Plain & Reinforced Concrete-I

Lab Manual

JOB NO. 6
Preparing A Concrete-Mix And Casting Various Samples Required For Different Tests. Code: ACI 211.1 91 6.1 Scope & significance:

This purpose of this experiment is to simulate the actual formation of concrete mix, its design and production. In this experiment certain number of samples will be prepared which will then be tested for the verification of concrete mix design process. 6.2 Apparatus: o Concrete Mixer o Materials Cement Sand/Fine Aggregate Crush/Coarse Aggregate Water o Molds for samples to be prepared Cylinders 150mm(dia) x 300mm (length) (4), Cubes 150mm x 150mm x 150mm (4), Beams 100mm x 150mm x 1214.2mm (1) 6.3 Plain Cement Concrete: PCC consists of three basic ingredients: aggregate, water and portland cement. According to the Portland Cement Association (PCA, 1988): "The objective in designing concrete mixtures is to determine the most economical and practical combination of readily available materials to produce a concrete that will satisfy the performance requirements under particular conditions of use." PCC mix design has evolved chiefly through experience and well-documented empirical relationships. Normally, the mix design procedure involves two basic steps: i. Mix proportioning. This step uses the desired PCC properties as inputs then determines the required materials and proportions based on a combination of empirical relationships and local experience. There are many different PCC proportioning methods of varying complexity that work reasonably well. Mix testing. Trial mixes are then evaluated and characterized by subjecting them to several laboratory tests. Although these characterizations are not comprehensive, they can give the mix designer a good understanding of how a particular mix will perform in the field during construction and under subsequent traffic loading.

ii.

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This section covers mix design fundamentals common to all PCC mix design methods. First, two basic concepts (mix design as a simulation and weight-volume terms and relationships) are discussed to set a framework for subsequent discussion. Second, the variables that mix design may manipulate are presented. Third, the fundamental objectives of mix design are presented. Finally, a generic mix design procedure is presented. a. Basic Concepts Before discussing any mix design specifics, it is important to understand a couple of basic mix design concepts:

Mix design is a simulation Weight-volume terms and relationships Mix Design is a Simulation

i.

First, and foremost, mix design is a laboratory simulation. Mix design is meant to simulate actual PCC manufacturing, construction and performance. Then, from this simulation we can predict (with reasonable certainty) what type of mix design is best for the particular application in question and how it will perform. Being a simulation, mix design has its limitations. Specifically, there are substantial differences between laboratory and field conditions. For instance, mix testing is generally done on small samples that are cured in carefully controlled conditions. These values are then used to draw conclusions about how a mix will behave under field conditions. Despite such limitations mix design procedures can provide a cost effective and reasonably accurate simulation that is useful in making mix design decisions. ii. Weight-Volume Terms and Relationships

The more accurate mix design methods are volumetric in nature. That is, they seek to combine the PCC constituents on a volume basis (as opposed to a weight basis). Volume measurements are usually made indirectly by determining a material's weight and specific gravity and then calculating its volume. Therefore, mix design involves several key aggregate specific gravity measurements. b. Variables PCC is a complex material formed from some very basic ingredients. When used in pavement, this material has several desired performance characteristics - some of which are in direct conflict with one another. PCC pavements must resist deformation, crack in a controlled manner, be durable over time, resist water damage, provide a good tractive surface, and yet be inexpensive, readily made and easily placed. In order to meet these demands, mix design can manipulate the following variables: i. Aggregate. Items such as type (source), amount, gradation and size, toughness and abrasion resistance, durability and soundness, shape and texture as well as cleanliness can be measured, judged and altered to some degree.

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Portland cement. Items such as type, amount, fineness, soundness, hydration rate and additives can be measured, judged and altered to some degree. Water. Typically the volume and cleanliness of water are of concern. Specifically, the volume of water in relation to the volume of portland cement, called the water-cement ratio, is of primary concern. Usually expressed as a decimal (e.g., 0.35), the water-cement ratio has a major effect on PCC strength and durability. Admixtures. Items added to PCC other than portland cement, water and aggregate. Admixtures can be added before, during or after mixing and are used to alter basic PCC properties such as air content, water-cement ratio, workability, set time, bonding ability, coloring and strength.

iv.

c. Objectives By manipulating the mixture variables of aggregate, portland cement, water and admixtures, mix design seeks to achieve the following qualities in the final PCC product (Mindess and Young, 1981): i. Strength. PCC should be strong enough to support expected traffic loading. In pavement applications, flexural strength is typically more important than compressive strength (although both are important) since the controlling PCC slab stresses are caused by bending and not compression. In its most basic sense, strength is related to the degree to which the portland cement has hydrated. This degree of hydration is, in turn, related to one or more of the following:

Water-cement ratio. The strength of PCC is most directly related to its capillary porosity. The capillary porosity of a properly compacted PCC is determined by its water-cement ratio (Mindess and Young, 1981). Thus, the water-cement ratio is an easily measurable PCC property that gives a good estimate of capillary porosity and thus, strength. The lower the water-cement ratio, the fewer capillary pores and thus, the higher the strength. Specifications typically include a maximum water-cement ratio as a strength control measure. Entrained air (air voids). At a constant water-cement ratio, as the amount of entrained air (by volume of the total mixture) increases, the voids-cement ratio (voids = air + water) decreases. This generally results in a strength reduction. However, airentrained PCC can have a lower water-cement ratio than non-air-entrained PCC and still provide adequate workability. Thus, the strength reduction associated with a higher air content can be offset by using a lower water-cement ratio. For moderatestrength concrete (as is used in rigid pavements) each percentile of entrained air can reduce the compressive strength by about 2 - 6 percent (PCA, 1988). Cement properties. Properties of the portland cement such as fineness and chemical composition can affect strength and the rate of strength gain. Typically, the type of portland cement is specified in order to control its properties.

ii.

Controlled shrinkage cracking. Shrinkage cracking should occur in a controlled manner. Although construction techniques such as joints and reinforcing steel help control shrinkage cracking, some mix design elements influence the amount of PCC

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shrinkage. Chiefly, the amount of moisture and the rate of its use/loss will affect shrinkage and shrinkage cracking. Therefore, factors such as high water-cement ratios and the use of high early strength portland cement types and admixtures can result in excessive and/or uncontrolled shrinkage cracking. iii. Durability. PCC should not suffer excessive damage due to chemical or physical attacks during its service life. As opposed to HMA durability, which is mainly concerned with aging effects, PCC durability is mainly concerned with specific chemical and environmental conditions that can potentially degrade PCC performance. Durability is related to:

Porosity (water-cement ratio). As the porosity of PCC decreases it becomes more impermeable. Permeability determines a PCC's susceptibility to any number of durability problems because it controls the rate and entry of moisture that may contain aggressive chemicals and the movement of water during heating or freezing (Mindess and Young, 1981). The water-cement ratio is the single most determining factor in a PCC's porosity. The higher the water-cement ratio, the higher the porosity. In order to limit PCC porosity, many agencies specify a maximum allowable water-cement ratio. Entrained Air (Air voids). Related to porosity, entrained air is important in controlling the effects of freeze-thaw cycles. Upon freezing, water expands by about 9 percent. Therefore, if the small capillaries within PCC are more than 91 percent filled with water, freezing will cause hydraulic pressures that may rupture the surrounding PCC. Additionally, freezing water will attract other unfrozen water through osmosis (PCA, 1988). Entrained air voids act as expansion chambers for freezing and migrating water and thus, specifying a minimum entrained air content can minimize freeze-thaw damage. Chemical environment. Certain chemicals such as sulfates, acids, bases and chloride salts are especially damaging to PCC. Mix design can mitigate their damaging effects through such things as choosing a more resistant cement type.

iv.

Skid resistance. PCC placed as a surface course should provide sufficient friction when in contact with a vehicle's tire. In mix design, low skid resistance is generally related to aggregate characteristics such as texture, shape, size and resistance to polish. Smooth, rounded or polish-susceptible aggregates are less skid resistant. Tests for particle shape and texture can identify problem aggregate sources. These sources can be avoided, or at a minimum, aggregate with good surface and abrasion characteristics can be blended in to provide better overall characteristics. Workability. PCC must be capable of being placed, compacted and finished with reasonable effort. The slump test, a relative measurement of concrete consistency, is the most common method used to quantify workability. Workability is generally related to one or more of the following:

v.

Water content. Water works as a lubricant between the particles within PCC. Therefore, low water content reduces this lubrication and makes for a less workable mix. Note that a higher water content is generally good for workability but generally bad for strength and durability, and may cause segregation and

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bleeding. Where necessary, workability should be improved by redesigning the mix to increase the paste content (water + portland cement) rather than by simply adding more water or fine material (Mindess and Young, 1981).

Aggregate proportion. Large amounts of aggregate in relation to the cement paste will decrease workability. Essentially, if the aggregate portion is large then the corresponding water and cement portions must be small. Thus, the same problems and remedies for "water content" above apply. Aggregate texture, shape and size. Flat, elongated or angular particles tend to interlock rather than slip by one another making placement and compaction more difficult. Tests for particle shape and texture can identify possible workability problems. Aggregate gradation. Gradations deficient in fines make for less workable mixes. In general, fine aggregates act as lubricating "ball bearings" in the mix. Gradation specifications are used to ensure acceptable aggregate gradation. Aggregate porosity. Highly porous aggregate will absorb a high amount of water leaving less available for lubrication. Thus, mix design usually corrects for the anticipated amount of absorbed water by the aggregate. Air content. Air also works as a lubricant between aggregate particles. Therefore, low air content reduces this lubrication and makes for a less workable mix. A volume of air-entrained PCC requires less water than an equal volume of non-air-entrained PCC of the same slump and maximum aggregate size (PCA, 1988). Cement properties. Portland cements with higher amounts of C3S and C3A will hydrate quicker and lose workability faster.

Knowing these objectives, the challenge in mix design is then to develop a relatively simple procedure with a minimal amount of tests and samples that will produce a mix with all the qualities discussed above. d. Basic Procedure In order to meet the requirements established by the preceding desirable PCC properties, all mix design processes involve four basic processes: i. Aggregate selection. No matter the specific method, the overall mix design procedure begins with evaluation and selection of aggregate and asphalt binder sources. Different authorities specify different methods of aggregate acceptance. Typically, a battery of aggregate physical tests is run periodically on each particular aggregate source. Then, for each mix design, gradation and size requirements are checked. Normally, aggregate from more than one source is required to meet gradation requirements. Portland cement selection. Typically, a type and amount of portland cement is selected based on past experience and empirical relationships with such factors as compressive strength (at a given age), water-cement ratio and chemical susceptibility.

ii.

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Mix proportioning. A PCC mixture can be proportioned using experience or a generic procedure (such as ACI 211.1). Testing. Run laboratory tests on properly prepared samples to determine key mixture characteristics. It is important to understand that these tests are not comprehensive nor are they exact reproductions of actual field conditions.

The selected PCC mixture should be the one that, based on test results, best satisfies the mix design objectives. 6.4 Concrete Mix Design: The American Concrete Institute (ACI) mix design method is but one of many basic concrete mix design methods available today. This section summarizes the ACI absolute volume method because it is widely accepted in the U.S. and continually updated by the ACI. Keep in mind that this summary and most methods designated as "mix design" methods are really just mixture proportioning methods. Mix design includes trial mixture proportioning (covered here) plus performance tests. This section is a general outline of the ACI proportioning method with specific emphasis on PCC for pavements. It emphasizes general concepts and rationale over specific procedures. Typical procedures are available in the following documents:

The American Concrete Institute's (ACI) Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete (ACI 211.1-91) as found in their ACI Manual of Concrete Practice 2000, Part 1: Materials and General Properties of Concrete. The Portland Cement Association's (PCA) Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, 14th edition (2002) or any earlier edition.

The standard ACI mix design procedure can be divided up into 8 basic steps: a. Choice of slump b. Maximum aggregate size selection c. Mixing water and air content selection d. Water-cement ratio e. Cement content f. Coarse aggregate content g. Fine aggregate content h. Adjustments for aggregate moisture

Plain & Reinforced Concrete-I a. Slump

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The choice of slump is actually a choice of mix workability. Workability can be described as a combination of several different, but related, PCC properties related to its rheology:

Ease of mixing Ease of placing Ease of compaction Ease of finishing

Generally, mixes of the stiffest consistency that can still be placed adequately should be used (ACI, 2000). Typically slump is specified, but Table 5.14 shows general slump ranges for specific applications. Slump specifications are different for fixed form paving and slip form paving. Table 5.15 shows typical and extreme state DOT slump ranges. Table 5.14: Slump Ranges for Specific Applications (after ACI, 2000) Type of Construction Reinforced foundation walls and footings Plain footings, caissons and substructure walls Beams and reinforced walls Building columns Pavements and slabs Mass concrete Slump (mm) 25 - 75 25 - 75 25 - 100 25 - 100 25 - 75 25 - 50

(inches) 1-3 1-3 1-4 1-4 1-3 1-2

Table 5.15: Typical State DOT Slump Specifications (data taken from ACPA, 2001) Specifications Typical Extremes Fixed Form (mm) (inches) 25 - 75 1-3 as low as 25 as low as 1 as high as 175 as high as 7 Slip Form (mm) (inches) 0 - 75 0-3 as low as 0 as low as 0 as high as 125 as high as 5

b. Maximum Aggregate Size Maximum aggregate size will affect such PCC parameters as amount of cement paste, workability and strength. In general, ACI recommends that maximum aggregate size be limited to 1/3 of the slab depth and 3/4 of the minimum clear space between reinforcing bars. Aggregate larger than these dimensions may be difficult to consolidate and compact resulting in a honeycombed structure or large air pockets. Pavement PCC maximum aggregate sizes are on the order of 25 mm (1 inch) to 37.5 mm (1.5 inches) (ACPA, 2001).

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Slump is dependent upon nominal maximum aggregate size, particle shape, aggregate gradation, PCC temperature, the amount of entrained air and certain chemical admixtures. It is not generally affected by the amount of cementitious material. Therefore, ACI provides a table relating nominal maximum aggregate size, air entrainment and desired slump to the desired mixing water quantity. Table 5.16 is a partial reproduction of ACI Table 6.3.3 (keep in mind that pavement PCC is almost always air-entrained so air-entrained values are most appropriate). Typically, state agencies specify between about 4 and 8 percent air by total volume (based on data from ACPA, 2001). Note that the use of water-reducing and/or set-controlling admixtures can substantially reduce the amount of mixing water required to achieve a given slump. Table 5.16: Approximate Mixing Water and Air Content Requirements for Different Slumps and Maximum Aggregate Sizes (adapted from ACI, 2000)
Mixing Water Quantity in kg/m3 (lb/yd3) for the listed Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size Slump 9.5 mm
(0.375 in)

12.5 mm (0.5 in.)

19 mm (0.75 in.)

25 mm (1 in.)

37.5 mm (1.5 in.)

50 mm (2 in.)

75 mm (3 in.)

100 mm (4 in.)

Non-Air-Entrained PCC 25-50 (1 - 2) 75-100 (3 - 4) 150-175 (6 - 7) Typical entrapped air (percent) Air-Entrained PCC 25-50 (1 - 2) 75-100 (3 - 4) 150-175 (6 - 7) 181 (305) 202 (340) 216 (365) 175 (295) 193 (325) 205 (345) 168 (280) 184 (305) 197 (325) 160 (270) 175 (295) 184 (310) 148 (250) 165 (275) 174 (290) 142 (240) 157 (265) 166 (280) 122 (205) 133 (225) 154 (260) 107 (180) 119 (200) 207 (350) 228 (385) 243 (410) 3 199 (335) 216 (365) 228 (385) 2.5 190 (315) 205 (340) 216 (360) 2 179 (300) 193 (325) 202 (340) 1.5 166 (275) 181 (300) 190 (315) 1 154 (260) 169 (285) 178 (300) 0.5 130 (220) 145 (245) 160 (270) 0.3 113 (190) 124 (210) 0.2

Recommended Air Content (percent) Mild Exposure Moderate Exposure Severe Exposure 4.5 6.0 7.5 4.0 5.5 7.0 3.5 5.0 6.0 3.0 4.5 6.0 2.5 4.5 5.5 2.0 4.0 5.0 1.5 3.5 4.5 1.0 3.0 4.0

Plain & Reinforced Concrete-I d. Water-Cement Ratio

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The water-cement ratio is a convenient measurement whose value is well correlated with PCC strength and durability. In general, lower water-cement ratios produce stronger, more durable PCC. If natural pozzolans are used in the mix (such as fly ash) then the ratio becomes a watercementitious material ratio (cementitious material = portland cement + pozzolonic material). The ACI method bases the water-cement ratio selection on desired compressive strength and then calculates the required cement content based on the selected water-cement ratio. Table 5.17 is a general estimate of 28-day compressive strength vs. water-cement ratio (or water-cementitious ratio). Values in this table tend to be conservative (ACI, 2000). Most state DOTs tend to set a maximum water-cement ratio between 0.40 - 0.50 (based on data from ACPA, 2001). Table 5.17: Water-Cement (after ACI, 2000) Ratio and Compressive Strength Relationship

28-Day Compressive Strength in MPa (psi) 41.4 (6000) 34.5 (5000) 27.6 (4000) 20.7 (3000) 13.8 (2000) e. Cement Content

Water-cement ratio by weight Non-AirAir-Entrained Entrained 0.41 0.48 0.40 0.57 0.48 0.68 0.59 0.82 0.74

Cement content is determined by comparing the following two items:

The calculated amount based on the selected mixing water content and water-cement ratio. The specified minimum cement content, if applicable. Most state DOTs specify minimum cement contents in the range of 300 - 360 kg/m3 (500 - 600 lbs/yd3).

An older practice used to be to specify the cement content in terms of the number of 94 lb. sacks of portland cement per cubic yard of PCC. This resulted in specifications such as a "6 sack mix" or a "5 sack mix". While these specifications are quite logical to a small contractor or individual who buys portland cement in 94 lb. sacks, they do not have much meaning to the typical pavement contractor or batching plant who buys portland cement in bulk. As such, specifying cement content by the number of sacks should be avoided. f. Coarse Aggregate Content Selection of coarse aggregate content is empirically based on mixture workability. ACI recommends the percentage (by unit volume) of coarse aggregate based on nominal maximum aggregate size and fine aggregate fineness modulus. This recommendation is based on empirical relationships to produce PCC with a degree of workability suitable for usual reinforced construction (ACI, 2000). Since pavement PCC should, in general, be more stiff and

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less workable, ACI allows increasing their recommended values by up to about 10 percent. Table 5.18 shows ACI recommended values. Table 5.18: Volume of Coarse Aggregate per Unit Volume of for Different Fine aggregate Fineness Moduli for Pavement PCC (after ACI, 2000) Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size 9.5 mm (0.375 inches) 12.5 mm (0.5 inches) 19 mm (0.75 inches) 25 mm (1 inches) 37.5 mm (1.5 inches) 50 mm (2 inches) Notes: Fine Aggregate Fineness Modulus 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 PCC

These values can be increased by up to about 10 percent for pavement applications. Coarse aggregate volumes are based on oven-dry-rodded weights obtained in accordance with ASTM C 29.

g. Fine Aggregate Content At this point, all other constituent volumes have been specified (water, portland cement, air and coarse aggregate). Thus, the fine aggregate volume is just the remaining volume: Volume of fine aggregate = Unit volume (1 m3 or yd3) (Volume of mixing water + Volume of air + Volume of portland cement + Volume of coarse aggregate) h. Adjustments for Aggregate Moisture Unlike HMA, PCC batching does not require dried aggregate. Therefore, aggregate moisture content must be accounted for. Aggregate moisture affects the following parameters: Aggregate weights. Aggregate volumes are calculated based on oven dry unit weights, but aggregate is typically batched based on actual weight. Therefore, any moisture in the aggregate will increase its weight and stockpiled aggregates almost always contain some moisture. Without correcting for this, the batched aggregate volumes will be incorrect. Amount of mixing water. If the batched aggregate is anything but saturated surface dry it will absorb water (if oven dry or air dry) or give up water (if wet) to the cement paste. This causes a net change in the amount of water available in the mix and must be compensated for by adjusting the amount of mixing water added.

Plain & Reinforced Concrete-I 6.5 i. Concrete Mix Design and Material Calculation Example: Required Data: fc' = Concrete type = Maximum aggregate size = Slump required = Fineness Modulus of Fine aggregate = Bulk density of fine aggregate = Specific gravity of cement = Specific gravity of coarse aggregate = Specific gravity of fine aggregate = Water absorption of coarse aggregate = Water absorption of fine aggregate = ii. Calculations: a. Calculation for target strength: Fcr' = 27 MPa b. Selection of type of cement: Use ordinary Portland Cement c. Durability check: Use ordinary Portland Cement d. Relative water content: Water content = 92 % e. Water amount: Water suggested = 200 kg/m3 Air content = 2 % Water content = 185 kg/m3 f. Calculation of water/cement ratio: w/c = 0.592 g. Cement content: Cement content = 312.5 kg/m3 h. Bulk volume of aggregate: Bulk vol.of agg. = 0.68 i. Weight of coarse aggregate: Wt. of coarse agg. = 1088 kg/m3 j. Weight of fine aggregate: Wt. of fine agg. = 755.8 kg/m3 20 MPa Non air entrained 20 mm 50 mm 2.2 1600 kg/m3 3.15 2.65 2.65 0.5 % 0.7 %

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k. Extra water required for absorption: = 10.78 kg/m3 of concrete Total amount of water = 10.78 + 18.5 = 195.78 kg/m 3 of concrete l. Weight of ingredients (kgs): Cement: Coarse Agg.: Fine Agg.: Water: m. Concrete Mix: Cement 312.5 1 W/C = 0.59 Concrete weight = 2353.9 kg/m3 Fine Agg. 755.8 2.4 Coarse Agg. 1088 3.4 312.5 1088 755.8 195.78

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6.6

Observations & Calculations: Calculation of materials required Size (mm) 100 150 1214.2 150 300l 150 150 150 = 125 kg = 12.5 kg = 137.5 kg Volume of Concrete (m3) 0.01828 0.02120 0.0135 Total Weight of Concrete (kgs) 42.99 49.86 31.752

Sample Beam Cylinder Cube

Quantity 1 4 4

Total concrete required Allowance for wastage (10%) Maximum capacity of the mixer Weight of constituents: 1. Cement 2. Fine Aggregate the concrete = 20.22 kg = 48.52 kg

3. Coarse Aggregate = 68.75 kg 4. Water = 13 kg