placement of TAM pipes is possible, allowing grouting to be performed ahead of the tunnel face after mining has begun, without detriment to subsequent mining operations. Horizontal grout pipe placement also aligns the TAM pipe parallel to the treatment zone. This provides an efficient canopy of overlapping, horizontal grout cylinders over the tunnel arch. There are, however, a number of disadvantages also. In addition to the higher cost per installed unit of length of TAM pipe, this method requires: Stricter alignment tolerances, since bores lengths are typically 150 m or greater. The use of highly precise, and costly, borehole surveying techniques, such as gyroscopic-based systems, to ensure an accurate bore path so that the permeation program is meeting its objectives. Contingency planning for misaligned grout pipes. This could have a significant impact on cost and scheduling since additional pipes may have to be installed.

The higher cost of HDD for TAM installation limits its practical use. Nevertheless, this new technology has proven to be economically feasible for specific tunneling applications and may also be considered for bottom sealing under hazardous waste sites where surface drilling is prohibited. 2.2 Case Study: WMATA Mid City E Route, Washington, D.C.

Construction of a 4.7-km long connector between two, existing, Washington D.C. subway stations included three, twin-tunnel sections and two, open-cut station excavations. Permeation grouting was specified to stabilize the non-cohesive soils above 4,420 m of the twin tunnels. For the majority of the tunnel alignment, this could be accomplished with conventional drilling and grouting from the surface. However, part of the tunnel alignment was to pass beneath the historic Rock Creek Cemetery, where surface access was prohibited and where any ground movement due to tunneling operations was unacceptable. In the first application of its kind, soils above this critical stretch of the tunnel alignment were stabilized by the use of long-bore horizontal directional drilling to install TAM pipes for permeation grouting over distances of up to 244 m. This approach allowed unimpeded access to the tunnel heading for continuous mining, which, in this section, was accomplished by the new Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM), a technique that relies on the strength of the surrounding soil to prevent ground movement, thus providing an additional measure against potential surface settlement (Blakita and Cavey, 1995). 2.2.1 Drilling And TAM Pipe Installation All TAM pipes were to be installed parallel to the tunnel centerline, following both the horizontal and vertical planned curvature of the tunnel (Figure 3). A gyroscope was used to conduct alignment surveys periodically during borehole drilling and to provide an as-built record of each drilled hole prior to TAM pipe installation. The gyroscope verified the trajectory of the drill string at 20 to 30 m intervals and measured azimuth relative to an inertial reference frame, providing an accurate survey of pipe location. Although the most expensive of the survey systems available, the gyroscopic was selected on the basis of its ability to provide accurate, repeatable results.

Elevation

Alignment of Route Figure 3 : Horizontal and vertical tunnel curvature

The top-drive method was used to drill the boreholes for TAM pipe installation. Drilling consisted of: Steering the 90 mm OD inner string to total depth. Following the inner string with a 115 mm ID washover casing. Removal of the steering tool and drill string. Borehole survey (2 to 4 times during drilling). Placing a TAM pipe inside the washover casing. Withdrawal of the washover casing while pumping a weak cement grout into the annulus between the TAM pipe and soil.

Holes were directionally-drilled horizontally above each of the six tunnel headings in a nine-pipe, tworow array to provide a 120 degree canopy of stabilized soil above the tunnel crown. The lower row of five pipes was placed 0.6 m outside the tunnel cut-line. The upper row of 4 pipes was placed 1.4 m outside the tunnel cut-line at radial intermediate points to the lower row. Steering control was targeted to maintain each pipe within a 0.6 m window along the entire alignment. 2.2.2 Grouting and Monitoring A sodium silicate-based chemical grout was selected to provide a minimum unconfined compressive strength in Ottawa 20-30 sand of 0.70 MPa at 28 days. Grout components were stream-mixed and pumped to the injection control manifold where the grout was distributed to the various injection points. The manifold allowed simultaneous, controlled injection of all nine grout pipes. Design injection volumes for each TAM pipe were calculated based on the design pipe and port spacings, grout zone geometry and soil porosity. Grout was injected through the individual TAM ports in each pipe until the quantity of grout reached a predetermined value or when the in-hole flow rate decreased below one L/min at the maximum allowable injection pressure. Each injection point was continuously monitored for flow rate, injection pressure and volume. Electronic digital flowmeters displayed flow rate and fluid volume. Pressures were displayed on analog gauges. Technicians also performed pre-and post-treatment permeability tests throughout the alignment specified for pre-support grouting. The pre-treatment testing verified the groutability of the target soils while the posttreatment testing indicated that sufficient grouting had been performed in a given reach of tunnel. 2.2.3 Results More than 8,000 linear meters of TAM pipe were installed at 56 locations. Alignment deviations exceeded expectations in some places. However, nearly the full installed lengths of most pipes were usable for grouting. Furthermore, the grouted soil provided the required stand-up time to enhance mining progress. 3.0 SOIL FRACTURE GROUTING

Soil fracture, or soilfrac, grouting is a compensation grouting technique that employs pre-placed grout pipes to introduce a fluid grout into the soil unit for locally-confined and controlled fracturing of the soil without significant effect to the soil structure. In fine-grained soils, soilfrac grouting will: Reinforce the soil matrix through the creation of interconnected grout lenses. Allow very precise, finely controlled lifting of structures in response to ground. movement induced by construction activity such as soft-ground tunneling. Soilfrac grouting to compensate for ground movement requires careful pre-evaluation of anticipated ground behavior and the development of pre-defined response actions. During grouting, real-time monitoring of actual ground response offers a great deal of control in response to observed behavior. Soilfrac grouting been used quite extensively in the United Kingdom, notably on the Jubilee Line Extension for Londons underground system. To date, there has been only one significant North American application, for mining of a new railroad tunnel beneath a research building. Typically, soilfrac grouting involves the installation of arrays of individual tube-a-manchette (TAM) pipes, installed from shafts close to the target soil zone. Pipe lengths generally do not exceed 45 m. However, in 1996, in the first successful application of its kind worldwide, soilfrac grouting at depth was accomplished from the surface, using horizontal directional drilling techniques over a 250 m stretch to install bundled soilfrac grout pipes for releveling of a damaged lock structure. 3.1 Case Study: Uelzen Navigation Lock, Germany The lock at Uelzen is part of a navigation channel that parallels the River Elbe in Germany. For downstream passage, vessels enter a 220-m long, 12.5-m wide chamber and are lowered approximately 23 m to the next level by the emptying of the chamber. The lock chamber consists of a row of u-shaped concrete elements, or blocks, each 15 m long. Rubber seals ensure that the joints between the blocks are watertight.

During descent, approximately 60 percent of the chamber water is released into retention basins located on one side of the chamber, and returned for upstream passage. As a result of the continuous load change during filling and emptying of the chamber and the retention basins, the complete structure undergoes recurring vertical movements of approximately three mm. Erosion of the sand below the bottom slab of the lock chamber, and subsequent damage to the rubber seals between the joints, had caused one block to settle 30 mm. Consequently, friction contact between that block and the downstream head wall occurred, creating uncontrollable forces and damaging stresses, endangering the stability of the structures. Compensation grouting was selected to remedy the condition. The original proposal called for the grouting to be carried out from within a shaft to be installed just outside the lock and to a depth of several meters below the lock floor. This would require drilling against 20 m of groundwater pressure. However, the specialty contractor proposed installing the grout pipes from the existing ground surface using horizontal directional drilling methods. This approach would reduce the risk of additional damage to the lock structure that could occur during construction of the drilling shaft, or from the actual drilling within the shaft. 3.1.1 Drilling Using the mud motor system, 10 horizontal directional bores were installed at right angles to the axis of the lock chamber, crossing beneath the retention basins and the chamber and terminating on the ground surface on the opposite side. The length of each bore was approximately 250 m, with a maximum depth below ground surface of 30 m and a depth below the chamber foundation slab of 5 m. For orientation and control of direction for production drilling, a reference borehole was drilled, using an inclinometer and magnetic compass oriented by natural north. However, interference with the magnetic compass, due to the considerable amount of steel reinforcement in the concrete slab of the chamber, caused significant deviations. The reference hole was subsequently fitted with a PVC pipe and the track of the bore was determined by gyroscopic survey. To achieve the required accuracy for production holes, a vector magnetic system (usually used in oil production drilling) was adapted for the horizontal directional drilling, for the first time, worldwide. A loop of wire was inserted into the reference borehole at the known position, as determined by the gyroscopic survey. An electromagnetic field was then created by electrically energizing the wire loop. The tool for production drilling was equipped with a magnetic compass to determine the drill bit position and direction in relation to the loop. Using these parameters, the actual position of the drill bit was calculated. The jet bit allowed course corrections to be made if the drill deviated from the planned axis. 3.1.2 Grout Pipe Installation For each bore, a bundle of 96 individual, 20 mm-diameter grout pipes was inserted into an approximately 230 mm ID, specially-constructed plastic sleeve. This sleeve carried the forces required during pulling of the bundle into the hole upon completion of the drilling and ensured that each sleeve was placed at the planned position. Each grouting pipe was designed to be 330 mm longer than the adjacent pipe, thereby ensuring uniform distribution of the injection points along the bore. Rubber manchettes were fitted at the tip of each pipe. Thus, a line of 96 grout ports was created, 32 m long with a center-to-center distance for each port of 330 mm. The grout pipe bundles were pulled into position through the bores and the leading end of the sleeve placed on the ground surface so that the numbered tips of the grout pipes could be separated into a clear pattern for identification of specific sleeves/pipes when the treatment of a certain location of the grouting area was required A cement-limestone annulus grout was used to seal the grout pipe holes before the soilfrac process was initiated. 3.1.3 Monitoring and Grouting The structure was closely monitored during the entire soilfrac process using a system of digital water levels, crack-meters and extensometers. Hydraulic jacks were also placed inside the joints between the concrete blocks to observe stresses between these blocks. Injection parameters of grout quantities and pressure were determined in accordance with the results of the monitoring system.

The soilfrac program achieved 8 mm of controlled heave to raise the settled block (Figure 4), enough to relieve pressure forces between the block and the downstream head wall. The sleeve pipe bundles were left in the ground and can be reused at a later time if required.

Figure 4 : Cross section showing lock chamber before and after soilfrac grouting 4.0 JET GROUTING

Jet grouting is a term used for a variety of high-velocity soil erosion systems. This process involves the injection of either water or a grout slurry, often shrouded by compressed air, at a very high velocity. As drill rods are slowly turned and lifted (with a good deal of precision), the injection erodes and mixes the soil with a cementicious slurry to create columns or panels of a soil/cement product known as soilcrete. Figure 5 illustrates the three basic systems of jet grouting .

Figure 5 : Basic jet grouting systems For all of these systems to be effectively controlled, the drill annulus must be a continuous avenue for return spoil so as not to pressurize the ground. Done properly, heave, settlement, and the quality of the in situ soilcrete product can be easily controlled. Jet grouting has become commonplace as a soil improvement method in many parts of the world, particularly Japan, Europe and the United States, but as yet there is no standard specification for the technique. In 1994, a working group was formed, with membership from eleven countries, with the purpose

of developing a European Jet Grouting Standard Specification. This specification is expected to be published in 2000 ( Sondermann and Toth, 2000). One restriction to continued growth of the jet grouting technology has been the cost of application. However, a method of creating very large diameter soilcrete elements (up to 5 m) has been developed in Japan. This technology is known in the United States and Japan as SuperJet grouting and in Europe as Soilcrete-DS grouting. Use of these large diameter elements greatly reduces the number of injection points, particularly for mass treatment, and reduces the cost of producing the soilcrete. It has also been found that soilcrete quality improvements result from more uniform mixing, enabling a savings in cementitious agent requirements. When very soft or highly stratified soils are encountered, a jet grouting method has been developed to erode a discrete geometry of soil, independent of soil conditions. This method is known as X-jet, or crossjetting, and is becoming popular in Japan and Europe. 4.1 SuperJet Grouting SuperJet grouting is a significant advancement in situ quality and economy of jet grouting. Similar to conventional double-fluid system jet grouting, SuperJet grouting uses a pair of injection nozzles, sheathed in a stream of compressed air, to erode the soil and mix it with the grout. A licensed technology from Japan, SuperJet grouting applies efficiencies gained in the design of the monitor (the bottom section of the drill rod where the components are directed through the respective nozzles and injected into the ground) to precisely focus the energy of the injected media (grout slurry and air) to create more cutting force. With the proper rotation and lifting parameters, this has proven to construct columns as large as five m in diameter. This is much greater than the typical 0.6 to 2.0-m diameter columns achieved with other jet grouting methods. Figure 6 shows two overlapping SuperJet columns, each 4 m in diameter.

Figure 6 : SuperJet columns This special monitor design results from years of study to improve the fluid flow efficiencies. Two types of monitors have been developed: SuperJet and SuperJet Midi. SuperJet uses a triple-annulus rod and swivel and is a self-boring tool. SuperJet Midi uses a double-annulus rod and swivel, of low profile, but needs a prebored hole. Column construction process (Figure 7) is: Drill to design depth. Initiate high velocity injection of air and cementicious slurry with slow rod rotation. Lift in step increments (step height dependent on soil type) while slowly rotating the rods. At completion of a column, reduce injection velocity and lift out of the ground.

Figure 7 : SuperJet grouting process The SuperJet system has many potential applications. By interconnecting columns, a structural system can be designed for the vertical and lateral support of structures, groundwater cut-off systems can be developed, soft soils can be stabilized for tunneling operations, cofferdams can be developed to access deep infrastructure systems for renewal or modification, and soils subject to liquefaction can be stabilized. Also, by not rotating the drilling rods during lift, a wide panel can be constructed to form a vertical barrier to contain groundwater (or contaminated water). This will find application in congested sites with underground obstructions as well as along levees to enhance their stability (Burke et al., 2000).) 4.2 Case Study: Brigantine-Atlantic City Connector, New Jersey, USA The New Jersey Department of Transportation solicited a Request For Proposal for a design-construct bid to extend the Atlantic City Expressway. The preliminary document required an approximate 0.8 km of fourlane roadway to go underground to eliminate traffic noise and pass under Route 30. The prime and specialist contractors, in concert with intuitive engineering support, developed an in situ installation of a subgrade bottom strut bracing system for a cut-and-cover tunnel installation. This concept offered many advantages, including months of schedule savings, reduced sheetpile cost, and much-reduced wall anchoring requirements (Burke et al., 2000a). SuperJet grouting was applied in three ways on the project to: Construct an in situ system of soilcrete struts and wales at the tunnel invert to provide toe support for the 670 m-long temporary steel sheetpile earth retention system. Construct an in situ horizontal soilcrete groundwater barrier and continuous brace at the invert of a shaft excavation prior to construction of a pump station structure. Provide several vertical groundwater seepage barriers to limit the longitudinal flow of groundwater along the tunnel alignment to facilitate sectional tunnel excavation. 4.2.1 Site and Subsurface Conditions The soil stratigraphy consisted generally of 1.5 to 3.0 m of granular fill, underlain by a +1.5 m thick organic layer and alternating 3 to 4.5 m thick layers of medium compact sands and medium clays to a depth of +15 m. At the 15 m depth, a deep, very compact, sand layer (Cohansey Sand) was encountered. The groundwater table was approximately 1.2 m below existing ground level. The subgrade of the deeper tunnel section was typically located within a sand layer, with some portions in a soft, clayey silt. The cut and cover tunnel and U-shaped approach sections measure approximately 885 m in length and vary in width between 24.4 and 33.5 m. The depth of the excavation ranged between 1.5 m at the end of the tunnel approach sections to 10.6 m at the deepest portion of the tunnel. The tunnel alignment is located between, and parallels, the existing Penrose Canal and an established residential area. Figure 8 shows a cross-section of the tunnel, with soil stratigraphy.

4.2.2 Design and Construction Considerations The design-build contract permitted the contractor to design and select the excavation support system. The contractor selected a continuous steel sheet pile wall supported by a single tieback level with a nonyielding support at the excavation subgrade. This option provided an open work area, eliminated penetrations through the permanent structure and minimized the steel sheetpile size. The wall system design was optimized by: 1. 2. 3. Requiring that the subgrade support system be installed prior to excavation below the cantilever stage. Locating the tieback support so as to maximize both the allowable sheeting cantilever and the span to the support at subgrade. Dividing the alignment into specific design sections, considering strata changes and depth of excavation.

Figure 8 : Cross section showing excavation support system and soil stratigraphy The use of a non-yielding support at subgrade provided a great economic advantage since it reduced the sheeting span below the tieback level and permitted the use of lighter, and significantly less costly, sheet piles. The requirement that the support at subgrade be installed prior to excavation, and the magnitude of the forces to be supported at subgrade, limited the methods by which it could be constructed. The SuperJet system provided an economic subgrade support construction method that could be constructed within schedule restraints. The SuperJet support at subgrade consisted of a jet grout wale along both the east and west sheeting lines, with soilcrete compression struts supporting the soilcrete wales at 9 m centers (Figure 9). The wales and struts were constructed by overlapping 4-m diameter soilcrete columns to form an effective continuous width of 2.5 m. The top of the soilcrete columns were located 0.3 m below the bottom of the new tunnel and extended to a thickness ranging between 1.2 to 1.9 m, depending on the design section and magnitude of load to be supported. The soilcrete wales and struts were designed to support wall reactions at subgrade ranging between 394 and 733 kN/m. The wales were analyzed as arch elements supported by the struts, which were analyzed as column elements. Buttresses were provided at each end of the soilcrete wale and strut support system to support the horizontal thrust of the last arch of the system. For design, the compressive stress in the soilcrete wales and struts was limited to 1034 kPa. The minimum in situ compressive strength of the soilcrete was specified as 2068 kPa to provide at least a factor of safety of two on the design values.

Figure 9 : Plan view of wale and strut layout 4.2.3 Pump Station The project included the construction of a pump station. The pump station was located about 0.8 km northeast of the tunnel section in subsurface conditions similar to the tunnel area. The shaft excavation for the pump station measured approximately 11.3 m by 15.2 m and extended to a depth of 11 m below the existing grade and 9 m below the water table. The pump station required a soilcrete strut at the base of the sheetpile cofferdam structure to support the toe of the sheet pile and to provide a groundwater cutoff plug. The cofferdam consisted of steel sheet piles supported by a single level of internal steel bracing and soil tiedown anchors installed through the soilcrete plug at subgrade to counter buoyancy forces. 4.2.4 Quality Control and Quality Assurance Prior to a contractual agreement with the general contractor, the specialist subcontractor and design engineer had agreed on a quality control program that would satisfy all parties. This program consisted of preconstruction grout slurry design and testing, preconstruction testing for column geometry and quality, and sampling and testing for strut and wale size and quality during construction. 4.2.5 Project Benefits Over 1,000 high quality soilcrete columns, each 4 m in diameter, were constructed for the tunnel structure. The large diameter columns provided production efficiency and cost savings not before experienced in North America or Europe. In addition, the technique provided significant schedule reductions, and savings in the cost of the temporary earth retention structures were realized. 4.3 Case Study: Lubeck-Moilsling Tunnel, Germany The route of Baltic motorway A20 crosses the existing Lubeck-Hamburg railway line, a country road and a farm road near Lubeck-Moisling, Germany. Local ecology, structural considerations and the noise factor from significantly increased traffic flow dictated that this 330-m long, 30-m wide section of the motorway be constructed as a depressed roadway, passing beneath the railway line through a pre-cast bridge structure (Burke et al., 2000). A typical subsurace profile is shown in Figure 10. Groundwater was encountered at varying depths, typically between 5 and 7 m below existing grade. Hydrostatic uplift and groundwater control during

Figure 10: Representative Cross Section and Soil Profile

excavation and construction were primary considerations in the project design. To overcome this, project engineers designed a cofferdam-type structure consisting of anchored sheetpile retaining walls connected by a jet-grouted, deep bottom seal to produce a virtually water-tight structure for subsequent open-cut construction. As shown in Figure 10, the bottom seal was stepped to follow the needs of construction. Based on previous experience, the grouting contractor selected the SuperJet grouting Midi technique to install 3.5-m diameter, interconnected soilcrete columns to construct the bottom seal between the pre-installed sheetpiling. This approach optimized column construction and reduced the production schedule by one third.
4.3.1 Production Work The depressed roadway was constructed as a series of pits. To expedite on site assembly and placement of the pre-cast bridge, the first pit to be completed was next to the railway line and covered an area of 1510 m2. This was also the deepest pit, measuring approximately 10 m. Project design called for the 400 m2 of soilcrete slab immediately beneath the railway line to be two meters thick to provide an additional measure of safety against basal heave. To access the target grout zone at approximately 20 m below grade, angled drilling was performed adjacent to the active rail line. For the remainder of the first pit area, and for subsequent pits, soilcrete thickness of one meter was required. Column installation was sequenced, with fresh-in-fresh primary rows completed before secondary rows were constructed. Design column spacing ensured complete interconnection of adjacent columns (Figure 11). This spacing considered adequate overlap and drilling deviation.

Figure 11 : Soilcrete column spacing

4.3.2 Quality Control/Quality Assurance Prior to production work, test columns were installed to verify the planned column dimensions. Cored samples were retrieved and laboratory tested to confirm the jet grouting contractors experience-based soilcrete strength assumptions. During production, frequent spoil sampling and testing was conducted to verify the quality of the in situ soilcrete. Staged excavation and anchor installation followed closely behind the completion of jet grouting at each pit. Upon completion of excavation, typical water inflow was measured at 2m3/hour, attesting to the effectiveness of the jet grout seal. 4.4 X- Jet Grouting A licensed technology, X-Jet grouting is a method that is used to erode a discrete column diameter (~2 to 2.5 m) by focusing a pair of air-water nozzles to intersect (Figure 12) at a distance of one meter from the drill hole. At the collision point, the erosion energy is dispersed, greatly reducing cutting energy. Cementicious grout is injected below the erosion nozzles to displace and mix with the soil to create a high quality soilcrete column. In soils that are very soft, of variable strength, or highly stratified, this offers a very important advantage of known geometry and accurate material requirements. The method of construction is similar to triple-fluid jet grouting, but the lift rate and rotation speed is slow enough to ensure that the top of the jet (the one doing all the work in a bottom-up procedure) can erode and reach the intersecting jet. Nozzle adjustment is critical to ensure collision of the jets and energy dispersion. Specialized equipment is necessary to inject these fluids and accurately aim them.

Figure 12 : Intersecting air-water nozzles 4.5 Case Study: Caister Wastewater Treatment Plant, UK For a first group of settling basins constructed at the Caister Wastewater Treatment Plant, a two-meter thick soilcrete slab had been constructed by the triple-fluid jet grouting method to prevent heave and prevent groundwater in-flow to the base of the required excavation. Although this method was effective, it was

anticipated that X-Jet grouting would offer considerable technical and cost advantages for a similar slab to be constructed beneath a second set of basins. A test section was initiated that directly compared the triple-fluid and X-Jet systems prior to the works progressing. The results are discussed below. 4.5.1 Test Section Results Site soil conditions consisted of 0.8 m of strong fill overlying very soft silty organic clay with pockets of black, organic material to a depth of 5.0 m. Beneath this was a 2 m-thick stratum of fibrous peat. The test section was designed to evaluate column geometry, continuity and strength for both the triple system and XJet in these soils. Columns were constructed at 1.5 m centers in an equidistant triangular pattern. Spoil samples were collected to evaluate strength, and dynamic probes used to assess geometry. Anticipated X-Jet column sizes up to 2.2 m diameter were achieved, with a design soilcrete strength of 500 kPa. The triple system provided more variable results, and the high quality of the in situ soilcrete produced by X-jetting confirmed the superiority of this technique for production work in these very difficult soils. 4.5.2 Production X-Jetting Construction of the soilcrete slab was accomplished within a 41 m by 11 m sheetpile cofferdam. Based on test section results, a column diameter of 2.2 m was assigned for production work, using a conservative equidistant spacing of 1.65 m. X-Jet columns were constructed from elevation 6m up to elevation 4 m below working grade. Cored samples were retrieved and laboratory tested, with results showing soilcrete strengths at seven days to be in excess of 1000 kPa, rising to 1500 kPa at 28 days. Sheeetpile deflection was minimal at cut-off level and no seepage was observed. 4.5.3 Results The use of x-jet grouting in this particular soil profile resulted in a number of distinct advantages: X-jetting substantially replaced the in situ material, rather than mixing it with cement, thereby producing a very high quality soilcrete. A 25 percent reduction in spoil was realized. The larger columns created by the X-jetting technique resulted in a 57 percent reduction in project schedule and consequently significant cost savings. Since X-jetting substantially replaced the in situ material rather than mixed it, there was no appreciable savings in cement over the triple fluid system. However, more efficient use of cement was obtained in view of the higher strengths achieved. X-jet grouting requires sophisticated, more costly equipment and specialty contractors experienced in jet grouting technology. However, in difficult soils, such as those encountered at Caister, where viable options are extremely limited, this technique is proving to be technically effective and time-efficient. 5.0 SUMMARY

Over the past several years, significant advances have been made in grouting technology. A good portion of the credit for these advances must go the specialty grouting contractors who, faced with new technical and economic challenges in an increasingly complex geotechnical marketplace, responded by reevaluating then refining existing techniques. The results speak for themselves. Compaction grouting has moved beyond the confines of remediation into the broader field of site improvement. SuperJet grouting, with its greatly increased column size, has emerged as a viable and cost-effective tool for new applications. X-Jet grouting has provided a tool to work in soft and highly stratified conditions to create a cost-effective soilcrete of higher quality than possible with other jet grouting technologies. Permeation and soil fracture grouting can be accomplished over greater distances than ever before with the use of horizontal directional drilling for grout pipe installation. As important as the advances themselves is the sharing of knowledge through national and international forums so that the results of work done and lessons learned in the local field can reach the widest possible audience, thereby advancing the industry as a whole.

6.0

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to extend our sincere appreciation to our pioneering grouting comrades from Hayward Baker and Keller including Dan Hourihan, Paul Blakita, Eric Drooff, Bob Essler, Chris Nobes, Martin Krens, Andreas Weber, and Stefan Toth for their continuous support and grouting innovation. Also acknowedged are Sanshin Corporation and Chemical Grouting Company for providing technology use information, technical exchange and true research study to enhance existing technology. Lastly, without the overwhelming support from technical writer Chris Herridge and graphics specialist Kirstin Carlson, this paper could not have been prepared or presented...special thanks goes out to them. REFERENCES Baker, W.H., Cording, E.J. and MacPherson, H.(1983). Compaction Grouting To Control Ground Movements During Tunneling. Underground Space, Vol. 7, pp 205-212 Blakita, P.M. and Cavey, J.K. (1995). Rest In Peace, Civil Engineering, December, 1995 Blakita, P.M. (2000). Planning and Performing Horizontal Directional Drilling. Proceedings of GeoDenver 2000, Denver, Colorado, August. Burke, G.K., Weber, A. and Toth, P.S. (2000). Soilcrete DS: Enhanced Technology For Surgical Soil Improvement. Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Ground Improvement Geosystems, Helsinki, Finland, June Burke, G.K., Cacoilo, D.M. and Chadwick, K.R. (2000). SuperJet Grouting: A New technology for In Situ Soil Improvement. Proceedings of Transportation Research Board 79th Annual Meeting, Washington D.C. January. Reed, J.W., Hourihan, D.T. and Thornton, G.J. (1998). Compaction Grouting to Reduce Seismic Risk and Collapse Potential For Freeway Storm Drain System. Proceedings of Geotechncial Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics III, Seattle, Washington, August, pp 666-677 Sondermann, W. and Toth, P.S. (2000). State of the Art of Jet Grouting Showing Different Applications. Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Ground Improvement Geosystems, Helsinki, Finland, June. Stapleton, D.C, Corso, D. and Blakita, P.M. (1995). A Case History of Compaction Grouting To Improve Soft Soils over Karstic Limestone. Proceedings of the Fifth Multidisciplinary Conference on Sinkholes and the Engineering and Environmental Impacts of Karst, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, April, pp 383-387