Calculus - A Modern Approach - Knisley and Shirley

Calculus: A Moooin Appioach
Jol Knisloy ano Kovin Shiiloy

Fall, 2002
2
Contents
1 LInIts, Tangents, and Hates oI CLange 27
1.1 1angonl Linos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.2 1ho Limil Concopl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.8 Dolnilion of lho Limil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.4 Hoiizonlal Asymplolos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1. Conlinuily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 DiloionliaLilily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.7 Ialos of Chango . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2 TLe DerIvatIve 105
2.1 1ho Doiivalivo Funclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 1ho Iiooucl ano Quolionl Iulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.8 1ho Chain Iulo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.4 Implicil Diloionlialion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
2. Ialos of Chango . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
2.6 1ho Lxpononlial Funclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 1ho Naluial Logaiilhm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.8 1ho Sino ano Cosino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2.0 Aooilional Funclions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3 AIIcatIons oI tLe DerIvatIve 191
8.1 1ho Moan Valuo 1hooiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.2 L`Hopilal`s Iulo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.8 ALsolulo ano Iolalivo Lxlioma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.4 Monolonicily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8. Concavily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.6 Oplimizalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.7 Loasl Squaios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4 IntegratIon 273
4.1 Simplo Funclion Appioximalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
4.2 Iiomann Sum Appioximalions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
4.8 1ho Dolnilo Inlogial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.4 Doiivalivos of Inoolnilo Inlogials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4. Anliooiivalivos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
4.6 1ho Funoamonlal 1hooiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
4.7 SuLslilulion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
4.8 SuLslilulion in Dolnilo Inlogials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
4.0 Inlogialion Ly Iails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
CONTLNTS 8
5 AIIcatIons oI tLe IntegraI 365
.1 Aioa Lolwoon 1wo Cuivos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
.2 Conlioios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
.8 Volumos of Solios of Iovolulion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
.4 Aiclonglh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
. Aooilional Applicalions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
.6 Impiopoi Inlogials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
.7 Goomoliic IioLaLilily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
6 HyerLoIIc and Inverse FunctIons 441
6.1 1ho HypoiLolic Funclions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
6.2 Invoiso Funclions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.8 Invoiso 1iigonomoliic Funclions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
6.4 1iig SuLslilulions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
6. Aooilional Anliooiivalivos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
7 DIerentIaI EquatIons 497
7.1 SopaiaLlo Diloionlial Lqualions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
7.2 Giowlh ano Docay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08
7.8 Iailial Fiaclions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.4 Malhomalical Moooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7. Socono Oiooi Sysloms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.6 Haimonic Oscillalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7 Slopo Fiolos ano LquiliLiia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8 Sequences and SerIes 585
8.1 Soquoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8.2 Linoai Iocuision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
8.8 Disciolo Dynamical Sysloms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
8.4 Luloi`s ano Nowlon`s Molhoos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
8. Inlnilo Soiios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
8.6 1ho Inlogial 1osl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
8.7 1ho Compaiison ano Olhoi 1osls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
9 TayIor`s SerIes 657
0.1 1ayloi Iolynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
0.2 Familios of 1ayloi Iolynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
0.8 1ayloi`s 1hooiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
0.4 AlgoLia ano Counling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
0. Iowoi Soiios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
0.6 1ayloi Soiios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
0.7 Calculus wilh Iowoi Soiios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
0.8 Diloionlial Lqualions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
10 FourIer SerIes 733
10.1 Fouiioi Coomcionls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
10.2 Convoigonco of Fouiioi Soiios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
10.8 Fouiioi Soiios on Olhoi Inloivals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4 CONTLNTS
I-1: Funclions
TLe FunctIon Concet
Inluilivoly, a funclion is any piocoss lhal piooucos only ono oulpul foi oach inpul.
Foi oxamplo, lho oulpul on a calculaloi scioon is a funclion of lho inpul fiom lho
koyLoaio, sinco piossing a numLoi such as 0" onco on lho calculaloi koyLoaio
piooucos only lho numLoi 0" on lho scioon.
In calculus, mosl funclions havo numoiical inpuls ano oulpuls. Moioovoi,
funclions in calculus aio oflon oovolopoo as nJ| of ioal-woilo piocossos lhal
pioouco only ono oulpul foi oach inpul.
FunctIons as AodeIs
Funclions moool piocossos which pioouco
only ono oulpul foi oach inpul
1hoso funclion moools may Lo piosonloo oilhoi numoiically, giaphically, oi sym-
Lolically.
Foi oxamplo, supposo a Lall is lhiown inlo lho aii wilh an inilial spooo of 88
fool poi socono (aLoul 60 m.p.h.) fiom an inilial hoighl of 7 fool. 1hon lho hoighl
r of lho Lall is a funclion of lho limo t lhal has olapsoo sinco lho Lall was ioloasoo.
I1-1: Hoighl r al limo t.
Wo can gonoialo a n&n:.n| ::nn.n of lho Lall`s hoighl as funclion of limo
Ly moasuiing lho hoighl al ono socono inloivals foi soconos. Doing so iosulls in
lho following oala sol
t in soconos 0 1 2 8 4
r in fool 7 70 118 127 108 47
(0.1)
1hal is, lho Lall has a hoighl of 70 fool afloi 1 socono, a hoighl of 118 fool afloi 2
soconos, ano so on.
1ho oala sol foi a funclion can lhon Lo plolloo as poinls in lho plano. 1ho
iosull is known as a j:nh.n| ::nn.n of lho funclion. Foi oxamplo, plolling
lho poinls fiom lho oala sol (0.1) as poinls in lho plano iosulls in a giaphical
iopiosonlalion of lho Lall`s hoighl r as a funclion of limo t.
I1-2: Dala sol plolloo as poinls in lho plano
CONTLNTS
Finally, funclions can also Lo wiillon jnh|.n||j in lho foim
) (i:jnt) = foimula lo Lo applioo lo lho i:jnt"
In ooing so, wo oflon uso a lolloi such as a lo oonolo lho .n& n:.nh|. 1ho
oulpul fiom lhal piocoss is oonoloo Ly ) (a) , which is pionouncoo ol of a." Oi
wo may oonolo lho inpul vaiiaLlo Ly t ano lhon oonolo lho oulpul Ly r (t) , which
is i of l." Giaphical ano numoiical iopiosonlalions of a funclion can suLsoquonlly
Lo gonoialoo fiom a symLolic iopiosonlalion.
IXAMIII 1 If a Lall is lhiown upwaio fiom an inilial hoighl of 7
fool wilh an inilial volocily of 88 fool poi socono, lhon lho hoighl r (t)
of lho Lall al limo t is givon Ly
r (t) = 7 88t 16t
2
(0.2)
Uso (1.2) lo gonoialo lho numoiical ano giaphical iopiosonlalions of
lho oala sol iopiosonling hoighls moasuioo al half-socono inloivals foi
. soconos.
SoIutIon: 1ho oala sol (0.1) iopiosonls hoighls moasuioo al ono soc-
ono inloivals, so wo nooo only supplomonl il Ly compuling r (0.) ,
r (1.) , r (2.) , r (8.) , r (4.) , ano r (.) . 1o compulo r (0.) , wo lol
t = 0. in (1.2) lo oLlain
r (0.) = 7 88 (0.) 16 (0.)
2
= 47
Likowiso, wo compulo lho iomaining hoighls lo oLlain lho oala sol
t 0 0. 1 1. 2 2. 8 8. 4 4. .
r 7 47 70 108 118 127 127 118 108 70 47 7
A plol of lho poinls in lho oala sol lhon yiolos a giaphical iopiosonla-
lion of r (t) :
I1-8: A Giaphical Iopiosonlalion of r (t)
1hn . h h.jh J h hn|| nJ: .. nJ 1h.h ::nn.n J r (t) Chock youi Ioaoing
J.J j& & J:n.n j&: nn&:
DonaIn and Hange
Lol`s lianslalo lho funclion concopl inlo a malhomalical oolnilion. 1o Login
wilh, lho sol of inpuls foi which a funclion ) is oolnoo is calloo lho Jnn.n J
h J&n.n, which is oonoloo do:()) , ano lho sol of oulpul valuos piooucoo Ly
a funclion ) is known as lho :nnj J h J&n.n, which is oonoloo ra:()) . 1ho
malhomalical oolnilion of funclion lhon follows:
6 CONTLNTS
DehnItIon I.1: A funclion ) is a iulo which liansfoims oach inpul
in a sol do:()) inlo only ono oulpul in a sol ra:()) .
I1-4: Only ono ) (a) in ra:()) foi oach a in do:())
Ly convonlion, if no oomain is slaloo foi a funclion, lhon lho oomain is assumoo
lo Lo lho |n:j sol of inpuls foi which lho funclion is oolnoo ano piooucos ioal
numLoi oulpuls. Wo call lhis oomain lho nn&:n| Jnn.n of lho funclion.
Domains ano iangos aio oflon oxpiossoo in .n:n| nn.n. Foi oxamplo,
[a, /) is lho sol of poinls a on lho a-axis foi which a _ a < /.
I1-: 1ho inloival [a, /)
1o illuslialo, [0, 1[ oonolos all lho ioal numLois Lolwoon 0 ano 1, inclusivo.
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho oomain ano iango of ) (a) =
_
1 a
2
SoIutIon: In oiooi foi lho funclion lo Lo oolnoo, lho oxpiossion unooi
lho squaio iool cannol Lo nogalivo. 1hal is, wo ioquiio lhal 1a
2
_ 0.
Sinco 1 a
2
= (1 a) (1 a) , lho oxpiossion 1 a
2
can chango signs
only al 1 ano 1. Howovoi, if a = 2, lhon 1 a
2
is
1 (2)
2
= 8 < 0
1hus, 1 a
2
musl Lo nogalivo foi a < 1. Similaily, if wo losl poinls
in [1, 1, [ ano [1, ), wo lno lhal
I1-6: 1 a
2
_ 0 if 1 _ a _ 1
As a iosull, lho oomain of ) (a) =
_
1 a
2
is
do:()) = [1, 1[
Ly convonlion,
_
n _ 0 foi n a non-nogalivo ioal numLoi. Sinco 1
a
2
_ 1 foi all a in do:()) ano sinco lho squaio iool cannol Lo nogalivo,
lho iango of ) is
ra:()) = [0, 1[
In lhis loxlLook wo woik wilh oomains of funclions much moio fioquonlly lhan
wo woik wilh iangos of funclions.
CONTLNTS 7
IXAMIII J Fino lho oomain of lho funclion
) (a) =
a
1
_
a 2
SoIutIon: 1ho oxpiossion a2 unooi lho iaoical cannol Lo nogalivo,
ano a 2 _ 0 implios lhal a _ 2. In aooilion,
_
a 2 cannol Lo 1
sinco olhoiwiso wo woulo havo oivision Ly 0. Lul
_
a 2 ,= 1 implios
lhal a2 ,= 1, which is lho samo as a ,= 1. 1hus, lho oomain of ) is
lho sol of inpuls a _ 2, Lul nol incluoing 1. In inloival nolalion,
wo havo
do:()) = [2, 1) ' (1, )
whoio ' iopiosonls lho &n.n of lho lwo inloivals.
I1-7: [2, 1) ' (1, )
1hn . h Jnn.n J ) (a) =
_
a 1 Chock youi Ioaoing
OeratIons vItL FunctIons
Wo can uso lho facl lhal lho oulpuls fiom funclions aio ioal numLois lo oolno
opoialions on funclions. If ) ano p aio funclions, lhon lhoii sum ) p is oolnoo
() p) (a) = ) (a) p (a) (0.8)
foi ovoiy a lhal Lolongs lo Lolh do:()) ano do:(p) . Likowiso, foi ovoiy a lhal
Lolongs lo Lolh do:()) ano do:(p) , wo oolno ) p, )p, ano )p lo Lo
() p) (a) = ) (a) p (a) (0.4)
()p) (a) = ) (a) p (a) (0.)
_
)
p
_
(a) =
) (a)
p (a)
( whoio p (a) ,= 0 ) (0.6)
A consoquonco of (0.) is lhal if / is a conslanl, lhon
(/)) (a) = /) (a)
Foi oxamplo, if ) (a) = a
2
, lhon (8)) (a) = 8) (a) = 8a
2
.
IXAMIII ! Fino ) p, ) p, )p, ano )p whon
) (a) = a
2
2, p (a) = a
d
2a
SoIutIon: 1ho oolnilions (0.8), (0.4), (0.), ano (0.6) imply lhal
() p) (a) = ) (a) p (a) = a
2
2 a
d
2a = a
d
a
2
2a 2
() p) (a) = ) (a) p (a) =
_
a
2
2
_
_
a
d
2a
_
= a
d
a
2
2a 2
()p) (a) = ) (a) p (a) =
_
a
2
2
_ _
a
d
2a
_
= a
6
2a
3
2a
d
4a
_
)
p
_
(a) =
) (a)
p (a)
=
a
2
2
a
d
2a
8 CONTLNTS
Wo can also oolno an opoialion Lolwoon funclions Ly using lho && J:n a
funclion p as lho .n& a funclion ). 1ho iosull is calloo lho n..n of )
wilh p ano is oonoloo ) p. 1hal is, composilion of ) wilh p is oolnoo
() p) (a) = ) (p (a))
Lquivalonlly, wo oflon inloipiol ) p as
() p) (a) = ) (inpul) (0.7)
whoio lho inpul is p (a) .
IXAMIII Lvalualo ) p ano p ) whon ) (a) = a
2
a ano
p (a) = 2a 8
SoIutIon: 1ho oqualion (0.7) lolls us lhal () p) (a) = ) (inpul) ,
whoio
) (inpul) = (inpul)
2
(inpul)
ano whoio lho inpul is p (a) = 2a 8. Ioplacing lho inpul Ly 2a 8
lhus yiolos
) (2a 8) = (2a 8)
2
(2a 8)
As a iosull, ) p is givon Ly
() p) (a) = (2a 8)
2
(2a 8) = 4a
2
14a 12
In conliasl, oqualion (0.7) lolls us lhal (p )) (a) = p (inpul) , whoio
p (inpul) = 2 (inpul) 8
ano whoio lho inpul is ) (a) = a
2
a. Ioplacing lho inpul Ly a
2
a
lhus yiolos
p
_
a
2
a
_
= 2
_
a
2
a
_
8
As a iosull, p ) is givon Ly
(p )) (a) = 2
_
a
2
a
_
8 = 2a
2
2a 8
1 ) p h nn n p ) .n rnn| Chock youi Ioaoing
IoIynonIaI FunctIons
Funclions foimoo sololy Ly aooilion, suLliaclion, ano mulliplicalion of ioal num-
Lois ano an inpul vaiiaLlo aio known as |jnn.n| J&n.n. In pailiculai, wo
havo lho following oolnilion.
DehnItIon 1.2: If a
0
, a
l
, . . . , a
n
aio numLois wilh a
n
,= 0, lhon lho
funclion
) (a) = a
0
a
l
a a
2
a
2
. . . a
n
a
n
is a |jnn.n| J&n.n J Jj: :.
CONTLNTS 0
1ho numLois a
0
, . . . , a
n
aio known as lho .n of lho polynomial funclion
) (a). Iolynomials oflon aiiso in moooling simplo inpul-oulpul piocossos.
IXAMIII 0 Wiilo lho aioa of a squaio as a funclion of lho longlh
a of ono of ils sioos, ano lhon lno ils oomain ano iango:
I1-8: Aioa is a funclion of a
SoIutIon: Sinco a
2
is lho aioa of a squaio of longlh a, wo can wiilo
lho funclion iolalionship symLolically as
(a) = a
2
Iolynomial funclions aio aoooo Ly summing coomcionls of liko loims. Foi oxam-
plo, if ) (a) = 2a
2
1 ano p (a) = 8a
2
2a 8, lhon
) (a) p (a) = 2a
2
1 8a
2
2a 8
= a
2
2a 4
Howovoi, lho piooucl of lwo polynomials is compuloo wilh lho oisliiLulivo law,
such as in
) (a) p (a) =
_
2a
2
1
_ _
8a
2
2a 8
_
= 2a
2
_
8a
2
2a 8
_
1
_
8a
2
2a 8
_
= 6a
d
4a
3
0a
2
2a 8
Whon onloiing funclions inlo a giaphing calculaloi, an applol, oi a compuloi
algoLia syslom, il is impoilanl lo iomomLoi lho convonlions foi lho oiooi of
opoialions:
Order oI OeratIons:
Iowois lako piocooonco ovoi mulliplicalion
ano oivision. Mulliplicalion ano oivision lako
piocooonco ovoi aooilion ano suLliaclion.
Giouping lakos piooonco ovoi all olhoi opoialions. Foi oxamplo, in mosl compuloi
algoLia sysloms, lho cooo fiagmonl
a4 a
iopiosonls lho oxpiossion
i
d
a. 1o onloi lho oxpiossion
a
4 a
lho cooo fiagmonl musl Lo of lho foima (4 a) Locauso oivision lakos piocooonco
ovoi aooilion. Similaily, lho oxpiossion aj
2
is not lho samo as (aj)
2
.
10 CONTLNTS
Lxoicisos
1n|&n nh J&n.n ) (a) h|& n h j.n .n& J: a, nnJ .n|.Jj n-
||j.
1. )(a) = a
2
, a = 8 2. )(a) = 8a
2
a 2, a = 0.
8. )(a) = 2a
3
6a, a = 2 4. )(a) = 18 4a 8a
2
, a = 1.7
. )(a) =
_
a
2
a, a = 6. )(a) =
_
2a
2
a, a =
7. )(a) = a
2
, a = t 1 8. )(a) = 8a
2
a 2, a = t 2
0. )(a) = 2a
3
6a, a = t 10. )(a) =
_
a
2
a, a = 2t
1.nJ h Jnn.n J h J||&.nj J&n.n:
11. )(a) =
_
a 12. )(a) =
_
a
18. ) (a) =
_
16 a
2
14. ) (a) =
_
a
2
0
1. )(a) =
1
a 4
16. ) (a) =
1
2a 0
17. ) (a) =
2a 1
_
a
18. ) (a) =
2a 1
(2a 0)
_
a
unerIcaI:
1
n:& n n&n:.n| ::nn.n hj n|&n.nj h J&n.n n
h j.n .n& n|&. Jhn n:& n j:nh.n| ::nn.n hj |.nj h
:&|.nj .n&-&& n.: n .n .n h aj-|nn:
19.
a 1 2 8 4
)(a) = a
2
2a 1
20.
a 2. 1. 0. 1. 2.
)(a) = 2a 1
21.
a 1 2 8 4
)(a) = a
2
2a 1
22.
a 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001
)(a) = a
3
a
23. Skolch a giaphical iopiosonlalion of ) (a) = a
2
1. Whal ooos lho iango of
) (a) appoai lo Lo
2
2a. Whal ooos lho iango
of ) (a) appoai lo Lo
25. Skolch a giaphical iopiosonlalion of ) (a) = 8a 1. Whal ooos lho iango of
) (a) appoai lo Lo
3
8a. Whal ooos lho iango
of ) (a) appoai lo Lo
1n .7-, n&n hn ) (a) = a
2
1, p (a) = 2 a
3
, nnJ /(a) =
_
2a 8:
1
unerIcaI oxoicisos ioquiio oilhoi lho uso of a laLlo oi lho analysis of oala.
CONTLNTS 11
27. () p) (a) 28. (p /) (a)
20. (2)) (a) 80. (2) p) (a)
81. ()p) (a) 82. (p/) (a)
88. ()p) (a) 84. (/ p) (a)
8. () /) (a) 86. /
_
t
2
1
_
87. (/ p) (1) 88. (()() p)) /) (a)
39. Consiooi lho posilion funclion r(t) = 16t
2
48 which iopiosonls lho hoighl
of an oLjocl aLovo lho giouno in fool al limo t in soconos whon lho oLjocl
is in fioo-fall noai lho suifaco of lho oailh.
(a) How high aLovo lho giouno is lho oLjocl inilially (i.o., al t = 0)
(L) How high aLovo lho giouno is lho oLjocl al t = 1 socono
(c) Al whal limo t ooos il sliiko lho giouno(Hinl: solvo r(t) = 0)
40. Consiooi lho posilion funclion r(t) = 16t
2
16t which iopiosonls lho hoighl
of an oLjocl aLovo lho giouno in fool al limo t in soconos.
(a) How high aLovo lho giouno is lho oLjocl inilially (i.o., al t = 0)
(L) How high aLovo lho giouno is lho oLjocl al t = 12 socono
(c) Al whal limo t ooos il sliiko lho giouno
41. 1ho posilion funclion r(t) = 16t
2
06t iopiosonls lho hoighl in fool aLovo
lovol giouno of a golf Lall lhal is sliuck wilh lho cluL al limo t = 0.
(a) unerIcaI: Cioalo a oala sol foi lho funclion Ly ovalualing r(t)
al lho givon inpul valuos.
t 0 1 2 8 4 6
r(t)
(L) Skolch a giaphical iopiosonlalion foi lho oala sol.
(c) ALoul how long is lho golf Lall in lho aii
(o) If lho Lall is liavolling a 86 )cct soc hoiizonlally, how fai ooos il
liavol hoiizonlally Lofoio sliiking lho giouno
42. 1ho golf Lall in pioLlom 41 is now placoo on lovol giouno on lho suifaco
of Mais ano sliuck wilh lho samo foico. 1ho funclion r(t) = 6.1t
2
06t
iopiosonls lho hoighl in fool of lho golf Lall.
(a) unerIcaI: Cioalo a oala sol foi lho funclion Ly ovalualing r(t)
al lho givon inpul valuos.
t 0 2 6 10 12 14
r(t)
(L) Skolch a giaphical iopiosonlalion foi lho oala sol.
(c) How long is lho golf Lall in lho aii
(o) If lho Lall is liavolling a 86 )cct soc hoiizonlally, how fai ooos il
liavol hoiizonlally Lofoio sliiking lho giouno
43. Wiilo lho ciicumfoionco of a ciiclo as a funclion of ils iaoius, r.
12 CONTLNTS
44. Wiilo lho ciicumfoionco of a ciiclo as a funclion of ils oiamoloi, d = 2r.
45. Wiilo lho aioa of a ciiclo as a funclion of ils oiamoloi.
46. Wiilo lho aioa of a iighl isoscolos liianglo as a funclion of lho longlh of ono
of ils logs, /.
47. Givon lho volumo of a iighl pyiamio is ono-lhiio lho aioa of lho Laso limos
lho hoighl, wiilo lho volumo of a iighl-ciiculai pyiamio as a funclion of ils
Laso iaoius r if lho hoighl is / = 8r.
48. Givon lho volumo of a iighl pyiamio is ono-lhiio lho aioa of lho Laso limos
lho hoighl, wiilo lho volumo of a iighl- pyiamio wilh a squaio Laso as a
funclion of ono of lho longlhs of lho sioo of lho Laso, a, if lho hoighl is
/ = 1.a.
49. Givon lho volumo of lho sphoio of iaoius r is
d
3
r
3
, wiilo lho volumo of lho
sphoio as a funclion of ils oiamoloi d = 2r.
50. Givon lho volumo of lho sphoio of iaoius r is
d
3
r
3
, wiilo lho volumo of lho
sphoio as a funclion of limo t if ils iaoius r, al limo t is givon Ly
r =
2t
t 1
CraLer
2
: 1 n n&: : j:nh.nj n|&|n: n|&n h J||&.nj r-
:.n n h j.n .n& n|& J: a .
1. )(a) =
a
2
8a a
2
, a = 8 2. )(a) =
8.0a
2
.2a 2.0
18.7a
3
40.4a 12.1
,
a = 0.7
8. )(a) =
a 1
(a
2
1)(a 2)
, a = 1.2 4. )(a) = a
3/2
2a
a
2
8a a
2
,
a = 8
. )(a) =
18 4a 8a
2
6a 82 a
, a = 1.7, 2.8 6. )(a) =
_
2.8a
2
.1a 1.0
8.6a
2
.8a 4.0
,
a = 2, 6.8
2
CraLer oxoicisos ioquiio lho uso of a giaphing calculaloi oi compuloi lo pioouco lho giaph
of a funclion.
CONTLNTS 18
I-2: Giaphs of Funclions
CraLs oI FunctIons
1ho giaph of a funclion ) is lho sol of n|| poinls (a, j) in lho aj-plano lhal salisfy
lho oqualion j = ) (a). Foi oxamplo, lho giaph of ) (a) = a
0
a
l
a . . . a
n
a
n
is lho sol of all poinls in lho aj-plano lhal salisfy
j = a
0
a
l
a . . . a
n
a
n
(0.8)
Foi lhis ioason, cuivos of lho lypo (0.8) aio oflon calloo |jnn.n| &:.
In aooilion, wo oolno lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi an inloival [a, /[ lo Lo lho soclion
of j = ) (a) foi which a is in [a, /[ . Oflon lho giaph of a funclion ) (a) ovoi an
inloival [a, /[ is appioximaloo Ly connocling inoivioual poinls in a lnilo oala sol
Ly lino sogmonls. Wo will uso lho loim j:nh: lo iofoi lo a machino such as a
compuloi oi giaphing calculaloi which piooucos such an appioximalion.
IXAMIII 1 Uso a giaphoi lo visualizo lho giaph of
) (a) = 7 88a 16a
2
ovoi lho inloival [0, [ .
SoIutIon: Oui giaphoi (youis may vaiy) Logins Ly compuling lho
oulpuls ) (a) al oach of lho 0 oqually spacoo inpuls a in lho following
sol:
0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.8, . . . , 4.7, 4.8, 4.0, .0
1ho iosulling inpul-oulpul paiis aio plolloo as poinls in lho aj-plano
(soo lguio I2-1). Joining succossivo poinls wilh lino sogmonls lhon
piooucos an appioximalion of lho cuivo j = 7 88a16a
2
(soo lguio
I2-2).
t
5 4 3 2 1 0
120
100
80
60
40
20
I2-1
t
5 4 3 2 1 0
120
100
80
60
40
20
I2-2
14 CONTLNTS
Giaphs of somo common funclions aio shown in lguio I2-8:
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
4
3
2
1
0
j = a
2
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
j = a
3
x
4 3 2 1 0
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
j =
_
a
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
10
5
0
-5
-10
j = 1a
I2-8: Giaphs of ) (a) = a
2
, p (a) = a
3
, j (a) =
_
a, ano (a) = 1a
Giaphs of olhoi funclions can Lo oLlainoo wilh a giaphoi. Howovoi, in ooing so,
il is impoilanl lo pioouco giaphs lhal conlain all of lho foaluios of a funclion,
foaluios such as lho maxima (high poinls), minima (low poinls), asymplolos, ano
symmoliy, which is oiscussoo in moio oolail al lho ono of lhis soclion.
IXAMIII 2 Uso a giaphoi lo skolch lho giaph of lho funclion
) (a) = a
3
0a
2
2
SoIutIon: 1ho giaph of ) (a) = a
3
0a
2
2 ovoi [2, 2[ is givon Ly
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
I2-4: j = a
3
0a
2
2 ovoi [2, 2[
Howovoi, lhis is nol lho wholo sloiy. Consiooi lho giaph on lho Liggoi
inloival [2, 0[
CONTLNTS 1
x
8 6 4 2 0 -2
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
I2-: j = a
3
0a
2
2 ovoi [2, 0[
Cloaily, lho giaph has Lolh a high poinl ano a low poinl, Lul lhis was
nol iovoaloo Ly lho giaph ovoi [2, 2[ .
How lhon oo wo know whon wo havo ioonliloo all lho foaluios of a giaph 1ho
answoi lo lhal quoslions is ono of lho ioasons wo sluoy calculus. In facl, giaphing
wilhoul calculus oflon piooucos misloaoing iopiosonlalions oi omil koy foaluios.
: h: nnj .n n j = a
3
0a
2
2 hn n: h.jh: hnn h j-.n: Chock youi Ioaoing
LInear FunctIons
Iocall lhal lho oqualion of a lino
8
wilh slopo : which passos lhiough a poinl
(a
l
, j
l
) is givon Ly j j
l
= :(a a
l
) . Solving foi j yiolos
j = j
l
:(a a
l
) (0.0)
1hus, (0.0) is lho poinl-slopo oqualion in lho foim of a giaph of a funclion.
In pailiculai, j = j
l
:(a a
l
) is lho giaph of lho funclion
1(a) = j
l
:(a a
l
) (0.10)
1hus, lho giaph of a lisl oogioo polynomial is a sliaighl lino, ano coiiosponoingly,
lisl oogioo polynomials aio known as |.nn: J&n.n.
IXAMIII J Fino lho linoai funclion whoso giaph is lho lino wilh
slopo 2 lhal passos lhiough lho poinl (1, 8) .
SoIutIon: Sinco lho slopo is : = 2 ano lho poinl is (a
l
, j
l
) = (1, 8) ,
lho oqualion (0.10) lolls us lhal
1(a) = 8 2 (a 1) = 2a 1
1ho giaph of lho linoai funclion 1(a) = 2a1 is lho cuivo j = 2a1,
8
Unloss olhoiwiso slaloo, lho woio lino is unooislooo lo moan a sliaighl lino.
16 CONTLNTS
which is lho lino wilh slopo 2 lhal passos lhiough (1, 8) .
x
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
I2-6: j = 2a 1
If wo lol a = a
2
ano j = j
2
in (0.0), lhon
j
2
= j
l
:(a
2
a
l
)
Solving foi : lhon loaos lo lho foimula
: =
j
2
j
l
a
2
a
l
Oflon, wo oonolo lho oonominaloi, oi :&n, Ly â = a
2
a
l
, whoio ^ is lho Giook
capilal lolloi oolla ano oonolos a chango in a vaiiaLlo. Likowiso, lho numoialoi is
oflon oonoloo ^j = j
2
j
l
ano is calloo lho :., so lhal lho slopo is
: =
^j
â
=
ri-c
rn:
I2-7: Slopo : is ialio of iiso ^j lo iun â.
Sinco (a
l
, j
l
) ano (a
2
, j
2
) aio any lwo poinls on lho lino, il follows lhal lho slopo
is lho samo foi any lwo poinls on lho lino.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho oqualion of lho lino lhiough lho poinls (1, 4)
ano (8, 2) .
SoIutIon: 1ho slopo of lho lino lhiough (1, 4) ano (8, 2) is
: =
2 4
8 1
=
2
4
=
1
2
1hus, lho linoai funclion wilh slopo : = 12 ano lhiough lho poinl
(1, 4) is
j = 4
1
2
(a 1) =
7
2

1
2
a
1&|J & hn.n h nn :&| .n rnn| .J (2, 8) . &J n (a
l
, j
l
) Chock youi Ioaoing
CONTLNTS 17
TransIatIons oI CraLs
1ho giaph of lho funclion ) (a /) is lho giaph of lho funclion ) (a) shifloo /
unils lo lho lofl if / 0 ano [/[ unils lo lho iighl if / < 0.
I2-8: Giaph of ) (a) I2-0: Giaph of ) (a /) foi / 0
In conliasl, lho giaph of ) (a)/ is lho giaph of lho funclion ) (a) shifloo / unils
upwaio if / 0 ano [/[ unils oownwaio if / < 0.
I2-10: Giaph of ) (a) I2-11: Giaph of ) (a) / foi / 0
IXAMIII 0 Skolch lho giaph of p (a) = (a 2)
2
8 givon lho
giaph of ) (a) = a
2
shown Lolow:
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
10
8
6
4
2
0
I2-12: Giaph of ) (a) = a
2
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, lol`s nolico lhal ) (a 2) = (a 2)
2
. 1hus,
lho giaph of ) (a 2) is lho samo as lho giaph of ) (a) = a
2
shifloo 2
unils lo lho lofl
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
10
8
6
4
2
0
I2-18: Giaph of ) (a 2) = (a 2)
2
18 CONTLNTS
Moioovoi, aooing 8 lo ) (a 2) iosulls in
) (a 2) 8 = (a 2)
2
8
Consoquonlly, lho giaph of p (a) = (a 2)
2
8 is lho giaph of ) (a 2)
shifloo 8 unils upwaio:
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
10
8
6
4
2
0
I2-14: Giaph of p (a) = ) (a 2) 8
IXAMIII 7 Skolch lho giaph of p (a) =
l
2
(a 2) 1 givon lho
giaph of ) (a) =
l
2
a shown Lolow:
x
6 4 2 0 -2
3
2
1
0
-1
I2-1: Giaph of ) (a) =
l
2
a
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, lol`s nolico lhal ) (a 2) =
l
2
(a 2) . 1hus,
lho giaph of ) (a 2) is lho samo as lho giaph of ) (a) =
l
2
shifloo 2
unils lo lho iighl
x
6 4 2 0 -2
3
2
1
0
-1
I2-16: Giaph of ) (a 2) =
l
2
(a 2)
Moioovoi, aooing 1 lo ) (a 2) iosulls in
) (a 2) 1 =
1
2
(a 2) 1
CONTLNTS 10
Consoquonlly, lho giaph of p (a) =
l
2
(a 2)1 is lho giaph of ) (a 2)
shifloo 1 unil upwaio:
x
6 4 2 0 -2
3
2
1
0
-1
I2-17: Giaph of p (a) =
l
2
(a 2) 1
1hj . 1.-17 h nn n 1.-1 Chock youi Ioaoing
Synnetry
1ho giaph of ) (a) is lho samo as lho giaph of ) (a) iolocloo lhiough lho a-axis,
I-10: 1ho giaph of ) (a) voisus lho giaph of ) (a)
ano lho giaph of ) (a) is lho samo as lho giaph of ) (a) iolocloo aLoul lho j-axis
.
I-20: Giaph of ) (a) I-21: Giaph of ) (a)
Funclions which salisfy lho ioonlily ) (a) = ) (a) aio saio lo Lo n J&n.n.
Locauso ) (a) = ) (a) , lho giaph of an ovon funclion is jnn:. nh& h j-
axis. Coiiosponoingly, an JJ J&n.n is a funclion lhal salislos ) (a) = ) (a) .
1hus, lho giaph of an ooo funclion is jnn:. nh& h :.j.n.
I-22: Giaph of an ovon funclion I-28: Giaph of an ooo funclion
20 CONTLNTS
IXAMIII 8 Doloimino if ) (a) = a
d
8a
2
is ovon, ooo, oi noilhoi.
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, lol us compulo ) (a):
) (a) = (a)
d
8 (a)
2
= a
d
8a
2
1ho iosull is lho samo as ) (a) , which is lo say lhal ) (a) = ) (a) .
1hus, ) (a) = a
d
8a
2
is ovon.
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
I-24: Giaph of ) (a) = a
d
8a
2
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h j&n.n J h |.nn: J&n.n &h j:nh n.] h J||&.nj:
1. Slopo : = 2 passing lhiough lho poinl (1, 8).
2. Slopo : = 1 passing lhiough lho poinl (2, 1).
3. Slopo : = 0. passing lhiough lho poinl (0., 0.7)
4. Slopo : = 0.2 passing lhiough lho poinl (1.4, 8.8)
5. Iassing lhiough lho poinls (1, 1) ano (2, 2).
6. Iassing lhiough lho poinls (1, 2) ano (2, 8).
7. Iassing lhiough lho poinls (8, ) ano (
l
2
, 4).
8. Iassing lhiough lho oiigin ano lho poinl (2, 8) .
1 n j:nh: .&n|.. h j:nh J h J||&.nj J&n.n. 1n n:.&|n:, ||
J: Jn&: &h n &h: h J&n.n :nh . h.jh : |& n|& : .J
h J&n.n hn nnj jnn:j.
0. )(a) = 16a
2
4a 8 10. )(a) = a
3
4a 1
11. )(a) = 2a
d
4a
2
1 12. )(a) = a
6
4a
2
7
18. ) (a) = a
3
8a 14. ) (a) = a
3
8a
2
1. ) (a) = cos (a) 16. ) (a) = sin(a)
5|h h j:nh J h J&n.n, nnJ hn |h . :nn|n.n.
17. ) (a) = 8a ano lho lianslalion ) (a 2) ovoi [4, 4[
18. ) (a) = 1 2a ano lho lianslalion ) (a 1) ovoi [4, 4[
CONTLNTS 21
19. )(a) =
l
2
a
2
ano lho lianslalion )(a) 1 ovoi [4, 4[.
20. )(a) = a
2
a ano lho lianslalion )(a 2) ovoi [1, 4[.
21. )(a) =
l
i
ano lho lianslalion )(a 2) 1 ovoi [6, 4[.
22. )(a) = a
7
2
ano lho lianslalion )(a 1) 2 ovoi [1, 4[.
1:n.n .J h J||&.nj J&n.n n: n, JJ, : n.h:. 5|h h.: j:nh
n]:n j&: nn&:.
28. )(a) = a
3
a 24. )(a) = 2a
2
8
2. )(a) = 4a
5
a 26. )(a) = 2a
d
a
2
27. )(a) = a
3
1 28. )(a) = a
5
8a
2
20. )(a) = 2a
2
a 8 80. )(a) = 2a
5
4a
3
31. Complolo lho following laLlo of valuos foi )(a) = 8a
3
2a
2
.
a -1 0 1 2 8
)(a)
1hon giaph lho (a, ) (a)) paiis lo oLlain a giaphical iopiosonlalion of lho
funclion.
32. Complolo lho following laLlo of valuos foi ) (a) = a
2
1.
a 1. 2.0 8. 4.0 4.
)(a)
1hon giaph lho (a, ) (a)) paiis lo oLlain a giaphical iopiosonlalion of lho
funclion.
33. 1ho hoighl r in fool as a funclion of limo t in soconos of an oLjocl lhiown
upwaio fiom lho suifaco of Mais is iopiosonloo numoiically in lho laLlo
Lolow:
t 0 2 .62 .2 7.87 10.
r(t) 4 120.07 171.86 120.70 4.47
(a) How high aLovo lho suifaco is lho oLjocl whon il Logins ils molion
(L) How high aLovo lho suifaco is lho oLjocl al t = 7.87 soconos afloi
lho oLjocl Logan moving
(c) Giaph lho (t, r) paiis. Givon lhal r as a funclion of t musl havo a
giaph lhal is a paiaLola, why can wo concluoo lhal 120.70 fool is
lho maximum alliluoo of lho oLjocl.
34. 1ho funclion r(t) = 16t
2
4 oosciiLos lho hoighl in fool al limo t in soconos
of an oLjocl iolling ol of a laLlo. Wo sol t = 0 lo Lo lho inslanl lho oLjocl
loavos lho laLlo`s oogo.
(a) unerIcaI: Cioalo a oala sol foi lho funclion Ly comploling lho
laLlo.
t 0 0.1 0.2 0.8 0.4 0.
r(t)
22 CONTLNTS
(L) How fai has lho oLjocl fallon afloi 0.1 soconos
(c) How long ooos il lako foi lho oLjocl lo sliiko lho looi
35. 1ho populalion 1(t) of a coilain small lown on Januaiy 1 of yoai t is givon
in lho laLlo Lolow.
t 1000 1002 1004 1006 1008 2000
1(t) 1081 1081 1111 1186 1286 1800
Giaph lho (t, 1) paiis lo oLlain a giaphical iopiosonlalion of lho funclion.
Whal is signilcanl aLoul lho giaph of 1 (t)
36. A 8.2 inch lall soup can is llloo wilh waloi ano a small holo is punchoo in
lho Lollom of lho can allowing lho waloi lo oiain oul. 1ho hoighl j in inchos
of lho waloi in lho can al limo t in minulos sinco waloi Logan oiaining is
moooloo Ly
j(t) = 0.08t
2
1.08t 8.2
(a) How high is lho waloi in lho can ono minulo afloi il Logins lo
oiain
(L) How long unlil lho can is omply
(c) Skolch lho giaph of lho funclion. Foi whal valuos of t is lho moool
valio
37. Supposo lhal lho piico j which can Lo chaigoo poi shiil if a numLoi of shiils
aio lo Lo solo is moooloo Ly lho JnnnJ J&n.n
j(a) = 0.007a 82
(a) Whal is lho piico chaigoo poi shiil if wo can soll a = 100 shiils
(L) How many shiils musl wo soll in oiooi lo chaigo $2.00 poi shiil
(c) Skolch lho giaph of lho oomano funclion (il is linoai). Why woulo
wo nol wanl lo uso lho moool if moio lhan 471 shiils aio lo Lo
solo
38. If j(a) = 0.007a 82 is lho piico j which can Lo chaigoo fiom lho salo
of a numLois of shiils, lhon lho iovonuo 1 fiom lho salo of a shiils is
1(a) = aj (a) .
(a) Whal is 1(a) foi lho givon piico funclion j(a)
(L) Whal is lho iovonuo iocoivoo whon 100 shiils aio solo
(c) Skolch lho giaph of lho oomano funclion. Whal is signilcanl aLoul
ils giaph
39. 1ho unil ciiclo has an oqualion of a
2
j
2
= 1. Whal funclion is lho uppoi
half of lho unil ciiclo lho giaph of Is il ovon oi ooo
40. 1ianslalo lho paiaLola j = a
2
Ly / unils lo lho iighl ano / unils up. Whal is
lho iosulling cuivo Whal is lho oqualion of lho cuivo ano whal is signilcanl
aLoul lho poinl (/, /)
41. Supposo lhal ) (a) is ovon ano p (a) is ooo. Whal lypo of symmoliy oo lho
following funclions havo, if any
(a) /(a) = ) (a) p (a) (L) /(a) = ) (a) [p (a)[
2
(c) /(a) = ) (a) p (a) (o) /(a) = a) (a) p (a)
CONTLNTS 28
42. Show lhal if ) (| a) = ) (a) , lhon j = ) (a) is symmoliic aLoul lho lino
a = |.
SuIenentaI HevIev:
In lho noxl fow paiagiaphs, wo look ahoao al lho lopics fiom piocalculus lhal will
Lo impoilanl in lho noxl chaploi. 1o Login wilh, a funclion ) (a) is .&.
J]nJ if lhoio aio non-ovoilapping inloivals (a, /) ano (c, d) such lhal
) (a) =
_
)
l
(a) i) a < a < /
)
2
(a) i) c < a < d
foi funclions )
l
(a) ano )
2
(a) . 1hal is, if a < a < /, lhon ) (a) = )
l
(a) ano if
c < a < d, lhon ) (a) = )
2
(a) . Il follows lhal lho giaph of ) (a) is j = )
l
(a) ovoi
(a, /) ano j = )
2
(a) ovoi (c, d) .
L1: Giaph of ) (a)
Moioovoi, lho inloivals usoo lo oolno ) (a) nooo nol Lo opon.
IXAMIII 1 Lvalualo ) (1) , ) (1) , ano ) (2) , ano skolch lho giaph
of lho funclion
) (a) =
_
2a 8 i) 2 _ a < 1
a
2
1 i) 1 _ a _ 8
SoIutIon: Sinco 1 is in [2, 1), wo uso 2a 8 in ovalualing ) (1):
) (1) = 2 (1) 8 = 1
Sinco 1 ano 2 aio Lolh in [1, 8[ , wo uso a
2
1 lo ovalualo ) (1) ano
) (2):
) (1) = 1
2
1 = 0, ) (2) = 2
2
1 = 8
Moioovoi, lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi [2, 8[ is lho union of lho cuivo
j = 2a 8 ovoi [2, 1) ano lho cuivo j = a
2
1 ovoi [1, 8[ .
x
3 2 1 0 -1 -2
8
6
4
2
0
L2: Giaph of ) (a)
24 CONTLNTS
Moio lhan lwo inloivals may Lo usoo lo oolno a piocowiso-oolnoo funclion. Foi
oxamplo,
- (a) =
_
_
_
1 i) 0 _ a < 2
2 i) 2 _ a < 8
1. i) 8 _ a <
is a piocowiso-oolnoo funclion using lhioo non-ovoilapping inloivals in ils ool-
nilion. Moioovoi, whon oach of lho funclions usoo lo oolno - (a) is a conslanl
funclion, lhon wo say lhal - (a) is a .n| J&n.n. Simplo funclions will Lo usoo
oxlonsivoly in laloi chaplois.
A n:nn: is a conslanl whoso valuo is nol spociloo. 1hoy aio usoful foi
oolning familios of cuivos. Foi oxamplo, lho family of ciiclos wilh iaoius 1 con-
loioo al lho oiigin all havo oqualions of lho foim
a
2
j
2
= 1
2
(0.11)
1ho quanlily 1 in (0.11) is a paiamoloilhal is, il is conslanl Lul ils valuo will
nol Lo spociloo unlil oqualion (0.11) is aclually usoo. Likowiso, paiamolois can
Lo usoo lo oolno familios of funclions.
IXAMIII 2 Skolch lho giaphs of lho family of funclions
) (a) = a
2
/
whon / = 1, 0, 1, 2.
SoIutIon: If / = 1, lhon ) (a) = a
2
1, whoso giaph has a j-
inloicopl of 1. If / = 0, lhon ) (a) = a
2
, whoso giaph has a j-inloicopl
of 0. Likowiso, / = 1, 2 loao lo j-inloicopls of 1, 2, iospoclivoly:
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
L8: Giaphs of funclions ) (a) = a
2
/ whon / = 1, 0, 1, 2
Wo will also uso paiamolois in chaploi 1. Foi oxamplo, wo will woik wilh lho
oiloionco quolionl of a funclion, which is of lho foim
) (a /) ) (a)
/
In pailiculai, wo will nooo lo Lo aLlo lo ovalualo ano simplify a oiloionco quolionl.
IXAMIII J Simplify lho oiloionco quolionl of ) (a) = a
2
.
CONTLNTS 2
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, ) (a /) = (a /)
2
= a
2
2a/ /
2
, so
lhal
) (a /) ) (a)
/
=
_
a
2
2a/ /
2
_
_
a
2
_
/
=
2a/ /
2
/
=
/(2a /)
/
= 2a /, / ,= 0
Lxoicisos:
1n|&n h .&.-J]nJ J&n.n n h .n& a = 1, 0, 1, nnJ hn
|h h.: j:nh.
1. ) (a) =
_
a 2 i) a < 0
a
2
8 i) a _ 0
2. ) (a) =
_
a i) a < 0
a i) a _ 0
8. ) (a) =
_
a
2
8a i) 2 < a < 1
i) 1 _ a < 8
4. ) (a) =
_
a
2
i) 2 _ a < 0
a i) 0 _ a < 2
. - (a) =
_
_
_
1 i) 2 _ a < 0
8 i) 0 _ a < 2
2 i) 2 _ a < 4
6. - (a) =
_
_
2 i) 2 _ a < 1
1 i) 1 _ a < 1
i) 1 _ a < 2
8 i) 2 _ a <
5|h h j:nh J h Jnn.|. J J&n.n j.n h|& J: h .nJ.nJ n|&
J h n:nn:.
7. ) (a) = /a 2, / = 1, 0, 1 8. ) (a) = 0.a /, / = 1, 0, 1
0. ) (a) = /a
2
, / = 1, 1, 2 10. ) (a) = (a /)
2
, / = 1, 0, 1
11. ) (a) = a
3
/, / = 1, 0, 1 12. ) (a) = /a
3
, / = 1, 1, 2
1n|&n nnJ .n|.Jj h J.]:n j&.n
) (a /) ) (a)
/
J: nh J h J||&.nj J&n.n: ;1.n: n ,1 j& &.|| &nn :n.nn|.. h
n&n:n:).
18. ) (a) = a 8 14. ) (a) = 0.7a 8.
1. ) (a) = 2a
2
1 16. ) (a) = a
2
2a
17. ) (a) =
1
a
18. ) (a) =
_
a
26 CONTLNTS
1. LlMlTS, TANCLNTS, ANDRATLS
OF CHANCL
Wo oxpoiionco oui woilo lhiough oui lvo sonsos, ano yol lhoio is moio lo oui
woilo lhan oui lvo sonsos can iovoal. Wo can oxlono oui lvo sonsos wilh lools
such as micioscopos ano loloscopos, ano yol lhoio aio many lhings lhal slill iomain
hiooon fiom us. Wo cannol soo olocliicily. Wo cannol hoai lho wino Llowing on
Mais. Wo cannol laslo, smoll oi fool lho Luiloing Llocks of malloi. Lvon wilh lho
mosl aovancoo lools known lo man, oui lvo sonsos simply cannol iovoal all lhoio
is lo know aLoul woilo aiouno us.
Wo nooo a sixlh sonso, ono which will allow us lo soo insioo an alom oi hoai
lho pilch of a iaoio wavo. Sinco lho lalo sovonloonlh conluiy, lhal sixlh sonso has
Loon Calculus. No insliumonl in lho woilo will allow us lo soo a planol oulsioo
of oui solai syslom, ano yol wo know of sovoial such planols. 1hoii piosonco was
infoiioo using Calculus. No oxlonsion of oui lvo sonsos will allow us lo oxploio lho
lwisls ano luins in oui woilo oconomy, Lul wilh oui sixlh sonsoCalculuswo
can mako foiocasls ano piooicl iocossions. Wo cannol soo lho wino. Lul wilh
Calculus, wo can oosciiLo il, moool il ano mako piooiclions as lo whoio il is going
ano whoio il has Loon.
In lhis Look, wo loain lo uso lho sixlh sonso of Calculus lo invosligalo oui
woilo. Wo oxploio lho iolo of Calculus in moooin scionco ano malhomalics, ano
wo iovisil lho oiscovoiios of lho pasl lo soo how Calculus has giown ovoi lho
conluiios. 1his chaploi Logins lhal oxploialion Ly laying lho founoalion upon
which suLsoquonl chaplois will Lo Luill.
1.1 TangenL Lines
IntroductIon to CaIcuIus
Wo havo known calculus all of oui livos. Wo uso il oaily lo mako sonso of oui woilo.
Whon wo moasuio shoil oislancos on lho oailh`s suifaco wilh sliaighl linos
yaioslicks, lapo moasuios, olc.lhon wo aio using calculus. Whon wo ignoio lho
iounonoss of lho oailh wilh phiasos liko a sliaighl ioao" ano a lal lolo," lhon
again wo aio using calculus. 1HL LAI1H IS FLA1! ...oi so wo imagino whon lho
oislancos Loing consiooioo aio small. 1his simplo iooa is lho ossonco of Calculus.
In facl, lho concopls unooilying calculus havo Loon usoo lhioughoul hisloiy.
Sinco anliquily, aichilocls havo usoo colloclions of shoil lino sogmonls lo imply
moio complicaloo cuivos, such as whon Liicks ano Llocks wilh poifoclly sliaighl
LlMlTS, TANCLNTS, AND RATLS OF CHANCL 27
sioos aio usoo lo consliucl somiciiculai aichos.
1-1: An aich is oflon foimoo Ly shoil lino sogmonls
1hal is, sinco anliquily, pooplo havo appioximaloo small soclions of cuivos wilh
sliaighl linos.
A FundanentaI Concet In CaIcuIus
Somo cuivos can Lo oiviooo inlo soclions in which oach
soclion is noaily lho samo as a sogmonl of a sliaighl lino
In calculus, cuivos aio appioximaloo Ly nnjn |.n, whoio a lino | is langonl
lo a cuivo al lho .n J nnjnj 1 if lho lino ano lho cuivo aio piaclically lho
samo" foi small soclions of lho cuivo conlaining 1.
1-2: 1ho lino | is langonl lo lho cuivo al poinl 1.
Inoooo, lho Giook malhomalician Luclio Lasoo much of his goomoliy on lho facl
lhal a langonl lino lo a ciiclo is poiponoiculai lo lho iaoiusi.o., lo lho lino
lhiough lho oiigin ano lho poinl of langoncy.
1-8: 1angonl Lino lo a Ciiclo
Nolico again lhal lho langonl lino lo a ciiclo is piaclically lho samo" as a small
soclion of lho ciiclo which conlains lho poinl of langoncy.
1hn n: n rnn| J n &: n h n:h` &:Jn h.nj n.J:J Chock youi Ioaoing
:n.n||j h nn' n n nnjn |.n
28 LlMlTS, TANCLNTS, AND RATLS OF CHANCL
Tangent LInes to IoIynonIaIs
1angonl linos aio iolaloo lo lho facl lhal whon / is closo lo 0, lhon highoi powois
liko /
2
, /
3
, ano so on aio much, much closoi lo 0. Foi oxamplo, if / = 0.001, lhon
/
2
= 0.000001
which is 1000 limos smalloi lhan /. Likowiso, if / = 0.0001, lhon
/
3
= 0.000000000001
which is much, much closoi lo 0 lhan / ilsolf is
egIILIe Iovers oI /
If / is sumcionlly closo lo 0, lhon /
2
, /
3
, /
d
, ano so on aio
much, much closoi lo 0 lhan / is ano lhus can oflon Lo ignoioo.
If ) (a) is a polynomial, which is a funclion of lho foim
) (a) = a
0
a
l
a a
2
a
2
. . . a
n
a
n
lhon lhis concopl can Lo usoo lo calculalo a langonl lino lo lho cuivo j = ) (a) al
a givon inpul a = j.
1o oo so, wo lol a = j/, whoio / is assumoo lo Lo closo lo 0. 1hus, ) (j /)
as a funclion of / is a polynomial of lho foim
) (j /) = a
0
a
l
/ highoi powois of /" (1.1)
Sinco lho highoi powois aio nogligiLlo, j = ) (j /) is piaclically lho samo as
j = a
0
a
l
/. Finally, a = j / implios lhal / = a j, so lhal j = a
0
a
l
/
Locomos
j = a
0
a
l
(a j)
Noai lho poinl of langoncy (j, ) (j)) , lho polynomial cuivo j = ) (a) is piaclically
lho samo as lho langonl lino j = a
0
a
l
(a j) .
1-4: j = ) (a) is almosl a sliaighl lino al (j, ) (j))
Lol`s look al somo oxamplos.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = a
2
whon
j = 1.
SoIutIon: Sinco j = 1, wo lol a = 1 / lo oLlain j = (1 /)
2
.
Lxpanoing lho iosull loaos lo
j = (1 /)
2
= 1 2/ /
2
TANCLNT LlNLS 20
Sinco /
2
is nogligiLlo, lho langonl lino is j = 1 2/, which Locauso
/ = a 1 Locomos
j = 1 2 (a 1) = 2a 1
1hus, j = 2a 1 is lho langonl lino lo j = a
2
al (1, 1) , as is shown in
lguio 1-:
x
3 2 1 0 -1
8
6
4
2
0
-2
1-: j = a
2
voisus j = 2a 1
If a
l
= 0 in (1.1), lhon lho langonl lino is h:..nn|.
2
2a8
whon j = 1.
SoIutIon: Sinco j = 1, wo lol a = 1 / lo oLlain
j = (1 /)
2
2 (1 /) 8
= 1 2/ /
2
2 2/ 8
= 2 /
2
1hal is, j = 2 /
2
, Lul sinco /
2
is nogligiLlo, lho langonl lino is
simply j = 2, which is a hoiizonlal lino (slopo is 0). 1ho paiaLola ano
ils langonl lino aio shown in lguio 1-6:
x
0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 -2.5
4
3
2
1
0
1-6: j = a
2
2a 8 voisus j = 2
1hj n.jh h:..nn| nnjn |.n h .n:nn ;5 ]j&: 1- J: h|) Chock youi Ioaoing
Aore vItL Tangent LInes
In summaiy, lo lno lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo lho giaph of an :
||
oogioo
polynomial whon a = j, wo uso lho following slops:
1. Lol a = j / foi / closo lo 0 ano oxpano lo oLlain a polynomial in / of lho
foim
j = a
0
a
l
/ a
2
/
2
. . . a
n
/
n
2. Sinco /
2
, /
3
, /
d
, ano so on aio nogligiLlo whon / is closo lo 0, lho polynomial
is noaily lho samo as
j = a
0
a
l
/
foi a closo lo j.
8. Sinco a = j / implios lhal / = a j, lho j&n.n J h nnjn |.n
j = ) (a) &hn a = j is
j = a
0
a
l
(a j)
Il follows lhal whon a is closo lo j, which is whon / is closo lo 0, lhon lho langonl
lino is a gooo appioximalion of lho cuivo ilsolf.
1-7: 1angonl is a gooo appioximalion lo cuivo whon a is closo lo j
IXAMIII J Fino lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = ) (a) al
j = 2 whon ) (a) = a
3
2a
SoIutIon: SuLsliluling a = 2 / ano oxpanoing loaos lo
j = (2 /)
3
2 (2 /) = 4 10/ 6/
2
/
3
Sinco 6/
2
/
3
is nogligiLlo foi / closo lo 0, lho cuivos is piaclically
lho samo as
j = 4 10/
Sinco a = 2 / implios / = a 2, lho oqualion of lho langonl lino is
j = 4 10 (a 2) = 10a 16
1hal is, j = 10a 16 is langonl lo j = a
3
2a al (2, 4).
x
3 2 1 0 -1
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
1-8: j = 10a 16 is langonl lo j = a
3
2a al (2, 4)
TANCLNT LlNLS 81
In pailiculai, lho langonl lino is lho lino lhal Locomos : n: .nJ..nj&.hnh|
fiom lho cuivo as wo chooso shoiloi ano shoiloi soclions conlaining lho poinl of
langoncy. A langonl lino may ovon : h &:, jusl as long as il ooos so Ly
Locoming aiLiliaiily closo lo lho cuivo ilsolf.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = a
d
8a
3
8a 2 whon j = 0. 1hon giaph Lolh lho cuivo ano ils langonl lino
ovoi lho inloivals [2, 2[ , [1, 1[ , [0., 0.[ ano [0.2, 0.2[ .
SoIutIon: Sinco a = 0 /, lho cuivo is of lho foim
j =
linoai pail
..
2 8/
highoi powois of |
..
8/
3
/
d
Sinco a = /, lho langonl lo lho cuivo whon j = 0 is j = 28a. Giaphs
of lho cuivo ano lho lino aio shown ovoi [2, 2[ , [1, 1[ , [0., 0.[ ano
[0.2, 0.2[ in lguio 1-8a lhiough 1-8o, iospoclivoly.
h
2 1 0 -1 -2
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
1-0a
h
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
1-0L
h
0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
1-0c
h
0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1-0o
As lho inloivals Locomo shoiloi ano shoiloi, lho cuivo Locomos moio
ano moio liko lho sliaighl lino. 1hus, lho lino is langonl lo lho cuivo,
ovon lhough il ciossos ovoi lho cuivo ilsolf.
nn n |.n h nnjn n &: 11J1O1J 1111 1AJ1151J1AG J11 Chock youi Ioaoing
1111
AIIcatIons oI tLe Tangent Concet
In an aj-cooioinalo syslom, a iiso" is a chango in lho j cooioinalo ano a iun" is
a chango in lho a-cooioinalo. 1ho slopo of a lino is a ialio of a iiso" lo a iun",
which moans lhal lho slopo of lho langonl lino a
l
salislos
a
l
=
ri-c
rn:
=
c/a:pc i: j
c/a:pc i: a
1hal is, lho slopo a
l
is lho :n J hnnj of lho langonl lino. Sinco j = ) (a) is
noaily lho samo as ils langonl lino al a poinl of langoncy (j, ) (j)) , lho ialo of
chango of lho funclion ilsolf ovoi a shoil inloival [j, j /[ is piaclically lho samo
as a
l
. 1hal is, lho | J h nnjn |.n al a = j is h :n J hnnj J h
J&n.n n a = j.
Foi oxamplo, if a Lall is lhiown upwaio fiom an inilial hoighl of 7 fool wilh an
inilial volocily of 88 fool poi socono, lhon lho hoighl r (t) of lho Lall al limo t is
givon Ly
r (t) = 7 88t 16t
2
(1.2)
Ovoi a shoil poiioo of limo, lho molion of lho Lall is piaclically a sliaighl lino
wilh slopo a
l
.
1-10: Ovoi shoil limo inloivals, molion is piaclically linoai wilh slopo r
t
(j) .
Sinco lho slopo is lho ialo of chango of lho langonl lino, a
l
is lho :n J hnnj
of lho Lall al j soconos, which is also known as lho |.j of lho Lall. 1hal is,
lho slopo of lho langonl lino lolls us aLoul how fasl lho Lall is liavoling al limo
t = j soconos.
IXAMIII If r (t) = 7 88t 16t
2
is lho hoighl in fool of a Lall
al limo t in soconos, lhon how fasl is lho Lall liavoling al limo j = 0
soconos How fasl al j = 1 soconos
SoIutIon: If j = 0, lhon wo lol t = 0 / ano
r (0 /) = 7 88/ 16/
2
Sinco /
2
is nogligiLlo, wo oLlain j = 7 88/, so lhal lho langonl lino
is
j = 7 88 (t 0)
which has a slopo of 88. 1hus, al j = 0, lho Lall has a volocily of 88
fool poi socono.
TANCLNT LlNLS 88
If j = 1, lhon wo lol t = 1 / ano
r (1 /) = 7 88 (1 /) 16 (1 /)
2
= 70 6/ 16/
2
Sinco /
2
is nogligiLlo, wo oLlain j = 70 6/, so lhal lho langonl lino
is
j = 70 6 (t 1)
which has a slopo of 6. 1hus, al j = 1 soconos, lho Lall has a volocily
of 6 fool poi socono.
Ialos of chango aio nol lho only applicalion of langonl linos. Foi oxamplo, lho
law of ioloclion says lhal if a iay of lighl iolocls ol of a lal suifaco, lho anglo of
incioonco is oqual lo lho anglo of ioloclion. Lul whal is lho oiioclion of a iolocloo
iay ol of a &:J &:Jn
1-11: Cioss-soclions of a lal ano a cuivoo suifaco
1o answoi lhal quoslion, wo zoom unlil lho cuivo foimoo Ly lho cioss soclion of
lho iolocling suifaco can Lo ioplacoo Ly ils langonl lino.
1-12: Iay of lighl iolocloo ol of langonl lino
Wo lhon compulo lho anglo of ioloclion ol of lho lal langonl ialhoi lhan lho
cuivoo suifaco.
Lxoicisos
1.nJ h nnjn |.n j = ) (a) nnJ .Jn.Jj )
t
(j) J: h j.n n|& J j.
G:nh hh h &: nnJ h |.n :.Jj nnjnj.
1. ) (a) = 8a
2
, j = 1 2. ) (a) = a
2
, j = 1
8. ) (a) = a
2
1, j = 1 4. ) (a) = a
2
1, j = 2
. ) (a) = a 8a
2
, j = 2 6. ) (a) = a
2
8a, j = 1
7. ) (a) = 8a 2, j = 1 8. ) (a) = 8a 2, j = 2
0. ) (a) = 1 8a a
2
, j = 1 10. ) (a) = 2 8a a
2
, j = 2
11. ) (a) = a
3
8, j = 2 12. ) (a) = a
3
8a 1, j = 2
18. ) (a) = a
3
8a, j = 1 14. ) (a) = a(a 1)
2
, j = 1
CraLer
1
: 1.nJ h nnjn |.n &hn j = 0, nnJ hn j:nh hh h &: nnJ
h |.n : h .n:n| [2, 2[ , [1, 1[ , [0., 0.[ nnJ [0.1, 0.1[ . On &h.h J
1
CraLer oxoicisos ioquiio lho uso of a giaphing calculaloi oi compuloi lo pioouco lho giaph
of a funclion.
h .n:n| &&|J j& nj hn h &: nnJ h |.n n: .nJ..nj&.hnh|
1. j = 1 8a a
2
16. j = 2 8a a
2
17. j = a 8a
2
18. j = (2a 1)
2
10. j = (8 a) (2 a) 20. j = (8 a) (2 a)
21. j = a
_
1 a
2
_
22. j = 1 a a
3
28. j = 1 a
3
a
5
24. j = 2a
2
a 1
1nh J h J||&.nj J&n.n ::n h h.jh r (t) .n J J nn h] n
.n t .n nJ. 1.nJ h |.j J h h] n h j.n .n j hj ]nJ.nj h
| J h nnjn |.n h j:nh J h &:.
2. r (t) = 64 16t
2
at j = 1 soc 26. r (t) = 64 16t
2
at j = 0 soc
27. r (t) = 06t 16t
2
at j = 0 soc 28. r (t) = 06t 16t
2
at j = 1 soc
20. r (t) = 64 4t 16t
2
at j = 1 soc 80. r (t) = 82 12t 16t
2
at j = 1 soc
31. CraLer: Giaph lho following linos along wilh lho cuivo
) (a) =
_
4 a a
2
on lho inloivals [2, 2[ , [1, 1[ , [0., 0.[ nnJ [0.1, 0.1[ . Which of lho
linos is langonl lo lho cuivo whon j = 0
(a) j =
i
2
2 (L) j =
i
3
2 (c) j =
i
d
2
32. CraLer: Giaph lho following linos along wilh lho cuivo
) (a) =
_
4 a a
2
on lho inloivals [2, 2[ , [1, 1[ , [0., 0.[ nnJ [0.1, 0.1[ . Which of lho
linos is langonl lo lho cuivo whon j = 0
(a) j =
i
2
2 (L) j =
i
3
2 (c) j =
i
d
2
33. CraLer: In (a)-(c), only ono of lho linos is langonl lo lho givon cuivo
whon j = 0. Giaph Lolh on lho inloivals [2, 2[ , [1, 1[ , [0., 0.[ nnJ
[0.1, 0.1[. In which is lho lino langonl lo lho givon cuivo whon j = 0 (Lo
suio lo uso iaoians)
(a) j = cos (a) , j = a
(L) j = (1 a)
l0
, j = 1 a
(c) j =
_
1 a, j = 1 a2
34. Fino lho langonl linos lo j = a
2
2a 8 al j = 0, j = 1, j = 2, ano j = 8.
1hon giaph onIy lho langonl linos on lho inloival [1, 4[. Whal infoimalion
mighl you infoi aLoul j = a
2
2a 8 fiom lhoso 4 langonl linos
35. Fino lho langonl linos lo lho following cuivos whon j = 0. 1ho lollois /
ano a aio calloo n:nn: ano shoulo Lo lioaloo as if lhoy havo a lxoo
numoiical valuo. Foi oxamplo, if
j = 1 aa a
2
lhon lho langonl lino whon j = 0 is j = 1 aa.
TANCLNT LlNLS 8
(a) j = (a a)
2
(L) j = (a a)
3
(c) j =
_
1
i
|
_
2
(o) j = (1 /a) (1 /a)
36. Show lhal in loims of lho paiamoloi j, lho sol of all langonl linos lo j = a
2
al a = j aio givon Ly j = 2ja j
2
.
37. 1hoio aio many mylhs ano misunooislanoings suiiounoing langonl linos.
Ono of lho mosl piovalonl is lhal if a lino inloisocls a cuivo al only ono
poinl, lhon il is a langonl lino. 1ho lino in lguio 1-18 inloisocls lho cuivo
al only ono poinl. Why woulo wo nol consiooi lhis lino lo Lo a langonl lino
lo lho cuivo
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
1-18: Is lhis a langonl lino
38. A iolaloo mylh is lhal a langonl lino cannol inloisocl a cuivo moio lhan
onco. Howovoi, lho lino in lguio 1-14 is langonl lo lho cuivo al a = 1,ano
yol il ciossos lho cuivo moio lhan onco. Lxplain why wo woulo nonolholoss
consiooi il lo Lo a langonl lino lo lho cuivo al a = 1.
x
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
39. Ono lasl mylh is lhal a lino musl Lo langonl lo a cuivo al only ono poinl.
Howovoi, in lguio 1-1, lho cuivo in Llack is langonl lo lho ioo lino foi all
a in [1, 1[ .
Whal, lhon, ooos il moan foi a lino lo Lo langonl lo a cuivo, ano how oo wo
soo lhal concopl illuslialoo in lhis oxamplo
40. Conuter AIgeLra Systen. If you havo accoss lo a compuloi algoLia
syslom, uso il lo lno lho langonl linos lo lho givon cuivos al lho givon poinl.
1hon giaph Lolh lho cuivo ano lho langonl lino.
(a) j = (1 a) (1 2a) (1 8a) whon j = 1
(L) j = a(a 1) (a 2) (a 8) whon j = 2
(c) j = a
2
(a 1)
l0
whon j = 1
(o) j = 1 a(1 a(1 a)) whon j = 8
41. VrIte to Learn: 1ho cioss soclion of a salollilo oish is a paiaLola wilh an
oqualion of j = a
2
a 4. If a signal iocoivoo fiom spaco liavols oown lho
posilivo j-axis, whal will ils anglo of ioloclion ol of lho miiioi Lo. Wiilo a
shoil ossay oxplaining youi iosulls ano how lhoy woio oLlainoo.
42. VrIte to Learn: Supposo lhal a Lilliaio laLlo has cuivoo sioos lhal iolocl
Lilliaio Lalls so lhal lho anglo of incioonco is oqual lo lho anglo of ioloclion.
1-16: An Unsual Iool 1aLlo
Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you ioonlify ano oxplain nnhnn.n||j which
of lho six pockols is lho oasiosl" lo hil a Lall inlo (in pailiculai, Lo suio lo
uso langonl linos in youi oxplanalion).
1.2 The LimiL ConcepL
TLe LInIt Irocess
Unfoilunaloly, wo cannol Luilo a malhomalical lhooiy on lho vaguo nolion lhal
if / is closo onough lo 0, lhon /
2
ano highoi powois can Lo ignoioo." Insloao, wo
Laso calculus on lho moio conciolo ano oynamic iooa lhal If / gols closoi ano
closoi lo 0, lhon /
2
ano highoi powois Locomo moio ano moio nogligiLlo." 1ho
concopl of / golling closoi ano closoi lo 0 is known as lho |.n. n in calculus
ano is lho founoalion on which lho lhooiy of calculus is Luill.
Lol`s Lo moio spocilc. 1ho symLol lim
i
, which is inloipioloo lho limil as a
appioachos j," oonolos lho acl of lolling a Locomo closoi ano closoi lo j. 1hus,
lho oqualion
lim
i
) (a) = 1 (1.8)
THL LlMlT CONCLPT 87
moans lhal if a appioachos j ano a ,= j, lhon ) (a) appioachos 1." 1ho ioquiio-
monl a ,= j implios lhal a appioachos j wilhoul ovoi Loing oqual lo j. a appioaching j
moans a ,= j. 1o illuslialo (1.8), lol us supposo a 10 fool long laoooi is loaning againsl a wall
ano lhal ils Laso is pushoo lowaio lho wall. If a oonolos lho oislanco fiom lho
Laso of lho laoooi lo lho wall, lhon lho Iylhagoioan lhooiom says lhal lho hoighl
of lho ono of lho laoooi louching lho wall is
_
100 a
2
.
2-1: Laoooi moving up a wall
As lho Laso of lho laoooi movos lo lho wall, lho olhoi ono of lho laoooi movos up
lho wall.
2-2: Laso of Laoooi moving lowaio wall
1hus, as a appioachos 0, lho ono of lho laoooi appioachos ils full hoighl of 10 fool,
which wo wiilo as
lim
i0
_
100 a
2
= 10 (1.4)
Lol`s voiify (1.4) numoiically Ly oxamining a oala sol in which lho inpuls a aio
appioaching 0 J:n hh .J.
IXAMIII 1 Lslimalo lho valuo of lho limil
lim
i0
_
100 a
2
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo complolo a laLlo in which lho inpuls a aio
appioaching 0. In pailiculai, wo chooso nogalivo ano posilivo valuos
of a lhal aio Locoming succossivoly closoi lo 0:
a 0. 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.
_
100 a
2

1hal is, wo compulo
_
100 (0.1)
2
,
_
100 (0.01)
2
, ano so on.
1ho iosull is lho numoiical iopiosonlalion Lolow:
a 0. 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.
_
100 a
2
0.087 0.008 0.000 0.000 0.008 0.087
As lho a-valuos appioach 0 fiom oilhoi sioo, lho oulpuls
_
100 a
2
soom lo Lo appioaching 10. 1hus, lho laLlo loaos us lo lho oslimalo
lim
i0
_
100 a
2
= 10
1& . h 1jhnj:nn h:n &J .n ]j&: -1 Chock youi Ioaoing
IroertIes oI LInIts
Whon limils of funclions oxisl ano ano aio nol oqual lo 0, lhon limils of aiilh-
molic comLinalions (sums, oiloioncos, piooucls, quolionls) follow logically. Foi
oxamplo, supposo lhal
lim
i
) (a) = 1 a:d lim
i
p (a) = 1
1hon foi a closo lo j, lho funclion ) (a) is closo lo 1 ano lho funclion p (a) is closo
lo 1, so il follows immooialoly lhal ) (a) p (a) is closo lo lho numLoi 1 1.
1hal is,
lim
i
[) (a) p (a)[ = 1 1
1hooiom 2.1 fuilhoi illuslialos lhal aiilhmolic wilh non-zoio limils is sliaighlfoi-
waio.
TLeoren 2.1: If lim
i
) (a) ano lim
i
p (a) Lolh oxisl, lhon
.. lim
i
[) (a) p (a)[ = lim
i
) (a) lim
i
p (a)
... lim
i
[) (a) p (a)[ = lim
i
) (a) lim
i
p (a)
.... lim
i
[/) (a)[ = / lim
i
) (a) , whoio / is a conslanl
.. lim
i
[) (a) p (a)[ =
_
lim
i
) (a)
_
_
lim
i
p (a)
_
. lim
i
) (a)
p (a)
=
lim
i
) (a)
lim
i
p (a)
, whon lim
i
p (a) ,= 0
Iioofs of somo of lhoso piopoilios will Lo supplioo in lho noxl soclion.
IXAMIII 2 Supposo lhal lim
id
) (a) = 10 ano lim
id
p (a) = 8. Whal
is lho valuo of lho limil
lim
id
) (a) 2p (a)
) (a) 2p (a)
SoIutIon: Sinco lho oonominaloi ooos nol appioach 0, piopoilios (i),
(ii), (iii), ano (v) imply
lim
id
) (a) 2p (a)
) (a) 2p (a)
=
lim
id
) (a) 2 lim
id
p (a)
lim
id
) (a) 2 lim
id
p (a)
Using lho givon valuos of lho limils lhus implios lhal
lim
id
) (a) 2p (a)
) (a) 2p (a)
=
10 2 8
10 2 8
=
16
4
= 4
Moioovoi, supposo lhal ) (a) ano p (a) aio polynomials. If p (j) ,= 0, lhon il can
Lo shown lhal
lim
i
) (a)
p (a)
=
) (j)
p (j)
(1.)
Wo say lhal lho funclion
}(i)
(i)
is n.n&& al a = j whon (1.) holos, ano wo
say lhal wo aio &.nj n.n&.j lo ovalualo a limil whon wo uso (1.).
IXAMIII J Uso conlinuily lo ovalualo lho limil
lim
il
a
2
8a 2
a
2
1
SoIutIon: Lol p (a) = a
2
1. 1hon p (1) = 2. 1hus, (1.) applios ano
lim
il
a
2
8a 2
a
2
1
=
1
2
8 1 2
1
2
1
=
0
= 0
Howovoi, whon limils of oonominalois aio oqual lo 0, lhon limil ovalualion Lo-
comos moio complicaloo. Foi oxamplo, if p (j) appioachos 0 Lul ) (j) appioachos
a numLoi 1 ,= 0, lhon lho giaph of lho funclion
}(i)
(i)
has a :.n| njn al
a = j.
2-8: a = j is a voilical asymplolo
If
}(i)
(i)
has a voilical asymplolo a = j, lhon
}(i)
(i)
cannol appioach a numLoi 1 as
a appioachos j, ano consoquonlly, wo say lhal
lim
i
) (a)
p (a)
ooos nol oxisl
1hal is, lho quolionl is nol golling closo lo any givon numLoi.
IXAMIII ! Discuss lho limil
lim
i0
1
a
2
SoIutIon: As a gols closoi lo 0, lho quanlily a
2
also gols closoi lo 0.
As a iosull, lho funclion
l
i
Locomos aiLiliaiily laigo, as is shown in

lho numoiical iopiosonlalion Lolow:
a 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1
l
i
100 10, 000 1, 000, 000 1, 000, 000 10, 000 100
1hus, j =
l
i
has a voilical asymplolo of a = 0

x
4 2 0 -2 -4
50
40
30
20
10
0
2-4: 1ho giaph of ) (a) =
l
i
has a voilical asymplolo of a = 0

Consoquonlly, lim
i0
l
i
ooos nol oxisl.

1& J h J||&.nj Jnn :|n rnn| Chock youi Ioaoing
a 0.0 0.00 0.000 1 1.001 1.01 1.1
i
3i2
i
l
0.061 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.0040 0.041
LInIts oI tLe Forn
0
0
Hoio is a silualion lhal is voiy impoilanl in calculus. Il is possiLlo lhal Lolh ) (a) Limils of lho
foim
0
0
musl
Lo simpliloo
Lofoio lhoy can
Lo analyzoo.
ano p (a) appioach 0 as a appioachos j. In lhal caso, wo say lhal lho limil
lim
i
) (a)
p (a)
is J h J:n
0
0
. A limil of lho foim
0
0
may oxisl, oi il may nol. Howovoi, il musl
Lo simpliloo Lofoio il can Lo analyzoo.
IXAMIII Show lhal lho following limil is of lho foim
0
0
ano lhon
ovalualo il:
lim
i2
a
2
4
a
2
a 2
SoIutIon: Al a = 2, lho numoialoi Locomos (2)
2
4 = 0 ano
lho oonominaloi Locomos (2)
2
2 2 = 0. 1hus, lho limil is of lho
foim
0
0
ano musl Lo iooucoo lo a non-
0
0
foim. Sinco a appioaching 2
implios lhal a ,= 2, wo can facloi ano cancol lo oLlain
lim
i2
a
2
4
a
2
a 2
= lim
i2
(a 2) (a 2)
(a 1) (a 2)
= lim
i2
a 2
a 1
Sinco a 1 ,= 0 whon a = 2, wo can now ovalualo using conlinuily:
lim
i2
a
2
4
a
2
a 2
= lim
i2
a 2
a 1
=
2 2
2 1
=
4
8
IXAMIII 0 Lvalualo lho limil
lim
il
a
3
1
a
2
2a 1
(1.6)
SoIutIon: SuLsliluling a = 1 inlo lho numoialoi ano inlo lho oo-
nominaloi shows us lhal (1.6) is of lho foim
0
0
. As a iosull, wo musl
ioouco (1.6) lo a non-
0
0
foim. Sinco a
3
1 = (a 1)
_
a
2
a 1
_
, wo
havo
lim
il
a
3
1
a
2
2a 1
= lim
il
(a 1)
_
a
2
a 1
_
(a 1)
2
= lim
il
a
2
a 1
a 1
1ho giaph of ) (a) =
i
il
il
has a voilical asymplolo al a = 1,
which implios lhal
lim
il
a
3
1
a
2
2a 1
ooos nol oxisl
1 :j |.n. J h J:n
0
0
r. Chock youi Ioaoing
CraLIcaI EstInatIon oI LInIts
Finally, limils of lho foim
0
0
can also Lo oslimaloo giaphically Ly .n.nj conloioo
al a givon poinl j lo iovoal oulpuls of ) (a) as lhoy gol closoi ano closoi lo j.
IXAMIII 7 Uso zooming lo oslimalo lho limil
lim
il
a
3
8a
2
a 1
a 1
SoIutIon: Nolico lisl lhal Lolh lho oonominaloi ano lho numoialoi
ioouco lo 0 whon a = 1, lhus implying lhal lho limil is of lho foim
0
0
.
Howovoi, if wo oolno
) (a) =
a
3
8a
2
a 1
a 1
lhon wo can pioouco a soquonco of zooms conloioo al a = 1.
x
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
10
8
6
4
2
0
2-
x
1.2 1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
2-6
x
1.002 1.001 1 0.999 0.998
4.02
4.01
4
3.99
3.98
2-7
In oach plol in lho soquonco of zooms, lho giaph of ) (a) sooms lo
imply an oulpul of 4 al an inpul of 1, ovon lhough ) (a) is nol oolnoo
al 1. Moioovoi, lho smalloi lho inloival on lho a-axis, lho closoi lho
iango of lho j-axis is lo Loing a singlo oulpul of 4. 1hus, wo aio loao
lo lho oslimalo
lim
il
a
3
8a
2
a 1
a 1
= 4 (1.7)
Howovoi, no malloi whal lho giaphs soom lo imply, lho funclion ) (a) in oxamplo
7 does not pioouco an oulpul of 4 whon lho inpul is 1. Insloao, wo aio sooing
lhal ) (a) is aroacLIng 4 as a aroacLes 1 wilh a ,= 1, which moans lhal
lho facl lhal lho giaphs aio nol oolnoo al al poinl is nol iolovanl.
Lxoicisos:
G.n hn lim
i5
) (a) = 2 nnJ lim
i5
p (a) = 7, & h ::. J |.n. n|&n
h J||&.nj:
1. lim
i5
[) (a) 4p (a)[ 2. lim
i5
[) (a) p (a)[
8. lim
i5
) (a) p (a)
) (a) p (a)
4. lim
i5
[) (a)[
3
1n|&n h J||&.nj |.n.. 1Jn.Jj n|| |.n. &h.h n: J h J:n
0
0
. 1J h
|.n. J n r., &:. d.:.c.
. lim
i2
_
a
2
8a 4
_
6. lim
il
_
a
3
8a
5
_
7. lim
il
a
2
8a 2
a
2
1
8. lim
i0.5
2a
2
a 1
a 0.
0. lim
i2
6a
2
1a 6
a
2
a 6
10. lim
i2
6a
2
1a 6
a
2
a 6
11. lim
il
a 1
a
2
1
12. lim
i2
a
2
4
a 2
18. lim
i2
a
2
4
a
2
4a 4
14. lim
i7
a
2
7a
a
2
14a 40
1. lim
il
a
5
82
a
2
4
16. lim
i3
a
d
81
a
3
8a
2
17. lim
i2
a
d
16
a
d
7a
2
12
18. lim
i5
a
3
2a
4a
2
28a 1
10. lim
i
_
2
a
2
2
a
_
2
20. lim
i
_
2
a
2
2
a
_
2
21. lim
i
_
2
a
d
4
a
2
2
22. lim
i2
a
3
8
a
2
4
unerIcaI: 1 n n&n:.n| ::nn.n J h J&n.n .nn h j.n
|.n.. Jhn n]:n j&: .nn hh nnn|j.n||j nnJ j:nh.n||j.
28. lim
il
a
2
a
a
2
1
24. lim
il
(a 4)
2
a
2
16
2. lim
il
8a
2
a 2
a
2
1
26. lim
il
a 1
[a[ 1
27. lim
i2
a
3
8
a 2
28. lim
i2
a
d
16
a
3
8
20. lim
i2
8a
2
2a 8
4a
2
a 6
80. lim
i2
_
4a 2
a
_
4a
31. Supposo lhal lwo 0
t
long laooois foim lho sioos of an isoscolos liianglo whoso
conloi is moving up lho j-axis as lho Lasos movo lowaio lho j-axis.
2-8
(a) Whal is lho hoighl /(a) of lho voilox on lho j-axis as a funclion
of a
(L) Whal is lho valuo of lho limil
lim
i0
/(a)
ano whal is lho signilcanco of lho iosull
(c) Whal is lho aioa (a) of lho liianglo as a funclion of a
(o) Whal is lho valuo of lho limil
lim
i0
(a)
ano whal is lho signilcanco of lho iosull
32. Consiooi lho funnol ano lank appaialus as shown in lguio 2-0.
2-0: A funnol lank syslom
1ho funnol is a iighl ciiculai cono wilh iaoius 2 fool ano hoighl 8 fool. 1ho
lank is a iighl ciiculai cylinooi wilh iaoius 2 fool ano hoighl 1 fool. 1ho
volumo of a iighl ciiculai cono of iaoius r ano hoighl a is \ =
l
3
r
2
a ano lho
volumo of a iighl ciiculai cylinooi wilh iaoius r ano hoighl / is \ = r
2
/ .
A luio is lowing fiom lho funnol inlo lho lank.
(a) Supposo / is lho ooplh of luio in lho lank ano a is lho ooplh of
lho luio in lho funnol. Wiilo / as a funclion of a. (Volumo in lank
= 4 Volumo in funnol)
(L) Compulo ano givo lho limil inloipiolalion of lim
il
) (a) .
(c) If lho funnol is inilially half-full ano lho lank inilially omply lno
/ = )(a) , whoio / is lho ooplh of lho luio in lho lank ano a is lho
ooplh of lho luio in lho funnol. (Volumo in lank = 2 Volumo
in funnol)
(o) Compulo ano givo lho limil inloipiolalion of lim
i0
)(a)
33. Lxploio lho following limil numoiically ano giaphically:
lim
|0
(/ 2)
2
(/ 2)
2
/
1hon ovalualo lho limil analylically lo oLlain lho samo iosull wilh all lhioo
molhoos.
34. Lxploio lho following limil numoiically ano giaphically:
lim
|0
_
1 /
_
1 /
/
1hon ovalualo lho limil analylically lo oLlain lho samo iosull wilh all lhioo
molhoos.
35. Show lhal if ) (a) = a
2
/a c has ioal iools r
l
ano r
2
, lhon
lim
i:
a
2
/a c
a r
l
= r
l
r
2
36. Show lhal if ) (a) = (a r) p (a) whoio p (a) is a polynomial ano p (r) ,= 0,
lhon
lim
i:
) (a)
a r
= p (r)
37. Conuter AIgeLra Systen: Uso oilhoi synlholic oivision oi a compuloi
algoLia syslom lo simplify
a
3
8a
2
a 1
a 1
ano lhon uso lho iosull lo ovalualo lho limil
lim
il
a
3
8a
2
a 1
a 1
38. Conuter AIgeLra Systen:Uso oilhoi synlholic oivision oi a compuloi
algoLia syslom lo simplify
2a
3
a
2
a 6
a 2
THL LlMlT CONCLPT 4
ano lhon uso lho iosull lo ovalualo lho limil
lim
i2
2a
3
a
2
a 6
a 2
39. Lvalualo lho limils
lim
i2
a
2
4
a 2
, lim
i2
a
2
a 6
a 2
, ano lim
i2
2a
2
a 10
a 2
How is lho lasl limil iolaloo lo lho olhoi lwo
40. Lxploio lho limils
lim
i2
a
2
4
a 2
, lim
i2
a
2
a 6
a 2
, ano lim
i2
_
a
2
a 6
_
How is lho lasl limil iolaloo lo lho olhoi lwo
41. VrIte to Learn: Consiooi lhal lho limils
lim
il
a
a 1
ano lim
il
1
a 1
oo nol oxisl, Lul lhal lho limil
lim
il
_
a
a 1

1
a 1
_
= 1
Wiilo a shoil ossay using lhis oxamplo lo oxplain why
lim
i
[) (a) p (a)[ = 1
ooos nol nocossaiily imply lhal
lim
i
) (a) lim
i
p (a) = 1
42. VrIte to Learn: Consiooi lhal
lim
il
a 1
a
d
2
= 0 ano lim
il
a
2
1
a
2
1
ooos nol oxisl
Lul lhal lho limil
lim
il
_
a 1
a
d
2

a
2
1
a
2
1
_
=
1
8
Wiilo a shoil ossay using lhis oxamplo lo oxplain why
lim
i
[) (a) p (a)[ = 1
ooos nol nocossaiily imply lhal
_
lim
i
) (a)
__
lim
i
p (a)
_
= 1
1.3 DeniLion of Lhe LimiL
Target IntervaIs
As wo saw in lho lasl soclion, limils can Lo oxploioo numoiically, giaphically, ano
analylically. Foi oxamplo, if wo lol
) (a) =
a
3
8a
2
a 1
a 1
lhon wo can zoom conloioo al a = 1 lo pioouco a soquonco of zooms
x
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
10
8
6
4
2
0
x
1.2 1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
x
1.002 1.001 1 0.999 0.998
4.02
4.01
4
3.99
3.98
8-1: Zooming conloioo on 1
Locauso lho giaph of ) (a) sooms lo imply an oulpul of 4 al an inpul of 1, wo
oslimalo lhal
lim
il
a
3
8a
2
a 1
a 1
= 4 (1.8)
ovon lhough ) (a) is nol oolnoo al a = 1 ilsolf.
In oiooi lo lianslalo lho zooming piocoss inlo a oolnilion of lho limil, wo nooo
somo now loiminology. In pailiculai, any opon inloival (a, /) conlaining a poinl
j is saio lo Lo a n.jhh:hJ of j, ano lho Giook lolloi , which is pionouncoo
opsilon," will Lo usoo hoio lo oonolo a small posilivo numLoi.
Whon wo zoom lo oslimalo lho limil
lim
i
) (a) = 1 (1.0)
wo aio ossonlially piooucing smallloi ano smalloi noighLoihooos of (a, /) conlaining
j. Oui oslimalo is lho oulpul ) (a) foi somo a in (a, /) wilh a ,= j, ano il is a
gooo oslimalo if il is Lolwoon 1 ano 1 foi somo small 0.
8-2: Zoom 8 is a giaph whoio 1 < ) (a) < 1
1hal is, oui goal is lo lno a noighLoihooo (a, /) of j such lhal lho oslimalo ) (a)
foi a in (a, /) , a ,= j is in lho n:j .n:n| (1 , 1 ), whoio 0 is a small
numLoi.
DLFlNlTlON OF THL LlMlT 47
IXAMIII 1 Lol`s oxploio (1.8) Ly lnoing a noighLoihooo of 1 on
which lho funclion
) (a) =
a
3
8a
2
a 1
a 1
is wilhin = 0.2 of 1 = 4 ( i.o., 8.8 < ) (a) < 4.2 ).
SoIutIon: Sinco = 0.2, wo musl zoom unlil lho giaph of ) (a) is
Lolwoon lho hoiizonlal linos j = 8.8 ano j = 4.2:
x
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
10
8
6
4
2
0
x
1.2 1.1 1 0.9 0.8
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
x
1.04 1.02 1 0.98 0.96
4.3
4.2
4.1
4
3.9
3.8
3.7
8-8: A soquonco of zooms conloioo al j = 1
1ho lasl giaph in lho soquonco of zooms implios lhal if a is in (0.08, 1.02) ,
lhon ) (a) is Lolwoon j = 8.8 ano j = 4.2. 1his is illuslialoo moio
cloaily in lguio 8-4 Lolow.
x
1.02 1.01 1 0.99 0.98
4.2
4.1
4
3.9
3.8
8-4: ) (a) is Lolwoon 8.8 ano 4.2
1&|J .n.nj n Jnn.n J (0.00, 1.01) n| J: ) (a) h h&n j = 8.8 Chock youi Ioaoing
nnJ j = 4.2
DehnItIon oI tLe LInIt
Inluilivoly, lim
i
) (a) = 1 moans lhal no malloi how small 0 is, zooming
conloioo on j will iosull in an inloival (a, /) on which ) (a) is Lolwoon 1 ano
1 foi all a in (a, /) such lhal a ,= j.
8-: Dolnilion of lho Limil
Lol`s lianslalo lhis inluilion inlo a oolnilion. 1o Login wilh, ) (a) Lolwoon 1
ano 1 implios lho inoqualily 1 < ) (a) < 1 , which is lho samo as
< ) (a) 1 < (1.10)
Howovoi, (1.10) is oquivalonl lo saying lhal [) (a) 1[ < . 1hoso lwo concopls
allow us lo lianslalo oui inluilion aLoul limils inlo lho following oolnilion.
DehnItIon 3.1: lim
i
) (a) = 1 moans lhal foi all 0, lhoio is a
noighLoihooo (a, /) of j such lhal
[) (a) 1[ <
foi all a in (a, /) such lhal a ,= j.
Moioovoi, any noighLoihooo of j conlainoo in (a, /) also loaos lo [) (a) 1[ < .
IXAMIII 2 Fino a noighLoihooo of 1 lhal foicos ) (a) in lho limil
lim
il
a
3
8a
2
a 1
a 1
= 4
lo Lo wilhin = 0.02 of 1 = 4.
SoIutIon: Allhough lho inloival (0.08, 1.02) was sumcionl foi = 0.2
(soo oxamplo 1), il is nol sumcionl foi = 0.02. 1hus, wo musl zoom
conloioo al j = 1 unlil lho giaph of lho funclion
) (a) =
a
3
8a
2
a 1
a 1
is Lolwoon lho linos j = 4 0.02 = 8.08 ano j = 4 0.02 = 4.02:
x
1.04 1.02 1 0.98 0.96
4.3
4.2
4.1
4
3.9
3.8
3.7
x
1.01 1.005 1 0.995 0.99
4.06
4.04
4.02
4
3.98
3.96
3.94
x
1.004 1.002 1 0.998 0.996
4.03
4.02
4.01
4
3.99
3.98
3.97
Sinco lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi lho inloival (0.008, 1.002) is Lolwoon lho
lwo hoiizonlal linos, wo can concluoo lhal a in (0.008, 1.002) ano a ,= 1
implios lhal ) (a) is wilhin 0.02 of 4. Moioovoi, any noighLoihooo of
1 conlainoo in (0.008, 1.002) also salislos lho oolnilion.
Nolico lhal lho limil in oxamplo 2 is of lho foim
0
0
. 1hus, lho oolnilion of lho
limil juslilos oui oailioi assoilion lhal whon limils of lho foim
0
0
oxisl, lhoy musl
oilhoi Lo oslimaloo giaphically oi simpliloo lo a non-
0
0
foim.
IXAMIII J Lvalualo lho limil
lim
i2
a
2
4
a
2
a 6
ano lhon lno a noighLoihooo of a = 2 lhal foicos lho funclion lo Lo
wilhin = 0.08 of ils limil.
SoIutIon: 1ho limil is of lho foim
0
0
, which implios lhal
lim
i2
a
2
4
a
2
a 6
= lim
i2
(a 2) (a 2)
(a 2) (a 8)
= lim
i2
a 2
a 8
= 4
Sinco = 0.08, wo giaph lho linos j = 4 0.08 = 4.008 ano
j = 4 0.08 = 8.07 along wilh lho funclion
) (a) =
a
2
4
a
2
a 6
Zooming conloioo on 2 ovonlually iovoals a soclion of lho giaph of ) (a)
Lolwoon lho lwo linos:
x
2.2 2.1 2 1.9 1.8
-3.2
-3.4
-3.6
-3.8
-4
-4.2
-4.4
-4.6
-4.8
-5
-5.2
x
2.02 2.01 2 1.99 1.98
-3.9
-3.95
-4
-4.05
-4.1
x
2.004 2.002 2 1.998 1.996
-3.97
-3.98
-3.99
-4
-4.01
-4.02
-4.03
Sinco lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi lho inloival (1.006, 2.004) is Lolwoon lho
lwo linos, wo can concluoo lhal a in (1.006, 2.004) ano a ,= 2 implios
lhal ) (a) is wilhin 0.08 of 4.
1.|| h .n:n| (1.008, 2.002) n| J: ) (a) h &.h.n = 0.0 J 0 Chock youi Ioaoing
YerIIyIng LInIts AnaIytIcaIIy
Hypolholically, il is nol nocossaiy lo uso zooming lo lno noighLoihooos of j whon
lim
i
) (a) = 1
Dolnilion 8.1 implios lhal foi any 0, wo nooo only manipulalo lho inoqualily
[) (a) 1[ < unlil wo havo a < a < / foi somo numLois a < j < /.
IXAMIII ! Fino a noighLoihooo of 2 lhal foicos ) (a) in lho limil
lim
i2
(8a 2) = 8
lo Lo wilhin = 0.08 of 1 = 8.
SoIutIon: Sinco ) (a) = 8a 2, lho inoqualily [) (a) 1[ < is lho
samo as
[(8a 2) 8[ < 0.08
which simplilos lo [8a 6[ < 0.08. As a iosull,
0.08 < 8a 6 < 0.08
0.08 < 8 (a 2) < 0.08
0.01 < a 2 < 0.01
1.00 < a < 2.01
1hus, ) (a) = 8a 2 is wilhin = 0.08 of 1 = 8 ovoi lho inloival
(1.00, 2.01) .
Moioovoi, lho oolnilion of lho limil allows us lo aclually :.Jj lhal a limil oxisls
Ly showing lhal a suilaLlo noighLoihooo of j oxisls foi ovoiy valuo of 0.
IXAMIII Voiify lho limil
lim
i2
(8a 2) = 8
Ly spocifying a suilaLlo noighLoihooo of j = 2 foi oach 0.
SoIutIon: Givon an 0, wo musl solvo lho inoqualily
[8a 2 8[ <
1ho iosull is
< 8a 6 <
6 < 8a < 6
2

8
< a < 2

8
1hus, givon any 0, lho inloival
_
2
:
3
, 2
:
3
_
is a noighLoihooo
of 2 on which [(8a 2) 8[ < .
Limils of linoai funclions always oxisl. Inoooo, if ) (a) = :a/ is a linoai funclion
wilh : ,= 0, lhon a :. of 0 musl Lo ouo lo a :&n of
:
n
.
8-8: Limil Dolnilion foi a Linoai Funclion
1hus, suilaLlo noighLoihooos foi limils of linoai funclions can always Lo solocloo
lo Lo of lho foim
_
j
:
n
, j
:
n
_
foi oach 0.
Likowiso, il can Lo shown lhal if : is an inlogoi, lhon
lim
i
a
n
= j
n
(1.11)
foi all ioal numLois j 0. In pailiculai, if [a
n
j
n
[ < , lhon
_ a
n
j
n
<
j
n
< a
n
< j
n
r
_
j
n
< a <
r
_
j
n

1hus, a suilaLlo noighLoihooo (
r
_
j
n
,
r
_
j
n
) oxisls foi oach 0.
1 h |.n. J n nnn J&n.n n|&nj r. Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe c DehnItIon oI tLe LInIt
Malhomalicians oflon uso a slighlly oiloionl foim of oolnilion 8.1, ono lhal givos
lho limil concopl a moio numoiical lavoi. In pailiculai, if a is in (a, /) conlaining
a poinl j, lhon wo lol c, which is lho Giook lowoicaso oolla," Lo lho smalloi of
ja ano / j. As a iosull, if a salislos [a j[ < c, lhon a is in lho noighLoihooo
(a, /) of j.
1his concopl is usoo lo iowiilo lho oolnilion of lho limil in loims of a c 0.
DehnItIon 3.2: lim
i
) (a) = 1 also moans lhal foi all 0, lhoio
oxisls a c 0 such lhal
[) (a) 1[ <
foi all a lhal salisfy 0 < [a j[ < c.
Compulalionally, voiifying limils is lho samo as Lofoio unlil lho lasl slop, al which
limo wo chooso lho smalloi of j a ano / j.
IXAMIII Voiify lho limil
lim
i2
(8a 2) = 8
Ly lnoing a suilaLlo c 0 foi oach 0.
SoIutIon: Givon an 0, lho inoqualily [8a 2 8[ < loaos lo
< 8a 6 <
6 < 8a < 6
2

8
< a < 2

8
1hus, if wo lol c =
:
3
, lhon 0 < [a 2[ < c implios [(8a 2) 8[ < .
1ho aovanlago of oolnilion 8.2 is lhal il loaos lo limil pioofs of lhooioms which
aio conciso ano compacl. 1ho koy is lhal if wo chooso a c lhal is lho smalloi of all
lho c`s foi a givon sol of limils, lhon all lhoso limils can Lo usoo simullanoously.
Lol`s look al lwo such lhooioms whoso pioofs illuslialo lhis iooa, which is ilalizoo
foi omphasis in Lolh casos.
TLeoren 3.3: If lim
i
) (a) = 1 ano lim
i
p (a) = 1, lhon
lim
i
[) (a) p (a)[ = 1 1
IrooI: Foi all 0, lhoio oxisls c
l
0 such lhal if 0 < [a j[ < c
l
,
lhon
1

2
< ) (a) < 1

2
(1.12)
Likowiso, lhoio oxisls c
2
0 such lhal if 0 < [a j[ < c
2
, lhon
1

2
< p (a) < 1

2
(1.18)
1J & | c 0 h h nn||: J c
l
nnJ c
2
, hn 0 < [a j[ < c
.n|. hn hh ;1.1.) nnJ ;1.1) n: :&. ComLining lho lwo yiolos
1

2
1

2
< ) (a) p (a) < 1

2
1

2
1 1 < ) (a) p (a) < 1 1
which is lho samo as
[() (a) p (a)) (1 1)[ <
1hus, foi oach 0, a suilaLlo c 0 oxisls, so lhal oolnilion 8.2
implios lhal
lim
i
() (a) p (a)) = 1 1 = lim
i
) (a) lim
i
p (a)
As anolhoi oxamplo, lol us uso lho oolnilion of lho limil lo consiooi lho caso
whoio lho giaph of p (a) is squoozoo" lo a poinl al a = j Lolwoon lho giaphs of
) (a) ano /(a) :
8-0: j = p (a) is squoozoo" Lolwoon j = ) (a) ano j = /(a)
In woios, lhis loaos lo lho following:
TLeoren 3.4: {Squeeze TLeoren) If ) (a) _ p (a) _ /(a) on somo
noighLoihooo (a, /) of j ano if
lim
i
) (a) = 1 a:d lim
i
/(a) = 1
lhon lho limil of p (a) as a appioachos j oxisls ano
lim
i
p (a) = 1
IrooI. : Foi all 0, lhoio oxisls c
l
0 ano c
2
0 such lhal if
0 < [a j[ < c
l
ano 0 < [a j[ < c
2
, iospoclivoly, lhon
1 < ) (a) < 1 a:d 1 < /(a) < 1
iospoclivoly. 1J c . hn h h nn||: J c
l
nnJ c
2
, hn 0 <
[a j[ < c .n|. hn
1 < ) (a) _ p (a) _ /(a) < 1
which in luin implios lhal 1 < p (a) < 1. 1hus, [p (a) 1[ <
foi all a lhal salisfy 0 < [a j[ < c. .
Lxoicisos:
CraLer: 7n n:J n h n::.n .n& J:n.n j:nh.n||j h
n|& J nh |.n.. 1 &: & :nJ.nn &.h :.jnn:. J&n.n.
1. lim
i2
a
2
4
a 2
2. lim
il
a 1
a
2
1
8. lim
il
a
2
8a 2
a
2
1
4. lim
i0.5
2a
2
a 1
a 0.
. lim
i2
(8a 2) 6. lim
i2
(4a 2)
7. lim
i0
([a[ 1) 8. lim
i0
a
2
1
0. lim
il
a
3
a
2
a 1
a 1
10. lim
il
a
3
1
a 1
11. lim
i0
sin(a)
a
12. lim
i0
cos (a) 1
a
18. lim
i0
asin
_
l
i
_
14. lim
it
sin(a)
a
CraLer: G.n h J||&.nj |.n., ]nJ n n.jhh:hJ J j &h.h n.] h
J]n..n J h |.n. J: nh J h n|& = 0.1, = 0.01, = 0.001.
1. lim
i3
a
2
0
a 8
= 6 16. lim
i0
_
a
2
1
_
= 1
17. lim
il
a
3
1
a 1
= 8 18. lim
i2
a
3
2a
2
a 2
a
2
4
=
5
d
10. lim
i0
[a[ a
2
[a[
= 1 20. lim
i0
2 [a[ a
2
[a[
= 2
21. lim
i0
sin(4a)
a
= 4 22. lim
i0
1 cos (a)
a
2
=
1
2
1:.Jj h J||&.nj |.n. r. hj ]nJ.nj n &.nh| n.jhh:hJ J h j.n j
J: nh .h| 0. ;1j&.n|n|j, ]nJ c 0 J: nn n:h.:n:j 0 hn
n.] h |.n. J]n..n).
28. lim
i2
8a = 6 24. lim
i2
(a 1) = 1
2. lim
il
(2a 1) = 8 26. lim
il
(8 a) = 2
27. lim
i3
a
2
0
a 8
= 6 28. lim
i0
a
2
a
a
= 1
20. lim
i0
_
(a 1)
2
(a 1)
2
_
= 0 80. lim
il
a
2
a
= 1
31. Uso lho oolnilion of lho limil lo piovo lhal
lim
i
(8a 1) = 8j 1
1hon uso lhis iosull lo ovalualo lim
il
(8a 1) .
32. Uso lho oolnilion of lho limil lo piovo lhal
lim
i
(:a /) = :j /
1hon uso lhis iosull lo ovalualo lim
it
(a 1) .
33. Foi ) (a) = a
2
2a.
(a) Show lhal
) (0 /) ) (0)
/
=
/
2
2/
/
(L) unerIcaI: Complolo lho laLlo Lolow:.
/ -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01
}(0|)}(0)
|

(c) Uso lho laLlo lo oslimalo lho valuo of lho limil
lim
|0
) (0 /) ) (0)
/
(o) CraLer: Fino an noighLoihooo (a, /) of 0 which salislos lho oo-
lnilion of lho limil in (c) foi = 0.01.
34. Foi ) (a) =
_
a 8.
(a) Show lhal
) (1 /) ) (1)
/
=
_
/ 4 2
/
(L) unerIcaI: Complolo lho laLlo Lolow using lho oiloionco quo-
lionl.
/ -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01
}(l|)}(l)
|

DLFlNlTlON OF THL LlMlT
(c) Uso lho laLlo lo oslimalo lho valuo of lho limil
lim
|0
) (1 /) ) (1)
/
(o) CraLer: Fino an noighLoihooo (a, /) of 0 which salislos lho oo-
lnilion of lho limil in (c) foi = 0.01.
35. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you piovo lhal if lim
i
) (a) = 1
ano / is conslanl, lhon
lim
i
[/) (a)[ = /1
i
) (a) =
1 ano lim
i
p (a) = 1, lhon
lim
i
[) (a) p (a)[ = 1 1
37. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you piovo lhal
lim
i
a
l/2
= j
l/2
foi all posilivo numLois j.
i
) (a) =
1 ano lim
i
p (a) = 1 ano if ) (a) _ p (a) foi all a in a noighLoihooo (a, /)
of j, lhon 1 _ 1. (Hinl: If 1 < 1 foi all 0, lhon 1 _ 1 ).
1.4 HorizonLal AsympLoLes
LInIts to InhnIty
In many applicalions of lho limil concopl, an inpul vaiiaLlo a ooos nol appioach
a numLoi j, Lul il insloao Locomos laigoi ano laigoi wilhoul Louno. In lhis caso,
wo say lhal a appioachos .n]n.j, ano wo wiilo
lim
io
) (a) = 1 (1.14)
whoio is calloo lho .n]n.j jnh| ano iopiosonls lho concopl of numLois Lo-
coming laigoi ano laigoi wilhoul Louno. (nolo: is nol a numLoi, ovon lhough
wo oflon lioal il liko ono).
Iigoiously, (1.14) moans lhal foi oach 0, lhoio is an inloival (1, ) foi
somo numLoi 1 such lhal
1 < ) (a) < 1
1hal is, as a incioasos wilhoul Louno, ) (a) appioachos 1.
4-1: [) (a) 1[ < on (1, )
If wo ioplaco lho inloival (1, ) Ly lho inoqualily a 1, lhon wo aio loo lo lho
following oolnilion.
DehnItIon 4.1a: lim
io
) (a) = 1 moans lhal foi any 0, lhoio is a
numLoi 1 such lhal if a 1, lhon
[) (a) 1[ <
1ho limil as a appioachos of ) (a) is similaily oolnoo:
DehnItIon 4.1L: lim
io
) (a) = 1 moans lhal foi any 0, lhoio is
a numLoi 1 such lhal if a < 1, lhon [) (a) 1[ < .
Wo say lhal lho cuivo j = ) (a) has a h:..nn| njn of j = 1 if oilhoi
lim
io
) (a) = 1 oi lim
io
) (a) = 1
IXAMIII 1 Uso oolnilion 4.1 lo show lhal
lim
io
1
a
2
= 0
SoIutIon: Supposo wo aio givon a numLoi 0 ( shoulo Lo consio-
oioo smallsuch as = 0.01 oi = 0.00001, foi inslanco). Wo musl
lno 1 0 such lhal if a 1, lhon
1
a
2
0
< (1.1)
Howovoi, (1.1) simplilos lo
1
a
2
< or a
2
1hus, if a
l
_
:
, lhon (1.1) is liuo. 1hus, givon any 0, wo lol
1 =
l
_
:
ano ioquiio lhal a 1.
Foi oxamplo, if = 0.01 in oxamplo 1, lhon wo woulo lol
1 =
_
1
0.01
=
_
100 = 10
As a iosull, a 10 implios lhal

l
i
< 0.01.
Lol`s oxpano oxamplo 1 inlo a much Lioaooi iosull. Consiooi lhal if : 0,
lhon a
n
Locomos aiLiliaiily laigo as a appioachos . 1hus, foi any 0, lhoio
is a numLoi 1 such lhal [a[
n
l
:
foi all a 1. Il follows lhal
1
a
n
< or
1
a
n
0
<
HORlZONTAL ASYMPTOTLS 7
foi all a 1. 1hal is, 1a
n
Locomos aiLiliaiily closo lo 0 as a appioachos ,
which wo wiilo as
lim
io
1
a
n
= 0 if : 0 (1.16)
As a iosull, j =
1
a
n
has a hoiizonlal asymplolo of j = 0 if : 0.
IXAMIII 2 Whal is lho hoiizonlal asymplolo of j =
1
a
d
SoIutIon: Lqualion (1.16) wilh : = 4 is of lho foim

lim
io
1
a
d
= 0
As a iosull, j =
l
i
has a hoiizonlal asymplolo of j = 0.

x
5 4 3 2 1
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
4-2: Giaph of j = 1a
d
1 j = 1a
3
hn n h:..nn| njn 1r|n.n. Chock youi Ioaoing
LInIts oI HatIonaI FunctIons
1ho iosull (1.16) can Lo applioo lo limils of algoLiaic funclions in gonoial. 1o oo
so, wo lisl oolno lho :.n.n| :n lo Lo a
n
whoio : oonolos lho oogioo of lho
oonominaloi. Wo lhon mulliply Ly
1a
n
1a
n
ano uso (1.16) lo ovalualo lho iosulling limils.
lim
io
a
d
1
a
d
2a 8
SoIutIon: 1ho :.n.n| :n is a
d
sinco 4 is lho highosl powoi in lho
oonominaloi. Mulliplying Ly
l/i
l/i
yiolos
lim
io
_
a
d
1
a
d
2a 8
_
l
i
l
i

which afloi oisliiLuling yiolos
lim
io
_
i

l
i

2i
i

3
i
_
= lim
io
_
1
l
i
1
2
i

3
i
_
1ho iosull is a ialio of limils of lho foim (1.16), so lhal
lim
io
a
d
1
a
d
2a 8
= lim
io
_
1
l
i
1
2
i

3
i
_
=
1 0
1 0 0
= 1
Il also follows lhal lho giaph of lho funclion
) (a) =
a
d
1
a
d
2a 8
has a hoiizonlal asymplolo of j = 1:
x
6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
4-8: Hoiizonlal Asymplolo of j = 1
Limils in which a appioachos can Lo convoiloo inlo limils as a appioachos
using lho facl lhal
lim
io
) (a) = lim
io
) (a) (1.17)
1hus, limils lo oilhoi oi aio ovalualoo in lho samo way.
IXAMIII ! Lvalualo lho limil
lim
io
a
2
1
1 a
SoIutIon: Using (1.17), wo convoil lhis inlo lho limil
lim
io
a
2
1
1 a
= lim
io
(a)
2
1
1 a
= lim
io
a
2
1
1 a
1ho piincipal loim is a, so wo liansfoim lho limil inlo
lim
io
a
2
1
1 a
1a
1a
= lim
io
a
l
i
l
i
1
= lim
io
a
1
sinco
l
i
appioachos 0 as a appioachos . Howovoi,
i
l
appioachos
as a appioachos . Wo lhus wiilo oilhoi
lim
io
a
2
1
1 a
= or lim
io
a
2
1
1 a
ooos nol oxisl (1.18)
1hj n: hh nnn :& .n ;1.1) Chock youi Ioaoing
FunctIons vItL Tvo HorIzontaI Asyntotes
A funclion may possiLly havo 2 hoiizonlal asymplolosono as a appioachos
ano ono as a appioachos . Foi oxamplo, if a funclion is oolnoo Ly iools of
polynomials, lhon sign changos may Lo implioo Ly lho iools Loing usoo.
IXAMIII Fino all lho hoiizonlal asymplolos of
) (a) =
a 0.
_
a
2
1
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, lol us ovalualo
lim
io
a 0.
_
a
2
1
1ho oogioo of lho oonominaloi is 1, so lho piincipal loim is a
l
. Moio-
ovoi, wo can assumo lhal a 0, so lhal
_
a
2
= a. 1hus, wo havo
lim
io
a 0.
_
a
2
1
= lim
io
a 0.
_
a
2
1
1a
1
_
a
2
= lim
io
1
0.5
i
_
1
l
i
As a appioachos , wo oLlain
lim
io
a 0.
_
a
2
1
= lim
io
1
0.5
i
_
1
l
i
=
1 0
_
1 0
= 1
ano lhus, j = 1 is a hoiizonlal asymplolo of ) (a) as a appioachos .
Foi a appioaching , wo uso (1.17):
lim
io
a 0.
_
a
2
1
= lim
io
a 0.
_
(a)
2
1
= lim
io
0. a
_
a
2
1
Again, lho piincipal loim is a ano wo can assumo lhal a 0. 1hus,
lim
io
0. a
_
a
2
1
1a
1
_
a
2
= lim
io
0.5
i
1
_
1
l
i
=
0 1
_
1 0
= 1
As a iosull, wo havo
lim
io
a 0.
_
a
2
1
= 1
which implios lhal ) (a) has a hoiizonlal asymplolo of j = 1 as a
appioachos .
x
15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
4-4: A funclion wilh 2 hoiizonlal asymplolos
1ho aLsolulo valuo funclion can also loao lo funclions wilh moio lhan ono hoii-
zonlal asymplolo, oi possiLly ovon a funclion wilh only ono hoiizonlal asymplolo
in only ono oiioclion.
IXAMIII 0 Fino lho hoiizonlal asymplolos of ) (a) = [a[ a 1.
SoIutIon: If a appioachos , lhon wo can assumo a 0 ano lhus,
lim
io
([a[ a 1) = lim
io
(2a 1) =
Locauso 2a1 Locomos aiLiliaiily laigo as a appioachos , lho func-
lion ) (a) = [a[ a 1 ooos nol havo a hoiizonlal asymplolo as a
appioachos .
Foi lho limil as a appioachos , wo uso lo facl lhal [a[ = a
whon a < 0, so lhal
lim
io
([a[ a 1) = lim
io
(a a 1) = lim
io
(0 1) = 1
1hus, ) (a) = [a[ a 1 has a hoiizonlal asymplolo of j = 1 as a
appioachos .
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
5
4
3
2
1
0
4-: Giaph of ) (a) = [a[ a 1
nn n J&n.n hn h:..nn| njn Chock youi Ioaoing
HorIzontaI Asyntotes and CraLIng
Iigoious oolnilions foi limils lo aio nocossaiy Locauso ovon lho mosl sophis-
licaloo giaphing lochnology may nol Lo usoful as lools foi sluoying hoiizonlal
asymplolos. Foi oxamplo, lho giaph of
) (a) =
a
0.l
1
a
0.l
1
ovoi lho inloival [0, 120[ ooos nol iovoal ils hoiizonlal asymplolo.
x
120 100 80 60 40 20 0
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
4-6
No hoiizonlal asymplolo is oLsoivoo ovon foi lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi [0, 10000[ .
x
10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
4-7
Howovoi, il is ialhoi oasy lo show lhal
lim
io
a
0.l
1
a
0.l
1
= 1
which implios lhal lho hoiizonlal asymplolo of j = ) (a) is j = 1.
IXAMIII 7 Show lhal
lim
io
a
0.l
1
a
0.l
1
= 1
SoIutIon: 1ho piincipal loim is a
0.l
. 1hus,
lim
io
a
0.l
1
a
0.l
1
1a
0.l
1a
0.l
= lim
io
1
l
i
1
l
i
=
1 0
1 0
= 1
Lxoicisos:
1n|&n h |.n. .J . r.. 1J h |.n. J n r., r|n.n &hj n.
1. lim
io
1
a
2. lim
io
1
a
2
8. lim
io
1
_
a
4. lim
io
1
_
a
. lim
io
1 6. lim
io
0
7. lim
io
1
a 1
8. lim
io
1
a 8
0. lim
io
2a
a 8
10. lim
io
a 8
4a 2
11. lim
io
a
3
8a
a
2
2
12. lim
io
a
3
8a
a
2
2a 1
18. lim
io
a
2
4a 2
8a
2

14. lim
io
2a
2
4a 2
1.a
2
4a
1. lim
io
_
1
a 1

1
a 1
_
16. lim
io
_
1
a 1

1
a 1
_
1.nJ h h:..nn| njn, .J n r., J nh J h J||&.nj J&n.n.
17. ) (a) =
1
a
18. ) (a) =
1
_
a
10. ) (a) =
2a
d
1
a
d
8a 2
20. ) (a) =
a
3
8a
2
a
2
1
21. ) (a) =
a
a
2
1
22. ) (a) =
a
a
2
1
28. ) (a) =
_
2a
2
1
_
3
(2a
3
1)
2
24. ) (a) =
_
8a 2
2a 8
_
2
1Jn.Jj n|| h:..nn| njn, .J nnj, J h J||&.nj J&n.n.
2. ) (a) =
a
_
a
2
1
26. ) (a) =
2a 1
_
a
2
1
27. ) (a) =
_
a
6
a 1
a
3
28. ) (a) =
a
3
_
a
d
1
20. ) (a) =
a
[a[ 1
80. ) (a) =
a
3
[a[ 1
81. ) (a) =
a [a[
a 1
82. ) (a) =
([a[ a)
2
a
2
1
33. Fino lho hoiizonlal asymplolos of
) (a) =
a 6
a
2
1
Giaph lho funclion ano ils asymplolo ovoi lho inloival [, [ . Doos lho
giaph of lho funclion inloisocl lho asymplolo al somo poinl in [, [
34. A linoai funclion 1
o
(a) = / :a is an h|.j& njn of ) (a) if
lim
io
[) (a) 1
o
(a)[ = 0 (1.10)
Show lhal lho givon linoai funclion 1
o
(a) is an oLliquo asymplolo of
) (a) .(Hinl: lno a common oonominaloi ano comLino fiaclions) 1hon giaph
Lolh 1
o
(a) ano ) (a) ovoi [, [ .
;n) ) (a) =
a
2
1
a
, 1
o
(a) = a
;h) ) (a) =
2a
2
1a 8
a 7
, 1
o
(a) = 2a 1
;) ) (a) =
8a
3
2a
2
8a 8
a
2
1
, 1
o
(a) = 2 8a
35. In lhis oxoiciso, wo consiooi lho funclion
) (a) =
_
a
_
a 2
(a) Show lhal lho hoiizonlal asymplolo of ) (a) is j = 1 Ly ovalualing
lim
io
_
a
_
a 2
(L) Giaph ) (a) ano j = 1 ovoi lho inloival [0, 10[ . Woulo you concluoo
fiom lho giaph lhal j = 1 is a hoiizonlal asymplolo of ) (a)
(c) Giaph ) (a) ano j = 1 ovoi lho inloival [0, 100[ . Woulo you con-
cluoo fiom lho giaph lhal j = 1 is a hoiizonlal asymplolo of ) (a)
36. In lhis oxoiciso, wo consiooi lho funclion
) (a) =
a
0.2
4a
0.l
8
a
0.2
8
(a) Show lhal lho hoiizonlal asymplolo of ) (a) is j = 1 Ly ovalualing
lim
io
a
0.2
4a
0.l
8
a
0.2
8
(L) Giaph ) (a) ano j = 1 ovoi lho inloival [0, 1000[ . Woulo you con-
cluoo fiom lho giaph lhal j = 1 is a hoiizonlal asymplolo of ) (a)
(c) Lvalualo ) (1L10) , whoio aL/ is scionlilc nolalion foi a10
b
. How
closo is il lo 1
37. Uso lho oolnilion of lho limil lo lo show lhal if
lim
io
) (a) = 1 a:d lim
io
p (a) = 1
lhon
lim
io
[) (a) p (a)[ = 1 1
38. Uso lho oolnilion of lho limil lo lo show lhal if
i) lim
io
) (a) = 1 a:d lim
io
p (a) = 1
t/c: lim
io
[) (a) p (a)[ = 1 1
39. A funclion ) (a) is saio lo Lo njn.n||j j&.n|n lo p (a) if
lim
io
) (a)
p (a)
= 1 ,= 0
Show lhal ) (a) is asymplolically oquivalonl lo p (a) if ano only if p (a) is
asymplolically oquivalonl lo ) (a) .
40. A funclion ) (a) is saio lo Lo of oiooi al mosl p (a) if lhoio oxisls ` 0
such lhal
) (a)
p (a)
_ `
whon a is sumcionlly laigo. Givo an oxamplo of a funclion ) (a) lhal is of
al mosl oiooi p (a) = 1 foi which
lim
io
) (a)
p (a)
doc- :ot cai-t
(Hinl: 1hink of lho liigonomoliic funclions).
41. VrIte to Learn: Supposo lhal a
n
,= 0 ano /
n
,= 0 whoio : is a posilivo
inlogoi. In a shoil ossay, oxplain why
lim
io
/
n
a
n
/
nl
a
nl
. . . /
l
a /
0
a
n
a
n
a
nl
a
nl
. . . a
l
a a
0
=
/
n
a
n
42. VrIte to Learn: Supposo lhal a
n
,= 0 ano /
n
,= 0 whoio :, : aio posilivo
inlogois. In a shoil ossay, oxplain why lho limil
lim
io
/
n
a
n
/
nl
a
nl
. . . /
l
a /
0
a
n
a
n
a
nl
a
nl
. . . a
l
a a
0
is oqual lo 0 whon : : ano ooos nol oxisl whon : < :.
1.5 ConLinuiLy
ContInuIty at a IoInt
Soclions 1-2 ano 1-8 imply lhal if ) (a) is a polynomial, lhon
lim
i
) (a) = ) (j)
1hal is, if ) (a) is a polynomial, lhon wo can ovalualo ils limil as a appioachos
j Ly simply suLsliluling j foi a. 1his iooa is voiy impoilanl in malhomalics, so
impoilanl lhal wo slalo il as a oolnilion.
DehnItIon 5.1: A funclion ) (a) is n.n&& al j if
lim
i
) (a) = ) (j) (1.20)
Moioovoi, conlinuous funclions can Lo comLinoo aiilhmolically lo cioalo slill moio
conlinuous funclions..
TLeoren 5.2: If ) ano p aio conlinuous al a = j ano / is a numLoi,
lhon ) p, ) p, /) ano )p aio also conlinuous al a = j. Moioovoi,
if p (j) ,= 0, lhon
}
is also conlinuous al a = j.
In aooilion, if lim
i
p (a) = 1 ano ) (a) is conlinuous al 1, lhon
lim
i
) [p (a)[ = )
_
lim
i
p (a)
_
(1.21)
which implios lhal if p is conlinuous al a = j ano ) is conlinuous al p (j) , lhon
) p is conlinuous al j. A spocial caso of (1.21) is givon Ly
lim
i
[) (a)[
n
=
_
lim
i
) (a)
_
n
(1.22)
whon lho limil as a appioachos j of ) (a) oxisls.
CONTlNUlTY 6
IXAMIII 1 If p (a) is conlinuous al a = 4 ano if p (4) = 8, lhon
whal is lho valuo of
lim
id
_
a
2
2p (a)
SoIutIon: Sinco a
2
is a polynomial, il is conlinuous al a = 4. 1hus,
lhooiom -2 implios lhal a
2
2p (a) is also conlinuous al a = 4, so
lhal
lim
id
_
a
2
2p (a)
= 4
2
2p (4) = 16 2 8 = 22
IXAMIII 2 Supposo lhal lim
i5
p (a) = 2 ano ovalualo
lim
i5
[p (a)[
d
SoIutIon: 1ho piopoily (1.22) implios lhal
lim
i5
[p (a)[
d
=
_
lim
i5
p (a)
_
d
= [2[
d
= 16
1hn . lim
i5
[p (a)[
2
j.n h Jn hn lim
i5
p (a) = 2 Chock youi Ioaoing
One SIded LInIts
1o Lolloi oxploio conlinuily, lol us oolno
lim
i
) (a) = 1 (1.28)
lo moan lhal as a appioachos j &.h h ::..n hn a j, lho funclion ) (a)
appioachos 1. Similaily, lol us oolno
lim
i
) (a) = 1 (1.24)
lo moan lhal as a appioachos j &.h h ::..n hn a < j, lho funclion ) (a)
appioachos 1. Wo call (1.28) ano (1.24) lho |.n. J:n h :.jh ano lho |.n. J:n
h |J, iospoclivoly.
Il follows immooialoly fiom lho oolnilion of lho limil lhal
lim
i
) (a) = 1 o:|j i) lim
i
) (a) = 1 = lim
i
) (a)
1hal is, lho limil oxisls only if lho limils fiom lho iighl ano lofl aio lho samo. As
a iosull, oolnilion .1 says lhal a funclion ) (a) is conlinuous al an inpul valuo j
only if lho following holo:
.. ) (j) is oolnoo
... lim
i
) (a) = lim
i
) (a) = 1
.... 1 is lho samo as ) (j)
Foi oxamplo, supposo lhal ) (a) is lho piocowiso-oolnoo funclion
) (a) =
_
(a) i) a < j
r (a) i) a _ j
A lypical giaph of a piocowiso-oolnoo ) is shown Lolow:
-1: A piocowiso oolnoo funclion
1hon conlinuily of ) (a) al a = j ioquiios lhal 1 = 1, which is oquivalonl lo
lim
i
(a) = lim
i
r (a) = ) (j)
1hal is, ) (a) is conlinuous al j only if lho limil of ) (a) oxisls al j, which occuis
only whon lho limils fiom lho lofl ano iighl aio lho samo al j.
-2: Limil fiom lofl ano iighl aio lho samo
Whon ) (a) is not conlinuous al a = j, as woulo Lo lho caso if 1 ,= 1, lhon a = j
is calloo a .n J J.n.n&.j of ) (a).
IXAMIII J Fino a valuo of / foi which
) (a) =
_
2a 8 i) a _ 2
2a
2
/ i) a 2
(1.2)
is conlinuous al a = 2.
SoIutIon: Ly oolnilion, ) (2) = 2 (2) 8 = 7, lhus salisfying lho lisl
ciiloiion. Noxl, wo nolico lhal lho limil fiom lho lofl is
lim
i2
) (a) = lim
i2
(2a 8) = 2 2 8 = 7
whilo lho limil fiom lho iighl is
lim
i2
) (a) = lim
i2
_
2a
2
/
_
= 2 (2)
2
/ = 8 /
1o achiovo conlinuily, wo nooo
lim
i2
) (a) = lim
i2
) (a)
which moans lhal wo nooo
7 = 8 / or / = 1
CONTlNUlTY 67
IXAMIII ! Fino a valuo of / foi which
) (a) =
_
a
2
8a i) a _ 1
8a
2
2/ i) a 1
(1.26)
is conlinuous al a = 1.
SoIutIon: Ly oolnilion, ) (1) = (1)
2
8 (1) = 4, lhus salisfying
lho lisl ciiloiion. Noxl, wo nolico lhal lho limil fiom lho lofl is
lim
il
) (a) = lim
il
_
a
2
8a
_
= (1)
2
8 (1) = 4
whilo lho limil fiom lho iighl is
lim
il
) (a) = lim
il
_
8a
2
2/
_
= 8 (1)
2
2/ = 8 2/
1o achiovo conlinuily, wo nooo
lim
il
) (a) = lim
il
) (a) = ) (1)
which moans lhal wo nooo
8 2/ = 4 or / =
1
2
1 ;1..) &.h / =
l
2
n.Jj :.:.n ;...) 1r|n.n. Chock youi Ioaoing
IoInts oI DIscontInuIty
Lol us oolno lho oqualion
lim
i
) (a) =
lo moan lhal foi all ` 0, lhoio oxisls inloivals of lho foim (j, /) such lhal if a
is in (j, /) , lhon ) (a) `.
-8: a in (j, /) implios lhal ) (a) `
Wo similaily oolno lho ono-siooo inlnilo limils
lim
i
) (a) = , lim
i
) (a) = , a:d lim

i
) (a) =
Wo lhon oolno lho lino a = j lo Lo a :.n| njn of ) (a) if any of lho
following limils holo:
lim
i
) (a) = , lim
i
) (a) = , lim
i
) (a) = , lim
i
) (a) =
Sinco is nol a numLoi, a voilical asymplolo of ) (a) musl also Lo a poinl of
oisconlinuily of ) (a) .
-4: Voilical Asymplolo of a = j
IXAMIII Whoio aio lho poinls of oisconlinuily of
) (a) =
a 1
a
3
2a
2
SoIutIon: 1ho funclion ) (a) is lho ialio of lwo polynomials, ano
polynomials aio conlinuous ovoiywhoio. Howovoi, a
3
2a
2
= 0 if
a = 0 oi a = 2. Sinco lho numoialoi is nonzoio al Lolh of lhoso
inpuls, ) (a) has voilical asymplolos al a = 0 ano a = 2.
3 2 1 0 -1
30
20
10
0
-10
-: ) (a) has lwo voilical asymplolos
Coiiosponoingly, a = 0 ano a = 2 aio poinls of oisconlinuily of ) (a) .
In aooilion, a funclion is not conlinuous al a = j if any of lho following occui al
a = j:
-6: Ciiloiia foi Conlinuily
1hal is, a funclion is nol conlinuous al j if any of lho lhioo conoilions (i), (ii), oi
(iii) oo nol holo al j.
IXAMIII 0 Is ) (a) =
]il]
il
conlinuous al a = 1
SoIutIon: Sinco ) (1) loaos lo oivision Ly 0, ;.) is nol salisloo. 1hus,
) (a) =
]il]
il
is not conlinuous al a = 0.
CONTlNUlTY 60
IXAMIII 7 Doloimino if lho following funclion is conlinuous al
a = 0.
) (a) =
_
_
[a[ sin(a)
a
i) a ,= 0
2 i) a = 0
SoIutIon: Conoilion (i) holos sinco ) (0) = 2. Lol`s oxploio ;..) using
lho giaph of ) (a):
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-7: Giaph of ) (a)
Cloaily, lho limils fiom lho lofl ano iighl aio
lim
i0
[a[ sin(a)
a
= 2 ano lim
i0
[a[ sin(a)
a
= 0
Sinco lho limils fiom lho lofl ano iighl aio nol lho samo,
lim
i0
[a[ sin(a)
a
ooos nol oxisl
1hus, lho funclion ) (a) is not conlinuous al a = 0.
1 ) (a) = sin(1a) n.n&& n a = 0 Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe InternedIate YaIue TLeoren
Wo say lhal ) (a) is conlinuous on an inloival [a, /[ if ) (a) is conlinuous al j foi
ovoiy j in (a, /) ano if
lim
io
) (a) = ) (a) , lim

ib
) (a) = ) (/)
1ho phiaso ) (a) is conlinuous" moans lhal ) (a) is conlinuous al ovoiy poinl.
If ) (a) is conlinuous on an inloival [a, /[ ano if d is a numLoi Lolwoon ) (a)
ano ) (/) , lhon lho .n:nJ.n n|& h:n says lhal lhoio is a numLoi c in
[a, /[ such lhal ) (c) = d.
-8: 1hoio musl Lo c in (a, /) such lhal ) (c) = d
Il is lho inloimooialo valuo lhooiom fiom which wo oLlain lho concopl lhal a
conlinuous funclion can Lo oiawn wilhoul lifling youi poncil."
Howovoi, lho inloimooialo valuo lhooiom may Lo moio valuaLlo as a lool in
numoiical calculalions. In pailiculai, il can Lo usoo lo ooloimino if a conlinuous
funclion has a zoio in a givon inloival.
IXAMIII 8 Doloimino if ) (a) = a
3
8a 1 has a iool in lho
inloival [2, 0[ .
SoIutIon: Nolico lhal ) (2) = 1 whilo ) (0) = 1. Sinco 0 is Lolwoon
1 ano 1, lhoio oxisls a numLoi c in [2, 0[ such lhal ) (c) = 0. 1hal
is, ) (a) has a iool somowhoio in [2, 0[:
x
0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-0: Localing iools wilh lho Inloimooialo Valuo 1hooiom
Supposo now foi ) (a) = a
3
8a 1 as in oxamplo 8 lhal wo nolicoo lhal
) (1) = 1. Sinco ) (1) ano ) (2) havo oiloionl signs, ) (a) musl havo a iool al
somo poinl in [2, 1[ . Inoooo, lho 1..n nhJ in numoiical analysis is an
algoiilhm in which wo iopoalooly compulo lho miopoinl of an inloival ano lhon
ooloimino which suLinloival conlains lho iool of lho funclion.
Lxoicisos:
1Jn.Jj h .n;), .J nnj, &h: h J&n.n . n n.n&&. G:nh nh
J&n.n n [4, 4[ :.Jj j&: .Jn.]n.n. 5 h &: nnn&n| J: j&:
n|&|n: J: .n:&.n n j:nh.nj .&.-J]nJ J&n.n.
2
1. ) (a) =
1
a 1
2. ) (a) =
a
a 1
8. ) (a) = (a
2
2a 1)
l/3
4. ) (a) = (a
3
1)
2
. ) (a) =
a
2
1
a
2
1
6. ) (a) =
a
2
1
a
2
1
7. ) (a) =
a
2
[a[
[a[
8. ) (a) =
a
2
a
[a[
0. ) (a) = sin([a[) 10. ) (a) = cos ([a[)
2
Many giaphing piogiams will nol poimil lho ooo iool of a nogalivo numLoi unloss lho
vaiiaLlo is lisl ooclaioo lo Lo a ioal vaiiaLlo. Soo youi manual foi oolails.
CONTlNUlTY 71
11. ) (a) =
sin([a[)
a
12. ) (a) =
1 cos (a)
[a[
18. ) (a) =
_
(a 1)
2
i) a < 0
a
2
1 i) a _ 0
14. ) (a) =
_
a
2
i) a < 1
2a 1 i) a _ 1
1. ) (a) =
_
a
2
2a i) a < 2
sin(a) i) a _ 2
16. ) (a) =
_
a 1 i) a < 0
cos (a) i) a _ 0
17. ) (a) =
_
8a 2 i) a < 1
a
3
1 i) a _ 1
18. ) (a) =
_
2a 1 i) a < 1
8 2a i) a _ 1
1.nJ n n|& J: / J: &h.h h j.n J&n.n n: n.n&& n h .n h&n
h & .n.
10. ) (a) =
_
8a 2 i) a < 1
/a 2 i) a _ 1
20. ) (a) =
_
4a 1 i) a _ 2
/a 8 i) a 2
21. ) (a) =
_
(/a 1)
2
i) a ,= 1
4 i) a = 1
22. ) (a) =
_
(/a 1)
2
i) a ,= 1
4 i) a = 1
28. ) (a) =
_
_
_
[a[ a i) a < 8
/ i) a = 8
2 [a[ i) a 8
24. ) (a) =
_
_
_
a
2
2 i) a < 1
/ i) a = 1
2a 1 i) a 1
&n hn ) (a) . n.n&& n a = 8, hn ) (8) = , hn ) (8) = 2, nnJ hn
lim
i3
p (a) = 8
1n|&n h J||&.nj |.n..
2. lim
i3
_
a
2
8) (a)
26. lim
i3
_

_
p (a)
_
27. lim
i3
[) (a) p (a)[ 28. lim
i3
) (a)
p (a)
20. lim
i3
_
p
2
(a) 2) (a)
80. lim
i3
) [p (a) [
31. InternedIate YaIue TLeoren: Iiovo lhal ) (a) = a
3
2a 4 has a zoio
somowhoio in [0, 2[ . Is lho zoio in [0, 1[ oi is il in [1, 2[
32. InternedIate YaIue TLeoren: Iiovo lhal ) (a) = a
5
2a
2
4 has a zoio
somowhoio in [2, 0[ . Is lho zoio in [2, 1[ oi is il in [1, 0[
33. InternedIate YaIue TLeoren: A funclion ) (a) is saio lo Lo n if
) (a) = ) (a)
Iiovo lhal an ovon funclion musl havo an ovon numLoi of ioal iools.
34. InternedIate YaIue TLeoren: Lol ) (a) Lo conlinuous on lho ioal lino
ano supposo lhal
lim
io
) (a) = 1 a:d lim
io
) (a) = 1
whoio 1 < 1. Show lhal if 1 < j < 1, lhoio lhoio is a numLoi c such lhal
) (c) = j
35. CraLer: Giaph lho following funclion on lho inloival [0.2, 0.2[ :
) (a) =
_
sin
_
l
i
_
i) a ,= 0
0 i) a = 0
Is lho funclion conlinuous al a = 0 Doos lho funclion havo a voilical
asymplolo al a = 0 Lxplain.
36. CraLer: Giaph lho following funclion on lho inloival [0.2, 0.2[ :
) (a) =
_
asin
_
l
i
_
i) a ,= 0
0 i) a = 0
Is lho funclion conlinuous al a = 0 Doos lho funclion havo a voilical
asymplolo al a = 0 Lxplain.
37. VrIte to Learn: Supposo ) (a) ,= 0 foi all a in (j, ) . Lxplain why ) (a)
conlinuous on (j, ) implios lhal ) (a) is oilhoi always posilivo oi always
nogalivo on (j, ) .
38. VrIte to Learn: In a shoil ossay oxplain why lho oolnilion of lho limil
implios lhal if ) (a) is conlinuous al j, lhon foi all 0, lhoio is an inloival
(a, /) conlaining j such lhal
[) (a) ) (j)[ <
foi all a ,= j in (a, /) .
39. VrIte to Learn: If ) is conlinuous al a numLoi 1, lhon
lim
u1
) (n) = ) (1) (1.27)
Supposo lhal lim
i
p (a) = 1, ano in a shoil ossay, oxplain why lolling n =
p (a) in (1.27) loaos lo
lim
i
) (p (a)) = ) (1)
40. VrIte to Learn: Complolo lho following slops lo piovo lhal
i) lim
i
) (a) = 1 a:d lim
i
p (a) = 1, t/c: lim
i
[) (a) p (a)[ = 11
(a) Iiovo lho following ioonlily
) (a) p (a) =
1
4
() (a) p (a))
2
1
4
() (a) p (a))
2
(L) Uso (1.21) lo compulo lho limils
lim
i
() (a) p (a))
2
a:d lim
i
() (a) p (a))
2
(c) ComLino lho iosulls in (a) ano (L) lo lnish lho pioof.
41. A spinnoi is spun counloiclockwiso as shown in lguio 2-0.
-10
CONTlNUlTY 78
1ho linos sopaialing lho colois aio iaoii oiawn ovoiy 60
o
, ano lho anglo 0
is lho anglo wilh of lho spinnoi aim wilh lho posilivo a-axis. 1ho funclion
) (0) is oolnoo
) (0) =
_
1 i) 0 i- i: /|ac/
0 i) 0 i- i: n/itc
(a) Skolch lho giaph of ) (0) Whal is ils smallosl poiioo in oogioos
(L) Compulo lim)(0)
0l35
o
ano lim)(0)
0700
o
.
(c) Whal aio lho poinls of oisconlinuily of ) (0)
(o) Lvalualo lho limils
lim
060
o
) (0) a:d lim
060
o
) (0)
42. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxploio lho limil
lim
i0
[a[
a
(a) Lxplain why
]i]
i
is oqual lo 1 whon a 0 ano
]i]
i
is oqual lo 1
whon a < 0.
(L) Giaph
]i]
i
ano lhon zoom conloioo on 0. Lxplain why lho iango of
ovoiy giaph in lho zoom conlains lho poinls 1 ano 1.
(c) Whal is lho limil fiom lho lofl ano lho limil fiom lho iighl as a
appioachos 0 of
]i]
i

(o) * Givon = 0.01 ano any valuo of 1, oxplain why lho inoqualily
1 0.01 <
[a[
a
< 1 0.01
ooos nol havo a solulion.
1.6 DiferenLiabiliLy
DIerentIaLIIIty
Now lhal wo havo oovolopoo lho limil concopl, lol`s uso il lo placo lho sluoy of
langonl linos on a lim founoalion. 1o Login wilh, wo say lhal a funclion ) (a) is
J.]:n.nh| al an inpul a = j if ils giaph has a langonl lino al a = j. Lol`s uso
lho limil concopl lo oxploio whal il moans foi a funclion lo Lo oiloionliaLlo al a
givon inpul.
Iocall fiom soclion 1 lhal if ) (a) is a polynomial, lhon lho oqualion of a
langonl lino is calculaloo wilh
) (j /) = a
0
a
l
/ /ip/cr joncr- o) /"
If / = 0, lhon ) (j 0) = a
0
, so lhal a
0
= ) (j) . In conliasl, lho quanlily a
l
is
lho | J h nnjn |.n, which is calloo lho J:.n. of ) (a) al a = j ano is
oonoloo )
t
(j) ( ol piimo of p"). Ioplacing a
0
ano a
l
Ly lhoii now namos yiolos
) (j /) = ) (j) )
t
(j) / /ip/cr joncr- o) /" (1.28)
1hal is, if / is closo lo 0, lhon ) (j /) is piaclically lho samo as ) (j) )
t
(j) /. )
t
(j) . h
| J h
nnjn |.n
j = ) (a) n
a = j.
6-1: ) (j /) is noaily lho samo as ) (j) )
t
(j) /
Lol us now lol o (/) , which is pionouncoo lilllo oh of /", oonolo lho highoi
powois of /, so lhal (1.28) Locomos
) (j /) = ) (j) )
t
(/) / o (/)
1hal is, o (/) iopiosonls lho highoi powois" lhal can Lo ignoioo whon / is closo
lo 0.
6-2: o (/) iopiosonls lho nogligiLlo highoi powois" of /
Spocilcally, sinco o (/) has powois of / highoi lhan 1, lho fiaclion
o(|)
|
has powois
of / gioaloi lhan 0. 1hus, o (/) has lho piopoily lhal
lim
|0
o (/)
/
= 0 (1.20)
1his loaos us lo lho following oolnilion:
DehnItIon 6.1: A funclion ) (a) is J.]:n.nh| al an inpul j if
lhoio oxisls a numLoi )
t
(j) (calloo lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) al j) such
lhal
) (j /) = ) (j) )
t
(j) / o (/) (1.80)
foi somo o (/) salisfying (1.20).
If ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo al oach poinl in an inloival (a, /) , lhon wo say lhal ) (a)
is J.]:n.nh| n (a, /) .
IXAMIII 1 Foi ) (a) = 1 2a a
5/3
, lno )
t
(0) ano lho oqualion
of lho langonl lino lo j = ) (a) al j = 0. Also, lno o (/) ano show
lhal il salislos (1.20).
SoIutIon: If wo lol a = 0 /, lhon wo oLlain
) (0 /) =
}
(0)}
(0)|
..
1 2/
o(|)
..
/
5/3
1hus, )
t
(0) = 2 ano j = 1 2/. Sinco a = /, lho langonl lino lo ) (a)
al j = 0 is j = 1 2a.
DlFFLRLNTlABlLlTY 7
x
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
6-8: 1angonl lo j = 1 2a a
5/3
al lho poinl (0, 1) .
Also, o (/) = /
5/3
ano
lim
|0
o (/)
/
= lim
|0
/
5/3
/
= lim
|0
/
2/3
= 0
1 ) (a) = 1 2a a
5/3
n |jnn.n| Chock youi Ioaoing
DerIvatIves oI IoIynonIaIs
In piinciplo, wo can uso oolnilion 6.1 lo calculalo lho ooiivalivo of any polynomial.
Lol`s look al a couplo of oxamplos.
IXAMIII 2 Foi ) (a) = a
3
a, lno )
t
(1) ano lho oqualion of lho
langonl lino lo j = ) (a) al j = 1. Also, lno o (/) ano show lhal il
salislos (1.20).
SoIutIon: 1ho pioLlom is ossonlially lho samo as lhoso wo consiooioo
in soclion 1, Lul wilh oiloionl nolalion. Wo lol a = 1 / ano oxpano
) (1 /):
) (1 /) = (1 /)
3
(1 /) = 4 2/ 8/
2
/
3
Compaiing lo (1.80) loaos us lo
) (1 /) =
}
(l)}
(l)|
..
4 2/
o(|)
..
8/
2
/
3
1hus, )
t
(1) = 2 ano j = 4 2/, which loaos lo lho langonl lino
j = 4 2 (a 1)
x
2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
2
0
-2
-4
-6
6-4: 1angonl lo j = a
2
4a al lho poinl (1, 8) .
Also, o (/) = 8/
2
/
3
, ano
lim
|0
o (/)
/
= lim
|0
8/
2
/
3
/
= lim
|0
_
8/ /
2
_
= 0
Calculaling ooiivalivos of highoi oogioo polynomials ioquiios lho oxpansion of
(j /)
n
. In olomonlaiy algoLia, il is shown lhal
(j /)
n
= c
0
j
n
c
l
j
nl
/ c
2
j
n2
/
2
. . . c
n
/
n
(1.81)
whoio lho coomcionls c
0
, c
l
, c
2
, . . . , c
n
foim lho :
||
iow of 1nn|` :.nnj| shown
Lolow:
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 8 8 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 10 10 1
In a laloi soclion wo will uso Iascal`s liianglo lo oovolop an impoilanl iulo foi
lnoing ooiivalivos.
IXAMIII J Fino )
t
(2) foi ) (a) = a
d
. Also, ioonlify o (/) .
SoIutIon: Wo musl lisl oxpano ) (2 /) = (2 /)
d
. 1ho : = 4 iow
of Iascal`s liianglo givos us lho coomcionls c
0
, c
l
, c
2
, c
3
, ano c
d
in lho
oxpansion of (2 /)
d
.
: = 0 1
: = 1 1 1
: = 2 1 2 1
: = 8 1 8 8 1
: = 4 1 4 6 4 1
: = 1 10 10 1
: = 6 1 6 1 20 1 6 1
: = 7 1 7 21 8 8 21 7 1
SuLsliluling lho coomcionls fiom Iascal`s liianglo inlo (1.81) yiolos
(2 /)
d
= 12
d
42
3
/ 62
2
/
2
4 2/
3
1/
d
(1.82)
Simplifying loaos us lo
) (2 /) = 16 32/ 24/
2
8/
3
/
d
fiom which wo soo lhal )
t
(2) = 82 ano o (/) = 24/
2
8/
3
/
d
.
1 o (/) = 24/
2
8/
3
/
d
n.Jj ;1..:) Chock youi Ioaoing
DlFFLRLNTlABlLlTY 77
DIerentIaLIIIty and ContInuIty
Nolico lhal o (/) ilsolf appioachos 0 as / appioachos 0, Locauso
lim
|0
o (/) = lim
|0
_
o (/)
/
/
_
=
_
lim
|0
o (/)
/
__
lim
|0
/
_
= 0
1hus, if wo apply lho limil as / appioachos 0 lo (1.80), lho iosull is
lim
|0
) (j /) = lim
|0
) (j) lim
|0
)
t
(j) / lim
|0
o (/)
1his in luin simplilos lo
lim
|0
) (j /) = ) (j) (1.88)
If wo lol a = j /, lhon a appioachos j as / appioachos 0. As a iosull, (1.88)
Locomos
lim
i
) (a) = ) (j)
which implios lhal ) (a) is conlinuous al a = j.
TLeoren 6.2 If ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo al a poinl j, lhon il is also
conlinuous al j.
Howovoi, a funclion ) (a) can Lo conlinuous al j wilhoul also Loing oiloionliaLlo
al j.
IXAMIII ! Lxplain why lho following funclion is conlinuous Lul
n oiloionliaLlo al / = 0 :
) (/) = 1 / /
2/3
,
SoIutIon: Sinco lim
|0
_
1 / /
2/3
_
= 1, lho funclion is conlinuous al
/ = 0. Lul noai / = 0, lho funclion is of lho foim
) (/) = linoai funclion" a lowoi powoi of /"
whoio Ly a lowoi powoi" wo moan an / wilh an oxpononl Lolow 1.
Lowoi powois havo |n:j: nnjn.&J lhan / whon / is closo lo 0.
Inoooo, if / = 0.001, lhon /
2/3
= 0.01, which is 10 limos |n:j: lhan
/ = 0.01. Sinco lowoi powois of / cannol Lo ignoioo, )
t
(0) ooos nol
oxisl.
h
0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
6-: Giaph of ) (/) = 1 / /
2/3
In facl, lho giaph of ) (/) = 1 / /
2/3
comos lo a shaip poinl al
/ = 0, ano lhus il cannol Lo piaclically lho samo" as a sliaighl lino al
/ = 0. Lquivalonlly, if wo lol o (/) = /
2/3
, lhon o (/) ooos not salisfy
(1.20).
Wo say lhal j = 1 / /
2/3
has a & al / = 0. Sinco j = ) (a) cannol havo
a langonl lino al a cusp, ) (a) is not dIerentIaLIe al an inpul whoio a cusp
occuis.
IXAMIII Fino lho valuo of / foi which
) (a) =
_
a
2
/ i) a _ 1
6 2a i) a 1
is conlinuous al a = 1. 1hon ooloimino if il is oiloionliaLlo al a = 1
as woll.
SoIutIon: Ly oolnilion, ) (1) = 1
2
/ = / 1, lhus salisfying lho
lisl ciiloiia. Moioovoi, lho limil fiom lho lofl is
lim
il
) (a) = lim
il
_
a
2
/
_
= / 1
ano lho limil fiom lho iighl is
lim
il
) (a) = lim
il
(6 2a) = 6 2 = 4
1o achiovo conlinuily, lho limils fiom lho lofl ano iighl musl Lo lho
samoano oqual lo ) (1) . 1hus, / 1 = 4, so lhal / = 8, which loaos lo
) (a) =
_
a
2
8 i) a _ 1
6 2a i) a 1
Howovoi, lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi [0, 2[ iovoals a cusp al a = 1.
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
6-6: ) (a) has a cusp al a = 1
1hal is, ) (a) is conlinuous al a = 1 Lul is not oiloionliaLlo al a = 1.
In facl, lhoio aio funclions lhal aio conlinuous al ovoiy poinl Lul which aio
not oiloionliaLlo al any poinl. Foi oxamplo, lho funclion Lolow is a J:nn|
.n:|n.n J&n.n, which appoais lo havo a cusp al ovoiy poinl on lho giaph.
6-7: A funclion which is conlinuous ovoiywhoio Lul oiloionliaLlo nowhoio
1 ) (a) = [a[ J.]:n.nh| n 0 1r|n.n. Chock youi Ioaoing
AddItIonaI IoInts oI ondIerentIaLIIIty
Wo saw aLovo lhal if ) (a) has a cusp al a = j, lhon )
t
(j) ooos nol oxisl. Olhoi
poinls whoio )
t
(j) fails lo oxisl aio poinls whoio a langonl lino is voilical ano
poinls of oisconlinuily.
IXAMIII 0 Is ) (a) = (a 1)
l/5
1 oiloionliaLlo al a = 1
SoIutIon: 1ho giaph of ) (a) = (a 1)
l/5
1 iovoals lhal ) (a) has
a voilical langonl lino whon a = 1, as is shown Lolow:
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
6-8: A voilical langonl lino
Sinco lho slopo of a voilical lino is unoolnoo, )
t
(1) ooos nol oxisl.
IXAMIII 7 Is lho following funclion oiloionliaLlo al a = 1 :
) (a) =
_
a
2
i) a < 1
a 1 i) a _ 1
SoIutIon: Figuio 7-0 iovoals lhal ) (a) is nol conlinuous al a = 1.
2 1 0 -1 -2
4
3
2
1
0
6-0
Lvoiy zoom conloioo al 1 will conlain Lolh piocos of ) (a) , lhus pio-
vonling ) (a) fiom ovoi Loing piaclically lho samo" as a sliaighl lino.
Sinco j = ) (a) ooos nol havo a langonl lino al a = 1, lho ooiivalivo
)
t
(1) ooos nol oxisl.
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ )
t
(j) n h j.n n|& J j, nnJ hn ]nJ h j:nh J h nnjn |.n
j = ) (a) n (j, ) (j)) . |, .Jn.Jj o (/) nnJ h& hn . n.] ;1..:).
1. ) (a) = a
2
1, j = 1 2. ) (a) = a
3
, j = 1
8. ) (a) = a
2
2a, j = 2 4. ) (a) = a
2
1, j =
. ) (a) = 8a 2, j = 4 6. ) (a) = , j = 0.2786
7. ) (a) = a
5
, j = 2 8. ) (a) = a
7
1, j = 1
CraLer: G:nh nh J&n.n n [4, 4[, nnJ .Jn.Jj h .n;) n &h.h
h J&n.n . n J.]:n.nh|. 5 h &: nnn&n| J: Jn.| n j:nh.nj
.&.-J]nJ J&n.n.
8
0. ) (a) = (a
2
2a 1)
l/3
10. ) (a) =

a
2
1
11. ) (a) = (a
3
1.)
2
12. ) (a) = (a
2
a
l
d
)
l/d
18. ) (a) =
a
2
1
a
2
1
14. ) (a) =
a
2
[a[
[a[
1. ) (a) =
sin([a[)
a
16. ) (a) = cos ([a[)
17. ) (a) =
1 cos (a)
[a[
18. ) (a) =
sin([a[)
a
10. ) (a) = sin([a[) 20. ) (a) = lan([a[)
21. ) (a) = a
l/5
22. ) (a) = (a
3
a)
l/5
28. ) (a) =
_
a
2
i) a < 1
2a 1 i) a _ 1
24. ) (a) =
_
a
2
2a i) a < 1
a
3
2 i) a _ 1
2. ) (a) =
_
2a 1 i) a < 1
8 2a i) a _ 1
26. ) (a) =
_
8a 2 i) a < 1
a
3
1 i) a _ 1
27. ) (a) =
_
a
2
sin
_
l
i
_
i) a ,= 0
1 i) a = 0
28. ) (a) =
_
sin(a) 1 i) a < 0
cos (a) i) a _ 0
29. Fino lho numLoi / foi which lho funclion
) (a) =
_
8a 2 i) a < 1
/a 2 i) a _ 1
is conlinuous al a = 1. 1hon ooloimino if lho funclion is oiloionliaLlo al
lhal poinl.
8
Many giaphing piogiams will nol poimil lho ooo iool of a nogalivo numLoi unloss lho
vaiiaLlo is lisl ooclaioo lo Lo a ioal vaiiaLlo. Soo youi manual foi oolails.
) (a) =
_
a
2
8a i) a _ 2
a
3
/ i) a 2
lhal poinl.
) (a) =
_
(a 8)
3
i) a < 2
a
3
/ i) a _ 2
lhal poinl.
) (a) =
_
a
3
8a / i) a < 1
(a 1)
2
i) a _ 1
lhal poinl.
33. 1ho cuivo in lguio 6-10 is lho giaph of a funclion ) (a). Doloimino lho poinls
whoio ) (a) is not oiloionliaLlo ano oxplain why ) (a) is nol oiloionliaLlo
al lhoso poinls.
6-10: Lxoiciso 88
34. Lxplain using oolnilion 6.1 why lho funclion ) (a) = a
2
(a 1)
2/3
is not
oiloionliaLlo al a = 1.
35. Hoio is an alloinalivo molhoo foi oomonslialing lhal if ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo
al a = j, lhon ) (a) is also conlinuous al a = j.
(a) Lxplain why ) (a) is piaclically lho samo as a linoai funclion
1(a) = :a / foi a noai j.
(L) Iiovo lhal 1(a) = :a / is conlinuous al j.
(c) Lxplain why (a) ano (L) imply ) (a) is conlinuous al j.
36. Supposo a funclion ) (a) is oolnoo piocowiso Ly
) (a) =
_
p (a) i) a _ 0
:a / i) a 0
ano supposo lhal Lolh ) (a) ano p (a) aio oiloionliaLlo al a = 0. How is :
iolaloo lo lho funclion p
37. Conlim lho following ioonlily assuming a ,= 0 ano / sumcionlly closo lo 0:
1
a /
=
1
a

/
a
2

/
2
a
2
(a /)
Ioonlify o (/) ano show lhal il salislos (1.20). Whal ooos lhis imply lho
ooiivalivo of
l
i
is
38. Conlim lho following ioonlily assuming a ,= 0 ano / sumcionlly small
_
a / =
_
a
/
2
_
a

/
__
a /
_
a
_
2
_
a
__
a /
_
a
_
Ioonlify o (/) ano show lhal il salislos (1.20). Whal ooos lhis imply lho
ooiivalivo of
_
a is.
39. Uso Iascal`s liianglo lo lno )
t
() Ly oxpanoing ) ( /) ano ioonlifying
lho coomcionl of / in lhal oxpansion.
(a) ) (a) = a
6
(L) ) (a) = a
7
(c) ) (a) = a
S
(o) ) (a) = a
9
40. Lasoo on lho palloin oLsoivoo in oxoiciso 80, whal oo you oxpocl )
t
() lo
Lo whon ) (a) = a
l0
Whal oo you oxpocl )
t
() lo Lo whon ) (a) = a
l00
41. Conuter AIgeLra Systen. If you havo accoss lo a compuloi algoLia

syslom, uso il lo lno )
t
(1) , )
t
(2) , ano )
t
(8) .
(a) ) (a) = (1 a) (1 2a) (1 8a)
(L) ) (a) = a(a 1) (a 2) (a 8)
(c) ) (a) = (a 1)
2
(a 2)
2
(a 8)
2
(o) ) (a) = 1 a(1 a(1 a))
1.1 RaLes of Change
TLe LInIt DehnItIon oI tLe DerIvatIve
Ono of lho mosl impoilanl applicalions of lho ooiivalivo is as a moasuio of lho :n
J hnnj of a funclion al a givon inpul. In lhis soclion, wo oovolop lho concopl
of lho ooiivalivo as a ialo of chango Ly lisl oolning lho ooiivalivo as a limil of
avoiago ialos of chango.
If ) (a) is a oiloionliaLlo al an inpul j, lhon oolnilion 6.1 implios lhal
) (j /) = ) (j) )
t
(j) / o (/)
1hus, ) (j /) ) (j) = )
t
(j) / o (/) , ano also
) (j /) ) (j)
/
= )
t
(j)
o (/)
/
RATLS OF CHANCL 88
Also Ly oolnilion, lho limil as / appioachos 0 of
o(|)
|
is 0, ano consoquonlly,
lim
|0
)
t
(j) lim
|0
o (/)
/
= lim
|0
) (j /) ) (j)
/
)
t
(j) 0 = lim
|0
) (j /) ) (j)
/
1ho iosull is lho |.n. J]n..n of lho ooiivalivo.
DehnItIon 7.1: 1ho ooiivalivo )
t
(j) of a funclion ) (a) al a poinl j
is oolnoo lo Lo
)
t
(j) = lim
|0
) (j /) ) (j)
/
(1.84)
whon lho limil oxisls.
Lol`s oovolop a goomoliic inloipiolalion of oolnilion 7.1. Givon lho poinls (j, ) (j))
ano (j /, ) (j /)) , lho chango in a is â = j / j = / ano lho chango in
j is ^j = ) (j /) ) (j) . 1hus, lho slopo of lho socanl lino lhiough (j, ) (j))
ano (j /, ) (j /)) is
^j
â
=
chango in oulpuls
chango in inpuls
=
) (j /) ) (j)
/
(1.8)
which is known as lho J.]:n j&.n of ) ovoi [j, j /[ .
Giaphically, oolnilion 7.1 implios lhal lho nn |.n lhiough lho poinls
(j, ) (j)) ano (j /, ) (j /)) is noaily lho samo as lho langonl lino al (j, ) (j)).
7-1: Socanl lino appioximalion of a langonl lino.
Inoooo, socanl lino appioximalions appioach lho slopo of lho langonl lino as /
appioachos 0.
7-2: Socanl appioximalion appioachos langonl lino as / appioachos 0
Wo oflon iowiilo oolnilion 7.1 in lho foim
)
t
(j) = lim
.i0
^j
â
(1.86)
lo iolocl lho facl lhal lho ooiivalivo is lho limil of lho slopos of socanl lino
appioximalions.
IXAMIII 1 Fino )
t
(2) ano lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo lho
giaph of ) (a) =
l
i
whon j = 2.
SoIutIon: Sinco ) (2 /) =
l
2|
, il follows lhal lho chango in j is
^j = ) (2 /) ) (2) =
1
2 /

1
2
Ly lnoing a common oonominaloi, ^j can Lo simpliloo lo
^j =
2
2 (2 /)

2 /
2 (2 /)
=
/
2 (2 /)
Sinco â = /, lho oiloionco quolionl is
^j
â
=
1
â
(^j) =
1
/
_
/
2 (2 /)
_
=
1
2 (2 /)
1hus, lho ooiivalivo al 2 is
)
t
(2) = lim
|0
^j
â
= lim
|0
1
2 (2 /)
=
1
4
Sinco ) (2) =
l
2
, lho oqualion of lho langonl lino is
j = j
:(a j) =
1
2

1
4
(a 2)
which simplilos lo j = 1
l
d
a.
x
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
7-8: j = 1
l
d
a is langonl lo j =
l
i
al
_
2,
l
2
_
1 ) (a) =
l
i
n |jnn.n| Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe DerIvatIve as a Hate oI CLange
1ho oiloionco quolionl
.
.i
is also known as lho n:nj :n J hnnj of ) ovoi
[j, j /[ . 1hus, oolnilion 7.1 says lhal )
t
(j) is lho limil of avoiago ialos of chango
ovoi aiLiliaiily shoil inloivals conlaining j. Foi lhis ioason, )
t
(j) is inloipioloo lo
Lo lho .nnnnn& :n J hnnj of ) (a) al a = j. Consoquonlly, lho ooiivalivo
)
t
(j) lolls us h& Jn a piocoss is changing al a givon inpul j.
RATLS OF CHANCL 8
Oflon wo oolno lho J.]:n.n| dj lo Lo lho small iiso" along a langonl lino
ouo lo a small iun" givon Ly lho oiloionlial da, so lhal
J
Ji
is lho slopo of lho
langonl lino.
7-4: 1ho ooiivalivo is also oonoloo Ly
J
Ji
1hal is, lho ooiivalivo can Lo wiillon in J.]:n.n| nn.n as
dj
da
= )
t
(j)
which fuilhoi implios lhal
J
Ji
shoulo Lo inloipioloo lo Lo lho .nnnnn& ialo
of chango of j as a funclion of a al a givon inpul j.
IXAMIII 2 A cylinooi inilially conlains 00 ml of aii al a piossuio
of 1 almosphoio (alm). If lho aii in lho cylinooi is compiossoo Ly a
pislon wilhoul changing ils lompoialuio, lhon Loylo`s law says lhal
lho piossuio 1 is iolaloo lo lho volumo a Ly
1 =
00
a
Whal is
J1
Ji
whon a = 20 ml Whal ooos il moan
7-: Loylos law iolalos changos in volumo lo changos in piossuio al conslanl lompoialuio.
SoIutIon: 1ho chango in piossuio al a volumo of 20 ml ouo lo a
small chango in volumo â = / is givon Ly
^1 = 1 (20 /) 1 (20) =
00
20 /

00
20
ano as a iosull, lho oiloionco quolionl is
^1
â
=
1 (20 /) 1 (20)
/
=
1
/
_
00
20 /
2
_
(sinco oivision Ly / is lho samo as mulliplicalion Ly
l
|
). 1hus, lho
ooiivalivo is
1
t
(20) = lim
|0
1
/
_
00
20 /
2
_
1ho limil is of lho foim
0
0
, so wo simplify Ly comLining fiaclions
1
t
(20) = lim
|0
1
/
_
00
20 /

2 (20 /)
20 /
_
= lim
|0
1
/
_
00 00 2/
20 /
_
= lim
|0
1
/
_
2/
20 /
_
Cancollalion loaos lo a limil lhal can Lo ovalualoo using conlinuily:
1
t
(20) = lim
|0
2
20 /
=
2
20 0
1hus, lho piossuio is changing wilh iospocl lo volumo al a ialo of
d1
da
=
1
12
at:
:|
whon lho volumo is a = 20 ml. Wo inloipiol lhis lo moan lhal foi
volumos closo lo 20 ml, lho piossuio incioasos al a ialo of 1 alm poi
oach 12 ml oocioaso in volumo.
IXAMIII J Waloi is oiaining fiom a small holo in lho Lollom of
a cylinoiical can. Afloi t minulos, lho hoighl of lho waloi insioo lho
can is
j = (0.806t 1. 8828)
2
whoio j is in inchos. Whal is
J
J|
al t = 1 minulos afloi waloi Logins
lo oiain How is il inloipioloo
7-6: Waloi loaking fiom a 1ank
SoIutIon: 1ho chango in hoighl afloi 1 minulo ouo lo a small chango
^t = / is givon Ly
^j = (0.806 (1 /) 1. 8828)
2
(0.806 1 1. 8828)
2
= 0.088/ 0.08042/
2
As a iosull, lho oiloionco quolionl is
^j
^t
=
0.088/ 0.08042/
2
/
= 0.088 0.08042/
Applying lho limil as / appioachos 0 iosulls in lho oosiioo inslanla-
noous ialo of chango:
dj
dt
= lim
|0
^j
^t
= 0.088
i:
min
1hal is, lho lank is oiaining al a ialo of aLoul 0.088 inchos poi minulo
afloi 1 minulo has olapsoo.
RATLS OF CHANCL 87
1hn h: nhJ n.jh & hn &J ]nJ h J:.n. .n rnn| Chock youi Ioaoing
Average and Instantaneous YeIocIty
If r (t) oonolos lho posilion of an oLjocl al limo t, lhon lho ooiivalivo r
t
(j) is
oflon wiillon as (j) ano is calloo lho .nnnnn& |.j of lho oLjocl al limo
t = j. Moioovoi, if r (t) is a polynomial, lhon wo can calculalo lho ooiivalivo r
t
(j)
using lho oolnilion of oiloionliaLilily.
IXAMIII ! Supposo a r (t) = 60t 6.1t
2
is lho hoighl of an oLjocl
aLovo lho suifaco of Mais, in fool, al limo t in soconos. How fasl is
lho piojoclilo liavoling al t = 1 soconos
SoIutIon: 1o lno lho volocily r
t
(1) , wo oxpano r (1 /):
r (1 /) = 60 (1 /) 6.1 (1 /)
2
= 8.0 47.8/ 6.1/
2
1hus, r
t
(1) = 47.8, which moans lhal lho oLjocl has a volocily afloi 1
socono of
(1) = 47.8
)t
soc
Ialos of chango aio pailiculaily impoilanl in lho sluoy of :].| n.n. In
pailiculai, in lho lalo 100`s, Galiloo Galiloi showoo lhal if an oLjocl has a hoighl
r
0
ano a volocily
0
al limo t = 0, lhon lho hoighl of lho oLjocl al limo t is
r (t) = r
0

0
t
1
2
pt
2
(1.87)
whoio p is lho n|:n.n J& j:n.j, which is aLoul 82 fool poi socono poi
socono noai lho oailh`s suifaco.
IXAMIII Supposo a iock is oioppoo fiom a Luiloing lhal is 64
fool lall. Noglocling aii iosislanco ano supposing lhal limo t = 0
coiiosponos lo lho momonl lho iock is ioloasoo, lno lho following:
a) 1ho moool (1.87) of lho iock`s hoighl r (t) as a funclion of t.
L) 1ho limo al which lho iock sliikos lho oailh.
c) 1ho volocily of lho iock whon il sliikos lho oailh.
SoIutIon: a) 1ho inilial hoighl of lho iock is 64 fool, ano lho inilial
volocily is
0
= 0 sinco lho iock is nol moving piioi lo Loing ioloasoo.
1hus, (1.87) implios lhal al limo t, lho iock will havo a hoighl of
r (t) = 64 16t
2
L) 1ho iock will sliiko lho oailh whon lho iock`s hoighl is 0. Solling
r (t) = 0 yiolos
64 16t
2
= 0
16 (2 t) (2 t) = 0
1ho solulions aio t = 2 ano t = 2. 1ho iock is moving only foi
posilivo limo, so lhal wo concluoo lhal lho iock falls foi t = 2 soconos
Lofoio il ioachos lho giouno.
c) 1ho volocily whon lho iock sliikos lho oailh is (2) . 1o lno (2) ,
wo nolico lhal r (2) = 0 ano lhal
r (2 /) = 64 16 (2 /)
2
= 64/ 16/
2
(1.88)
Sinco lho coomcionl of / is 64, wo concluoo lhal lho volocily wilh
which lho iock sliikos lho oailh is
(2) = 64
)t
soc
1hn .
J:
J|
n t = 2 &hn r (t) = 64 16t
2
Chock youi Ioaoing
unerIcaI HeresentatIons
Il is nol always possiLlo lo calculalo lho limil implioo in oolnilion 7.1. In such
casos, wo oflon uso a numoiical iopiosonlalion lo oslimalo lho oosiioo ialo of
chango.
IXAMIII 0 Lslimalo lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) = sin(a) al a = .
SoIutIon: Sinco ^j = sin( /) sin() ano sinco sin() = 0, lho
oiloionco quolionl is
^j
â
=
sin( /)
/
1hus, )
t
() is givon Ly
)
t
() = lim
|0
sin( /)
/
which wo cannol (yol) ovalualo in closoo foim. Insloao, lol us uso a
numoiical iopiosonlalion:
/ -0.1 -0.01 0 0.01 0.1
sIn(t|)
|
-0.008 -0.00008 -0.00008 -0.008
1his loaos us lo oslimalo lhal
)
t
() = lim
|0
sin( /)
/
- 1
IXAMIII 7 Supposo lhal lho iovonuo 1 in lhousanos of oollais as
a funclion of lho numLoi a of a coilain aulomoLilo availaLlo foi salo is
1(a) = 2a 2a
0.l23
How fasl is lho iovonuo changing whon lhoio aio 100 aulomoLilos
RATLS OF CHANCL 80
SoIutIon: 1ho oiloionco quolionl al a = 100 is
1(100 /) 1(100)
/
=
_
2 (100 /) 2 (100 /)
0.l23
_
_
200 2 (100)
0.l23
_
/
1ho ooiivalivoi.o., lho ialo of chango of iovonuois lhus givon Ly
lho limil
d1
da
= lim
|0
_
2 (100 /) 2 (100 /)
0.l23
_
_
200 2 (100)
0.l23
_
/
1ho limil cannol Lo ovalualoo in closoo foim, so wo insloao uso a
numoiical iopiosonlalion:
/ -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1
1(l00|)1(l00)
|
2.0048 2.0048 2.0048 2.0048 2.0048 2.0048
As a iosull, lho ialo of chango in lho iovonuo afloi solling 100 aulomo-
Lilos is
d1
da
= lim
|0
1(100 /) 1(100)
/
- $20, 048 jcr car -o|d
Lxoicisos:
1 J]n..n 7.1 n|&|n )
t
(j) , &h.h . h .nnnnn& :n J hnnj J
) (a) n h j.n .n& .
1. ) (a) = 8a
2
, j = 1 2. ) (a) = a
2
, j = 1
8. ) (a) = a 8a
2
, j = 0 4. ) (a) = a
2
8a, j = 1
. ) (a) = 8a 2, j = 1 6. ) (a) = 8a 2, j = 2
7. ) (a) = a
3
, j = 0 8. ) (a) = a
d
, j = 0
0. ) (a) =
1
a 1
, j = 2 10. ) (a) =
1
_
a 1
, j = 8
11. ) (a) = a a
l
, j = 1 12. ) (a) = a
3
8
_
a, j = 1
18. ) (a) = a
l/2
, j = 4 14. ) (a) = a
l/3
, j = 8
1nh J h J||&.nj &: . h nJ| J n J.nn :n|J r .n J n n j.n
.n t .n nJ. 1.nJ h |.j J h h] n h j.n .n. 1 &:
.n|&J &n..
1. r = 16t
2
, j = 1 soc 16. r = 6.1t
2
, j = 1 soc
17. r = 64 16t
2
, j = 1 soc 18. r = 64 6.1t
2
, j = 1 soc
10. r = 106t 6.1t
2
, j = 0 soc 20. r = 106t 16t
2
, j = 2 soc
21. r = 6 20t 6.1t
2
, j = 0. soc 22. r = 20 68t 16t
2
, j = 0.8 soc
28. r
0
= 64,
0
= 0, j = 2 soc 24. r
0
= 64,
0
= 0, j = 1 soc
on lho oailh on Mais (p = 12.2
}|
soc
)
1r:. .- n| j& n|&|n nnJ .n:: :n J hnnj. 1n J.nj , h
&: .n|&J h &n. J: h :n J hnnj ;&h n J||n: : h.:, .nh
: n.n&, .).
25. Lslimalo )
t
(2) whon ) (0) = sin(0) using a numoiical iopiosonlalion, whoio
) (0) is in molois ano 0 is in iaoians.
26. Lslimalo )
t
(0) whon ) (0) = lan(0) using a numoiical iopiosonlalion, whoio
) (0) is in molois ano 0 is in iaoians.
27. An oil slick`s aioa is incioasing al a conslanl ialo of squaio milos poi houi
has a iaoius r al limo t of
r (t) =
_
t :i|c-
How fasl is lho iaoius incioasing afloi 1 houi
7-7: An oil slick wilh iaoius r (t) =
_
t
28. In lho oil slick in oxoiciso 27, supposo insloao lhal lho iaoius r as a funclion
of t is givon Ly
r = t :i|c-
How fasl is lho aioa of lho slick incioasing afloi 1 houi
29. Uso (1.87) lo oxplain why lho voilical posilion of an oLjocl lhiown sliaighl
up wilh an inilial volocily of 12 fool poi socono fiom a hoighl of 4 fool aLovo
lho oailh is givon Ly lho posilion funclion r = 16t
2
12t 4. How fasl is
lho Lall moving afloi 1 socono
30. Supposo a Lall is iolloo ol of a lovol laLlo which is foui fool high.
(a) Uso (1.87) lo oxplain why lho hoighl r (t) in fool of lho Lall al limo
t soconos afloi il loavos lho oogo of lho laLlo is
r (t) = 4 16t
2
(L) Whal is lho avoiago volocily of lho Lall as il falls fiom t = 0.4 lo
t = 0. soconos
(c) Whal is lho avoiago volocily of lho Lall as il falls fiom t = 0.40 lo
t = 0. soconos
(o) Whal is lho volocily of lho Lall whon il sliikos lho giouno al t = 0.
soconos
31. A coilain oLjocl is oioppoo fiom a hoighl of 64 fool n `n:. Il`s hoighl t
soconos afloi Loing oioppoo is
r (t) = 64 6.1t
2
Uso r (t) lo answoi lho following quoslions.
(a) Whal is lho avoiago volocily of lho oLjocl as il falls fiom limo t = 1
lo limo t = 1.1 (i.o., / = 0.1)
RATLS OF CHANCL 01
(L) Whal is lho avoiago volocily of lho oLjocl as il falls fiom limo t = 1
lo limo t = 1.01 (i.o., / = 0.01).
(c) Whal is lho inslanlanoous volocily of lho oLjocl al limo t = 1
(o) Whal is lho volocily of lho Lall whon il sliikos lho giouno al t = 1
soconos
32. A iock is oioppoo fiom a hoighl of 80 fool n `n:. Il`s hoighl t soconos
laloi is
r (t) = 80 6.1t
2
1ho samo iock oioppoo on oailh fiom 80 fool woulo havo a hoighl t soconos
laloi of
- (t) = 80 16t
2
(a) How long unlil lho lisl iock hils lho suifaco of Mais (i.o., unlil
r (t) = 0)
(L) How long unlil lho socono iock hils lho suifaco of Lailh (i.o., unlil
- (t) = 0)
(c) Whal is lho volocily of lho iock whon il sliikos lho suifaco of Mais
(o) Whal is lho volocily of lho iock whon il sliikos lho suifaco of Lailh
33. Lol o(t) = 2t
2
20t 1 Lo lho numLoi of inoiviouals in a laigo moliopolilan
aioa showing colo symploms al limo t in oays sinco lho lisl inoivioual in
lho aioa showoo colo symploms. Whal is lho ialo of chango of lho numLoi
of pooplo showing colo symploms inilially (i.o., al t = 0)
34. In oxoiciso 88, whal is lho ialo of chango of lho numLoi of pooplo showing
colo symploms afloi 20 oays
35. A 8.2 inch lall soup can is llloo wilh waloi ano a small holo is punchoo in
lho Lollom of lho can allowing lho waloi lo oiain oul. 1ho hoighl j in inchos
of lho waloi in lho can al limo t in minulos sinco waloi Logan oiaining is
moooloo Ly
j = 0.00t
2
1.08t 8.2
How fasl is lho hoighl of lho waloi oiopping inilially Afloi 1 minulo
36. 1ho lompoialuio in oogioos Colsius of an oLjocl is foi a shoil poiioo of limo
appioximaloo Ly T(t) = 2.8t
2
0.12t 81 whoio t is lho limo in minulos
sinco lho inilial lompoialuio ioaoing. How fasl is lho lompoialuio changing
afloi 1 minulos
37. Lol j = 0.007a 82 Lo lho piico poi shiil in oollais whon a numLois of
shiils aio solo ano lol 1 oonolo lho iovonuo fiom lho salo of shiils.
(a) Lxplain why 1 = aj ano ooloimino lho iovonuo cuivo Ly suLsli-
luling foi j.
(L) Whal is
J1
Ji
whon a = 1000 Whal ooos il moan
(c) Whal is lho avoiago ialo of chango of 1 as a changos fiom 1000 lo
1001. Whal ooos il moan How is il iolaloo lo (L)
38. Lol 1 = t
3
2t
2
80t 88 Lo lho populalion of a suLuiL of a coilain cily
al limo t, whoio t is lho numLoi of yoais sinco DocomLoi 81, 108.
(a) How fasl is lho suLuiL`s populalion changing inilially
(L) How fasl is lho suLuiL`s populalion changing afloi 1 yoais
39. VrIte to Learn
4
: On mosl aulomoLilos, a spoooomoloi iopoils lho ialio
of lho ciicumfoionco of lho oiivoshafl lo lho limo ioquiioo foi lho oiivoshafl
lo mako ono iovolulion. Wiilo a shoil ossay which usos lho concopl of ialo
of chango lo oxplain why lho spoooomoloi ioaoing al a givon limo is a gooo
appioximalion of lho inslanlanoous spooo of lho aulomoLilo.
40. Galiloo usoo inclinoo Loaios lo sluoy volocily. In pailiculai, ho showoo lhal
noglocling fiiclion, a Lall ioloasoo fiom a poinl on a Loaio inclinoo al an
anglo 0 woulo afloi t soconos havo liavoloo a oislanco in fool of r (t) =
16t
2
sin0
7-8: Lall is iolling oown a plano of longlh 1
(a) Whal is r (t) whon lho Loaio is inclinoo al an anglo of 0 = 80
(L) How long ooos il lako foi lho Lall lo ioll foui fool
(c) Consliucl a laLlo of avoiago volocilios al lho limo in (/) wilh /
Locoming closoi ano closoi lo 0. Whal is lho volocily of lho Lall
afloi il has iolloo foui fool
(o) J:j . &! Uso a slopwalch lo limo a Lall which iolls oown a foui
fool long Loaio inclinoo al a 80
anglo. Doos il malch lho iosull

in (L)
Solf 1osl
n:.j J j&.n n: n|J .n n n:.j J &nj .n h :h|n h|&. n&:
n nnnj J h j&.n h|& n .h| hJ: ||.nj n h nn&: .n h hn|
J h h|.
1. Answoi oach slalomonl as liuo oi falso.
(a) A polynomial musl havo only ono oulpul valuo foi oach inpul valuo
(L) A funclion musl havo only ono inpul valuo foi oach oulpul valuo.
(c) Foi j = a
n
a
n
a
nl
a
nl
... a
l
a a
0
, lho langonl lino al an inpul
of 0 is j = a
l
a a
0
.
(o) If )(/) = a
0
a
l
/ a
2
/
2
... a
n
/
n
ano / is closo lo 0, lhon lho
highoi powois of / conliiLulo moio lo )(/) lhan oo lho lowoi powois
of /.
(o) A langonl lino lo a cuivo cannol inloisocl a cuivo moio lhan onco.
(f) Foi a cuivo givon Ly j = )(a), lho slopo of lho langonl lino lo lho cuivo
al a poinl (j, )(j)) may in somo casos oiloi fiom )
t
(j).
(g) 1ho oxpiossion
_
l|l
|
is lho slopo of a socanl lino lo lho cuivo j =
_
a
lhiough (1, 1).
4
Wiilo lo Loain" oxoicisos aio applicalions in which lho solulion shoulo Lo piosonloo wilh
complolo sonloncos ano suppoiling oxplanalions.
RATLS OF CHANCL 08
(h) 1ho slopo of lho socanl lino lo a cuivo givos lho avoiago ialo of chango
of lho funclion Lolwoon lwo poinls on lho cuivo, whoioas lho slopo of
lho langonl lino givos lho inslanlanoous ialo of chango of lho funclion
al a poinl.
(i) lim
|0
p(/) is always lho samo as p (0).
(j) Foi j = )(a), if a has unils in :ctcr- ano j has unils in kilogiams
lhon
J
Ji
has unils in kilogiams:ctcr.
(a) Fiom lho laLlo
a 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001
)(a) 2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001 2.00001
ono can concluoo lhal lim
i0
)(a) = 2.
(L) If a funclion is conlinuous al a poinl j, lhon lho funclion musl havo a
limil as a appioachos j.
(c) If a funclion is conlinuous al a poinl j, lhon lho funclion musl havo a
ooiivalivo al j.
(o) If lim
i0
)(a) = 8, lhon lho cuivo j = )(a) has a hoiizonlal asymplolo of
j = 8.
(o) If lim
i
)(a) = 1, lhon )(a) musl Lo conlinuous al j.
(f) Lvoiy polynomial funclion is conlinuous ovoiywhoio.
(g) Lvoiy ialional funclion is conlinuous ovoiywhoio.
(h) If lim
ic
)(a) = 0 ano lim
ic
p(a) = 0 lhon il follows lhal lim
ic
}(i)
(i)
= 1.
(i) dj is lho chango in lho j-cooioinalo along lho langonl lino lo j = ) (a)
as a changos fiom j lo j da.
(j) If )(/) = (2/ 8)
2
lhon o(/) = 2/
8. Which of lho following is lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = 2a
2
a8
whon j = 0
(a) j = 2a
2
a (L) j = 2a
2
8 (c) j = a 8 (o) j = 2a 8
4. Which of lho following is lho | of lho langonl lino lo j = 1 a 2a
2
al
j = 8
(a)
J
Ji
= 1 (L)
J
Ji
= 2 (c)
J
Ji
= 8 (o)
J
Ji
= 18 (o)
J
Ji
= 22 (f)
J
Ji
=
.
.i
. Which of lho following is not liuo of lho limil
lim
|0
_
8 /
_
8
/
(a) Il is )
t
(1) whon ) (a) =
_
a 2
(L) Il is )
t
(2) whon ) (a) =
_
a 1
(c) Il is )
t
(8) whon ) (a) =
_
a
(o) 1ho limil ooos nol oxisl.
6. If ) (a) = 2 a 2a
2
ano j = 2, lhon which of lho following is liuo:
(a) ) (2 /) = 20 18/ 2/
2
ano )
t
(2) = 20
(L) ) (2 /) = 2 / 2/
2
ano )
t
(2) =
(c) Zooming on lho giaph of ) (a) conloioo al j = 2 piooucos whal appoais
lo Lo a sliaighl lino wilh a slopo of 18.
(o) Zooming on lho giaph of ) (a) conloioo al j = 2 piooucos whal appoais
lo Lo a sliaighl lino wilh a slopo of
7. If lim
ic
)(a) =
_
88 ano lim
ic
p(a) =
_
2, lhon lim
ic
[)(a)p(a)[ =
(a)
_
88
_
2 (L)
_
8
_
2 (c)
_
48 (o) 48
8. lim
io
a
2
/
2
a /
=
(a) 1/ (L) / (c) doc- nol oxisl (o) 2/ (o)
0
0
0. How many hoiizonlal asymplolos ooos lho following funclion havo
) (a) =
_
[a[ 1
[a[ 2
(a) 0 (L) 1 (c) 2 (o) 8
10. Which of lho following inloivals conlains lho valuo of lim
io
_
a
2
8 8
a 1
(a) (, 2) (L) (2, 0) (c) (0, 8) (o) (8, ) (o) ooos nol oxisl
11. Givon lhal lim
il
2i
3il
il
= 1, on which of lho following noighLoihooos of
j = 1 is lho funclion ) (a) =
2i
3il
il
wilhin = 0.1 of 1 Lul nol wilhin
= 0.01 of 1 foi all a ,= j in lhal noighLoihooo
(a) (0.04, 1.06) (L) (0.06, 1.04) (c) (0.006, 1.004) (o) (0.000, 1.00
12. Lach of lho following funclions is nol conlinuous al a poinl foi a oiloionl
ioason. Givo lho ioason foi lho oisconlinuily of oach ono.
(a) )(a) =
_
2a 8 i) a < 2
a
2
2 i) a _ 2
(L) )(a) =
_
_
_
2a 8 i) a < 2
2 i) a = 2
l
2
a i) a 2
(c) )(a) =
a
2
0
a 8
(o) ) (a) =
_
[a[ i) a ,= 2
1 i) a = 2
18. Whal valuo of / lhal makos lho following funclion conlinuous al a = 1
)(a) =
_
2a 8, a < 1
/a
2
, a _ 1
Is il oiloionliaLlo al a = 1 foi lhal valuo of / Why oi why nol
RATLS OF CHANCL 0
14. Lvalualo lho following limil, if il oxisls:
lim
i3
_
a
2
0
a 8
1. 1ho hoighl al limo t of a Lall lhiown upwaio is givon Ly r(t) = 410t16t
2
(a) How fai aLovo lho giouno is lho Lall al limo t = 0.
(L) Whal is lho avoiago volocily of lho Lall as il liavols fiom t = 0. lo
t = 0.1
(c) Whal is lho avoiago volocily of lho Lall as il liavols fiom t = 0. lo
t = 0.01
(o) Whal is lho Lall`s inslanlanoous volocily al t = 0. Is il falling oi
iising al t = 0.
16. Which of lho following limils is of lho foim
0
0
(a) lim
il
a
2
2a 1
a 1
(L) lim
il
a
2
1
a 1
(c) lim
i2
a 2
a
2
2
(o) lim
i0
a
a 1
17. Whal is lho valuo of lho limil lim
il
(a 2)
2
1
a 1

(a) 1 (L) 2 (c) 1 (o) 2
18. Uso lho limil oolnilion of lho ooiivalivo lo lno )
t
(2) whon ) (a) =
_
a 2
10. VrIte to Learn: In 2 oi 8 sonloncos, piovo lhal lim
i2
(2a 1) = 8 Ly lnoing
foi oach 0 a noighLoihooo (a, /) of j such lhal [) (a) 1[ < foi all
a in (a, /) wilh a ,= j. (1ho onopoinls a ano / of lho inloival shoulo Lo in
loims of ).
20. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo lwo sonloncos which oxplain how wo woulo compulo
)
t
(2) whon ) (a) = a
2
2.
LookIng ALead:
1ho laws of oxpononls ano lho piopoilios of lho liigonomoliic funclions will
Lo impoilanl in lho noxl chaploi. 1hus, in lho noxl fow paiagiaphs wo ioviow
lhoso impoilanl concopls.
If a 0 ano if : is a posilivo inlogoi, lhon
a
n
=a a . . . a
. .
n |Int~
Moioovoi, if : is a posilivo inlogoi, lhon wo oolno
a
n
=
1
a
n
If :, : aio inlogois wilh : 0, lhon ) (a) = a
n
a
n
is a polynomial wilh only
ono posilivo ioal iool, which is oolnoo lo Lo a
n/n
.
L1: Dolnilion of a
n/n
Il follows lhal if j ano aio posilivo inlogois, lhon
a
a
j
=a a . . . a
. .
|Int~
a a . . . a
. .
j |Int~
=a a . . . a
. .
j |Int~
= a
j
Foi oxamplo, 7
2
7
3
= (7 7) (7 7 7) = 7
23
. Likowiso, wo can show lhal
(a
)
j
= a
. . . a
. .
j |Int~
= a
q t1rcs
..
j j . . . j
= a
j
Foi oxamplo,
_
2
_
3
=
2

2

2
=
222
=
23
. Moioovoi, a
n
=
l
o
r
implios lhal
a
n
a
n
= 1, ano in aooilion,
a
n
a
n
=
n |Int~
..
a a . . . a
a a . . . a
. .
n |Int~
= a
nn
As a iosull,
o
r
o
r
= a
nn
, which implios lhal a
0
= 1.
KEY COCEIT: Lavs oI Exonents
If a 0 ano :, : aio inlogois, lhon
(1) a
n
a
n
= a
nn
(2) (a
n
)
n
= a
nn
(8) a
nn
=
a
n
a
n
(4) a
0
= 1
In aooilion, if a 0 ano / 0, lhon a lflh law of oxpononls says lhal
() (a/)
n
= a
n
/
n
IXAMIII 1 Simplify lho oxpiossion
_
4a
2
_
3
j
7
7aj
2
assuming a 0 ano
j 0.
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, piopoily () implios lhal
_
4a
2
_
3
j
7
7aj
2
=
4
3
_
a
2
_
3
j
7
7aj
2
RATLS OF CHANCL 07
Iiopoily (2) lhon implios lhal
_
4a
2
_
3
j
7
7aj
2
=
4
3
_
a
2
_
3
j
7
7aj
2
=
64a
6
j
7
7aj
2
As a iosull, piopoily (8) implios lhal
_
4a
2
_
3
j
7
7aj
2
=
4
3
_
a
2
_
3
j
7
7aj
2
=
64a
6
j
7
7aj
2
=
64
7
a
6l
j
72
=
64
7
a
5
j
5
.
1ho sluoy of liigonomoliy Logins wilh :nJ.nn nn&:. In pailiculai, if 1 is a
poinl on lho unil ciiclo ano if 0 is lho anglo Lolwoon lho posilivo a-axis ano lho
iay fiom lho oiigin lhiough 1, lhon lho :nJ.nn nn&: of 0 is lho aiclonglh on
lho unil ciiclo moasuioo counloiclockwiso fiom lho a-axis lo lho poinl 1.
L2: 1ho iaoian moasuio of 0 is lho longlh of lho aic
il suLlonos on lho unil ciiclo
(Moio gonoially, lho iaoian moasuio of an anglo is lho ialio of lho aiclonglh of a
ciiclo suLlonooo Ly lhal anglo lo lho iaoius of lho ciiclo. 1hus, iaoian moasuio
is J.nn.n|, which is lo say lhal il has no unils liko fool, molois, giams, oi
pounos).
Ono j|lhal is, ono limo aiouno lho unil ciiclohas a moasuio of 2. Olhoi
anglos in iaoian moasuio aio likowiso oolnoo as fiaclions of lho ciicumfoionco of
lho unil ciiclo.
L8: 0 = , 0 = 2, 0 =
t
2
, ano 0 =
3t
2
Nogalivo anglos coiiospono lo anglos moasuioo ||&. fiom lho posilivo a-axis.
If 0 is lho :nJ.nn nn&: of lho anglo foimoo Ly lho a-axis ano lho iay fiom
lho oiigin lhiough a poinl 1 on lho unil ciiclo, lhon lho cooioinalos of 1 aio
_
cos (0) , sin(0)
_
.
L2: Dolnilion of cos (0) ano sin(0)

Sinos ano cosinos of somo common anglos aio summaiizoo Lolow:
0 0
t
6
t
d
t
3
t
2
sin(0) 0
l
2
_
2
2
_
3
2
1
cos(0) 1
_
3
2
_
2
2
l
2
0
1ho :J:n nnj|

0 of an anglo 0 is oolnoo lo Lo lho smallosl posilivo anglo
Lolwoon lho loiminalion of 0 ano lho a-axis.
L4:

0 is lho iofoionco anglo 0
1ho quaoianl of an anglo 0 ooloiminos lho sign of lho sino oi cosino of lhal
anglo, as shown in lho laLlo Lolow:
L: Signs of Sino ano Cosino
1ho iofoionco anglo is lhon usoo lo ooloimino lho magniluoo of lho sino oi cosino.
IXAMIII 1 Compulo sin
_
dt
3
_
SoIutIon: Wo lisl iocognizo lhal lho anglo is in lho h.:J quaoianl
wilh a iofoionco anglo of

0 =
t
3
. Sinco lho lhiio quaoianl is Lolow lho
0 is lho Giook lolloi lhola," ano is oflon usoo lo oonolo anglos.

RATLS OF CHANCL 00
a-axis, sin
_
dt
3
_
is nogalivo. ComLinoo wilh lho valuo fiom lho laLlo
aLovo, wo lno lhal
sin
_
4
8
_
=
_
8
2
Losioos lho sino ano cosino funclion, wo sluoy lho olhoi foui liigonomoliic func-
lions:
lan(a) =
sin(a)
cos (a)
(langonl of a) col (a) =
cos (a)
sin(a)
(colangonl of a)
soc (a) =
1
cos (a)
(socanl of a) csc (a) =
1
sin(a)
(cosocanl of a)
if lol a = cos (0) ano j = sin(0) , lhon (??) implios lhal
a
2
j
2
= cos
2
(0) sin
2
(0) = 1
Lxoicisos
5.n|.Jj h J||&.nj r:.n n&n.nj a 0 nnJ j 0.
1.
_
a
2
j
_
3
2. a
2
a
3
a
5
8.
_
4a
2
_
3/2
a
d
4. (2a)
3
(aj)
2
.
_
4a
2
j
_
3
8a
3
j
2
6.
_
_
2a
2
_
2
j
_
3
(8a
3
)
2
a
2
1n|&n h J||&.nj
7. cos(6) 8. sin(6)
0. cos(6) 10. sin(6)
11. cos(76) 12. sin(76)
18. cos(8) 14. sin(84)
1. cos(48) 16. sin(4)
17. Convoil lho iaoian moasuiomonl lo oogioos.
(a)

6
(L)
4
1
(c)
8
(o)
7
4
(o) 0.826
18. Convoil lho oogioo moasuiomonl lo iaoians.
(a) 18
(L) 810
(c) 21
(o) 1
(o) 128
19. Lvalualo lho following Ly lisl ooloimining lho iofoionco anglo ano quaoianl
of lho anglo.
20. In lhis oxoiciso, wo woik wilh lho ioonlily sin(2a) = 2 sin(a) cos (a)
(a) OLlain lhis ioonlily fiom (2.48) Ly lolling a = a.
(L) Lxpano lho following ano simplify lo a funclion of sin(2a):
(cos a sina)
2
Jh Ar 5... 1hj Jnnjn 1.n
Why oo wo sluoy langonl linos Why nol simply sluoy appioximalion in
gonoial Oui noxl slop is lo show lhal langonl linos piovioo infoimalion aLoul a
cuivo lhal cannol Lo oLlainoo fiom olhoi lypos of appioximalions.
In physics, il is shown lhal a iay of lighl iolocls ol of a lal suifaco al lho
samo anglo il sliikos lho suifaco.
Lav oI HeectIon: If a iay of lighl is iolocloo ol of a lal suifaco,
lhon lho onliio palh of lho lighl lios in a plano noimal lo lho suifaco
ano lho lho anglo of incioonco is oqual lo lho anglo of ioloclion.
NS-1: Law of Ioloclion
Lul whal if lho suifaco is cuivoo How oo wo piooicl lho anglo of ioloclion of a
iay of lighl ol of a cuivoo suifaco
1o answoi lhal, wo nolico lhal if lho suifaco has a langonl al lho poinl of
ioloclion, lhon il is piaclically lho samo as lho langonl lino lo lho suifaco al
lhal poinl. 1hus, wo may supposo lhal lho lighl iolocls ol of lho langonl in ioo
insloao of ol of lho suifaco.
NS-2: Ioloclion ol of a cuivoo suifaco
Wo can uso langonl linos lo sluoy piopoilios of paiaLolic ioloclois, which aio
usoo in a vaiioly of applicalions incluoing salollilo oishos ano hoaolighl ioloclois.
Foi oxamplo, lol us consiooi lhal if lho cioss-soclion of a paiaLolic iolocloi is
givon Ly
j =
a
2
4j
lhon any voilical iay which sliikos lho iolocloi will Lo oiiocloo lo lho J& of lho
paiaLola.
NS-8: IaiaLolic Iolocloi Diiocls Voilical Iays lo a common Focus
RATLS OF CHANCL 101
Lol`s uso lhis lo ooloimino lho cooioinalos of 1. 1o oo so, lol us assumo a
voilical iay sliikos lho iolocloi al a =
_
a,
o
d
_
ano conlinuos lo a poinl 1 on
lho j-axis. If 1 oonolos lho j-inloicopl of lho langonl lino al , lhon lho law of
ioloclion implios lhal lho liianglo 11 is isoscolos.
NS-4: ^11 is isoscolos
Moioovoi, lho poiponoiculai Lisocloi of lho lino sogmonl 1 passos lhiough
1. 1hus, wo nooo only show lhal lho slopo of 1 is
o
2
ano lhal lho miopoinl
of 1 is
_
o
2
, 0
_
. Il lhon follows lhal lho poiponoiculai Lisocloi of 1 is lho lino
wilh slopo
2
o
lhiough lho poinl
_
o
2
, 0
_
. 1ho j-inloicopl of lhis lino is lho focus,
1.
VrIte to Learn Complolo lho compulalion oosciiLoo in lho lasl paiagiaph lo
ooloimino lho cooioinalos of 1, ano lhon wiilo a shoil ossay wilh complolo
sonloncos which Logins wilh lho law of ioloclion ano onos wilh lho oomon-
slialion lhal a paiaLolic iolocloi iolocls voilical iays lowaio lho focus 1.
VrIte to Learn Localo lho focus of lho paiaLola givon Ly j = 8a a
2
Ly
ooloimining whoio lho ioloclion of lho voilical iay a = 1 inloisocls lho
voilical lino a = 1. which is lho axis of symmoliy of lho paiaLola . Iopoil
youi iosulls in a shoil ossay using complolo sonloncos.
VrIte to Learn Supposo lhal wo chooso lho poinl on lho paiaLola such lhal
lho sogmonl 1 in NS-4 is hoiizonlal. Show lhal lhis happons whon lho
langonl lino has a slopo of 1. Uso lhoso iooas lo localo lho focus of lho
paiaLola Lolow.
NS-
Iopoil youi iosulls in a shoil ossay using complolo sonloncos.
VrIte to Learn Go lo lho liLiaiy oi oxploio lho inloinol lo loain moio aLoul
ioloclion piopoilios of cuivos. Iopoil youi iosulls in an ossay using complolo
sonloncos ano piovioing iofoioncos lo youi souicos.
Crou LearnIng Supposo a iolocloi has a cioss-soclion in lho shapo of lho
cuivo j = a
d
2a
2
1. Whal aio lho ioloclions of lho voilical iays lhiough
[2, 2[ wilh inciomonls ovoiy 0.2 unils (i.o., lho iays a = 2, a = 1.7,
a = 1., ano so on) Havo oach momLoi of lho gioup ooloimino a sol of
such ioloclions, ano lhon plol all lho ioloclions on a common giio. Discuss
lho iosulls ano lhon piosonl lho ioloclions ano lho iosulls in oilhoi a foimal
papoi oi a foimal piosonlalion.
JnnJ nr
{Advanced contexts are IncIuded at tLe end oI eacL cLater Ior tLose
students vLo vant sonetLIng a IIttIe nore cLaIIengIng)
Lllipsos ano hypoiLolas also havo ioloclion piopoilios iolaloo lo lhoii foci.
In pailiculai, if a / 0, lhon lho ollipso
a
2
a
2

j
2
/
2
= 1
has foci al (c, 0) ano (c, 0) , whoio lho numLoi c salislos /
2
c
2
= a
2
.
NS-6: Foci al (c, 0) ano (c, 0)
If wo lol 1
l
oonolo lho focus al (c, 0) ano lol 1
2
oonolo lho focus al (c, 0) , lhon
a iay omanaling fiom 1
l
will Lo iolocloo lo lho Focus al 1
2
, ano vico voisa. 1o
piovo lhis facl, wo nooo only show lhal c = a in lho lguio NS-7, assuming lhal
11
l
is paiallol lo 11
2
.
NS-7: Nooo lo show lhal c = a
1o oo so, wo nooo only piovo lhal lho liianglo 11
l
1 is isoscolos.
ExercIse 1 1 (a
l
, j
l
) Jn h :J.nn J 1. 1hn . h j&n.n J h
|.n h:&jh 1 nnjn h ||. .n ]j&: A5-7
ExercIse 2 1hn n: h :J.nn J 1 .n ]j&: A5-7
ExercIse 3 5h& hn [11
l
[ = [11
l
[ . 1hn J h. .n|j nh& c nnJ a
RATLS OF CHANCL 108
2. THL DLRlVATlVL
In chaploi 1, wo oxploioo langonl linos, linoaiizalions, ano ialos of chango al a
spocilc poinl. In lho lasl soclion of chaploi 1, wo usoo lho nolalion )
t
(j) lo
oonolo lho J:.n. of a funclion ) (a) al an inpul of j.
Wo aooploo lhis nolalion Locauso lho ooiivalivo is ilsolf a funclion. Il maps
inpuls j lo ialos of chango )
t
(j) . Moioovoi, lioaling lho ooiivalivo as a funclion
allows us lo oovolop iulos foi compuling ooiivalivos symLollically ano slialogios
foi applying ooiivalivos lo pioLloms lhioughoul malhomalics ano scionco.
In lhis chaploi, wo oxploio iulos foi lnoing ooiivalivos of an impoilanl class
of funclions known as lho |nnn:j J&n.n. Doing so will allow us lo mako
calculus Lioao in scopo Ly allowing us lo oolno ano oxploio somo of lho mosl
impoilanl funclions oncounloioo in malhomalics ano scionco.
2.1 The DerivaLive FuncLion
TLe DerIvatIve as a FunctIon
1ho ooiivalivo is ilsolf a funclion, in lhal il maps an inpul j lo an oulpul lhal
can Lo inloipioloo as oilhoi lho slopo of langonl lino lo j = ) (a) al j oi as lho
ialo of chango of ) (a) al j. 1hus, lhioughoul lho iomainooi of lhis chaploi, wo
conconlialo on lho piocoss of piooucing lho ooiivalivo funclion, a piocoss known
as J.]:n.n.n.
In pailiculai, lho ooiivalivo as a funclion of a is oonoloo Ly )
t
(a) , which Ly
oolnilion 7.1 salislos
)
t
(a) = lim
|0
) (a /) ) (a)
/
Alloinalivoly, whon ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo al a, lhon wo can compulo )
t
(a) Ly
ioonlifying il in lho oxpansion of ) (a /):
) (a /) = ) (a) )
t
(a) / o (/)
Moioovoi, wo oolno lho symLol
J
Ji
lo moan lho ooiivalivo of", so lhal lho oqua-
lion
)
t
(a) =
d
da
) (a)
liloially moans )
t
(a) is lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) ." Wo call
J
Ji
lho J:.n. :n:
sinco il iopiosonls lho acl of liansfoiming a givon funclion inlo ils ooiivalivo
funclion.
IXAMIII 1 Fino )
t
(a) foi ) (a) = a
2
.
SoIutIon: If ) (a) = a
2
, lhon ) (a /) = (a /)
2
, so lhal
) (a /) = a
2
2a/ /
2
THL DLRlVATlVL 10
Sinco 2a is lho coomcionl of /, lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) = a
2
is )
t
(a) =
2a. Wo wiilo lhis in opoialoi nolalion as
d
da
a
2
= 2a
IXAMIII 2 Fino )
t
(a) foi ) (a) = a
3
.
3
, lhon
) (a /) = (a /)
3
= a
3
8a
2
/ 8a/
2
/
3
which implios lhal )
t
(a) = 8a
2
. In opoialoi nolalion, lhis is wiillon
d
da
a
3
= 8a
2
In gonoial, if ) (a) = a
n
, lhon ) (a /) = (a /)
n
, which is oxpanooo using
Iascal`s liianglo. Nolico, howovoi, lhal lho lisl lwo coomcionls of lho :
||
iow of
Iascal`s liianglo aio 1 ano :, iospoclivoly. :
0 1
1 1 1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 8 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 1
6 1 6 1 20 1 6 1
7 1 7 21 8 8 21 7 1
.
.
.
: 1 :
As a iosull, lho oxpansion of (a /)
n
is of lho foim
(a /)
n
= a
n
:a
nl
/ o (/)
which implios lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) = a
n
is )
t
(a) = :a
nl
. In opoialoi foim,
lhis Locomos oui lisl iulo foi compuling ooiivalivos:
TLe Iover HuIe: If : is a posilivo inlogoi, lhon
d
da
a
n
= :a
nl
IXAMIII J Uso lho powoi iulo lo compulo
J
Ji
a
2
ano
J
Ji
a
3
.
SoIutIon: Whon : = 2 wo havo
d
da
a
2
= 2a
2l
= 2a
ano whon : = 8, wo havo
J
Ji
a
3
= 8a
2
.
1 h &: :&| n|&n
J
Ji
a
d
. Chock youi Ioaoing
106 THL DLRlVATlVL
DerIvatIves oI IoIynonIaIs
If ) (a) ano p (a) aio polynomials ano r (a) = ) (a) p (a) , lhon
r (a /) = ) (a /) p (a /)
) (a) )
t
(a) / o
l
(/) p (a) p
t
(a) / o
2
(/)
Collocling common loims yiolos
r (a) = ) (a) p (a) [)
t
(a) p
t
(a)[ / [o
l
(/) o
2
(/)[
1his implios lhal r
t
(a) = )
t
(a) p
t
(a) . In liko fashion, wo can oLlain oach of lho
following ooiivalivo iulos:
TLeoren 1.2 If ) (a) ano p (a) aio polynomials ano / is a conslanl,
lhon
d
da
() (a) p (a)) =
d
da
) (a)
d
da
p (a) (2.1)
d
da
() (a) p (a)) =
d
da
) (a)
d
da
p (a)
d
da
(/) (a)) = /
d
da
) (a)
d
da
/ = 0
1hooiom.2 ano lho powoi iulo allow us lo compulo lho ooiivalivo of a polynomial.
IXAMIII ! Fino )
t
(a) foi ) (a) = a
3
8a 2.
SoIutIon: 1hooiom .2 implios lhal
)
t
(a) =
d
da
_
a
3
8a 2
_
=
_
d
da
a
3
_
8
_
d
da
a
l
_
_
d
da
2
_
Sinco 2 is a conslanl, ils ialo of chango is 0. 1hus, lho powoi iulo
implios lhal
)
t
(a) = 8a
2
8 1a
0
0 = 8a
2
8
IXAMIII Fino )
t
(a) foi ) (a) = a
2
(a ) .
SoIutIon: Fiisl, wo oisliiLulo lho a
2
lo oLlain ) (a) = a
3
a
2
. As
a iosull, lho powoi iulo ano lhooiom .2 imply lhal
)
t
(a) =
d
da
_
a
3
a
2
_
= 8a
2
10a
Moioovoi, wo oolno lho nJ J:.n. )
tt
(a) lo Lo lho ooiivalivo of )
t
(a) , wo
oolno lho h.:J J:.n. )
ttt
tt
(a), ano in gonoial, wo
oolno lho :
||
ooiivalivo )
(n)
(nl)
(a) .
THL DLRlVATlVL FUNCTlON 107
IXAMIII 0 Fino )
t
, )
tt
, )
ttt
, ano )
(d)
foi ) (a) = a
5
6a
3
a
SoIutIon: 1ho lisl ooiivalivo is
)
t
(a) =
d
da
_
a
5
6a
3
a
_
=
_
d
da
a
5
_
6
_
d
da
a
3
_
d
da
a
= a
d
18a
2
1
1ho socono ooiivalivo )
tt
(a) is lhon oLlainoo Ly oiloionlialing )
t
(a) .
1hal is,
)
tt
(a) =
d
da
_
a
d
18a
2
1
_
= 20a
3
86a
1ho lhiio ooiivalivo )
ttt
(a) is givon Ly
)
ttt
(a) =
d
da
)
tt
(a) = 60a
2
86
ano lho fouilh ooiivalivo is
)
(d)
(a) =
d
da
_
60a
2
86
_
= 120a
1hn . h ]Jh J:.n. )
(5)
(a) J ) (a) = a
5
6a
3
a Chock youi Ioaoing
YeIocIty and AcceIeratIon
If r (t) oonolos lho posilion of an oLjocl al limo t, lhon r
t
(t) is lho inslanlanoous
|.j of lho oLjocl ano is usually oonoloo (t). Moioovoi, r
tt
(t) =
t
(t) is lho
inslanlanoous ialo of chango of lho volocily, which is known as lho n|:n.n,
a (t) , of lho oLjocl al limo t. 1hal is, wo oolno
a(t) = r
tt
(t)
In oiloionlial nolalion, volocily ano accoloialion aio givon Ly
=
dr
dt
ano a (t) =
d
2
r
dt
2
whoio
J
:
J|
is lho oiloionlial nolalion foi lho socono ooiivalivo.

IXAMIII 7 Fino lho volocily ano accoloialion of an oLjocl in fioo
fall whoso hoighl in fool al limo t in soconos is
r (t) = 64t 16t
2
SoIutIon: 1ho volocily (t) is lho ooiivalivo of r (t), which is
(t) =
dr
dt
= 64 82t
108 THL DLRlVATlVL
1ho accoloialion a(t) is lho nJ J:.n. of r (t) , which is
a (t) =
d
2
r
dt
2
=
d
dt
(64 82t) = 82
IXAMIII 8 Fino lho volocily ano accoloialion of an oLjocl whoso
posilion al limo t is givon Ly r (t) = t (t 2)
2
.
SoIutIon: Fiisl, wo oxpano lho squaio lo oLlain
r (t) = t
_
t
2
4t 4
_
DisliiLuling t lhon yiolos r (t) = t
3
4t
2
4t, so lhal lho volocily is
(t) =
dr
dt
=
d
dt
_
t
3
4t
2
4t
_
= 8t
2
8t 4
As a iosull, lho accoloialion is givon Ly
a (t) =
d
2
r
dt
2
=
d
dt
_
8t
2
8t 4
_
= 6t 8
1& . h n|:n.n a (t) J nn h] :|nJ . |.j Chock youi Ioaoing
Aore vItL OLjects In Free-IaII
Iocall lhal if an oLjocl in fioo fall has a hoighl r
0
ano a volocily
0
al limo t = 0,
lhon ils hoighl r (t) al limo t is givon Ly Galiloo`s moool of piojoclilo molion,
r (t) = r
0

0
t
1
2
pt
2
(2.2)
whoio p oonolos lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily noai lhal planol`s suifaco. 1ho
volocily (t) = r
t
(t) is lho ialo of chango of lho oLjocl al limo t, which can Lo
usoo lo sluoy lho molion of lho piojoclilo.
Foi oxamplo, an oLjocl ioachos ils maximum hoighl whon ils volocily changos
fiom posilivo lo nogalivo. 1hal is, lho limo t al whal lho oLjocl ioachos ils
maximum hoighl is lho samo limo al which (t) = 0. 1hus, lo lno lho maximum
hoighl of an oLjocl in fioo fall, wo solvo (t) = 0 foi t ano lhon compulo r al lhal
limo.
IXAMIII 0 Fino lho moool (2.2), lho volocily (t) , ano lho max-
imum hoighl of a iock which is piojocloo voilically fiom lho oailh`s
suifaco wilh a volocily of 64 fool poi socono (i.o., aLoul 48 mph).
SoIutIon: Ils inilial hoighl is r
0
= 0, so (2.2) implios lhal ils hoighl r
al limo t is
r (t) = 64t 16t
2
sinco p = 82 foolsoc
2
noai lho suifaco of lho oailh. Il follows lhal lho
volocily of lho iock is (t) = 64 82t. If wo sol (t) = 0 ano solvo, wo
oLlain
64 82t = 0
t = 2 soc
1hal is, lho oLjocl musl havo ioachoo a maximum hoighl whon t = 2.
SuLsliluling t = 2 inlo r (t) lhon yiolos lho iock`s maximum hoighl,
which is r (2) = 64 (2) 16 (2)
2
= 64 fool.
1-1: Iiojoclilo launchoo fiom lho oailh`s suifaco
IXAMIII 10 Fino lho moool (2.2), lho volocily (t) , ano lho max-
imum hoighl of a iock which is piojocloo voilically fiom lho suifaco of
Mais wilh a volocily of 64 fool poi socono.
SoIutIon: Noai lho suifaco of Mais, lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily is
p = 12.2 fl.soc
2
. 1hus, lho iock`s hoighl al limo t is
r (t) = 64t 6.1t
2
1ho volocily of lho iock is (t) = 64 12.2t, so lhal solling (t) = 0
yiolos
64 12.2t = 0
t = .246 soc
SuLsliluling t = .246 inlo r (t) yiolos
r (.246) = 64 (.246) 6.1 (.246)
2
= 168 )cct, 10 i:c/c-
1hal is, lho iock will iiso much highoi aLovo lho suifaco of Mais lhan
il woulo aLovo lho suifaco of lho oailh.
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ )
t
(a) nnJ )
tt
(a).
1. ) (a) = a
5
2. ) (a) = a
7
8. )(a) = a
2
2a 8 4. )(a) = 2a
2
8
. )(a) = 8a
S
a
2
6. ) (a) = a
5
2a
3
7. ) (a) = 2a
3
a 4a
2
10 8. ) (a) = 2a
d
2a
3
a 1
0. )(a) = 8a
5
4a
3
2a
2
28a 17 10. )(a) = 8a
5
17a
2
2a 1
11. )(a) = (2a 1)
2
12. )(a) = (a
2
8)
2
18. )(a) = 2 a 14. )(a) = 6 a
1. )(a) = 0.8a 2. 16. ) (a) = 8.2 0.7a
17. )(a) = 0.1a
2
0.84a 0.62 18. )(a) = 10.4a 8.7a
2
0.8a
l0
10. ) (a) =
_
a
2
1
_ _
a
5
2
_
20. )(a) = (a
3
)
2
(4a
2
0.a)
21. ) (a) =
a
3
2a
a
22. ) (a) =
a
d
2a
3
a 2
110 THL DLRlVATlVL
1.nJ h |.j nnJ n|:n.n J nn h] &h ..n n .n t . r (t):
28. r (t) = 16t
2
24. r (t) = 64 16t
2
2. r (t) = 0t 4.8t
2
26. r (t) = 7 17t 4.8t
2
27. r (t) = 8t 10t
d
28. r (t) = 8t
3
10t
d
20. r (t) = t (16 t)
2
80. r (t) = (t 1) (16 t)
2
31. Fino lho spociloo ooiivalivos. 1hoso musl Lo oono in lho oiooi givon.
(a) Fino )
(d)
(a) if ) (a) = a
3
8a 1
(L) Fino )
(6)
(a) if ) (a) = a
5
8a
2
2a 8
(c) Fino )
(7)
(a) if ) (a) = a
6
(o) Fino )
(S)
(a) if ) (a) = a
7
(o) Fino )
(ll)
(a) if ) (a) = a
l0
(f) Fino )
(l00)
(a) if ) (a) = a
99
88a
95
17a
S0
8a
77
18a
27
1
32. Whal is lho gonoial foim of a funclion whoso socono ooiivalivo is ioonlically
zoio
33. Using (2.2), lno lho hoighl r(t) of lho oLjocl aLovo lho giounoi.o., lho
oailh`s suifacoal limo t. 1hon volocily of lho oLjocl..
(a) An oLjocl is oioppoo fiom a winoow 80 fl. ol of lho giouno.
(L) A iock is lhiown voilically upwaio wilh an inilial volocily of 20
fl.soc. 1ho lhiowoi ioloasos lho oLjocl . fl. aLovo lho giouno.
(c) A Lall iolls ol of a lovol laLlo 4 fl. high. (i.o., inilial :.n|
volocily is 0)
34. Supposing lhal lho suifaco giavily of Mais is appioximaloly 12.2 fl.soc.
2
,
uso (2.2) lo lno lho funclion r(t) giving lho hoighl of lho oLjocl aLovo lho
suifaco of Mais al limo t. 1hon lno lho volocily (t) .
(a) An oLjocl is oioppoo fiom a winoow 80 fl. ol of lho giouno.
(L) A iock is lhiown voilically upwaio wilh an inilial volocily of 20
fl.soc. 1ho lhiowoi ioloasos lho oLjocl . fl. aLovo lho giouno.
(c) A Lall iolls ol of a lovol laLlo 4 fl. high.
(o) An oLjocl oiops fiom a winoow 88 fl. aLovo lho giouno. Il sliikos
a oock on lho lisl looi, 12 fl. aLovo lho giouno. Il lhon iolls
hoiizonlally foi 2 soconos Lofoio falling lho iomaining oislanco lo
lho giouno.
35. CraLer: Supposo lhal a LasoLall is lhiown upwaio fiom a hoighl of 7.
fool wilh an inilial volocily of 78 fool poi socono (i.o., aLoul 0 milos poi
houi). If lhiown noai lho oailh`s suifaco, lho posilion of lho oLjocl al limo
t is
r (t) = 7. 78t 16t
2
whilo if lhiown noai lho suifaco of Mais, lho posilion of lho oLjocl al limo
t is
- (t) = 7. 78t 6.1t
2
Uso a giaphoi lo answoi lho following:
(a) How much highoi will lho Lall`s maximum hoighl Lo on Mais lhan
on lho Lailh
(L) How much longoi will il Lo alofl on Mais lhan on lho Lailh
36. Supposo lhal a LasoLall is lhiown upwaio fiom a hoighl of 7. fool wilh an
inilial volocily of 110 fool poi socono (i.o., aLoul 7 milos poi houi).
(a) Whal is lho posilion of lho Lall t soconos afloi ioloaso if lho lhiowoi
is slanoing on lho oailh
(L) Whal is lho posilion of lho Lall t soconos afloi ioloaso if lho lhiowoi
is slanoing on Mais
(c) How much highoi will lho Lall`s maximum hoighl Lo on Mais lhan
on lho Lailh
(o) How much longoi will il Lo alofl on Mais lhan on lho oailh
37. Giaph lho implioo hoighl funclions aLovo oach planol, ano lhon uso lho
giaphs lo answoi lho following:
(a) Which iomains alofl foi lho longosl poiioo of limoa Lall oioppoo
fiom 100 fool on lho oailh`s suifaco oi a Lall oioppoo fiom 80 fool
on Mais` suifaco
(L) Which has lho gioalosl hoighla Lall lhiown upwaio fiom lho
oailh`s suifaco wilh an inilial volocily of 100 fool poi socono oi a
Lall lhiown upwaio fiom Mais` suifaco wilh an inilial volocily of
0 fool poi socono
38. * A iock lhiown inlo lho aii fiom an inilial hoighl of r
0
= 0 ioluins lo lho
oailh`s suifaco T soconos laloi. Whal is lho maximum hoighl of lho iock as
a funclion of T
39. CraLer: Compulo )
t
(a) foi ) (a) = a
3
8a
2
1. 1hon giaph ) (a) ano
)
t
(a) on [1, 8[ . Whoio ooos lho laigosl valuo of ) (a) occui Al whal valuo
is )
t
(a) = 0 Can you oxplain lho connoclion hoio
40. CraLer: Uso ) (a) = a
3
8a
2
1 lo answoi lho following:
(a) Giaph Lolh ) (a) ano )
t
(a) on [1, 8[ . Whal is signilcanl aLoul
lho giaph of ) (a) on inloivals whoio )
t
(a) 0
(L) Giaph Lolh ) (a)ano )
tt
(a) on [1, 8[ . Aio langonl linos lo j =
) (a) aLovo oi Lolow lho cuivo ovoi inloivals whoio )
tt
(a) 0
41. * Galiloo ooloiminoo lhal lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily al lho oailh`s
suifaco is 82 fool poi socono poi socono Ly iolaling il lo lho volocily
J
al
lho Lollom of an inclinoo plano as shown Lolow.
1-2: Galiloo`s oxpoiimonl lo moasuio lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily
If lho Lall is inilially al iosl, lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily p is givon Ly
p =

2
J
2j
112 THL DLRlVATlVL
Doiivo lhis foimula using lho facl lhal lho oislanco r (t) lho Lall iolls along
lho iamp t soconos afloi Loing ioloasoo is
r (t) =
1
2
pt
2
sin0
42. Try It out! 1ho lnal volocily
J
is compuloo Ly moasuiing lho limo T
ioquiioo fiom lho Lall lo ioll fiom lo 1 afloi il has iolloo acioss lho
iamp. In lhis caso,
p =
(1 )
2
2jT
2
Ly making j voiy small in compaiison lo 1, lho limo T is laigo onough lo
moasuio wilh a slop walch oi ovon a wiisl walch. 1iy il oul using valuos
liko 1 = 4 fool, j = 8 inchos ano [1 [ = 4 fool. (Nolo: uso a hoavy Lall
which will nol slow appiociaLly Lolwoon poinls ano 1.)
43. Show lhal if ) (a) ano p (a) aio polynomials, lhon
d
da
() (a) p (a)) =
_
d
da
) (a)
_
_
d
da
p (a)
_
44. Show lhal if ) (a) is a polynomial ano / is conslanl, lhon
d
da
(/) (a)) = /
d
da
) (a)
45. VrIte to Learn: Common sonso lolls us lhal lho ialo of chango of a conslanl
is 0. In a shoil ossay, uso lhis common sonso facl lo juslify lho ooiivalivo
iulo
if / is conslanl, lhon
d
da
/ = 0
2.2 The ProducL and QuoLienL Rules
TLe Iroduct HuIe
In lho lasl soclion, wo ooiivoo iulos foi oiloionlialing powois ano polynomials. In
lhis soclion, wo ooiivo iulos foi oiloionlialing piooucls ano quolionls of funclions,
Loginning wilh lho ooiivalivo of a piooucl.
If ) (a) is a oiloionliaLlo al a, lhon
) (a /) = ) (a) )
t
(a) / o (/)
Likowiso, if p (a) is oiloionliaLlo al a, lhon p (a /) = p (a) p
t
(a) / o (/).
1hus, lho piooucl ) (a /) p (a /) is of lho foim
) (a /) p (a /) = [) (a) )
t
(a) / o (/)[ [p (a) p
t
(a) / o (/)[
Lxpanoing lho piooucl on lho iighl loaos lo lho oxpiossion
) (a) p (a) [)
t
(a) p (a) ) (a) p
t
(a)[ / highoi oiooi loims
1ho ooiivalivo of ) (a) p (a) is lho oxpiossion lhal is lho coomcionl of /:
THL PRODUCT AND QUOTlLNT RULLS 118
TLe Iroduct HuIe: 1ho ooiivalivo of a piooucl is givon Ly
d
da
() (a) p (a)) = )
t
(a) p (a) ) (a) p
t
(a)
If n = ) (a) ano = p (a) , lhon in LioLniz nolalion lho piooucl iulo is of lho foim
d (n)
da
=
dn
da
n
d
da
ano in facl, lho piooucl iulo is oflon momoiizoo using lho mnomonic
(n)
t
= n
t
n
t
(2.8)
Moioovoi, lho piooucl iulo is lho only iulo foi oiloionlialing piooucls lhal will
pioouco lho samo iosulls as lho iulos in lho lasl soclion.
IXAMIII 1 Lvalualo
J
Ji
a
3
Ly applying lho piooucl iulo lo a
2
a.
SoIutIon: Wo apply (2.8) wilh n = a
2
ano = a:
(n)
t
n
t
n
t
d
da
_
a
2
a
_
=
_
d
da
a
2
_
a a
2
_
d
da
a
_
As a iosull, lho piooucl iulo applioo lo a
2
a yiolos
d
da
_
a
2
a
_
= 2a a a
2
1 = 2a
2
a
2
which iooucos lo
J
Ji
_
a
3
_
= 8a
2
, as oxpocloo.
IXAMIII 2 Lvalualo
J
Ji
a
3
_
a
3
4a
2
_
using lho piooucl iulo:
SoIutIon: Wo apply (2.8) wilh n = a
3
ano = a
3
4a
2
.
(n)
t
= n
t
n
t
d
da
_
a
3
_
a
3
4a
2
_
=
_
d
da
a
3
_
_
a
3
4a
2
_
a
3
_
d
da
_
a
3
4a
2
_
_
As a iosull, lho piooucl iulo yiolos
d
da
_
a
3
_
a
3
4a
2
_
= 8a
2
_
a
3
4a
2
_
a
3
_
8a
2
8a
_
= 8a
5
12a
d
8a
5
8a
d
= 6a
5
20a
d
1n|&n
J
Ji
_
a
6
4a
5
_
nnJ r|n.n &hj . :J& h nn :&| n n|j.nj Chock youi Ioaoing
h :J& :&| a
3
_
a
3
4a
2
_
.
Aore vItL tLe Iroduct HuIe
1ho piooucl iulo can Lo applioo ovon whon only pailial infoimalion aLoul a
funclion is givon.
114 THL DLRlVATlVL
IXAMIII J Supposo lhal /(a) = a
2
) (a) ano lhal il is known lhal
) () = 11 ano )
t
() = 7. Whal is /
t
()
SoIutIon: Sinco /(a) is lho piooucl of n = a ano = ) (a) , lho
piooucl iulo implios lhal
(n)
t
= n
t
n
t
J
Ji
_
a
2
) (a)
=
_
J
Ji
a
2
_
) (a) a
2 J
Ji
) (a)
= 2a ) (a) a
2
)
t
(a)
1hus, /
t
(a) = 2a) (a) a
2
)
t
(a) , which implios lhal
/
t
() = 2 ) () ()
2
)
t
()
= 10 11 2 7
= 28
In facl, wo can uso lho piooucl iulo lo oovolop now iulos foi oiloionlialion. Foi
oxamplo, if ) (a) = a
2
, lhon a
2
) (a) = 1 ano
d
da
a
2
) (a) =
d
da
1
_
d
da
a
2
_
) (a) a
2
_
d
da
) (a)
_
= 0
2a) (a) a
2
)
t
(a) = 0
SuLsliluling ) (a) = a
2
ano solving foi )
t
(a) yiolos
2a a
2
a
2
)
t
(a) = 0
a
2
)
t
(a) = 2a
l
)
t
(a) = 2a
3
Sinco )
t
(a) =
J
Ji
a
2
, lhis moans lhal
d
da
a
2
= 2a
3
(2.4)
Inoooo, similai molhoos will Lo usoo in lho oxoicisos lo show lhal
d
da
a
l/2
=
1
2
a
l/2
(2.)
ano cloaily, Lolh (2.4) ano (2.) aio in lho foim implioo Ly lho powoi iulo. 1hal
is, lho piooucl iulo implios lhal
d
da
a
n
= :a
nl
(2.6)
foi any ialional numLoi :. In chaploi 2 il will Lo shown lhal (2.6) holos foi any
ioal numLoi :.
IXAMIII ! Uso (2.6) lo ovalualo
d
da
1
a
2
SoIutIon: Fiisl, wo wiilo
l
i
as a
2
ano lhon wo apply (2.6):
d
da
a
2
= 2a
2l
= 2a
3
Wiiling lho iosull in loims of fiaclions lhon yiolos
d
da
1
a
2
=
2
a
3
IXAMIII Uso (2.6) lo ovalualo
d
da

_
a
2
SoIutIon: Fiisl, wo wiilo

_
a
2
as a
2/3
ano lhon wo apply (2.6):
d
da
a
2/3
=
2
8
a
2/3l
=
2
8
a
l/3
Wiiling lho iosull in loims of fiaclions lhon yiolos
d
da

_
a
2
=
2
8

_
a
1hj .

_
a
2
h nn n a
2/3
Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe QuotIent HuIe
Supposo now lhal j (a) =
}(i)
(i)
. 1hon p (a) j (a) = ) (a) ano lho piooucl iulo
implios lhal
p
t
(a) j (a) p (a) j
t
(a) = )
t
(a)
If wo now solvo foi j
t
(a) , lhon wo oLlain
p (a) j
t
(a) = )
t
(a) p
t
(a) j (a)
j
t
(a) =
)
t
(a) p
t
(a) j (a)
p (a)
Sinco j (a) =
}(i)
(i)
, lhis loaos lo
d
da
_
) (a)
p (a)
_
=
)
t
(a) p
t
(a)
}(i)
(i)
p (a)
=
)
t
(a) p (a) ) (a) p
t
(a)
[p (a)[
2
1ho iosull is known as lho j&.n :&| foi oiloionlialing lho ialio of lwo funclion:
TLe QuotIent HuIe: If ) (a) ano p (a) aio polynomials, lhon
d
da
_
) (a)
p (a)
_
=
)
t
(a) p (a) ) (a) p
t
(a)
[p (a)[
2
(2.7)
Anolhoi pioof of lho quolionl iulo will Lo piosonloo in lho oxoicisos in lho noxl
soclion.
116 THL DLRlVATlVL
IXAMIII Uso lho quolionl iulo lo ovalualo
d
da
_
1
2a 8
_
SoIutIon: Compaiison wilh (2.7) iovoals lhal ) (a) = 1 ano p (a) =
2a 8 . 1hus, (2.7) implios lhal
d
da
_
1
2a 8
_
=
_
J
Ji
(1)
(2a 8) 1
_
J
Ji
(2a 8)
(2a 8)
2
Lvalualing lho ooiivalivos ano simplifying lhus yiolos
d
da
_
1
2a 8
_
=
0 (2a 8) 1 2
(2a 8)
2
=
2
(2a 8)
2
IXAMIII 0 Uso lho quolionl iulo lo ovalualo
d
da
_
a
2
2a
a
d
1
_
SoIutIon: Compaiison wilh (2.7) iovoals lhal ) (a) = a
2
2a ano
p (a) = a
d
1 . 1hus, (2.7) implios lhal
d
da
_
a
2
2a
a
d
1
_
=
_
J
Ji
_
a
2
2a
_ _
a
d
1
_
_
a
2
2a
_ _
J
Ji
_
a
d
1
_
(a
d
1)
2
Lvalualing lho ooiivalivos ano simplifying lhus yiolos
d
da
_
a
2
2a
a
d
1
_
=
(2a 2)
_
a
d
1
_
_
a
2
2a
_ _
4a
3
_
(a
d
1)
2
=
_
2a
5
2a 2a
d
2
_
_
4a
5
8a
d
_
(a
d
1)
2
=
2a
5
6a
d
2a 2
(a
d
1)
2
1& &&|J j& & h j&.n :&| n|&n
J
Ji
a
l
Chock youi Ioaoing
Tangent LInes HevIsIted
Finally, lol us nol foigol lhal )
t
(j) is lho slopo of lho langonl lino lo lho giaph
of ) (a) al lho inpul j. 1o ooloimino lho slopo of lho langonl lino lo lho giaph of
) (a) al a = j, wo compulo )
t
(a) ano lhon suLslilulo a = j.
IXAMIII 7 Fino lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j =
l
i
al
j =
3
2
.
SoIutIon: If wo lol ) (a) =
l
i
, lhon (2.6) implios lhal
)
t
(a) =
d
da
a
l
= a
2
As a iosull, lho slopo of lho langonl lino is
: = )
t
_
8
2
_
=
_
8
2
_
2
=
1
_
3
2
_
2
=
4
0
Sinco )
_
3
2
_
=
2
3
, lho langonl lino is lho lino wilh slopo : =
d
9
lhal
passos lhiough
_
3
2
,
2
3
_
:
j =
2
8

4
0
_
a
8
2
_
1his simplilos lo j =
d
3

d
9
a.
x
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
3
2
1
0
-1
2-1: j =
d
3

d
9
a is langonl lo j =
l
i
2
(a 6)
whon j = 8.
SoIutIon: 1o lno )
t
(a) , wo uso lho quolionl iulo:
)
t
(a) =
d
da
_
a
2
a 6
_
=
_
J
Ji
a
2
_
(a 6) a
2 J
Ji
(a 6)
(a 6)
2
Lvalualing lho ooiivalivos ano simplifying yiolos
)
t
(a) =
2a(a 6) a
2
(1 0)
(a 6)
2
=
a
2
12a
(a 6)
2
: = )
t
(8) =
8
2
12 8
(8 6)
2
=

0
Sinco ) (8) =
3
36
= 1, lho poinl of langoncy is (8, 1) . 1hus, lho
oqualion of lho langonl lino is
j = 1

0
(a 8)
118 THL DLRlVATlVL
which simplilos lo j =
2
3

5
9
a
x
5 4 3 2 1 0 -1
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
2-2: Giaphs of ) (a) =
i
i6
ano 1
3
(a) =
2
3

5
9
a
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ )
t
(a) ]: hj n|j.nj h :J& :&|, nnJ hn hj rnnJ.nj h :J&
nnJ &.nj h &: :&|. 1h nhJ h&|J j.|J h nn :&|.
1. ) (a) = a
2
a
3
2. ) (a) = a
d
a
3
8. ) (a) = a
d
1
4. ) (a) = a
7
2 . ) (a) = a(a 1) 6. ) (a) = a
2
(a 8)
7. ) (a) = (2a 1) (8a 4) 8. ) (a) = (a 7) (8a 4) 0. ) (a) = (2a 1)
2
10. ) (a) =
_
a
2
8
_ _
8a
3
1
_
11. ) (a) =
_
8a
3
1
_
2
12. ) (a) =
_
a
2
8a
_
2
1.nJ )
t
(a):
18. ) (a) =
1
a
14. ) (a) = a
3
1. ) (a) =

_
a
16. ) (a) =

_
a 17. ) (a) = a
3
18. ) (a) =
a
2
1
a
d
10. )(a) = (

_
a)
3
_
a 20. )(a) = a
2
(a
2
4a
3
) 21. )(a) = a
l/3
(a
2
a)
22. ) (a) =
a
d
1
a
2
28. ) (a) =
1
a 1
24. ) (a) =
1
a
2
1
2. ) (a) =
a
a 1
26. ) (a) =
a 1
a 1
27. ) (a) =
8.a 2.7
a
2
1.1
28. ) (a) =
a
2
a 1
20. ) (a) =
a
2
8a
a 1
80. ) (a) =
a
3
2a
a 1
1.nJ h j&n.n J h nnjn |.n h &: J: h j.n n|& J . Jhn
j:nh h &: nnJ h nnjn |.n : [4, 4[ .
81. j =
1
a
, j = 1 82. j =
1
a
2
, j = 1
88. j =
10
a
2
1
, j = 2 84. j =
a
a
2
8
, j = 8
8. j =
a
2
2
a
3

, j = 1 86. j =
8a
2
2a
a
3
2a 1
, j = 2
n& h J||&.nj J:.n. &h: . . n&nJ h J&n.n p
t
(a) r..
87.
J
Ji
[a
2
p(a)[ 88.
J
Ji
[(a
3
8a)p (a)[
80.
J
Ji
[p (a)
_
a[ 40.
J
Ji
[p(a)[
2
41.
J
Ji
a
2
p(a)
42.
J
Ji
p(a) 2
a
3
p(a)
48.
J
Ji
[a
3/2
p(a)[ 44.
J
Ji
[ap(a)[
a
3
p(a)
45. 1ho oomano funclion foi solling a pailiculai Liano of glovos is givon Ly
j(a) =
0
2
_
0.1a
(a) Whal piico will Lo chaigoo foi a paii of glovos if lho oomano is
a = 400
(L) 1ho funclion 1(a) = aj (a) is lho iovonuo funclion foi solling lhis
pailiculai Liano of glovos. Whal is lho iovonuo funclion in lhis
caso
(c) In Lusinoss sollings, lho ooiivalivo 1
t
(a) is oflon calloo lho nn:-
j.nn| :n&. Whal is lho maiginal iovonuo foi lho iovonuo func-
lion in (L)
(o) Whal is lho maiginal iovonuo of solling 400 paiis of glovos Givo
an inloipiolalion of 1
t
(400).
46. Supposo lho lolal cosl of making a paiis of glovos is givon Ly C (a) = 0.02a
2
0.2a 1. in oollais.
(a) Whal is lho cosl of making 400 paiis of glovos Whal is lho avoiago
cosl poi paii of glovo whon a = 400
(L) In Lusinoss sollings, lho ooiivalivo C
t
(a) is oflon calloo lho nn:-
j.nn| . Whal is lho maiginal cosl foi C (a)
(c) Whal is lho maiginal cosl of making 400 paiis of glovos Givo an
inloipiolalion of C
t
(400).
47. Iioll is oolnoo as 1(a) = 1(a) C(a) whoio 1(a) is lho iovonuo funclion
ano C(a) is lho cosl funclion.
(a) Whal is lho pioll funclion 1(a) foi piooucing lho glovos oiscussoo
in oxoicisos 4 ano 46.
(L) Whal is lho pioll in making ano solling a = 400 paiis of glovos
a = 00 paiis of glovos
(c) Whal is lho maiginal pioll (i.o., lho ooiivalivo 1
t
(a) ) in pioouc-
ing a paiis of glovos Fino 1
t
(00) ano givo lho coiiocl unils ano
an inloipiolalion
48. In Quanlum Mochanics lho foico Lolwoon lwo gas moloculos has lwo com-
pononls. 1hoio is an alliaclivo foico piopoilional lo r
7
ano a iopulsivo
foico piopoilional lo r
l3
, whoio r is lho oislanco Lolwoon moloculos. In
lho quoslions Lolow, assumo lhal lho foico acling Lolwoon lho lwo gas molo-
culos is
1(r) = 0.01r
7
0.001r
l3
(a) Fino 1
t
(r).
120 THL DLRlVATlVL
(L) Whal is lho valuo of 1 (r) ano 1
t
(r) al r = 0. Which foico is
oominaling al lhis valuo foi r
(c) If wo incioaso r a lilllo pasl r = 0., will 1 (r) incioaso oi oocioaso
in valuo
(o) CraLer: Giaph 1(r) ano 1
t
(r) foi r in [0.4, 0.8[. Al appioxi-
maloly whal valuo foi r oo lho olocls of lho lwo foicos cancol ono
anolhoi
49. In lhis oxoiciso, wo uso lho piooucl iulo lo lno lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) =
_
a
(a) Lxplain why ) (a) ) (a) = a ano lhon uso lho piooucl iulo lo show
lhal
2) (a) )
t
(a) = 1 (2.8)
(L) SuLslilulo
_
a foi ) (a) in (2.8) ano lhon solvo foi )
t
(a).
50. Show lhal if : is a posilivo inlogoi, lhon
d
da
a
n
= :a
nl
Do so Ly applying lho ooiivalivo lo Lolh sioos of
a
n
a
n
= 1
ano lhon solving foi
J
Ji
a
n
. (i.o., assumo lhal
J
Ji
a
n
= :a
nl
is known foi
posilivo inlogois :).
51. Show lhal if / is a conslanl, lhon
d
da
(/p (a)) = /
d
da
p (a)
Ly applying lho piooucl iulo lo lho piooucl / p (a) .
52. * Assumo lhal wo alioaoy know lhal
d
da
a
n
= :a
nl
(2.0)
foi somo posilivo inlogoi :. Uso lho piooucl iulo ano (2.0) lo show lhal
d
da
a
nl
= (: 1) a
n
(2.10)
( Hinl: Wiilo a
nl
as a
n
a)
Henark 1 Jh : .n r:. . . |n&n n n pioof Ly inouclion. 5.n
a
0
= 1 nnJ .n
J
Ji
1 = 0, & |n& hn h &: :&| . :& &hn : = 0. 1n &:
:J hj .nJ&.n, & h&J hn .J ;..:) . :&, hn n| . ;..1u). Jhn .,
& h&J hn :& J: : .n|. :& J: : 1. Jh&, .J h &: :&| . :&
J: : = 0, hn . n& n| h :& J: : = 1. nJ .J h &: :&| . :& J:
: = 1, hn . n& n| h|J J: : = 2, nnJ n. 1 h& n|&J hn h
&: :&| h|J J: n|| nn-njn. .nj:, :.
2.3 The Chain Rule
ConosItIons oI FunctIons
Allhough lho ooiivalivo iulos wo havo loainoo so fai will allow us lo compulo lho
ooiivalivo of any polynomial, lhoy aio nol nocossaiily lho mosl piaclical moans lo
oo so. 1o illuslialo, consiooi lhal applicalion of lho powoi iulo lo
r (a) =
_
a
2
1
_
20
ioquiios lho 21 loim oxpansion implioo Ly Iascal`s liianglo.
Insloao, il is moio piaclical lo consiooi r (a) lo Lo a composilion of funclions,
whoio lho n..n of ) wilh p, which is oonoloo Ly ) p, is oolnoo lo Lo Composilion
moans using lho
oulpul fiom ono
funclion as lho
inpul lo anolhoi
funclion.
() p) (a) = ) (p (a))
1hal is, lho oulpul fiom p (a) is usoo as lho inpul lo ) (a) , which is lo say lhal
() p) (a) = ) (inpul)
whoio lho inpul is p (a) . Foi oxamplo, if ) (a) = a
20
ano p (a) = a
2
1, lhon
() p) (a) = ) (inpul) = (inpul)
20
whoio lho inpul is a
2
1. Ioplacing lho inpul Ly a
2
1 lhus yiolos
() p) (a) = (inpul)
20
=
_
a
2
1
_
20
IXAMIII 1 Whal is lho composilion ) p of ) (a) = a
3
8a 1
ano p (a) = a
d
0
SoIutIon: Fiisl, lol us nolico lhal wo can wiilo ) as
) (inpul) = (inpul)
3
8 (inpul) 1
Sinco p (a) = a
d
0, wo now ioplaco lho inpul" Ly a
d
0, lhus yioloing
) (inpul) =
_
a
d
0
_
3
8
_
a
d
0
_
1
Sinco lho inpul lo ) is lho oulpul fiom p, wo can wiilo ) (inpul) =
) (p (a)) = () p) (a) . 1hus, wo havo
() p) (a) =
_
a
d
0
_
3
8
_
a
d
0
_
1
IXAMIII 2 Wiilo lho funclion r (a) =
_
a
3
2
_
ld
as a composilion
of lwo funclions.
SoIutIon: Allhough lhoio aio many ways lo oo so, nolico lhal if wo
lol ) (a) = a
ld
, lhon wo can wiilo
) (inpul) = (inpul)
ld
122 THL DLRlVATlVL
1hus, if lol p (a) = a
3
2 , lhon lho inpul is a
3
2 ano wo havo
) (inpul) =
_
a
3
2
_
ld
Sinco lho inpul lo ) is lho oulpul fiom p, wo can wiilo ) (inpul) =
) (p (a)) = () p) (a) . 1hus,
() p) (a) =
_
a
3
2
_
ld
= r (a)
ano wo can concluoo lhal r = )p whoio ) (a) = a
ld
ano p (a) = a
3
2.
1J ) (a) =
_
a
2
2
_
d
nnJ ) (inpul) = (inpul)
d
, hn &hn . inpul" Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe CLaIn HuIe
1ho giaph of a composilion is of lho foim j = ) (p (a)) , oi oquivalonlly, j = ) (n)
whoio n = p (a) . Diloionlial nolalion can lhon Lo usoo lo molivalo a iulo foi
oiloionlialing composilions, in lhal inluilivoly wo can wiilo
dj
da
=
dj
dn
dn
da
(2.11)
1ianslaling fiom oiloionlial nolalion lo opoialoi nolalion lhon yiolos
dj
da
=
d
da
) (n) ,
dj
dn
= )
t
(n) , a:d
dn
da
= p
t
(a)
As a iosull, (2.11) can Lo iowiillon in opoialoi foim as
d
da
) (n) = )
t
(n) p
t
(a)
ano sinco n = p (a) , lhis in luin can Lo wiillon as
d
da
) (p (a)) = )
t
(p (a)) p
t
(a)
As will Lo shown laloi, wo lhus havo
CLaIn HuIe: 1ho ooiivalivo of a composilion is givon Ly
d
da
) [p (a)[ = )
t
[p (a)[
d
da
p (a)
Whon using lho chain iulo, howovoi, wo oflon wiilo il in lho foim
d
da
) (inpul) = )
t
(inpul)
d
da
inpul (2.12)
whoio lho inpul is p (a) .
THL CHAlN RULL 128
IXAMIII J Fino r
t
(a) foi r (a) =
_
a
2
1
_
20
SoIutIon: Wo can wiilo r (a) in lho foim
r (a) = (inpul)
20
whoio lho inpul is oqual lo a
2
1. 1ho chain iulo (2.12) says lhal
d
da
(inpul)
20
= 20 (inpul)
l9
d
da
inpul
Ioplacing inpul" wilh a
2
1 ano oiloionlialing loaos lo
r
t
(a) = 20
_
a
2
1
_
l9 d
da
_
a
2
1
_
= 20
_
a
2
1
_
l9
(2a)
= 40a
_
a
2
1
_
l9
Coilainly, mosl of us woulo piofoi lho compulalion in oxamplo 1 ovoi lho oiloi-
onlialion of lho 21 loim oxpansion of r (a) =
_
a
2
1
_
20
. Inoooo, lho chain iulo
is ono of lho mosl powoiful lochniquos in calculus.
IXAMIII ! Fino )
t
(a) foi lho funclion ) (a) =
_
a
3
2a
_
5
1.
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo wiilo ) (a) in lho foim
) (a) = (inpul)
5
1
3
2a. 1ho chain iulo says lhal
d
da
_
(inpul)
5
1
_
=
_
(inpul)
d
0
_
_
d
da
inpul
_
which moans lhal
)
t
(a) = (inpul)
d
d
da
(inpul)
=
_
a
3
2a
_
d d
da
_
a
3
2a
_
=
_
a
3
2a
_
d
_
8a
2
2
_
1&|J j& :nh: ]nJ )
t
(a) .n rnn| &.nj h :J& :&| n|&n Chock youi Ioaoing
)
t
(a) =
d
da
__
a
3
2a
_ _
a
3
2a
_ _
a
3
2a
_ _
a
3
2a
_ _
a
3
2a
_
1
124 THL DLRlVATlVL

DerIvatIves oI AIgeLraIc FunctIons
A pioof of lho chain iulo is aclually ialhoi sliaighlfoiwaio. If p is oiloionliaLlo
al a, lhon p (a /) = p (a) p
t
(a) / o (/) , so lhal
) (p (a /)) = ) [p (a) p
t
(a) / o (/)[
If wo lol X = p (a) ano H = p
t
(a) / o (/) , lhon
) (p (a /)) = ) [p (a) p
t
(a) / o (/)[ = ) (XH)
Howovoi, supposing lhal ) is oiloionliaLlo al A implios lhal
) (XH) = ) (X) )
t
(X) H o (H)
Sinco H = p
t
(a) / o (/) , wo lhus havo lho oxpansion
) (XH) = ) (X) )
t
(X) p
t
(a) / )
t
(X) o (/) o (H)
Howovoi, ) (XH) = ) (p (a /))ano X = p (a), so lhal
) (p (a /)) = ) (p (a)) )
t
(p (a)) p
t
(a) / . . .
1ho ooiivalivo of ) (p (a)) is lho coomcionl of /, which is )
t
(p (a)) p
t
(a) .
As a iosull, lho chain iulo applios lo all oiloionliaLlo funclions. Foi oxamplo,
lho chain iulo also applios lo algoLiaic funclions, whoio an n|jh:n. J&n.n is a
funclion oolnoo using only inlogoi powois, inlogoi iools, ano aiilhmolic.
IXAMIII Fino )
t
(a) foi ) (a) =
_
a
2
1.
SoIutIon: Fiisl, wo wiilo ) (a) as
) (a) =
_
a
2
1
_
l/2
Consoquonlly, wo havo
)
t
(a) =
d
da
(inpul)
l/2
=
1
2
(inpul)
l/2
d
da
(inpul)
whoio lho inpul" is a
2
1. Il follows lhal
)
t
(a) =
1
2
_
a
2
1
_
l/2 d
da
_
a
2
1
_
=
1
2
_
a
2
1
_
l/2
2a
= a
_
a
2
1
_
l/2
IXAMIII 0 Fino )
t
(a) foi
) (a) =
1
_
a
2
1
SoIutIon: Wo lisl iowiilo lho funclion as
) (a) =
_
a
2
1
_
l/3
THL CHAlN RULL 12
)
t
(a) =
d
da
(inpul)
l/3
which accoioing lo lho chain iulo simplilos lo
)
t
(a) =
1
8
(inpul)
d/3
d
da
(inpul)
SuLsliluling a
2
1 foi lho inpul lhon yiolos
)
t
(a) =
1
8
_
a
2
1
_
d/3 d
da
_
a
2
1
_
=
1
8
_
a
2
1
_
d/3
2a
which simplilos lo )
t
(a) =
2
3
a
_
a
2
1
_
d/3
.
1:. )
t
(a) =
2
3
a
_
a
2
1
_
d/3
.n :n J :nJ.n|. Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe CLaIn and Iroduct HuIes TogetLer
1ho chain ano piooucl iulos oflon occui logolhoi. Inoooo, lho ooiivalivo of a
quolionl
d
da
) (a)
p (a)
can Lo consiooioo lho ooiivalivo of a piooucl of ) (a) wilh lho composilion [p (a)[
l
.
1hal is,
d
da
) (a)
p (a)
=
d
da
) (a) [p (a)[
l
In oxoiciso 44 lhis will Lo usoo lo piovo lho quolionl iulo. Howovoi, foi now wo
will simply illuslialo il wilh an oxamplo.
IXAMIII 7 Lvalualo lho ooiivalivo
d
da
a
2
8a 1
using a comLinalion of lho piooucl ano chain iulo.
SoIutIon: 1ho ialio
i
3il
can Lo wiillon as a
2
(8a 1)
l
, which
can lhon Lo wiillon as a
2
(inpul)
l
whoio lho inpul is 8a 1. 1his
lhon loaos lo
d
da
a
2
(inpul)
l
=
_
d
da
a
2
_
(inpul)
l
a
2
d
da
(inpul)
l
Applicalion of lho chain iulo lhus yiolos
d
da
a
2
(inpul)
l
=
_
d
da
a
2
_
(inpul)
l
a
2
(1) (inpul)
2
d
da
inpul
126 THL DLRlVATlVL
Ioplacing lho inpul Ly 8a 1 lhon implios lhal
d
da
a
2
(8a 1)
l
= 2a(8a 1)
l
a
2
(8a 1)
2
d
da
(8a 1)
= 2a(8a 1)
l
a
2
(8a 1)
2
8
= 2a(8a 1)
2
8a
2
(8a 1)
2
Moioovoi, lho iosull of lho chain iulo is a piooucl of lwo funclions. 1hus, whon lho
lisl ooiivalivo involvos lho chain iulo, lho compulalion of lho socono ooiivalivo
oflon Logins wilh lho piooucl iulo.
IXAMIII 8 Fino )
tt
(a) whon ) (a) =
_
(a
2
1)
3
SoIutIon: Sinco ) (a) =
_
a
2
1
_
3/2
, wo havo
)
t
(a) =
d
da
(inpul)
3/2
=
8
2
(inpul)
l/2
d
da
inpul
2
1. As a iosull, lho lisl ooiivalivo is
)
t
(a) =
8
2
_
a
2
1
_
l/2
(2a) = 8a
_
a
2
1
_
l/2
Sinco lho chain iulo piooucoo a piooucl, lho socono ooiivalivo
Logins wilh lho piooucl iulo,
)
tt
(a) =
_
d
da
(8a)
_
_
a
2
1
_
l/2
(8a)
d
da
_
a
2
1
_
l/2
Applicalion of lho chain iulo lhon yiolos
)
tt
(a) = 8
_
a
2
1
_
l/2
8a
1
2
_
a
2
1
_
l/2
(2a)
which simplilos lo
)
tt
(a) = 8
_
a
2
1
8a
2
_
a
2
1
Sinco lho common oonominaloi is
_
a
2
1, wo oLlain
)
tt
(a) =
8
_
a
2
1
_
l/2
_
a
2
1
_
l/2
_
a
2
1

8a
2
_
a
2
1
=
8
_
a
2
1
_
8a
2
_
a
2
1
=
6a
2
8
_
a
2
1
THL CHAlN RULL 127
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h J:.n. J nh J&n.n h|&. Jh |: / nnJ 1 Jn nnn
&hn hj &:.
1. ) (a) = (2a 1)
2
2. ) (a) = (8a 1)
3
8. ) (a) =
_
a
2
1
_
d
4. )(a) = (a
3
2)
7
. )(a) = (a
d
1)
l0
6. j(a) = (8a 1)
9
7. )(a) = (4a
2
0)
5
8. p (a) =
_
a
5
1
_
3
0. ) (a) =
_
a
2
1
10. ) (a) =
_
a
2
2a 11. ) (a) =

_
a
3
1 12. /(a) =

_
a
3
8
18. ) (a) =

_
a
d
8a 2 14. p(a) = (
_
a 1)
6
1. ) (a) =

_
0.a
2
1.
16. ) (a) = (/a 1)
2
17. ) (a) =
_
a
2
/
2
_
2
18. ) (a) =
_
1
2
a
2
10. ) (a) =
_
/a 1 20. ) (a) =
_
a
_
a 21. ) (a) =
_
1
_
a
1.nJ )
tt
(a) J: nh J h J||&.nj nnJ .n|.Jj n||j ; -1. J: )
t
(a)).
22. )(a) = (a
3
2)
7
28. )(a) = (a
d
1)
l0
24. j(a) = (8a 1)
9
2. )(a) = (4a
2
0)
5
26. ) (a) =
_
a
5
1
_
3
27. ) (a) =
_
a
2
1
28. ) (a) =
_
a
2
2a 20. p (a) =

_
a
3
1 80. /(a) =

_
a
3
8
1.nJ )
t
(a) .n :n J p(a) nnJ p
t
(a).
81. ) (a) = (a
2
p(a))
2
82. )(a) =
_
p (a) 20
88. )(a) = a
2
p(a) 84. ) (a) = p(8a
2
)
8. ) (a) = p(p(a)) 86. )(a) = p(p(a
2
))
37. In oach of lho following, uso lho quolionl iulo in pail . ano lho chain iulo in
pail ... 1ho iosull shoulo Lo lho samo in oach caso.
(a) .
d
da
1
a 1
..
d
da
(a 1)
l
(L) .
d
da
1
a
2
4
..
d
da
_
a
2
4
_
l
(c) .
d
da
1
a
3
1
..
d
da
_
a
3
1
_
l
38. Supposo lhal ) (a) =
_
a
2
8
_
3
.
(a) Fino )
t
(a) using lho chain iulo.
(L) Fino )
t
(a) Ly oxpanoing lho sum ano applying lho powoi iulo
loim-Ly-loim.
(c) Lxpano (a) so lhal il is lho samo as (L).
39. An oLjocl moving in a sliaighl lino has a volocily of (t) = 100 0.8t.
Moioovoi, lho 1.n. 1n:jj of a moving oLjocl is
T =
1
2
:
2
whoio : is lho mass ano is lho volocily of lho oLjocl. Whal is
JT
J|
ano
whal ooos il iopiosonl
128 THL DLRlVATlVL
40. 1ho n.n| n:jj of an oLjocl in a coilain giavilalional lolo is givon Ly
l =
1
4. r
whoio r is lho oislanco fiom lho oLjocl lo lho conloi of lho giavilalional
souico. If lho oLjocl is iising voilically in lho lolo so lhal ils hoighl al limo
t is r = t
2/3
, lhon whal is
JI
J|

41. Supposo lhal lho CO
2
conconlialion c (t) in lho almosphoio in pails poi
million (ppm) al limo t yoais afloi 1080 (i.o., t = 0 in lho yoai 1080) is
oolnoo oxplicilly Ly
c (t) = 1.44t 280
Supposo also lhal lho gloLal lompoialuio incioaso p (c) in oogioos Fahionhoil
is
p (c) = 0.016c 4.48
whoio c is lho CO
2
conconlialion in lho almosphoio in ppm.
(a) Compulo c
t
(t) ano p
t
(c) , ano lhon compulo lhoii piooucl.
(L) Uso composilion lo wiilo lho gloLal lompoialuio incioaso p as a
funclion of t.
(c) Sinco lho ocoan lovol iisos ono fool foi ovoiy 8 oogioo incioaso in
gloLal lompoialuio, wo oolno
1(p) =
1
8
p
whoio 1 is lho chango in ocoan lovol causoo Ly p. Wiilo 1 as a
funclion of t.
(o) Compulo 1
t
(t). Lxplain why il is a lhiio of lho valuo of lho piooucl
in (a).
42. An oLjocl of conslanl mass :kg wilh a posilion al limo t of r (t) = 0t4.0t
2
has a volocily al limo t of (t) = 0 0.8t. 1ho lolal onoigy of lho oLjocl is
H =
1
2
:
2
0.8:r
Whal is H
t
(t) Whal is signilcanl aLoul lhis iosull
43. In lhis oxoiciso, wo consiooi lho funclion ) (a) =
_
1 a
2
(a) Show lhal lho giaph of ) (a) is lho uppoi half of lho unil ciiclo.
(Hinl: lol j = ) (a) ano liansfoim inlo an oqualion of a ciiclo).
(L) Whal is lho slopo of lho langonl lino lo lho giaph of ) (a) al an
inpul j
(c) Whal is lho slopo of lho lino lhiough (0, 0) ano
_
j,
_
1 j
2
_
(o) How aio lho slopos in (L) ano (c) iolaloo Why woulo wo oxpocl
lhis givon whal wo know aLoul lho giaph of ) (a)
44. Uso lho chain iulo ano lho piooucl iulo lo ovalualo lho following ooiivalivo:
d
da
) (a) [p (a)[
l
1hon simplify lho iosull inlo lho quolionl iulo.
THL CHAlN RULL 120
45. 1ho paiaLola Q
0
(a) =
a
2
10
is lho j&nJ:n. n:r.nn.n n a = 0 of
lho uppoi half of lho ciiclo of iaoius , which is lho giaph of
) (a) =
_
2 a
2
Answoi lho following lo oiscovoi somo of lho piopoilios of Q
0
(a).
(a) Fino lho langonl lino lo ) (a) whon a = 0 ano lho langonl lino lo
Q
0
(a) whon a = 0 ano show lhal lhoy aio lho samo.
(L) CraLer: Giaph ) (a) ano Q
0
(a) on lho oomain [, [. Is Q
0
(a)
aLovo oi Lolow ) (a) foi a noai 0
(c) Sinco ) (a) ano Q
0
(a) aio Lolh piaclically lho samo as lhoii lan-
gonl lino noai a = 0, lhon lhoy musl also Lo piaclically lho samo
as oach olhoi" noai a = 0. In youi opinion, aio Q
0
(a) ano ) (a)
piaclically lho samo ovoi lho inloival [1, 1[ Why oi why nol
Uso giaphs lo juslify youi answoi.
(o) Show lhal )
tt
(0) ano Q
tt
0
(0) aio lho samo.
46. 1ho paiaLola
Q
3
(a) =
17
64

1
82
a
2
64
a
2
is lho j&nJ:n. n:r.nn.n n a = 8 of ) (a) =
_
2 a
2
. Answoi lho
following lo oiscovoi somo of lho piopoilios of Q
3
(a).
(a) Show lhal ) (a) ano Q
3
(a) shaio lho samo langonl lino whon a = 8.
1hal is, lno lho langonl lino lo ) (a) whon a = 8 ano lho langonl
lino lo Q
3
(a) whon a = 8 ano show lhal lhoy aio lho samo.
(L) CraLer: Giaph ) (a) ano Q
3
(a) on lho oomain [, [. Is Q
3
(a)
aLovo oi Lolow ) (a) foi a noai 8 (answoiing may ioquiio somo
zooming)
(c) Show lhal )
tt
(8) ano Q
tt
3
(8) aio lho samo.
47. VrIte to Learn: 1ho chain iulo is closoly iolaloo lo lho composilion of
linoai funclions. Inoooo, show lhal if
1(a) = :a / ano 1(a) = :a c
lhon lho slopo of lho composilion of 1 wilh 1 is oqual lo lho piooucl of
lho slopos. Wiilo a shoil ossay oolailing lhis compulalion ano oiscussing ils
iolalionship lo lho chain iulo.
48. VrIte to Learn: An oLjocl in fioo fall in wilh a conslanl giavilalional
accoloialion of p has a hoighl al limo t of
r (t) = r
0

0
t
1
2
pt
2
If ils mass : is conslanl, lhon ils n| nhnn.n| n:jj is
H =
1
2
:
2
:pr
Whal is H
t
(t) Whal ooos lhis say aLoul H (t) Wiilo a shoil ossay ox-
plaining why wo mighl say lhal lolal mochanical onoigy is n:J.
180 THL DLRlVATlVL
49. * 1ho piooucl iulo is a spocial caso of lho chain iulo. In pailiculai, wo can
oLlain lho piooucl iulo Ly applying lho chain iulo lo
( ) (a) p (a) )
2
( ) (a) p (a) )
2
(2.18)
(a) Show lhal (2.18) simplilos lo 4) (a) p (a) .
(L) Apply lho chain iulo lo (2.18) ano simplify.
2.4 lmpliciL DiferenLiaLion
InIIcItIy Dehned FunctIons
In analylic goomoliy, oach poinl in lho aj-plano is assignoo an a-cooioinalo ano a
j-cooioinalo. An n|jh:n. &: is lhon oolnoo lo Lo lho sol of all poinls whoso
a ano j cooioinalos salisfy an oqualion of lho foim
p (a, j) = /
whoio / is a numLoi ano whoio p (a, j) is a polynomial in Lolh a ano j. Foi
oxamplo, if ) (a) is a polynomial, lhon ils giaph j = ) (a) is an algoLiaic cuivo.
As anolhoi oxamplo, consiooi lhal lho unil ciiclo is lho sol of poinls in lho plano
whoso cooioinalos salisfy lho oqualion a
2
j
2
= 1.
x
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
4-1: 1ho Unil Ciiclo
Howovoi, a funclion has n|j n oulpul foi oach inpul in ils oomain ano lhus,
lho giaph of a funclion is inloisocloo Ly a voilical lino al mosl onco. Consoquonlly,
lho unil ciiclo is not lho giaph of a funclion. Insloao, il is ono of lho many
algoLiaic cuivos lhal can Lo oiviooo inlo soclions which aio giaphs of funclions.
4-2: An algoLiaic cuivo composoo of giaphs of funclions.
lMPLlClT DlFFLRLNTlATlON 181
Whon an algoLiaic cuivo can Lo oiviooo inlo soclions, oach of which is lho giaph
of a funclion, lhon wo say lhal oach soclion .n|..|j J]n j as a funclion of a.
InIIcItIy Dehned FunctIons
If a soclion of a cuivo in lho aj-plano is lho giaph of a funclion,
lhon lhal soclion of lho cuivo oolnos j .n|..|j as a funclion of a.
In conliasl, an algoLiaic cuivo oxpiossoo in lho foim j = ) (a) is saio lo oolno j
r|..|j as a funclion of a.
IXAMIII 1 Doloimino lho funclions which aio oolnoo implicilly
Ly lho oqualion
a
2
j
2
= 2 (2.14)
SoIutIon: If wo solvo foi j in a
2
j
2
= 2, wo oLlain lho r|..|j
J]nJ funclions
j =
_
2 a
2
ano j =
_
2 a
2
(2.1)
1hus, lho cuivo (2.1) .n|. lho oxislonco of & funclions, as shown
Lolow:
4-8: 1ho lwo funclions oolnoo implicilly Ly a
2
j
2
= 2
Unfoilunaloly, many algoLiaic cuivos havo oqualions lhal cannol Lo solvoo foi j.
Foi oxamplo, lho oqualion
a
2
j = j
7
(2.16)
is an oqualion of lho algoLiaic cuivo shown in lguio 8-4.
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
y
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
4-4: An implicilly oolnoo funclion
1ho cuivo is cloaily lho giaph of a funclion ano lhus (2.16) implicilly oolnos j as
a funclion of a. Howovoi, lhoio aio no lochniquos in algoLia which can Lo usoo lo
aclually solvo foi j as a funclion of a.
182 THL DLRlVATlVL
Ohn.n h r|..|j-J]nJ J&n.n .n ;..1) hj |.nj J: j .n a
2
j
2
= 2. Chock youi Ioaoing
InIIcIt DIerentIatIon
Supposo a soclion of a cuivo p (a, j) = / oolnos j implicilly lo Lo a funclion of
a ano lol 1 Lo a poinl on lhal soclion of lho cuivo. 1hon
J
Ji
is lho slopo of lho
langonl lino al 1.
4-: Slopo of langonl lino al 1 is djda
1o compulo
J
Ji
givon p (a, j) = /, wo apply lho ooiivalivo opoialoi lo p (a, j) = /,
uso lho chain iulo lo oiloionlialo oxpiossions in j, ano lhon uso lho facl lhal
d
da
j =
dj
da
Oflon, wo uso lho nolalion j
t
=
J
Ji
, ano wo uso lho loim .n|.. J.]:n.n.n
lo iofoi lo lho piocoss foi lnoing j
t
givon p (a, j) = /.
IXAMIII 2 Uso implicil oiloionlialion lo lno j
t
whon a
2
j
2
= 2.
SoIutIon: Applicalion of lho opoialoi
J
Ji
iosulls in
d
da
a
2
d
da
j
2
=
d
da
2
2a
d
da
j
2
= 0 (2.17)
Sinco j is implioo lo Lo a funclion of a, (2.17) is of lho foim
2a
d
da
(inpul)
2
= 0
whoio lho inpul is j. As a iosull, wo havo
2a 2 (inpul)
l
d
da
(inpul) = 0
Ioplacing inpul" Ly j lhon yiolos
2a 2 (j)
l
d
da
(j) = 0
2a 2j
dj
da
= 0
Lolling j
t
=
J
Ji
yiolos 2a 2jj
t
= 0, ano solving foi j
t
yiolos
j
t
=
a
j
(2.18)
1ho koy lo implicil oiloionlialion is lho chain iulo. In pailiculai, if j is a funclion
of a, lhon lho ooiivalivo of an oxpiossion in j is lho piooucl of a funclion in j ano
lho ooiivalivo j
t
. Foi oxamplo, in lho compulalion aLovo wo saw lhal
d
da
j
2
= 2j j
t
In conliasl, lho ooiivalivo of a
2
is simply 2a.
Moioovoi, as shown in (2.18), implicil oiloionlialion piooucos an oqualion in-
volving a, j ano lho ooiivalivo j
t
. Such oqualions aio so impoilanl in applicalions
lhal lhoy aio givon a namo.
DehnItIon 4.2 A ]: :J: J.]:n.n| j&n.n is an oqualion in a,
j ano j
t
which implicilly oolnos j as a funclion of a.
1hal is, implicil oiloionlialion piooucos a J.]:n.n| j&n.n of a cuivo.
IXAMIII J Fino a oiloionlial oqualion of lho cuivo
a
2
j = j
7
SoIutIon: Wo lisl apply
J
Ji
, using lho piooucl iulo on lho lofl ano
lho powoi iulo on lho iighl:
d
da
_
a
2
j
_
=
d
da
_
j
7
_
_
d
da
a
2
_
j a
2
d
da
(j) = 0
d
da
(j)
7
2aj a
2
dj
da
= 7 (j)
6
d
da
j
Sinco
J
Ji
(j) = j
t
, lhis simplilos lo
2aj a
2
j
t
= 7j
6
j
t
(2.10)
Wo lhon solvo foi j
t
Ly isolaling lho loims conlaining j
t
,
a
2
j
t
7j
6
j
t
= 2aj (2.20)
facloiing j
t
fiom lho loims on lho lofl,
_
a
2
7j
6
_
j
t
= 2aj
ano lhon oivioing Ly
_
a
2
7j
6
_
. 1ho iosull is lho oiloionlial oqualion
j
t
=
2aj
a
2
7j
6
. (2.21)
IXAMIII ! Fino a oiloionlial oqualion foi lho cuivo
(aj 1)
3
= a
2
SoIutIon: Applicalion of lho ooiivalivo opoialoi lo Lolh sioos yiolos
d
da
(inpul)
3
=
d
da
a
2
184 THL DLRlVATlVL
whoio lho inpul is aj 1. As a iosull, wo havo
8 (inpul)
2
d
da
(inpul) = 2a
8 (aj 1)
2
d
da
(aj 1) = 2a
8 (aj 1)
2
_
d
da
aj
_
= 2a
Wo lhon apply lho piooucl iulo lo lho ooiivalivo of aj,
8 (aj 1)
2
__
d
da
a
_
j a
_
d
da
j
__
= 2a
which iosulls in lho oqualion
8 (aj 1)
2
(j aj
t
) = 2a (2.22)
5| J: j
t
.n ;....). ;1.n: ]: J..J hh .J hj 8 (aj 1)
2
) Chock youi Ioaoing
Inverse FunctIons and DIerentIaI EquatIons
If ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo, lhon a = ) (j) implicilly oolnos a colloclion of funclions
calloo .n: J ). Invoiso funclions will Lo impoilanl in chaploi 6, whoio lhoy
will Lo oiscussoo in moio oolail. Foi now, howovoi, lol us simply oxploio langonl
linos lo cuivos of lho foim a = ) (j) using implicil oiloionlialion.
IXAMIII Fino j
t
if a = j
2
. 1hon lno lho oqualion of lho langonl
lino lo a = j
2
SoIutIon: 1o lno j
t
, wo uso implicil oiloionlialion:
d
da
a =
d
da
j
2
== 1 = 2jj
t
Solving foi j
t
loaos lo j
t
=
l
2
. 1hus, lho slopo of lho langonl lino lo
a = j
2
al (4, 2) is
:
ian
=
1
2 (2)
=
1
4
ano il follows lhal lho oqualion of lho langonl lino is
j = 2
1
4
(a 4)
l
d
a 1.
x
8 6 4 2 0
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
4-6: j = a4 1 is langonl lo a = j
2
If a = ) (j) , lhon implicil oiloionlialion implios lhal
d
da
a =
d
da
) (j) == 1 = )
t
(j) j
t
1hus, lho oiloionlial oqualion of a cuivo of lho foim a = ) (j) is of lho foim
j
t
=
1
)
t
(j)
(2.28)
Diloionlial oqualions of lho foim (2.28) aio voiy impoilanl in applicalions, as wo
will soo lhioughoul lhis loxl.
IXAMIII 0 Whal is lho oiloionlial oqualion of lho cuivo a =
_
j
SoIutIon: 1o lno j
t
, wo uso implicil oiloionlialion:
d
da
a =
d
da
j
l/2
== 1 =
1
2
j
l/2
j
t
Solving foi j
t
iosulls in
j
t
=
1
l
2
j
l/2
= 2j
l/2
1hus, lho oiloionlial oqualion of a =
_
j is
j
t
= 2
_
j
5| J: j .n a =
_
j. 1hn . h :&| Chock youi Ioaoing
Tangent LInes to AIgeLraIc Curves
A oiloionlial oqualion of an algoLiaic cuivo can Lo usoo lo lno lho slopo ano
oqualion of lho lino langonl lo lho cuivo al a givon poinl. In pailiculai, lo lno
lho slopo, wo simply ovalualo j
t
al a givon poinl.
IXAMIII 7 Fino lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo lho ciiclo
a
2
j
2
= 2
SoIutIon: Wo showoo in oxamplo 2 lhal a oiloionlial oqualion of lho
cuivo is
j
t
=
a
j
SuLsliluling a = 4, j = 8 inlo lho oqualion j
t
= aj yiolos lho slopo
: =
4
8
1ho poinl-slopo oqualion of lho lino lhiough (a
l
, j
l
) wilh slopo : is
givon Ly
j = j
l
:(a a
l
) (poinl-slopo oqualion)
186 THL DLRlVATlVL
1hus, lho langonl lino lo a
2
j
2
= 2 al lho poinl (4, 8) is
j = 8
4
8
(a 4)
25
3

d
3
a.
4-7: 1angonl lino lo a
2
j
2
= 2 al (4, 8)
IXAMIII 8 Fino lho slopo ano oqualion of lho langonl lino lo
a
2
j = j
7
SoIutIon: A oiloionlial oqualion of lho cuivo is givon in (2.21) Ly
j
t
=
2aj
a
2
7j
6
1hus, lho slopo of lho langonl lino al lho poinl (2, 1) is
: =
2 2 1
2
2
7 1
6
=
4
11
ano lho oqualion of lho langonl lino is
j = 1
4
11
(a 2)
which is shown Lolow in lguio 8-6:
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
y
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
4-8: 1angonl lino lo lho giaph of an implicilly oolnoo funclion
Lxoicisos:
1 .n|.. J.]:n.n.n ]nJ n J.]:n.n| j&n.n J: nh &:.
1. j = 2a 8 2. j = a
2
1
8. aj
2
= 2 4. j
2
= a
2
. a = j
3
6. a = j
d
7. a
2
4j
2
= 1 8. 0a
2
16j
2
= 2
0. a
3
8j
2
= 2 10. a
2
j
3
= 8
11. a
d
j
3
8 = 0 12. j
3
2a
2
4 = 0
18. aj j
2
= 2 14. aj
2
a
2
j = 1
1. a
2
2aj j
2
= 1 16. 8a
2
2aj 8j
2
= 4
17. (a j)
3
= 8aj 18. (a j)
l0
= a j
10. a
2
j
d
= (aj 1)
2
20.
_
a
2
j
3
_
d
= a
d
(aj 1)
2
21. (aj 1)
3
= aj 22. a
2
j
2
= aj
28. a =
_
j 1 24. a =
_
1 j
2
1.nJ h j&n.n J h nnjn |.n h &: n h .n j.n. `& J&nJ
j
t
.n h r:. nh.
2. aj
2
= 2 al lho poinl (2, 1). 26. j
2
= a
2
al lho poinl (1, 1)
27. a = j
3
al lho poinl (1, 1) 28. a = j
d
al lho poinl (1, 1)
20. a
3
8j
2
= 2 al lho poinl (4.200, .06) 80. a
2
j
3
= 8 al lho poinl
__
2, 1
_
81. (a j)
3
= 8aj al lho poinl (1, 1) 82 (a j)
l0
= a j al lho poinl (0, 1)
1: nh J h &: .n -u J h J||&.nj:
{a) 1.nJ n J.]:n.n| j&n.n J h &:.
{L) 5| J: j hn.n nn r|..|j-J]nJ J&n.n j = ) (a) &h.h . .n|.-
.|j J]nJ hj h j.n j&n.n.
{c) 1.]:n.n j = ) (a) nnJ h& hn h :&| . h nn n hn .n ;n).
88. aj
2
= 2 84. 0a
2
18a 4j
2
8j 28 = 0
8. a
2
4j
2
= 1 86. 4a
2
j
2
6j =
87. a
3
8j
2
= 2 88. a
2
4j
2
2a 8j 7 = 0
80. a
2
2aj j
2
1 = 0 40. 8a
2
2aj 8j
2
= 4
41. Foi ovoiy valuo of /, show lhal lho funclions j = /a
2
salisfy lho oiloionlial
oqualion
aj
t
= 2j
Giaph j = a
2
, j = 2a
2
, j = a
2
, j = 2a
2
ano j = 0 on lho oomain
[1, 1[ . Whal oo all of lhoso cuivos havo in common Whal poinl oo lhoy
all pass lhiough
42. Show lhal foi ovoiy valuo of /, lho cuivos j = /a
3
1 salisfy lho oiloionlial
oqualion
aj
t
= 8j 8
Giaph lho solulions which coiiospono lo / = 0, 1, 2, ano 8 on lho oomain
[1, 1[ . Whal oo all of lhoso cuivos havo in common Whal poinl oo lhoy
all pass lhiough
188 THL DLRlVATlVL
43. In analylic goomoliy, a cuivo can Lo oolnoo Ly moio lhan ono oqualion (ano
lhus, has moio lhan ono oiloionlial oqualion). Foi oxamplo, squaiing Lolh
sioos of a
2
j
2
= 2 iosulls in lho oqualion
a
d
2a
2
j
2
j
d
= 62 (2.24)
Uso implicil oiloionlialion lo lno lho oiloionlial oqualion of (2.24), ano
lhon show lhal lho slopo of lho langonl lino al (4, 8) is
:
ian
=
4
8
.
44. Supposo lho ciiclo Lolow has lho oqualion a
2
j
2
= 1
2
4-0: 1angonl lino lo a ciiclo
(a) Show lhal j
t
=
i
(L) Show lhal lho slopo of lho iaoius is

i
(c) Show lhal lho iaoius ano lho langonl lino aio poiponoiculai
45. * Fino lho oiloionlial oqualion of lho hypoiLola
a
2
j
2
= 1
ano show lhal lho lino fiom lho oiigin lhiough (a, j) is poiponoiculai lo
lho langonl lino al a poinl (a, j)on lho hypoiLola. 1hal is, show lhal lino |
is poiponoiculai lo lino / in lho lguio Lolow:
4-10: 1angonl lino lo a hypoiLola
2.5 RaLes of Change
TLe DerIvatIve as a Hate oI CLange
In lhis soclion, wo fuilhoi oxploio lho ooiivalivo of a ialo of chango, ospocially
as il is usoo in vaiious scionlilc ano malhomalical applicalions. Moioovoi, lho
koy lo inloipioling ialos of chango in applicalions is in incluoing lho &n. J
nn&:nn in lho iosull. Also, iovoiling lo oiloionlial nolalion may holp.
RATLS OF CHANCL 180
IXAMIII 1 A cylinooi inilially conlains 00 ml of aii al a piossuio
of 1 almosphoio (alm). If lho aii in lho cylinooi is compiossoo Ly a
pislon wilhoul changing ils lompoialuio, lhon Loylo`s law says lhal
lho piossuio 1 is iolaloo lo lho volumo a Ly
1 =
00
a
Whal is 1
t
(20 :|) Whal ooos il moan
-1: Loylos Law
SoIutIon: Sinco wo can wiilo 1 (a) = 00a
l
, lho ooiivalivo is
1
t
(a) = 00a
2
As a iosull, whon a = 20 :|, wo havo
1
t
(20) = 00 (20)
2
=
00
(20)
2
=
1
12
1o unooislano whal lhis iosull moans, lol`s chango lo oiloionlial no-
lalion ano incluoo unils. Sinco a is moasuios in ml, da is also in ml;
ano sinco 1 is in almosphoios, d1 is also in alm. 1hus, lho piossuio
is changing wilh iospocl lo volumo al a ialo of
d1
da
=
1
12
at:
:|
whon lho volumo is a = 20 ml. Wo inloipiol lhis lo moan lhal foi
volumos closo lo 20 ml, lho piossuio incioasos Ly aLoul 1 alm foi oach
12 ml oocioaso in volumo.
IXAMIII 2 Lol j oonolo lho conconlialion in molos poi liloi of lho
chomical CH
3
CHO in lho chomical ioaclion
CH
3
CHO CH
d
CO
If lho inilial conconlialion is 0.8 molos poi liloi ano lho lompoialuio
is 20
C, lhon il can Lo shown lhal

j (t) =
8
6t 10
whoio t is limo in soconos sinco lho ioaclion Logan. Whal is lho inilial
ialo of lho ioaclion
SoIutIon: 1ho quolionl iulo implios lhal
j
t
(t) =
(6t 10)
J
J|
8 8
J
J|
(6t 10)
(6t 10)
2
=
18
(6t 10)
2
140 THL DLRlVATlVL
1hus, lho ialo of chango al t = 0 is j
t
(0) , which is
j
t
(0) =
18
(0 10)
2
= 0.18
Incluoing unils ano oiloionlials lhon yiolos oui inloipiolalion.. In
pailiculai, j is in molosliloi ano t is in soconos, so lhal
dj
dt
= 0.18
:o|c-1itcr
soc
1hn . h .n..n| :n J h :n.n .n rnn| Chock youi Ioaoing
Hates oI CLange In EcononIcs
In oconomics, lho lolal cosl C (a) incuiioo in piooucing a unils of a commooily
is calloo a J&n.n, ano lho inslanlanoous ialo of chango of cosl wilh iospocl
lo numLoi of unils piooucoo is calloo lho nn:j.nn| . 1hal is, maiginal cosl is
lho ooiivalivo of lho cosl funclion.
Lconomisls oflon inloipiol maiginal cosl using lho oiloionco quolionl appiox-
imalion:
C
t
(j) -
C (j /) C (j)
/
Spocilcally, if / = 1, lhon lho oiloionco quolionl appioximalion iooucos lo
C
t
(j) - C (j 1) C (j)
ano lhis in luin implios lhal
C (j 1) - C (j) C
t
(j)
1hal is, maiginal cosl can Lo inloipioloo lo Lo lho cosl of making lho noxl" unil
of a commooily.
IXAMIII J 1ho lolal cosl in making a lonnis iackols (in lhousanos
of iackols) is givon Ly C (a) = 201.2a0.01a
2
in lhousanos of oollais.
Whal is lho maiginal cosl of making 0,000 lonnis iackols
SoIutIon: Sinco C
t
(a) = 1.20.02a, lho maiginal cosl al 0,000 unils
is
C
t
(0) = 1.2 0.02 (0) = 1.02
1o inloipiol lhis iosull, lol`s lisl incluoo unils ( C is in oollais ano a
is in lhousanos of iackols):
C
t
(0) = 1.02
t/on-a:d- o) do||ar-
t/on-a:d rac/ct-
= 1.02
do||ar-
rac/ct
1ho oiscussion immooialoly Lofoio lhis oxamplo givos us a moans foi
inloipioling lho iosull. In pailiculai, afloi making 0,000 iackols, lho
cosl of lho noxl iackol (i.o., lho 0,001
~|
) is aLoul 1.02 oollais.
RATLS OF CHANCL 141
Also in oconomics, if lho piico j is a funclion of lho quanlily a unils of a commooily
oomanooo Ly a maikol, lhon j as a funclion of a is calloo a JnnnJ J&n.n. 1ho
iovonuo 1(a) foi a oomano funclion j (a) is givon Ly 1(a) = aj (a), which is
lho piico limos lho numLoi solo, ano lho ooiivalivo 1
t
(a) of lho iovonuo is calloo
lho nn:j.nn| :n& fiom solling a unils of a commooily. 1ho pioll 1 (a) fiom
making ano solling a unils of a commooily is
1 (a) = 1(a) C (a)
which is lo say lhal pioll is lho oiloionco Lolwoon iovonuo ano cosls.
IXAMIII ! Supposo lhal lho piico j in lhousanos of oollais as a
funclion of lho numLoi a of a coilain aulomoLilo availaLlo foi salo is
j (a) = 2 2a
0.S77
Whal is lho maiginal iovonuo fiom solling 100 aulomoLilos
SoIutIon: Sinco Iovonuo = piico numLoi solo, wo havo
1(a) =
_
2 2a
0.S77
_
a = 2a 2a
0.l23
1ho maiginal iovonuo funclion is lhus
1
t
(a) = 2 2 (0.128) a
0.S77
As a iosull, 1
t
(100) = 2 2 (0.128) (100)
0.S77
= 2.00488. Iovonuo is
moasuioo in lhousanos of oollais, so lhal lho maiginal iovonuo fiom
solling 100 aulomoLilos is
1
t
(100) = $20, 048 jcr car -o|d
h& h& n&h :n& nn & r J:n ||.nj h 1u1
~|
n&nh.| .n Chock youi Ioaoing
rnn|
Hate IroLIens
Many applicalions involvo funclions of lho foim j = ) (a) in which a ano j aio
.n|..|j J]nJ as funclions of anolhoi vaiiaLlo t. In such applicalions, a cuivo
j = ) (a) is aclually a funclion of lho foim j (t) = ) [a(t)[ , ano lho ooiivalivo
j
t
(t) is of lho foim
dj
dt
=
d
dt
) (inpul) (2.2)
whoio lho inpul is a(t) . 1ho chain iulo in lhis caso says lhal
d
dt
) (inpul) = )
t
(inpul)
d
dt
(inpul)
whoio again, lho inpul is a(t) .
142 THL DLRlVATlVL
IXAMIII Supposo lhal j = a
3
2a, ano supposo lhal a is a
funclion of t. Fino
J
J|
whon a = 8 ano
Ji
J|
= 7.
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, wo aclually havo
j (t) = [a(t)[
3
2 [a(t)[
As a iosull, lho ooiivalivo
J
J|
is of lho foim
dj
dt
=
d
dt
_
[inpul[
3
2 [inpul[
_
whoio lho inpul is a(t) . 1hoiofoio, wo havo
dj
dt
=
_
8 [inpul[
2
2
_
d
dt
(inpul)
so lhal ioplacing lho inpul Ly a(t) loaos lo
dj
dt
=
_
8a
2
2
_
da
dt
Whon a = 8 ano
Ji
J|
= 7, wo lhus havo
dj
dt
=
_
8 8
2
2
_
7 = 208
Lxamplo illuslialos lhal wo musl &n. lo suLslilulo numoiical valuos &n.| h
]nn| .
Lxamplo is also an oxamplo of a :n :h|n, which is an applicalion in
which a ano j aio funclions of a lhiio vaiiaLlo t, ano lho goal is lo ooloimino
J
J|
givon infoimalion aLoul a, j, ano
Ji
J|
.
IXAMIII 0 Supposo a ciiculai oil slick is spioaoing al a ialo of 2
milos poi houi whon lho iaoius of lho oil slick is 10 milos. How fasl is
lho aioa of lho oil slick incioasing
-2: An oil slick wilh iaoius r spioaoing al a ialo of 2 milos poi houi
SoIutIon: If (t) oonolos lho aioa of lho oil slick al limo t ano if r (t)
oonolos ils iaoius al limo t, lhon
(t) = [r (t)[
2
As a iosull, lho chain iulo says lhal
d
dt
=
d
dt
[inpul[
2
RATLS OF CHANCL 148
whoio lho inpul is r (t) . 1hus, wo havo
d
dt
= 2 [inpul[
d
dt
(inpul) = 2r (t)
d
dt
r (t)
which in oiloionlial nolalion implios lhal
d
dt
= 2r
dr
dt
Sinco drdt = 2 milos poi houi whon r = 10 milos, lho ialo of chango
of lho aioa of lho slick whon r = 10 is
d
dt
= 2 10 2 = 40 = 12.6687
(:i|c-)
2
/onr
1hn J (t) :J& .n rnn| &hn r (t) =
_
40t Chock youi Ioaoing
Aore Hate IroLIens
Many ialo pioLloms ioquiio lho uso of goomoliic concopls, such as lho Iylhagoioan
lhooiom, similai liianglos, ano volumo foimulas. Also, ialo pioLloms may occui
as oqualions of cuivos ialhoi lhan giaphs of funclions.
IXAMIII 7 A Loal is pulloo lowaio a oock Ly a iopo allachoo lo
ils Low.
-8: A Loal Loing pulloo lowaio a oock
If lho lop of lho winch is 8 fool highoi lhan lho Low ano if lho iopo
is pulloo in al a ialo of 2 fool poi socono, how fasl is lho Loal moving
whon il is 10 fool fiom lho oock.
SoIutIon: Lol us lol a oonolo lho longlh of lho iopo fiom lho winch
lo lho Low ano lol j oonolo lho oislanco of lho Low fiom lho oock.
1hon a, j, ano lho hoighl 8 fool foim a iighl liianglo.
-4: Iighl liianglo oiagiam of lguio -8
As a iosull, j
2
0 = a
2
. Applicalion of
J
J|
lo Lolh sioos of lho oqualion
yiolo
d
dt
_
j
2
0
_
=
d
dt
a
2
144 THL DLRlVATlVL
Sinco a ano j aio hh funclions of a oiloionl vaiiaLlo t, wo uso lho
chain iulo lo oiloionlialo oxpiossions in Lolh a ano j:
d
dt
(ontjnt)
2
d
dt
0 =
d
dt
(ontjnt)
2
whoio lho oulpul is j ano lho inpul is a. As a iosull, wo havo
2ontjnt
d
dt
(ontjnt) = 2ontjnt
d
dt
(ontjnt)
2j
d
dt
(j) = 2a
d
dt
(a)
j
dj
dt
= a
da
dt
Whon j = 10, lhon 100 0 = a
2
, which moans lhal a =
_
100. Sinco
Ji
J|
= 2 fool poi socono, wo havo
10
dj
dt
=
_
_
100
_
da
dt
dj
dt
=
_
100
10
2
)t
soc
= 2.088
)t
soc
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ
J
J|
n j.n .n& j. &n hn j . .n J nnJ . .n nJ, nnJ .n|&J
&n. .n j&: :&|.
1. j = t
2
8, j = 2 2. j = 0.8t
2
2.8t 1, j = 0.7
8. j = 8t 2 , j = 2 4. j = t
3
2t, j = 0.
. j =
1
t
2
, j = 2 6. j =
1
_
t
, j = 1
7. j = (8t 2)
l
, j = 1 8. j =
_
t
2
8
_
2
, j = 2
0. j =
_
6t 7, j = 8 10. j =
_
t
2
8, j = 2
1n r:. 11 h:&jh 1, ]nJ
J
J|
&.nj h j.n .nJ:nn.n.
11. j = 6r
2
,
J:
J|
= 0.2, r = 1.
12. j = 2a
2
a,
Ji
J|
= 1., a = 2
13. j a
3
= a,
Ji
J|
= 1, a = 1
14. j (2a 1)
3
= 24,
Ji
J|
= 2.1, a = 2
1r:. 1 - . n| j& J:n.n n :n J hnnj nnJ .n:: h :&|.
15. A sphoiical Lalloon has a volumo in cuLic inchos of
\ (r) =
4
8
r
3
whoio r is lho iaoius of lho Lalloon in inchos. Fino
J\
J:
whon r = 2 inchos.
Inloipiol lho iosull as a ialo of chango.
RATLS OF CHANCL 14
16. A Liiogo ovoi a canyon has a hoighl / in fool of
/(a) = 0.18a(0 a)
whoio a is lho oislanco in fool fiom ono sioo of lho canyon lo a poinl on lho
Liiogo.
-: A Liiogo acioss a canyon
Fino
J|
Ji
whon a = 2 ano inloipiol lho iosull.
17. 1ho avoiago longlh 1 in conlimolois of a lsh choson al ianoom fiom a
pailiculai populalion is givon Ly
1(t) = 0.81 0.20t 0.0087t
2
whoio t is limo in oays sinco halching. Whal is
J1
J|
whon t = 10 Inloipiol
lho iosull as a ialo of chango.
18. On a coilain pono, lho lhicknoss of lho layoi of ico on lho suifaco of lho pono
salislos
j (t) =
_
t
whoio j is in inchos ano t is in houis. How fasl is lho layoi of ico incioasing
afloi 8 houis Afloi houis
19. Lol j oonolo lho conconlialion in molos poi liloi of lho chomical H1 in lho
chomical ioaclion
2H1 H
2
1
2
If lho inilial conconlialion is 0.01 molos poi liloi ano lho lompoialuio is
20
C, lhon il can Lo shown lhal

j (t) =
1
0.04t 100
whoio t is limo in soconos sinco lho ioaclion Logan. Whal is lho inilial ialo
of lho ioaclion
20. 1ho onzymalic aclivily 1(T) of a coilain onzymo al lompoialuio T in oogioos
Colsius is givon Ly
1(T) = 11.760 10.116T 0.22808T
2
whoio onzymalic aclivily is moasuioo in aclivily unils (\).
1
Whal is lho
ialo of chango
JJ
JT
of onzymalic aclivily wilh iospocl lo lompoialuio whon
lho lompoialuio is 20
C ( which is consiooioo lo Lo ioom lompoialuio")

21. Fiazioi fuis aio giown foi six lo lon yoais Lofoio Loing haivosloo foi salo
as Chiislmas lioos. Supposo lho lolal cosl of giowing a Fiazioi fuis foi six
yoais is givon Ly C (a) = 2100 1.a 0.001a
2
in oollais.
1
An aclivily unil is lho amounl of onzymo which will calalyso 1 miciomolo of a suLslialo
poi minulo unooi slanoaio conoilions.
146 THL DLRlVATlVL
(a) Whal is C
t
(a) Whal ooos il iopiosonl
(L) Whal is lho maiginal cosl of giowing 1,000 Fiazioi fuis foi six
yoais Lo suio lo incluoo lho unils.
(c) If 1,000 Fiazioi fui lioos aio giown foi six yoais, lhon aLoul how
much woulo il cosl lo giow lho noxl" Fiazioi fui
22. In oxoiciso 21, whal is lho maiginal cosl of giowing 70 Fiazioi fuis foi six
yoais Lo suio lo incluoo lho unils.
23. 1ho piico j poi Fiazioi fui givon a oomano foi a six yoai olo Fiazioi fuis is
givon Ly j(a) = 0.01a 8.
(a) Whal is lho iovonuo funclion 1(a) foi solling six yoai olo Fiazioi
lis
(L) Whal aio lho unils of 1
t
(1000)
(c) Whal is lho maiginal iovonuo of solling 1,000 six yoai olo Fiazioi
lis Givo an inloipiolalion of 1
t
(1000).
(o) Whal is lho maiginal iovonuo of solling 70 six yoai olo Fiazioi
lis Givo an inloipiolalion of 1
t
(70).
24. Iioll is oolnoo lo Lo 1(a) = 1(a)C(a) whoio 1(a) is lho iovonuo funclion
ano C(a) is lho cosl funclion.
(a) Whal is lho pioll funclion 1(a) foi giowing ano solling six yoai
olo Fiazioi lis (soo 21 ano 28)
(L) Whal is 1(1000) , lho pioll of giowing ano solling 1000 six yoai
olo Fiazioi lis
(c) Whal aio lho unils of 1
t
(1000)
(o) Whal is lho maiginal pioll of giowing ano solling 1,000 six yoai
olo Fiazioi lis Givo an inloipiolalion of 1
t
(1000).
25. Waloi is Loing pumpoo inlo cylinoiical lank which has a iaoius of 4 fool.
1ho lank is inilially omply ano lho volumo of waloi pumpoo inlo lho lank
al limo t in minulos sinco pumping Logan is givon Ly \ (t) = 2t 0.01t
2
cuLic fool. How fasl is lho hoighl / of lho waloi iising afloi 100 minulos
How woulo you inloipiol lhis iosull
26. Waloi is Loing pumpoo inlo a lank which is inilially omply al a conslanl
ialo of 2 cuLic fool poi minulo. 1ho lank is in lho shapo of a iighl ciiculai
cono lhal is 10 fool high ano 20 fool wioo acioss ils lop. ( Volumo of a cono
=
l
3
iaoius
2
hoighl ).
-6: Waloi pumpoo inlo a cono
How fasl is lho hoighl / of lho waloi iising afloi 10 minulos
27. 1ho accoloialion of an oLjocl ouo lo lho oailh`s giavilalional lolo is
a(r) =
/
r
2
RATLS OF CHANCL 147
whoio / = 0, 104.14
nI
soc
ano r is lho oislanco fiom lho conloi of lho oailh

(assuming lho oailh is a sphoio wilh unifoim oonsily).
(a) Whal is lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily al lho oailh`s suifaco (
moan iaoius of oailh = 8068 milos) Whal ooos il Locomo whon il
is convoiloo inlo fool poi soc
2
(1 milo = 280 fool)
(L) Whal is lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily al 10 milos aLovo lho oailh`s
suifaco (in milos poi soc
2
)
(c) Whal is lho ialo of chango of lho accoloialion al lho oailh`s suifaco
How quickly ooos lho accoloialion chango as an oLjocl loavos lho
oailh`s suifaco How ooos lhis iolalo lo (a) ano (L)
28. Iopoal oxoiciso 27 foi lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily on lho suifaco of Mais
whoio / = 86, 202.76
nI
soc
(Mais has a moan iaoius of 2,106 milos).

1r:. .: - u n: :n :h|n.
29. A ioclanglo wilh a longlh of | ano a wiolh of 2 fool has a poiimoloi of
1 = 2| 4. Fino lho ialo al which lho poiimoloi is incioasing if lho longlh
| is incioasing al lho ialo
Jl
J|
= 8 fl.soc.
30. Fino lho ialo al which lho aioa of a ioclanglo is incioasing if ils wiolh is
conslanl al 2 fool ano if lho longlh | is incioasing al lho ialo of
Jl
J|
= 8 fl.soc.
31. If lho iaoius of a sphoiical Lalloon is incioasing al 1.2 c: soc whon lho iaoius
is 12 c:, al whal ialo is lho volumo conlainoo Ly lho Lalloon incioasing
(Iocall \ =
d
3
r
3
)
32. If lho volumo conlainoo Ly a sphoiical Lalloon is incioasing al 10 cc soc (a
cc is ono cuLic conlimoloi) whon lho iaoius is 1 c:, al whal ialo is lho
iaoius incioasing
33. 1ho suifaco aioa of a molling ico cuLo is oocioasing al a ialo of 0.8 in
2
min
whon ils oimonsions aio 2
tt
2
tt
2
tt
. Al whal ialo is lho longlh of a sioo of
lho cuLo oocioasing
34. 1ho suifaco aioa of a molling ico cuLo is oocioasing al a ialo of 0.8 in
2
min
whon ils oimonsions aio 2
tt
2
tt
2
tt
. Al whal ialo is ils volumo oocioasing
35. A Loy, 4
t
8
tt
lall, nolicos his shaoow longlhoning as ho walks away fiom lho
Laso of a 16
t
lall sliool lamp. If ho walks away fiom lho sliool lamp al a
ialo of 8 )t. soc, al whal ialo is lho lip of his shaoow moving whon ho is
80 fool fiom lho Laso of lho polo
36. A giil is appioaching an inloisoclion on hoi Licyclo ano anolhoi is slanoing
slill on lho olhoi sliool which foims lho inloisoclion. 1ho giil on lho Licyclo
is iioing al 1 )t. soc ano lho lwo sliools aio sliaighl ano al iighl anglos lo
ono anolhoi. Al whal ialo aio lho giils appioaching ono anolhoi whon lho
giil iioing lho Licyclo is 0 )cct fiom lho inloisoclion ano lho olhoi giil is
80 )cct fiom lho inloisoclion
37. A HasketLaII`s YeIocIty: An NLA playoi shools a 8-poinloi fiom 24 fool (
148 THL DLRlVATlVL
8 poinl lino is al 28`0") lhal passos lhiough lho hoop 1.4 soconos laloi.
-7: An NLA 8-poinloi
Il can Lo shown lhal lho Lall hao lo havo liavoloo along a paiaLolic aic of
lho foim
j = 8 1. 80a 0.044a
2
Uso lho facl lhal lho Lall movoo 24 fool hoiizonlally in 1.4 soconos lo ooloi-
mino lho conslanl hoiizonlal volocily
Ji
J|
. Whal was lho voilical volocily
J
J|
of lho Lall inilially (i.o., whon a = 0) Whal was lho voilical volocily whon
lho Lall foll lhiough lho hoop
38. A wioo iocoivoi iuns noxl lo lho iighl sioolino of a foolLall lolo al a conslanl
ialo of 27 fool poi socono. Whon ho ciossos lho 0 yaio lino, a oofonooi is
ciossing lho 80 yaio lino iunning al a conslanl spooo of 24 fool poi socono
&n:J h.n n|nj h nn .J|.n. On whal yaio lino will lhoy mool ano
how fasl will lho oislanco Lolwoon lhom Lo oocioasing al lhal poinl
39. * Supposo lho oofonooi in pioLlom88 aLovo is on lho 80 yaio lino, Lul is in lho
mioolo of lho lolo al aLoul 2 yaios fiom lho sioolino. If lho oofonooi iuns
al a conslanl ialo of 24 fool poi socono, whal linoai palh musl ho puisuo in
oiooi lo oo so How fasl is lho oislanco Lolwoon lhom oocioasing whon lho
oofonooi ano lho iocoivoi mool
40. * A man walks acioss a Liiogo al a conslanl ialo of 2 milos poi houi whon a
Loal liavoling al a conslanl ialo of 80 milos poi houi passos oiioclly Lonoalh
him al a iighl anglo lo his palh.
-8: Walking aLovo a spoooing Loal
If lho man is oxaclly 8 fool aLovo lho Loal whon lho Loal passos oiioclly
unooinoalh, lhon how fai apail aio lho man ano lho Loal ono minulo laloi
(assuming oach follows a sliaighl palh al a conslanl olovalion) How fasl is
lho oislanco Lolwoon lho man ano lho Loal incioasing al lhal limo
RATLS OF CHANCL 140
2.6 The LxponenLial FuncLion
TLe ExonentIaI FunctIon
In lhis soclion, wo inlioouco lho rnn.n| J&n.n, a funclion lhal is in many
ways founoalional lo lho sluoy of calculus. In ooing so, wo also inlioouco lho
now conslanl c, which is calloo 1&|:` nnn, as a univoisal conslanl similai
in slaluio lo lho univoisal conslanl .
1o Login wilh, lol`s iocall lhal lho n&nJ .n: foimula says lhal if 1
oollais aio invosloo al an nnn&n| inloiosl ialo r compounooo : limos oach yoai,
lhon lho valuo of lho invoslmonl afloi t yoais is
= 1
_
1
r
:
_
n|
Foi oxamplo, lol`s supposo lhal wo invosl $1 al 100/ inloiosl foi t = 1 yoais. 1ho
compouno inloiosl foimula Locomos
=
_
1
1
:
_
n
whoio : is lho numLoi of compounoings. Moioovoi, if : incioasos, lhon lho valuo
of incioasos as woll.
onco poi yoai : = 1 == =
_
1
l
l
_
l
= $2.00
lwico poi yoai : = 2 == =
_
1
l
2
_
2
= $2.2
onco poi quailoi : = 4 == =
_
1
l
d
_
d
= $2.44
onco poi monlh : = 12 == =
_
1
l
l2
_
l2
= $2.61
onco poi oay : = 86 == =
_
1
l
365
_
365
= $2.71
onco poi oay : = 8, 670 == =
_
1
l
S760
_
S760
= $2.718
onco poi socono : = 81, 86, 000 == =
_
1
l
3l,536,000
_
3l,536,000
= $2.718
1hal is, as lho numLoi of compounoings poi yoai incioasos, lho valuo of lho
invoslmonl incioasos accoioingly, Lul only up lo 1&|:` nnn
c = 2.7182818286 . . .
Lol`s supposo now lhal lho annual inloiosl ialo is 200/, so lhal r = 2. 1hon
onco poi yoai : = 1 == =
_
1
2
l
_
l
= $8.00
lwico poi yoai : = 2 == =
_
1
2
2
_
2
= $4.00
onco poi quailoi : = 4 == =
_
1
2
d
_
d
= $.06
onco poi monlh : = 12 == =
_
1
2
l2
_
l2
= $6.86
onco poi oay : = 86 == =
_
1
2
365
_
365
= $7.8
onco poi oay : = 8, 670 == =
_
1
2
S760
_
S760
= $7.887
onco poi socono : = 81, 86, 000 == =
_
1
2
3l,536,000
_
3l,536,000
= $7.880
1ho signilcanco of lho numLoi 7.880... is lhal il is voiy closo lo
c
2
= (2.7182818286 . . .)
2
= 7.88006 . . .
10 THL DLRlVATlVL
1hal is, as lho numLoi : of compounoings appioachos , lho valuo of lho invosl-
monl appioachos c
:
, whoio r is lho annual inloiosl ialo. 1his oiscussion molivalos
us lo oolno a now funclion.
DehnItIon 6.1: 1ho oxpononlial funclion is oolnoo
c
i
= lim
no
_
1
a
:
_
n
whoio oach : in lho limil is a posilivo inlogoi.
In pailiculai, c
i
is lho funclion in which lho numLoi c is iaisoo lo lho powoi a.
Lol`s now calculalo lho ooiivalivo of c
i
. 1o Login wilh, lol`s nolico lhal foi
oach :, wo havo
d
da
_
1
a
:
_
n
= :
_
1
a
:
_
nl
d
da
_
1
1
:
a
_
= :
_
1
a
:
_
nl
_
1
:
_
=
_
1
a
:
_
nl
1hal is, wo can wiilo
d
da
_
1
a
:
_
n
=
_
1
a
:
_
n
_
1
a
:
_
l
Now lol`s assumo (ialhoi Lololy!) lhal wo can inloichango lho limil ano lho
ooiivalivo. 1hon
d
da
lim
no
_
1
a
:
_
n
= lim
no
_
1
a
:
_
n
lim
no
_
1
a
:
_
l
d
da
c
i
= c
i
(1 0)
l
= c
i
1hal is, lho oxpononlial funclion is ils own ooiivalivo:
d
da
c
i
= c
i
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho slopo ano lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo
j = c
i
whon a = 1.
SoIutIon: Sinco j = c
i
implios lhal j
t
= c
i
, lho slopo of lho langonl
lino is
j
t
(1) = c
l
= c
Moioovoi, j = c
i
implios lhal j (1) = c
l
= c, so lhal lho langonl lino
is lho lino lhiough (1, c) wilh slopo c:
j c = c (a 1)
THL LXPONLNTlAL FUNCTlON 11
1hus, j = ca, which is appioximaloly j = 2.7182 a.
x
3 2 1 0 -1
20
15
10
5
0
6-1: A langonl lino lo j = c
i
1hj nn & n|&J hn j (0) = 1 &hn j = a
i
Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe ExonentIaI FunctIon and tLe CLaIn HuIe
In opoialoi nolalion, lho ooiivalivo of lho oxpononlial funclion is of lho foim
d
da
c
i
= c
i
(2.26)
1ho ooiivalivo (2.26) can Lo wiillon in chain iulo foim as
d
da
c
inpul
= c
inpul
d
da
(inpul)
IXAMIII 2 Fino )
t
(a) foi ) (a) = c
i
.
SoIutIon: 1ho chain iulo lolls us lhal
d
da
c
inpul
= c
inpul
d
da
inpul
2
. Ioplacing inpul" Ly a
2
" iosulls in
d
da
c
i
= c
i
d
da
_
a
2
_
= 2ac
i
(2.27)
IXAMIII J Fino )
t
(a) if ) (a) = a
2
c
i
.
SoIutIon: Sinco a
2
c
i
is lho piooucl of a
2
ano c
i
, wo uso lho piooucl
iulo:
d
da
a
2
c
i
=
_
d
da
a
2
_
c
i
a
2
_
d
da
c
i
_
= 2ac
i
a
2
c
i
IXAMIII ! Fino )
t
(a) if ) (a) = a(c
i
1)
3/2
SoIutIon: Hoio wo musl uso a comLinalion of lho piooucl iulo nnJ
lho chain iulo. Inoooo,
)
t
(a) =
d
da
_
a(c
i
1)
3/2
_
=
_
d
da
a
_
(c
i
1)
3/2
a
d
da
(c
i
1)
3/2
12 THL DLRlVATlVL
1hus, lho chain iulo implios lhal
)
t
(a) = (c
i
1)
3/2
a
8
2
(c
i
1)
l/2
d
da
(c
i
1)
= (c
i
1)
3/2
8
2
a(c
i
1)
l/2
c
i
Finally, facloiing oul (c
i
1)
l/2
yiolos
)
t
(a) = (c
i
1)
l/2
_
c
i
1
8
2
ac
i
_
Socono ooiivalivos aio similaily ovalualoo. Howovoi, il is woilh iomomLoiing lhal
if lho lisl ooiivalivo involvos lho chain iulo, lhon lho socono ooiivalivo will oflon
Login wilh lho piooucl iulo:
IXAMIII Fino )
tt
(a) foi ) (a) = c
i
.
SoIutIon: In oxamplo 2, wo usoo lho chain iulo lo oLlain )
t
(a) =
2ac
i
. 1hus, lnoing )
tt
(a) Logins wilh lho piooucl iulo:
)
tt
(a) =
d
da
_
2ac
i
_
=
_
d
da
(2a)
_
c
i
(2a)
d
da
c
i
Wo now uso lho chain iulo lo ovalualo

J
Ji
c
i
(soo (2.27) foi oolails):

d
2
da
2
c
i
= 2c
i
(2a)
_
2ac
i
_
= 2c
i
4a
2
c
i
Facloiing oul 2c
i
iosulls in
d
2
da
2
c
i
= 2c
i
_
2a
2
1
_
(2.28)
n& h J:.n. J c
i
&.nj h hn.n :&|. Chock youi Ioaoing
IroertIes oI tLe ExonentIaI FunctIon
Sinco c = 2.7182818284 . . . is a numLoi, lho piopoilios of c
i
follow fiom lho laws
of oxpononls foi a numLoi c iaisoo lo a powoi a.
IroertIes oI c
i
(1) c
0
= 1 (4) c
i
0 foi all a
(2) c
io
= c
i
c
o
() c
i
=
1
c
i
(8) c
|i
= (c
i
)
|
Iiopoily () is ospocially usoful whon simplifying oxpiossions involving oxpononlial
funclions.
IXAMIII 0 Simplify lho oxpiossion
l
t
1
l
t
(2.20)
lo an oxpiossion wilh only ono oxpononlial.
SoIutIon: Iiopoily () implios lho moio compaclly wiillon
c
i
1 c
i
Now lol us mulliply lho numoialoi ano lho oonominaloi Ly c
i
:
_
c
i
1 c
i
_
c
i
c
i
=
c
i
c
i
(1 c
i
) c
i
=
c
i
c
i
c
i
c
i
c
i
Iiopoily (2) implios lhal c
i
c
i
= c
ii
, so lhal
c
i
1 c
i
=
c
ii
c
i
c
ii
=
c
0
c
i
c
0
=
1
c
i
1
Sinco c 1, lho oxpononlial c
i
Locomos laigoi ano laigoi wilhoul Louno as a
appioachos . Consoquonlly, c
i
=
l
t
appioachos 0 as a appioachos .
x
3 2 1 0 -1
20
15
10
5
0
6-2a: Giaph of ) (a) = c
i
x
3 2 1 0 -1
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
6-2L: Giaph of ) (a) = c
i
In gonoial, c
|i
foi / 0 Locomos aiLiliaiily laigo as a appioachos . 1hus,
lim
io
c
|i
= lim
io
1
c
|i
= 0 if / 0 (2.80)
1hn J c
2i
c
i
.n|.Jj Chock youi Ioaoing
AIIcatIons oI tLe ExonentIaI
Laloi in lhis loxl, wo will consiooi a numLoi of applicalions of lho oxpononlial,
as il is founoalional lo lho sluoy of oiloionlial oqualions. Foi now, lol`s look al
applicalions lhal follow immooialoly fiom oolnilion 6.1.
If : is voiy laigo, lhon oolnilion 6.1 implios lhal
c
i
-
_
1
a
:
_
n
(2.81)
14 THL DLRlVATlVL
Iaising c
i
lo a powoi t ano mulliplying Ly 1 lhon yiolos
1 [c
i
[
|
- 1
_ _
1
a
:
_
n
_
|
If wo now lol a = r ano consiooi : voiy laigo, lhon
1c
:|
- 1
_
1
r
:
_
n|
(2.82)
1hal is, lho compouno inloiosl foimula foi voiy laigo valuos of : is voiy closo lo
an oxpononlial funclion. 1his iooa is quilo usoful in sluoying invoslmonls liko ioal
oslalo ano lho slock maikol whoio lho valuo of lho invoslmonl is lhooiolically in
a conlinual slalo of chango.
IXAMIII 7 Whal is lho appioximalo valuo afloi 8 yoais of an
invoslmonl of $, 000 wilh a piojocloo annual ialo of 12/if lho numLoi
of compounoings is nol known spocilcally Lul is known lo Lo quilo
laigo (such as an invoslmonl in lho slock maikol)
SoIutIon: Sinco :, lho numLoi of compounoings poi yoai, is nol
known Lul is voiy laigo, wo uso lho facl lhal
= 1
_
1
r
:
_
n|
- 1c
:|
If 1 = $, 000, r = 0.12, ano t = 8, lhon
- 000c
0.l2 3
= $7, 166.64
1ho compouno inloiosl iooa also occuis in non-lnancial applicalions. Foi oxamplo,
supposo a populalion is giowing al a ialo of // poi unil limo, which is lo say lhal
if dt is sumcionlly closo lo 0, lhon Lolwoon limo t ano limo t dt lho populalion
will incioaso Ly /dt /. 1o illuslialo, supposo lhal / = 20/ poi houi. 1hon
fiom limo t = 2 houis lo limo t dt = 2.01 houis, lho populalion incioasos Ly
appioximaloly /dt = 0.2 /. 1ho paiamoloi / is calloo lho .n:.n. j:&h :n
of lho populalion.
Lol`s supposo lho populalion has a populalion of 1 al limo t = 0, ano lol`s
ooloimino aLoul how laigo (t) lho populalion will Lo afloi t houis. 1o oo so,
wo chooso a laigo posilivo inlogoi : ano oivioo lho inloival [0, t[ inlo : oqual limo
poiioos, oach of which has a ouialion of dt =
|
n
.
6.8: 1ho inloival [0, t[ paililionoo inlo poiioos of ouialion dt =
|
n
1ho populalion incioasos Ly aLoul /dt =
||
n
/ovoi oach limo poiioo. Foi oxamplo,
ovoi lho lisl limo poiioo lho populalion incioasos Ly aLoul
||
n
/ of lho inilial
populalion 1, which is
||
n
1. 1hus, al limo
|
n
, lho populalion is appioximaloly lho
sum of lho inilial populalion 1 ano lho incioaso ouiing
_
0,
|
n
_
t
:
_
- 1
/t
:
1 = 1
_
1
/t
:
_
Duiing lho poiioo
_
|
n
,
2|
n
, lho populalion incioasos Ly aLoul

||
n
/ of
_
|
n
_
, so
lhal
_
2t
:
_
-
_
t
:
_
/t
:

_
t
:
_
=
_
t
:
__
1
/t
:
_
= 1
_
1
/t
:
_
2
Similaily,
_
3|
n
_
- 1
_
1
||
n
_
3
ano conlinuing acioss oach limo poiioo loaos lo
(t) =
_
:t
:
_
- 1
_
1
/t
:
_
n
In lho limil as : appioachos , wo oLlain lho oxacl populalion of
(t) = 1 lim
no
_
1
/t
:
_
n
= 1c
||
1hus, lho populalion al limo t is givon Ly (t) = 1c
||
.
IXAMIII 8 A coilain Lacloiia culluio is incioasing al an inliinsic
ialo of aLoul 20/ poi minulo. If lhoio aio 100 Lacloiia inilially, aLoul
how many Lacloiia will lhoio Lo afloi 7 houis
SoIutIon: Sinco 1 = 100 ano / = 80/ poi houi, lho populalion al
limo t in minulos is givon Ly
(t) = 100c
0.S|
Afloi t = 7 houis lho Lacloiia populalion will Lo
(7) = 100c
0.S(7)
= 27, 042 /actcria
Lxoicisos:
5.n|.Jj nh r:.n nn r:.n .n|.nj n .nj| rnn.n|
1. c
i
c
2i
2.
_
c
i/2
1
_ _
c
i/2
1
_
8. c
i
_
c
i
c
2i
_
4.
_
c
5i
c
9i
_
c
9i
.
c
2i
4
c
i
2
6.
c
i
1
c
2i
1
7.
c
i
1
c
i
8.
c
i
c
2i
c
i
0.
c
i
c
i
c
i
1
10.
c
2i
4c
i
4
c
i
2
1.nJ h | nnJ h j&n.n J h nnjn |.n n h j.n n|& J j.
11. )(a) = c
i
, j = 2 12. )(a) = c
i
c
i
, j = 1
18. ) (a) = ac
i
, j = 1 14. ) (a) = a
3
c
i
, j = 0
1. )(a) = c
i
c
i
, j = 1 16. )(a) = c
i
c
i
, j = 0
17. ) (a) =
c
2i
1
c
2i
1
, j = 0 18. ) (a) =
c
2i
1
c
2i
1
, j = 1
16 THL DLRlVATlVL
1.nJ h J:.n. )
t
(a) nnJ nJ J:.n. )
tt
(a) J nh J&n.n h|&.
10. ) (a) = ac
i
20. ) (a) = a
2
c
i
21. ) (a) = c
i
/2
22. ) (a) = c
_
i
28. ) (a) = c
l/i
24. ) (a) = c
l/i
2. ) (a) =
_
ac
i/d
26. )(a) = ac
i
27. )(a) = ac
i
c
2i
28. )(a) =
1
c
i
c
i
20. )(a) =
a 1
c
i
80. )(a) =
a
2
a
c
5i
31. Whal is lho valuo afloi yoais of an invoslmonl of $10,000 al an nnn&n|
ialo of 12/ if il is compounooo monlhly If il is compounooo oaily If il
is compounooo houily Compaio lhoso valuos wilh lho valuo oLlainoo fiom
lho oxpononlial appioximalion of compouno inloiosl in (2.82).
32. If : is loo laigo, lhon iounool oiioi foicos us lo uso (2.82) insloao of lho
compouno inloiosl foimula. Foi oxamplo, compulo lho valuos in oxoiciso 81
if lho invoslmonl is compounooo onco ovoiy socono, onco ovoiy millisocono (
= 1,000 limos poi socono), onco ovoiy nanosocono (= 10
9
limos oach socono).
Do you liusl lhoso calculalions Oi oo you suspocl iounool oiioi mighl Lo
making lho compouno inloiosl foimula unioliaLlo
33. Aco muluals aio an invoslmonl lhal consislonlly havo somowhoio Lolwoon
a 0 ano a 1 poiconl annual inloiosl ialo. If an invosloi invosls $20,000 in
Aco muluals, whal is appioximaloly lho highosl ano lho lowosl valuos lhoy
can oxpocl foi lhoii invoslmonl afloi yoais (assuming lhal lho numLoi of
compounoings poi yoai is voiy laigo)
34. Supposo lhal $1000 is placoo in a savings accounl wilh an nnn&n| inloiosl
ialo of 4/ compounooo oaily. How much oiloionco woulo lhoio Lo Lolwoon
lho oxpononlial appioximalion ano lho compouno inloiosl foimula in (2.82)
afloi 20 yoais
35. 1ho woilo populalion in 100 was 2.2 Lillion pooplo, ano al any givon limo
il has Loon giowing al an inliinsic ialo of aLoul 1.87/ annually sinco lhon.
Whal is lho oxpononlial funclion moool foi woilo populalion ALoul how
many pooplo aio in lho woilo al piosonl, Lasoo on lhis moool ALoul how
many pooplo will lhoio Lo in 200
36. Iopoal oxoiciso 8 foi lho populalion of lho Uniloo Slalos, which was al
10.607 million in 100 ano al any givon limo has Loon giowing al an inliinsic
ialo of aLoul 1.286/ annually sinco lhon.
37. CraLer: In pioLaLilily, lho Loll cuivo, which is also known as lho nnJn:J
n:nn| Jn.j, is lho giaph of lho funclion ) (a) = c
i
/2
.
(a) Fino )
t
(a) ano )
tt
(a) .
(L) Giaph ) (a) ano )
t
(a) on lho samo oomain [2, 2[ .
(c) Whoio ooos lho laigosl valuo of ) (a) occui Al whal valuo is
)
t
(a) = 0 Whal is lho connoclion hoio
(o) Al whal lwo valuos is )
tt
(a) = 0 (lho aLsolulo valuo of lhoso lwo
numLois is calloo lho nnJn:J J.n.n of lho slanoaio noimal
oonsily)
38. CraLer: 1ho funclion )(a) = ac
i
is somolimos calloo lho n|hn funclion.
Il occuis fioquonlly in applicalions in pioLaLilily ano Liology.
(a) Fino )
t
(a).
(L) Giaph j = )(a) ano j = )
t
(a) on lho samo oomain [0, [.
(c) Whoio ooos lho laigosl valuo of ) (a) occui Al whal valuo is
)
t
(a) = 0 Whal is lho connoclion hoio
39. unerIcaI: Uso lho oolnilion of lho ooiivalivo lo oxplain lho ioonlily
lim
|0
c
|
1
/
= 1
Complolo lho following laLlo as a moans of voiifying lho limil aLovo
/ -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01
t
!
l
|

40. CraLer: Giaph lho funclion c
i
along wilh lho funclion
c
i|
c
i
/
foi / = 0.01 ovoi lho inloival [2, 2[ . Why aio lho lwo so similai
41. Show lhal lho langonl lino lo j = c
i
al a = 0 is j = 1 a.
42. Lol 1
0
(a) = 1 a (i.o., lho langonl lino in 41). Show lhal lho langonl lino
lo j = c
i
al a = j is
j = c
1
0
(a j)
43. Conuter AIgeLra Systen: If : = 1000, lhon oolnilion .1 implios lhal
c
i
-
_
1
a
1000
_
l000
Uso a compuloi algoLia syslom lo oxpano lho quanlily on lho iighl as a
polynomial in a, ano lhon lol a = 1 in lho lisl loims lo oLlain lho
appioximalion
c - 1 1
1
2

1
6

1
24
44. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo an ossay in which you uso oolnilion .1 lo oxplain
why
lim
io
a
n
c
i
= 0
foi any posilivo powoi :. (Hinl: you may wanl lo uso (2.81) ano assumo
lhal : :).
18 THL DLRlVATlVL
2.1 The NaLural LogariLhm
DehnItIon oI tLe aturaI LogarItLn
1ho giaph of lho oxpononlial funclion j = c
i
is shown in lguio 7-1.
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
7-1: Giaph of j = c
i
Nol only is lhoio only ono j foi oach a, Lul lhoio is also only ono a foi oach
j 0. As a iosull, lho cuivo a = c
.n|..|j oolnos j as a funclion of a. 1ho

funclion oolnoo implicilly Ly a = c
is calloo lho nn&:n| |jn:.hn ano is oonoloo

j = ln(a) .
7-2: 1ho cuivo a = c
implicilly oolnos j = ln(a) .

Nolico, howovoi, lhal ln(a) is oolnoo only foi a 0.
DehnItIon 7.1: 1ho nn&:n| |jn:.hn j = ln(a) is lho funclion
oolnoo implicilly Ly lho cuivo a = c
.
Sinco j = ln(a) is lho samo as a = c
, ioplacing j Ly ln(a) yiolos a = c

In(i)
.
Similaily, ln(c
i
) = a. Wo say lhal c
i
ano ln(a) aio .n: of oach olhoi Locauso
of lhoso lwo piopoilios.
TLeoren 7.2: If a 0, lhon ln(a) ano c
i
cancol unooi composilion.
1hal is,
ln(c
i
) = a ano c
In(i)
= a.
Foi oxamplo, lho facl lhal ln(a) is lho invoiso of c
i
allows us lo uso ln(a) lo
isolalo / in lho funclion j = 1c
||
. Solving foi / in lhis fashion is impoilanl in
many applicalions.
THL NATURAL LOCARlTHM 10
IXAMIII 1 Fino / givon lhal j (t) = 8c
||
ano j (2) = 7
SoIutIon: Sinco j (2) = 7, wo lol t = 2 ano j = 7 in j = 8c
||
:
7 = 8 c
2|
Wo lhon oivioo Lolh sioos of lho oqualion Ly 8
c
2|
=
7
8
Wo lako lho naluial logaiilhm of Lolh sioos lo oliminalo lho oxponon-
lial:
ln
_
c
2|
_
= ln
_
7
8
_
2/ = ln
_
7
8
_
Finally, wo oivioo Lolh sioos Ly 2 lo oLlain
/ =
1
2
ln
_
7
8
_
= 0. 4286480
1hn . h n|& J ln(c) Chock youi Ioaoing
IroertIes oI tLe aturaI LogarItLn
1ho piopoilios of lho naluial logaiilhm follow fiom lho laws of oxpononls. 1o
illuslialo, consiooi lhal if a = c
i
ano / = c
, lhon ln(a) = a, ln(/) = j, ano

ln(a/) = ln(c
i
c
) = ln
_
c
i
_
= a j = ln(a) ln(/)
Moioovoi, if a = c
i
, lhon a = ln(a) , so lhal
ln(a
:
) = ln((c
i
)
:
) = ln(c
:i
) = ra = r ln(a)
An impoilanl coiollaiy of lhoso lhioo is lhal
ln
_
a
/
_
= ln(a) ln(/)
1ho ooiivalivo of ln(a) Logins wilh lho facl lhal if j = ln(a) , lhon c
= a.
Implicil oiloionlialion applioo lo c
= a yiolos
c
j
t
= 1
Sinco a = c
, lho oqualion c
j
t
= 1 iooucos lo aj
t
= 1, which implios lhal
j
t
= 1a. 1hal is,
d
da
ln(a) =
1
a
(2.88)
which in chain iulo foim is wiillon
d
da
ln(inpul) =
1
inpul
d
da
inpul (2.84)
160 THL DLRlVATlVL
In summaiy, ln(a) has lho following piopoilios.
IroertIes oI ln(a)
(1) ln(1) = 0 (4) ln
_
o
b
_
= ln(a) ln(/)
(2) ln(a/) = ln(a) ln(/) ()
J
Ji
ln(a) =
l
i
(8) ln(a
:
) = r ln(a)
IXAMIII 2 Fino )
t
(a) foi ) (a) = ln(c
i
1)
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, wo nolico lhal
J
Ji
ln(c
i
1) is givon Ly
d
da
ln(inpul) =
1
inpul
d
da
(inpul)
whoio lho inpul is c
i
1. As a iosull, wo havo
d
da
ln(c
i
1) =
1
c
i
1
d
da
(c
i
1) =
c
i
c
i
1
Whonovoi possiLlo, lho piopoilios of lho logaiilhm shoulo Lo usoo lo simplify a Simplify using
lho piopoilios
of lho logaiilhm
Lofoio applying
lho ooiivalivo.
funclion Lofoio il is oiloionlialoo.
IXAMIII J Fino )
t
(a) foi ) (a) = ln
_
2a
d
a
3
_
ano a 0.
SoIutIon: Sinco 2a
d
a
3
= a
3
(2a 1) , wo can wiilo ) (a) as
) (a) = ln
_
a
3
(2a 1)
afloi which piopoilios of lho logaiilhm yiolo

) (a) = ln
_
a
3
_
ln(2a 1) = 8 ln(a) ln(2a 1)
Consoquonlly, lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) is
)
t
(a) = 8
d
da
ln(a)
1
2a 1
d
da
(2a 1) =
8
a

2
2a 1
1hn . )
t
(a) &hn ) (a) = ln
_
a
3
_
Chock youi Ioaoing
LogarItLnIc DIerentIatIon
1ho piopoilios of lho logaiilhm can also Lo usoo lo simplify somo ooiivalivo com-
pulalions. In pailiculai, lho following algoiilhm, which is calloo |jn:.hn. J.J-
J:n.n.n, can Lo usoo lo compulo j
t
givon j = ) (a):
i. Apply ln(a) lo Lolh sioos of j = ) (a)
ii. Simplify using lho piopoilios of lho naluial logaiilhm
iii. Apply
J
Ji
ano uso lho facl lhal
d
da
ln[) (a)[ =
)
t
(a)
) (a)
iv. Solvo foi j
t
1his piocoss woiks ovon whon ) (a) _ 0, as is shown in oxoiciso 41.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho ooiivalivo of
j =
a
a
2
1
(2.8)
SoIutIon: Wo lisl apply ln(a) lo Lolh sioos,
ln(j) = ln
_
a
a
2
1
_
,
Wo lhon simplify using lho piopoilios of lho logaiilhm:
ln(j) = ln(a) ln
_
a
2
1
_
Applicalion of lho ooiivalivo lo Lolh sioos yiolos
d
da
ln(j) =
d
da
ln(a)
d
da
ln
_
a
2
1
_
j
t
j
=
1
a

J
Ji
_
a
2
1
_
a
2
1
afloi which wo solvo foi j
t
:
j
t
= j
_
1
a

2a
a
2
1
_
1ho iosull is lho ooiivalivo of (2.8):
d
da
_
a
a
2
1
_
=
a
a
2
1
_
1
a

2a
a
2
1
_
IXAMIII Fino j
t
whon
j =
c
i
_
a
2
2
(a 1)
d
(2.86)
SoIutIon: Applicalion of ln(a) ano simplilcalion wilh lho piopoilios
of ln(a) yiolos
ln(j) = ln
_
c
i
_
a
2
2
(a 1)
d
_
= ln(c
i
) ln
_
a
2
2
_
l/2
ln(a 1)
d
= a
1
2
ln
_
a
2
2
_
4 ln(a 1)
Applicalion of lho ooiivalivo yiolos
d
da
ln(j) =
d
da
_
a
1
2
ln
_
a
2
2
_
4 ln(a 1)
_
j
t
j
= 1
1
2
J
Ji
_
a
2
2
_
a
2
2
4
J
Ji
(a 1)
a 1
j
t
= j
_
1
1
2
2a
a
2
2
4
1
a 1
_
162 THL DLRlVATlVL
which iooucos lo lho lnal iosull
j
t
=
c
i
_
a
2
2
(a 1)
d
_
1
a
a
2
2

4
a 1
_
1& .n|J &&|J . h n& h J:.n. J ;..) &.h& |jn:.hn. Chock youi Ioaoing
J.]:n.n.n
IrooIs vItL LogarItLns
Lvon lhough malhomalics fioquonlly involvos giaphing, compulalion, ano malh-
omalical moooling, a laigo pail of malhomalics is oovoloo lo pioving lhal a givon
malhomalical slalomonl is oilhoi liuo oi falso. 1his is analogous lo a piosocu-
loi pioving lhal a oofonoanl is guilly Loyono a ioasonaLlo oouLl, oxcopl lhal in
malhomalics lho Luioon of pioof is much hoavioi. In malhomalical pioofs, a pioof
musl loavo no oouLl as lo lho liulh oi falsily of a slalomonl.
1hal is, wo musl assumo lhal coilain a piioii facls aio alioaoy known lo Lo
liuo Loyono any oouLl, ano lhon lhoso facls musl Lo usoo lo losl lho valioily of
now slalomonls. Lol`s concluoo Ly assuming lhal lho piopoilios of lho naluial
logaiilhm aio liuo Loyono any oouLl, ano lol`s soo if wo can uso lhom lo show
lhal olhoi malhomalical slalomonls aio valio.
IXAMIII 0 Uso logaiilhmic oiloionlialion lo j =
}(i)
(i)
lo piovo
lho quolionl iulo whon ) ano p aio posilivo ano oiloionliaLlo foi all a.
SoIutIon: Sinco j = ) (a) p (a) , lho naluial logaiilhm yiolos
ln(j) = ln
_
) (a)
p (a)
_
= ln() (a)) ln(p (a))
Applicalion of lho ooiivalivo lhon yiolos
j
t
j
=
d
da
ln() (a))
d
da
ln(p (a)) =
)
t
(a)
) (a)

p
t
(a)
p (a)
Wo lhon lno a common oonominaloi:
j
t
j
=
)
t
(a) p (a)
) (a) p (a)

) (a) p
t
(a)
) (a) p (a)
=
)
t
(a) p (a) ) (a) p
t
(a)
) (a) p (a)
Sinco j =
}(i)
(i)
, lhis implios lhal
j
t
= j
_
)
t
(a) p (a) ) (a) p
t
(a)
) (a) p (a)
_
=
) (a)
p (a)
_
)
t
(a) p (a) ) (a) p
t
(a)
) (a) p (a)
_
Sinco j
t
=
J
Ji
}(i)
(i)
, cancollalion lhon yiolos
d
da
) (a)
p (a)
=
)
t
(a) p (a) ) (a) p
t
(a)
[p (a)[
2
which onos lho pioof.
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h n|& J / J: &h.h j (t) = 1c
||
.
1. j(t) = c
||
, j(1) = 2 2. j(t) = 8c
||
, j(1) = 0
8. j (t) = 1.c
||
, j() = 2 4. j(t) = 4.c
||
, j(1) = 8
. j(t) = 2c
||
, j (1) = 1 6. j(t) = 8.2c
||
, j (1) = 8
7. j(t) = c
||
, j (1) = 1 8. j (t) = 4c
||
, j (4) = 4
1.nJ )
t
(a). `& nnj &nn .n|.Jj hJ: n&.nj h J:.n..
0. )(a) = ln
_
a
2
_
10. )(a) = ln
_
a
3
a
_
11. )(a) = a
2
ln(a)
12. )(a) = a
3
ln(a) 18. )(a) = c
i
ln(a) 14. )(a) = ln
_
a
2
_
ln(a)
1. ) (a) = ln
_
a
a 1
_
16. )(a) = ln
_
4a
2a 1
_
17. ) (a) = ln
_
a
2
a 1
_
18. )(a) = ln
_
a
2
8a 6
_
10. ) (a) = ln
_
c
5i
_
a
2
1
_
20. ) (a) = ln
_
c
i
_
a
d
1
_
1 |jn:.hn. J.]:n.n.n ]nJ j
t
.
21. j =
7a 6
4a
2
1
22. j =
2a
2
7
_
a 4
28. j =
a
2
1
c
5i
24. j =
c
i
c
2i
2
2. j = a(a 1) (a 2) (a 8) 26. j =
a(a 1)
(a 2)
2
(a 8)
27. j =
(8a )
_
a
3
1
c
i
(4a 8)
28. j =
_
c
i
1
c
2i
2
20. j =
_
1
1
a
_
i
80. j = a
_
a
3
8a
2
8a 1
VrIte to Learn: 1ho applicalions 81-40 iopiosonl a soiios of shoil pioofs using
lho piopoilios of logaiilhms ano oxpononlials. In oach, lho iosull shoulo Lo a
shoil ossay oxplaining ano juslifying oach slop in lho pioof. Assumo lhal ) (a)
ano p (a) aio oiloionliaLlo funclions.
31. Uso lho piopoilios (1), (2), ano (8) of lho logaiilhm lo piovo lhal
ln
_
a
/
_
= ln(a) ln(/)
foi all a 0 ano / 0.
32. Apply logaiilhmic oiloionlialion lo j = a
:
lo piovo lhal
d
da
a
:
= ra
:l
foi all ioal numLois r.
33. Apply logaiilhmic oiloionlialion lo j = ) (a) p (a) ano lhus oLlain lho pioo-
ucl iulo.
34. Uso logaiilhmic oiloionlialion lo piovo lho chain iulo foimula foi lho oxpo-
nonlial funclion:
d
da
c
}(i)
= c
}(i)
)
t
(a)
164 THL DLRlVATlVL
35. Uso logaiilhmic oiloionlialion lo piovo lhal if j = ) (a) p (a) , lhon
j
t
j
=
)
t
)

p
t
p
36. Uso logaiilhmic oiloionlialion lo piovo lhal if j =
) (a)
p (a)
, lhon
j
t
j
=
)
t
)

p
t
p
37. Apply lho logaiilhm lo j = a
i
lo show lhal a
i
= c
iIn(o)
foi all a 0. 1hon
apply logaiilhmic oiloionlialion lo j = a
i
lo piovo lhal
d
da
a
i
= a
i
ln(a)
38. Lol`s piovo a spocial caso of lho chain iulo. Apply logaiilhmic oiloionlialion
lo j = [) (a)[
n
lo show lhal
d
da
[) (a)[
n
= :[) (a)[
nl
)
t
(a)
givon lhal (2.84) is liuo.
39. In lho noxl chaploi, wo will piovo lho lhooiom lhal says
If /
t
(a) = 0 foi all a in (a, /) , lhon /(a) is conslanl on (a, /) "
Uso il ano lho following slops lo piovo lhal if a 0 ano a 0, lhon
ln(aa) = ln(a) ln(a) (2.87)
(a) Show lhal /
t
(a) = 0 whon
/(a) = ln(aa) ln(a)
;A: Sinco wo aio pioving (2.87), wo cannol uso il lo simplify
ln(aa) . Insloao, uso lho chain iulo lo oiloionlialo ln(aa)).
(L) Show lhal if C is a conslanl which salislos
C = ln(aa) ln(a)
lhon C = ln(a) (Hinl: lol a = 1). 1hon solvo foi ln(aa) in oiooi
lo oLlain (2.87).
40. In lho noxl chaploi, wo will piovo lho lhooiom lhal says
If /
t
(a) = 0 foi all a in (a, /) , lhon /(a) is conslanl on (a, /) "
Uso il ano lho following slops lo piovo lhal if a 0 ano r is conslanl, lhon
ln(a
:
) = r ln(a) (2.88)
(a) Show lhal /
t
(a) = 0 whon
/(a) = r ln(a) ln(a
:
)
;A: Sinco wo aio pioving (2.88), wo cannol uso il lo simplify
ln(aa) . Insloao, uso lho chain iulo lo oiloionlialo ln(aa) .
(L) Show lhal if C is a conslanl which salislos
C = r ln(a) ln(a
:
)
lhon C = 0 (Hinl: lol a = 1). Solvo foi ln(a
:
) lo oLlain (2.88).
41. VrIte to Learn: In a shoil ossay, apply logaiilhmic oiloionlialion lo
j
2
= [) (a)[
2
ano oxplain why il juslilos lho uso of logaiilhmic oiloionlialion
ovon whon ) (a) _ 0.
2.8 The Sine and Cosine
TLe SIne and CosIne FunctIons
In lhis soclion, wo conlinuo oxploiing oiloionlialion Ly oovoloping ooiivalivo iulos
foi lho liigonomoliic funclions. Lofoio wo oo so, howovoi, lol us lisl ioviow somo
of lho Lasic iooas fiom liigonomoliy.
1o Login wilh, lol 0 Lo lho oislanco along lho &n. .:| fiom lho a-axis lo a
poinl 1 on lho ciiclo (i.o., 0 is in :nJ.nn). 1hon lho a-cooioinalo of 1 is oolnoo
lo Lo cos (0) ( cosino oI lhola") ano lho j-cooioinalo of 1 is oolnoo lo Lo sin(0)
(sino oI lhola" ).
.
8-1: 1ho Unil Ciiclo
Sinco small changos in lho anglo 0 causo only small changos in lho cooioinalos,
lho funclions sin(0) ano cos (0) aio conlinuous foi all 0.
Somo common sinos ano cosinos aio shown Lolow:
0 0
t
6
t
d
t
3
t
2
sin(0) 0
l
2
_
2
2
_
3
2
1
cos(0) 1
_
3
2
_
2
2
l
2
0
8-2: Somo common valuos of sin(0) ano cos (0)
1hoso cosino-sino paiis coiiospono lo poinls on lho unil ciiclo:
8-8: Somo common Cosino-Sino paiis
1ho unil ciiclo oolnilion implios lhal sin(0) oscillalos Lolwoon 1 ano 1 wilh
a poiioo of 2.
8-4: 1ho giaph of lho sino funclion
166 THL DLRlVATlVL
Likowiso, 1 _ cos (0) _ 1, ano cos (0 2) = cos (0) foi all 0:
8-: Giaph of lho cosino funclion
Moioovoi, lguios 8-4 ano 8- imply lhal if : is an inlogoi, lhon
sin(:) = 0 a:d cos
__
:
1
2
_
_
= 0
Lquivalonlly, if : is an ooo inlogoi, lhon cos
_
nt
2
_
= 0.
IXAMIII 1 Solvo lho oqualion cos (a) 2 sin(a) cos (a) = 0.
SoIutIon: Facloiing loaos lo
cos (a) (1 2 sin(a)) = 0
1hus, cos (a) = 0, which implios lhal a =
_
:
l
2
_
foi any inlogoi
:. Also, 1 2 sin(a) = 0, oi sin(a) =
l
2
. Howovoi, sin(a) =
l
2
occuis
lwico on lho unil ciicloonco in lho lisl quaoianl ano onco in lho
socono quaoianl.
Sinco sin(0) has a poiioo of 2, lho solulions lo sin(a) =
l
2
aio
a =

6
2:, a =

6
2:
1hn . h J n|| h |&.n h j&n.n .n rnn| 1 Chock youi Ioaoing
DerIvatIves and IdentItIes
Lol`s uso lho unil ciiclo lo oLlain lho ooiivalivo of lho sino funclion. Lol 0 ano
/ Lo aculo posilivo anglos wilh / small onough lhal 0 / is in lho 1sl quaoianl.
1hon lol Lo lho poinl wilh cooioinalos (cos (0 /) , sin(0 /)) , ano lol C Lo
lho poinl wilh cooioinalos (cos (0) , sin(0)).
8-6: is (cos (0 /) , sin(0 /)) ano C is (cos (0) , sin(0))
THL SlNL AND COSlNL 167
If / is sumcionlly small, lhon / is appioximaloly lho samo as [C[ , which is lho
longlh of lho sogmonl C. Sinco [1[ = sin(0 /) sin(0) , liianglo ^1C
implios lhal
sin(0 /) sin(0)
/
-
sin(0 /) sin(0)
[C[
= cos (c)
whoio c is lho anglo 1C.
1o ooloimino anglo c, wo uso lho facl lhal lho iaoius O1 inloisocls lho choio
C in a iighl anglo ano Lisocls anglo OC.
8-7: Lino sogmonl O1 Lisocls lino sogmonl 1
Iighl liianglos Ô11 ano ^11 aio similai, which implios lhal 11 =
O11, ano lhus, lhal c = 0
|
2
. 1his moans lhal
sin(0 /) sin(0)
/
- cos
_
0
/
2
_
Moioovoi, / ano [C[ Locomo aiLiliaiily closo as / appioachos 0 (a concopl wo
will juslify fuilhoi al lho ono of lhis soclion), so lhal
lim
|0
sin(0 /) sin(0)
/
= lim
|0
cos
_
0
/
2
_
= cos (0)
1hus, lho limil oolnilion of lho ooiivalivo implios lhal
d
d0
sin(0) = cos (0) (2.80)
Wo oflon wiilo (2.80) in chain iulo foim as
d
d0
sin(inpul) = cos (inpul)
d
d0
(inpul) (2.40)
IXAMIII 2 Fino j
t
(0) whon j (0) = sin(40) .
SoIutIon: 1ho chain iulo (2.40) implios lhal
d
d0
sin(inpul) = cos (inpul)
d
d0
(inpul)
whoio lho inpul of 40. As a iosull,
d
d0
sin(40) = cos (40)
d
d0
(40) = 4 cos (40)
168 THL DLRlVATlVL
Likowiso, lho liigonomoliic ioonlilios
cos (0) = sin
_
2
0
_
ano sin(0) = cos
_
2
0
_
imply lhal
d
d0
cos (0) =
d
d0
sin
_
2
0
_
= cos
_
2
0
_
= sin(0)
1hus, lho ooiivalivo of cos (0) is lho negatIve of lho sino funclion: Don`l foigol
lho nogalivo
whon oiloionli-
aling lho cosino
funclion
d
d0
cos (0) = sin(0) (2.41)
In chain iulo foim, wo wiilo
d
d0
cos (inpul) = sin(inpul)
d
d0
(inpul) (2.42)
IXAMIII J Whal is lho slopo ano oqualion of lho langonl lino lo
j = acos
_
a
2
_
al a = 0
SoIutIon: 1ho piooucl iulo implios lhal
j
t
(a) =
d
da
_
acos
_
a
2
_
=
_
d
da
a
_
cos
_
a
2
_
a
d
da
cos
_
a
2
_
1ho chain iulo lhon implios lhal
j
t
(a) = cos
_
a
2
_
sin
_
a
2
_
d
da
a
2
= cos
_
a
2
_
2asin
_
a
2
_
j
t
(0) = cos (0) 0 sin(0) = 1
Moioovoi, j (0) = 0 cos
_
0
2
_
= 0, so lhal lho oqualion of lho langonl
lino is
j = 0 1 (a 0) = a
which is shown along wilh lho funclion j (a) = acos
_
a
2
_
in lho lguio
Lolow:
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
4
2
0
-2
-4
8-8: 1ho lino j = a is langonl lo j = acos
_
a
2
_
1ho unil ciiclo can also Lo usoo lo oslaLlish lho following Lasic ioonlilios:
sin(a a) = sin(a) cos (a) cos (a) sin(a) (2.48)
cos (a a) = cos (a) cos (a) sin(a) sin(a) (2.44)
sin(a) = sin(a) (2.4)
cos (a) = cos (a) (2.46)
1hoso ioonlilios aio lhon usoo lo oLlain lho 1jhnj:nn ioonlilios
cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a) = 1
1 lan
2
(a) = soc
2
(a)
1 col
2
(a) = csc
2
(a)
as woll as lho J&h| nnj| ioonlilios
2 sin(a) cos (a) = sin(2a) 2 cos
2
(a) 1 = cos (2a)
cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a) = cos (2a) 1 2 sin
2
(a) = cos (2a)
1ho oouLlo anglo ioonlilios lhon loao lo
cos
2
(a) =
1
2

1
2
cos (2a) ano sin
2
(a) =
1
2

1
2
cos (2a) (2.47)
Lach of lhoso ioonlilios can also Lo oLlainoo oiioclly fiom lho unil ciiclo.
IXAMIII ! Fino )
tt
(a) whon ) (a) = sin(a) cos (a) .
SoIutIon: Wo Login wilh lho piooucl iulo:
)
t
(a) =
d
da
[sin(a) cos (a)[
=
_
d
da
sin(a)
_
cos (a) sin(a)
_
d
da
cos (a)
_
= cos (a) cos (a) sin(a) [sin(a)[
= cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a)
Lofoio compuling )
tt
(a) , lol us apply an ioonlily lo )
t
(a):
)
t
(a) = cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a) = cos (2a)
As a iosull, lho socono ooiivalivo is of lho foim
)
tt
(a) =
d
da
cos (inpul) = sin(inpul)
d
da
inpul
whoio lho inpul is 2a. Finally, wo havo
)
tt
(a) = sin(2a)
d
da
(2a) = 2 sin(2a)
1hn . h J:.n. J p (a) = cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a) Chock youi Ioaoing
170 THL DLRlVATlVL
HarnonIc OscIIIatIons and Hates oI CLange
A hn:nn. .||n.n is a funclion of lho foim
j (t) = a cos (.t) / sin(.t) ` (2.48)
whoio a, /, ., ano ` aio conslanls. Oflon, lho vaiiaLlo t oonolos limo, in which
caso lho Giook lolloi omoga, ., iopiosonls lho nnj&|n: |.j of lho oscillalion.
IXAMIII TIdes: 1ho hoighl / in fool aLovo oi Lolow soa lovol
of lho ocoan noai Liiogopoil, Connoclicul, al limo t in houis sinco
mionighl on Sopl. 1, 1001, is givon Ly
/(t) = 8.8 0.017 cos (0.06t) 8.184 sin(0.06t)
How fasl is lho ocoan lovol iising al 10 a.m
SoIutIon: 1ho ooiivalivo of /(t) is givon Ly
/
t
(t) = 0.017 (0.06) sin(0.06t) 8.184 (0.06) cos (0.06t)
Sinco 10 a.m. coiiosponos lo t = 10 houis, lho ocoan lovol al 10 a.m.
is changing al a ialo of
/
t
(10) = 0.017 (0.06) sin(.06) 8.184 (0.06) cos (.06)
= 0.4 )cct jcr /onr
1ho :.J of a haimonic oscillalion (2.48) is lho smallosl numLoi T 0 such lhal
j (t T) = j (t) foi all t. Il is iolaloo lo lho angulai volocily Ly lho foimula
T =
2
.
ano lho giaph of j (t) ovoi ono poiioo is calloo a j|. 1ho numLoi of cyclos lhal
occui poi unil limo is lho J:j&nj of lho oscillalion, which is givon Ly
) =
1
T
Fioquoncios aio oflon moasuioo in h:., whoio 1 hoilz is ono cyclo poi socono.
1ho ampliluoo of lho oscillalion is givon Ly
n
=
_
a
2
/
2
ano lho giaph of lho oscillalion is a shifloo sino wavo oscillaling aLoul lho lino
j = `.
8-0: Simplo Oscillalion aLoul lho moan valuo `
IXAMIII 0 Whal is lho poiioo of lho lioo in oxamplo How high
is high lioo
SoIutIon: 1ho giaph of /(t) ovoi lho lisl 24 houis is shown Lolow:
t
20 15 10 5 0
6
5
4
3
2
1
8-10: 1ioos aio an oscillalion in soa lovol
Sinco . = 0.06, lho poiioo of lho lioo is
T =
2
0.06
= 12.42 /onr-
1ho ampliluoo of lho oscillalion is
n
=
_
(0.017)
2
(8.184)
2
= 8.184 )cct
1hus, high lioo is lho sum of lho moan valuo ` = 8.8 ano lho am-
pliluoo
n
= 8.184 fool, which is
`
n
= 8.8 8.184 = 6.84 )cct
1& |& . |& .J .n rnn| . Chock youi Ioaoing
IrooI tLat
J
J0
sin(0) = cos (0) usIng tLe \nIt CIrcIe
1ho ooiivalivo foimulas foi lho liigonomoliic funclions follow fiom
d
d0
sin(0) = cos (0) (2.40)
1hus, wo concluoo lhis chaploi wilh a iigoious" pioof of (2.40). 1o oo so, how-
ovoi, wo will nooo lho following Lasic iooas aLoul a socloi wilh longlh - of a ciiclo
wilh iaoius r suLlonoing an anglo 0.
8-11: Aiclonglh ano Aioa foi lho aic of a ciiclo
172 THL DLRlVATlVL
IXAMIII 7 Show lhal
lim
|0
sin(/)
/
= 1
SoIutIon: Supposo
O1Q is a socloi of lho unil ciiclo suLlonoing a

small posilivo anglo /:
8-12: Iolalionship of sin(/) lo /
1ho socanl 1Q is shoiloi lhan lho aic

1Q, ano lho sioo 11 is shoiloi
lhan lho hypolonuso 1Q. As a iosull,
sin(/) < /
Supposo now lhal

1 is lho aic of a ciiclo conloioo al O wilh iaoius
cos (/) suLlonoing anglo O1.
8-18: Iolalionship of /cos (/) lo sin(/)
1ho aioa of socloi
O1 is loss lhan lho aioa of liianglo Ô1Q, ano

sinco sogmonl O1 is common lo Lolh, lho iospoclivo aioa foimulas
imply lhal /cos (/) < sin(/) .
ComLining lho lwo yiolos lho inoqualily
/cos (/) < sin(/) < /
Division Ly / lhus implios lhal
cos (/) <
sin(/)
/
< 1
Applicalion of lho limil as / appioachos 0 lhon yiolos
lim
|0
cos (/) _ lim
|0
sin(/)
/
_ 1
1 _ lim
|0
sin(/)
/
_ 1
Ly lho sanowich lhooiom, wo concluoo lhal
lim
|0
sin(/)
/
= 1
Nolico now lhal lho longlh of a choio lhal spans an anglo / on lho unil ciiclo is
2 sin
_
|
2
_
.
8-14: Longlh of a Choio of a Ciiclo
As a iosull, lho longlh of lho choio C in lguios 7-6 ano 7-7 is aclually 2 sin(/2) .
8-1: Aclual valuos foi ^1C
Now lol`s piovo lhal lho ooiivalivo of sin(0) is cos (0) . Sinco c = 0
|
2
as wo
showoo oailioi, wo havo
lim
|0
sin(0 /) sin(0)
2 sin(/2)
= lim
|0
cos
_
0
/
2
_
lim
|0
_
sin(0 /) sin(0)
/

/
2 sin(/2)
_
= lim
|0
cos
_
0
/
2
_
_
lim
|0
sin(0 /) sin(0)
/
__
lim
|0
/2
sin(/2)
_
= lim
|0
cos
_
0
/
2
_
_
d
d0
sin(0)
__
lim
|0
/2
sin(/2)
_
= cos (0)
Lol us now lol n = /2. 1hon n appioachos 0 as / appioachos 0 ano
_
d
d0
sin(0)
__
lim
u0
n
sin(n)
_
= cos (0)
_
d
d0
sin(0)
_
_
_
_
1
lim
u0
sin(n)
n
_
_
_ = cos (0)
_
d
d0
sin(0)
__
1
1
_
= cos (0)
which simplilos lo
J
J0
sin(0) = cos (0) , which complolos lho pioof.
174 THL DLRlVATlVL
Lxoicisos
1.nJ j
t
(t) J: nh J h J||&.nj:
1. j (t) = sin(8t) 2. j (t) = cos (8t)
8. j (t) = cos (t) 4. j (t) = sin
_
2
t
_
. j (t) =
_
2 cos
__
7 t
_
6. j (t) = 12 sin(
_
t)
7. j (t) = t
2
sin(2t) 8. j (t) = 2t cos (8t)
0. j (t) = c
|
cos (8t) 10. j (t) = c
|/3
sin(t)
11. j (t) = sin(t) sin(8t) 12. j (t) = sin(t) cos (2t)
18. j (t) = sin
3
(t) 14. j (t) = cos
3
(t)
1.nJ )
tt
(a) . `& nnj &nn .n|.Jj &.h :.jnn:. .Jn.. .h: .n..n||j
: nJ: h 1 J:.n..
1. )(a) = sin
2
(a) 16. ) (a) = cos
2
(8a)
17. ) (a) = (cos a sina)
2
18. ) (a) = (cos a sina)
2
10. ) (t) = cos
d
(t) sin
d
(t) 20. ) (t) = cos
d
(t) sin
d
(t)
21. )(a) = 8 sin(a) sin
3
(a) 22. )(a) = 2 sin
2
(a) 2 sin
d
(a)
28. (t) =
sin(t)
1 cos (t)
24. r (t) =
cos (t)
sin(t) 1
1.nJ h :.J, J:j&nj, nnJ nn|.&J J h .||n.n. Jhn ]nJ :n J
hnnj J h hn:nn. .||n.n n h j.n .n&..
2. j (t) = sin(8t) , j = 0 26. j (t) = cos (8t) , j = 0
27. j (t) = cos (t) , j =
l
3
28. j (t) = sin
_
2
t
_
, j = 0
20. j (t) = cos (t) sin(t) , j =
t
2
80. j (t) = cos (t) sin(t) , j =
81. j (t) = cos (8t) sin(8t) , j = 0 82. j (t) =
_
8 cos (t)
_
8 sin(t) , j = 0
33. Fino lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = sin(2a) al j = , ano lhon
giaph Lolh lho cuivo ano lho lino ovoi [0, 2[ .
34. Fino lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = sin(a) cos (a) al j = 0, ano
lhon giaph Lolh lho cuivo ano lho lino ovoi [, [ .
35. 1ho piico j poi pouno of giouno Loof al limo t in yoais sinco 1080 (ano up
lo 1008) is appioximaloly lho samo as lho funclion
j (t) = 1. 8 0.1 sin
_
2
0
t
_
How fasl is lho piico of giouno Loof giowing in 108 In 100
2
36. Llmo`s ico cioam shop nolos lhal if j oonolos lho numLoi of cuslomois poi
wook al t wooks sinco lho Loginning of lho yoai, lhon
j (t) = 200 20 cos
_

26
t
_
20
_
8 sin
_

26
t
_
How fasl is lho numLoi of cuslomois poi wook incioasing afloi 18 wooks
2
Lasoo on Luioau of LaLoi Slalislics oala ano on oxamplos fiom Slofan Wagnoi ano Slovon
I. CoslonoLlo of Hofslia Univoisily.
37. If j (t) oonolos lho numLoi of houis of oaylighl in Johnson Cily, 1N, on lho
oay which is t oays afloi lho Loginning of 1000, lhon
j (t) = 12.2 2. 28 cos
_
2
86
t
_
0. 4086 sin
_
2
86
t
_
Whal is lho ampliluoo ano poiioo of lho oscillalion How fasl is lho longlh
of lho oay changing on lho lisl oay of lho yoai
38. 1ho avoiago monlhly lompoialuios j in Donvoi, Coloiaoo al t monlhs afloi
lho Loginning of lho yoai can Lo closoly appioximaloo Ly lho funclion
j = 1.6 10.0
_
8 cos
_
6
t
_
10.0 sin
_
6
t
_
Which monlh is lho coloosl monlh of lho yoai Which is lho hollosl monlh
How fasl is lho avoiago monlhly lompoialuio changing in Juno
39. Housoholo cuiionl in lho Uniloo slalos lypically has a vollago of aLoul 117
volls oscillaling al 60 cyclos poi socono. 1ho ampliluoo is oolnoo lo Lo
n
=
_
2 o|tapc
Lxplain why lho vollago al an AC wall oullol can Lo moooloo Ly lho funclion
\ (t) = 16 sin(120t)
40. VrIte to Learn: In somo pails of Luiopo, lho vollago al a wall oullol
is givon Ly p(t) = 820 sin(60t
`
). DosciiLo lho oiloioncos in ampliluoo ano
fioquoncy Lolwoon lhis vollago ano lho vollago al a wall oullol in lho US (as
oosciiLoo aLovo). ( Ono can aclually oiscoin lho lickoi in an incanoosconl
lamp powoioo wilh lho vollago oosciiLoo Ly p(t
`
) )
41. 1ho A" Lolow mioolo C" on a piano piooucos a souno wavo whoso funoa-
monlal pilch can Lo moooloo Ly
j (t) = 60 sin(880t)
Whal is lho fioquoncy of lho funoamonlal pilch of lho A" Lolow mioolo
C" How many complolo oscillalions occui oach socono How fasl is lho
souno wavo oscillaling inilially (i.o., whon t = 0)
42. Uso liigonomoliy ano oxamplo 7 lo oslaLlish lho limil
lim
|0
cos (/) 1
/
= 0
1hon uso lho ioonlily
sin(1) = sin() cos (1) sin(1) cos ()
ano lho limils
lim
|0
sin(/)
/
= 1, lim
|0
cos (/) 1
/
= 0
lo compulo lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) = sin(a) using lho limil oolnilion of lho
ooiivalivo.
176 THL DLRlVATlVL
43. VrIte to Learn: In lguios 8-4, 8-, ano 8-1, lho choio 1C has longlh
[1C[ = cos (0) cos (0 /)
foi 0 in lho lisl quaoianl ano / a sumcionlly small posilivo anglo. Mimic
lho oiscussion in lho lisl soclion lo suggosl lhal
cos (0 /) cos (0)
/
- sin
_
0
/
2
_
1hon mimic lho oiscussion al lho ono of lho soclion lo aclually piovo lhal
lim
|0
cos (0 /) cos (0)
/
= sin(0)
43. TrIgononetry HevIev ExercIses: Fino all solulions lo lho following:
(a) cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a) = 0 (L) 4 cos
2
(a) 1 = 4 cos (a)
(c) sin(a) 2 sin
3
(a) = 0 (o) 2 sin
2
(a) 1 = 8 sin(a)
2.9 AddiLional FuncLions
DerIvatIves oI Tangent, Secant, Cotangent, and Cosecant
1ho ooiivalivos of lho iomaining liigonomoliic funclions follow fiom lho ooiiva-
livos of lho sino ano cosino funclions. Foi oxamplo,
d
da
_
sin(a)
cos (a)
_
=
_
J
Ji
sin(a)
cos (a) sin(a)

_
J
Ji
cos (a)
cos
2
(a)
=
[cos (a)[ cos (a) sin(a) [sin(a)[
cos
2
(a)
=
cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a)
cos
2
(a)
Simplifying wilh lho ioonlily cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a) = 1 lhus yiolos
d
da
_
sin(a)
cos (a)
_
=
1
cos
2
(a)
oi
d
da
lan(a) = soc
2
(a)
Doiivalivos of lho iomaining liigonomoliic funclions aio similaily oLlainoo ano
aio summaiizoo in lho laLlo Lolow: Doiivalivos of
liigonomoliic
funclions lhal
slail wilh c"
havo a nogalivo
sign.
J
Ji
sin(a) = cos (a)
J
Ji
cos (a) = sin(a)
J
Ji
lan(a) = soc
2
(a)
J
Ji
col (a) = csc
2
(a)
J
Ji
soc (a) = soc (a) lan(a)
J
Ji
csc (a) = csc (a) col (a)
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = alan(a)
al j = .
ADDlTlONAL FUNCTlONS 177
SoIutIon: 1ho piooucl iulo implios lhal lho ooiivalivo is
)
t
(a) =
_
d
da
a
_
lan(a) a
d
da
lan(a)
= lan(a) asoc
2
(a)
As a iosull, )
t
() = lan() soc
2
() = . Sinco ) () = lan() =
0, lho linoaiizalion al is
j = 0 (a )
1hus, j = a
2
is langonl lo j = alan(a) whon a = .
x
4 3 2 1 0 -1
10
5
0
-5
-10
0-1: j = a
2
is langonl lo j = alan(a)
Chain iulo foims follow Ly ioplacing a Ly a givon inpul ano mulliplying Ly lho
ooiivalivo of lhal inpul. Foi oxamplo, lho chain iulo foim of lho ooiivalivo of
lan(a) is
d
da
lan(inpul) = soc
2
(inpul)
d
da
(inpul)
IXAMIII 2 Fino )
t
(a) foi csc
_
a
2
1
_
.
SoIutIon: 1ho chain iulo implios lhal lho ooiivalivo is of lho foim
d
da
csc (inpul) = csc (inpul) col (inpul)
d
da
(inpul)
2
1. 1hus, wo havo
d
da
col
_
a
2
1
_
= csc
_
a
2
1
_
col
_
a
2
1
_
d
da
_
a
2
1
_
= 2acsc
_
a
2
1
_
col
_
a
2
1
_
1hn . h J:.n. J cos
2
(a) sin
2
CLaIn HuIe and IdentItIes
Oflon lho chain iulo musl Lo usoo moio lhan onco in ooiivalivos involving liig
funclions. In such inslancos, il will Lo impoilanl lo piogioss lhiough lho compu-
lalion in a noal ano oiganizoo fashion.
178 THL DLRlVATlVL
IXAMIII J Fino )
t
(a) foi ) (a) = lan
2
_
a
3
_
.
SoIutIon: Sinco lan
2
_
a
3
_
=
_
lan
_
a
3
_
2
, lho chain iulo loaos lo
d
da
[inpul[
2
= 2 [inpul[
l
d
da
inpul
whoio lho inpul is lan
_
a
3
_
. 1ho iosull is
d
da
_
lan
_
a
3
_
2
= 2
_
lan
_
a
3
_
d
da
lan
_
a
3
_
Wo apply lho chain iulo again lo oLlain
d
da
_
lan
_
a
3
_
2
= 2
_
lan
_
a
3
_
d
da
lan(inpul)
= 2
_
lan
_
a
3
_
soc
2
(inpul)
d
da
inpul
3
. 1his simplilos lo
d
da
_
lan
_
a
3
_
2
= 2
_
lan
_
a
3
_
soc
2
_
a
3
_
d
da
a
3
= 2 lan
_
a
3
_
soc
2
_
a
3
_

_
8a
2
_
= 6a
2
lan
_
a
3
_
soc
2
_
a
3
_
As Lofoio, ioonlilios aio oflon usoo lo simplify ooiivalivo calculalions.
IXAMIII ! Fino )
t
(a) whon ) (a) = soc
d
(a) soc
2
(a) lan
2
(a)
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, wo can facloi oul soc
2
(a) lo oLlain
) (a) = soc
2
(a)
_
soc
2
(a) lan
2
(a)
Wo lhon simplify ) (a) using lho ioonlily soc

2
(a) = 1 lan
2
(a):
) (a) = soc
2
(a)
_
1 lan
2
(a) lan
2
(a)
= soc
2
(a)
Finally, sinco soc
2
(a) = (soc a)
2
, wo apply lho chain iulo wilh an inpul
of soc (a):
)
t
(a) =
d
da
(inpul)
2
= 2 (inpul)
l
d
da
(inpul)
Ioplacing lho inpul Ly soc (a) lhon loaos lo
)
t
(a) = 2 soc (a)
d
da
soc (a) = 2 soc (a) [soc (a) lan(a)[
which simplilos lo )
t
(a) = 2 soc
2
(a) lan(a) .
1hn . h J:.n. J cos
2
(a) sin
2
ExonentIaI and LogarItLns vItL ArLItrary Hases
If j = a
i
foi somo lxoo Laso a 0, lhon ln(j) = ln(a
i
) = aln(a) . 1hus,
j = c
iIn(o)
which loaos us lo oolno a
i
lo Lo
a
i
= c
iIn(o)
(2.0)
Moioovoi, if j = a
i
, lhon ln(j) = aln(a) ano logaiilhmic oiloionlialion yiolos
j
t
j
= ln(a) == j
t
= j ln(a)
Sinco j = a
i
, lhis yiolos lho following:
d
da
a
i
= a
i
ln(a) (2.1)
In chain iulo foim, lhis iulo Locomos
d
da
a
inpul
= a
inpul
ln(a)
d
da
(inpul)
whoio a 0.
IXAMIII Fino j
t
whon j = 2
sIn(i)
.
SoIutIon: Sinco j = 2
inpul
if lho inpul is sin(a) , applicalion of (2.1)
yiolos
j
t
=
d
da
2
inpul
= 2
inpul
ln(2)
d
da
(inpul)
Sinco lho inpul is sin(a) , lhis in luin Locomos
j
t
= 2
sIn(i)
ln(2)
d
da
(sina) = 2
sIn(i)
ln(2) cos (a)
In aooilion, wo oolno j = log
o
(a) lo moan lhal a = a
. Howovoi, a = a
implios
lhal
ln(a) = j ln(a) , j =
ln(a)
ln(a)
Consoquonlly, lho logaiilhm Laso a is givon Ly
log
o
(a) =
ln(a)
ln(a)
whoio a 0.
IXAMIII 0 Whal is lho slopo ano oqualion of lho langonl lino lo
j = log
l0
(a) al a = 1
180 THL DLRlVATlVL
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, log
l0
(a) =
In(i)
In(l0)
, so lhal
j
t
=
1
ln(10)
d
da
ln(a) =
1
aln(10)
1hus, lho slopo of lho langonl lino al a = 1 is
j
t
(1) =
1
1 ln(10)
= 0.4848
Sinco j (0) = log
l0
(1) = 0, lho oqualion of lho langonl lino al a = 1 is
j = 0 0.4848 (a 1) = 0.4848 (a 1)
x
5 4 3 2 1 0
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0-2: 1ho lino j = 0.4848 (a 1) is langonl lo j = log
l0
(a) al (1, 0) .
1hn . h | J h nnjn |.n j = cosh(a) n a = 0 Chock youi Ioaoing
DerIvatIves oI FunctIons oI tLe Iorn [) (a)[
(i)
1ho oolnilion (2.0) implios lhal funclions of lho foim [) (a)[
(i)
aio oolnoo
[) (a)[
(i)
= c
(i) In|}(i)|
Logaiilhmic oiloionlialion is lhon usoo lo lno lho ooiivalivo of a funclion of lho
foim [) (a)[
(i)
.
IXAMIII 7 Fino j
t
whon j =
_
a
2
1
_
i
.
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo apply lho naluial logaiilhm lo oLlain
ln(j) = ln
_
a
2
1
_
i
= aln
_
a
2
1
_
1hus, via lho piooucl iulo wo oLlain
j
t
j
=
d
da
_
aln
_
a
2
1
_
=
_
d
da
a
_
ln
_
a
2
1
_
a
d
da
ln
_
a
2
1
_
= ln
_
a
2
1
_
a
2a
a
2
1
As a iosull, wo oLlain
j
t
= j
_
ln
_
a
2
1
_
2a
2
a
2
1
_
which afloi suLsliluling j =
_
a
2
1
_
i
yiolos
d
da
_
a
2
1
_
i
=
_
a
2
1
_
i
_
ln
_
a
2
1
_
2a
2
a
2
1
_
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h ]: J:.n. J nh J h J||&.nj: .
1. ) (a) = lan(2a) 2. ) (a) = soc (8a)
8. ) (a) = a
2
col (a) 4. ) (a) = acsc (2a)
. ) (a) = lan
5
_
a
3
_
6. )(a) = soc
2
(2a 7)
7. )(a) = c
i
soc (2a) 8. ) (a) = ln(csc a)
0. ) (a) = 2 sin(a) csc (2a) 10. ) (a) =
l
2
ln(col a)
11. ) (a) = ln(soc a) 12. ) (a) =
l
2
ln(lana)
18. ) (a) = c
i
sin(c
i
) 14. ) (a) = c
i
soc (c
i
)
1. ) (a) = ln(soc a lana) 16. ) (a) = ln(csc a col a)
17. j = 8
i
18. j =
i
10. j =
2i
20. j = 1
i
21. j = 10
In(i)
22. j =
sIn(i)
28. j = log
5
(a) 24. j = log
3
(a)
2. j = log
2
_
a
3
1
_
26. j = log
l0
(2a 8)
27. j = a
i
28. j = a
In(i)
20. j =
_
1
1
a
_
i
80. j = (a 1)
sIn(i)
31. Fino lho slopo ano oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = lan(a) al lho following
poinls: a = , a = 0, ano a =
32. Fino lho slopo ano oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = 10
i
al a = 1.
33. Fino lho slopo ano oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = soc (a) al j = . .
34. Fino lho slopo ano oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = lan
_
a
3
_
al j = 0.
35. Uso lho oolnilion of log
o
(a) lo show lhal
log
o
(/) =
log
c
(/)
log
c
(a)
foi any posilivo numLois a, /, ano c.
36. Whal is signilcanl aLoul lho funclion log
i
(a) Whal is ils ooiivalivo
37. Consiooi )(a) = a
_
i
.
(a) Doloimino lho oomain of ) (a) using lho facl lhal ln(a) is oolnoo
only whon a 0.
(L) Giaph lho funclion on ils oomain wilh lho giaphoi.
38. Consiooi )(a) = (a)
_
il0
.
(a) Doloimino lho oomain of ) (a) using lho facl lhal ln(a) is oolnoo
only whon a 0.
182 THL DLRlVATlVL
(L) Giaph lho funclion on ils oomain wilh lho giaphoi.
39. Whal is signilcanl aLoul lho funclion a
l/ In(i)
. Whal is ils ooiivalivo
40. AatLenatIcaI CILLerIsL.
(a) Lxplain why lho funclion )(a) = ln(a)
_
li
is nol oolnoo foi any
a.
(L) Inpul lho funclion inlo a giaphoi ano allompl lo giaph lho func-
lion. Also, liy lo ovalualo lho funclion al a pailiculai valuo oi
gonoialo a laLlo of valuos. Whal happons
41. Uso lho ioonlily
lan(1) =
lan() lan(1)
1 lan() lan(1)
ano lho limil
lim
|0
lan(/)
/
= 1
lo compulo lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) = lan(a) using lho limil oolnilion of lho
ooiivalivo.
42. VrIte to Learn: A liigonomoliic funclion c
}
is a J&n.n of a liig
funclion ) if
c
}
(c) = ) (0)
whon c is lho n|nnn:j nnj| of 0 (i.o., c0 =
t
2
). Wiilo a shoil ossay
in which you uso lho oolnilion of a cofunclion lo oxplain why ooiivalivos of
liigonomoliic funclions lhal slail wilh c" havo a nogalivo sign in fionl.
Solf 1osl
J h h|.
(a) Applying lho piooucl iulo lo a
2
a
3
will yiolo a oiloionl iosull lhan
applying lho powoi iulo lo a
5
.
(L)
J
Ji
a
n
= :a
nl
is calloo lho powoi iulo.
(c)
J
Ji
[(a
2
2))(a)[ = 2a)
t
(a) (a
2
2))(a).
(o) If )(a /) =
d
5
a
3
l2
5
a
2
/
l2
5
a/
2
/
3
, lhon )
t
(a) =
l2
5
a
2
.
(o) 1ho ooiivalivo funclion, )
t
(a), is lho funclion which givos lho ialo of
chango of lho funclion )(a) al lho inpul a.
(f) If j = a
2
whoio a ano j aio funclions of t, lhon
dj
dt
= 2a
da
dt
(g) 1ho poinl (2, 1) lios on lho cuivo a
2
j
3
= 8.
(h) 1ho cuivo givon Ly j = a
3
a
2
salislos lho oiloionlial oqualion j
t

2a = 8a
2
.
(i) If C(a) is lho cosl of piooucing a oLjocls, lhon C
t
(100) is lho appioxi-
malo cosl of piooucing lho 101
~|
oLjocl.
(j) 1ho oqualion
J
Ji
/ = 0 whoio / is a conslanl funclion says lhal / has
no ialo of chango al any pailiculai inpul valuo. (A: 1n|| hn n
:.n| |.n hn n | nnJ n h:..nn| |.n hn 0 |.)
2. Answoi oach slalomonl as liuo oi falso. If falso, ooloimino lho ioason.
(a) 1ho naluial logaiilhm, ln(a), is lho invoiso funclion of lho oxpononlial
funclion, c
i
.
(L) 1hoio is a ioal numLoi r such lhal c
In(:)
,= ln(c
:
).
(c) 1ho naluial logaiilhm, ln(a), is oolnoo foi all ioal numLois a.
(o) Ono of lho law of oxpononls slalos lhal c
ob
= c
o
c
b
.
(o) Ono of lho piopoilios of lho logaiilhm is lhal ln(a /) = ln(a) ln(/).
(f) 1ho oxpononlial funclion is lho only funclion oqual lo ils ooiivalivo.
(g) If j = sin(a) , lhon j
tt
= sin(a) .
(h) If j = col (a) , lhon j
t
is nogalivo.
8. If j = ln
_
a
2
_
, lhon j
t
is not oqual lo which of lho following:
(a)
1
a
2
(L)
2
a
(c)
2a
a
2
(o) 2
1
a
4. ln(c
3i
7
) simplilos lo
(a) ln(8a
2
7) (L) ln(c
3i
) ln(c
7
) (c) 8a
2
7 (o) c
3i
7
184 THL DLRlVATlVL
. 2 sin
_
i
2
_
cos
_
i
2
_
is lho ooiivalivo of which of lho following funclions:
(a) sin(a) (L) cos (a) (c) sin(2a) (o) cos (2a)
6. Whal is )
t
(a) if )(a) =
_
_
a
1
_
a
_
3
(a) 8
_
_
a
1
_
a
_
2
(L) 8
_
1
2
_
a

1
2a
3/2
_
2
(c)
_
_
a
1
_
a
__
1
2
_
a

1
2a
3/2
_
(o) 8
_
_
a
1
_
a
_
2
_
1
2
_
a

1
2a
3/2
_
7. Whal is )
t
(a) if ) (a) =
_
p(a)
(a)
2
_
(i)
p
t
(a) (L)
l
2
_
(i)
p
t
(a) (c)
l
2
_
(i)
(o)
_
p(a)p
t
(a)
8. Fino lho slopo of lho langonl lino lo lho cuivo givon Ly a
2
j
3
= 8 al lho
poinl (2, 1).
(a) 48 (L) 84 (c) 48 (o) 84
0. A cisloin is in lho shapo of an invoiloo iighl ciiculai cono wilh Laso iaoius
r = 8 fl. ano hoighl / = fl. . If iain is falling such lhal il is llling lho
cisloin al a ialo of 2.8 fl.
3
houi (oquivalonl lo 1
tt
of iain poi houi) , lno
lho ialo al which lho waloi lovol is iising whon lho hoighl of lho waloi 2 fl..
(Hinl: lho volumo of a iighl ciiculai cono is givon Ly \ =
l
3
r
2
/. )
(a) aLoul 6 inchos poi houi (L) aLoul 0 inchos poi houi (c) aLoul 1 fool poi houi (o)
10. Whal is lho langonl lino lo ) (a) = 8a 2
11. A iooo oscillalos up ano oown, causing ils fioo ono lo havo a voilical oisplaco-
monl j cm fiom hoiizonlal al limo t in soconos salisfying j = 8 sin(440t) .
Whal is lho ampliluoo, poiioo, ano fioquoncy of lho oscillalion How fasl is
lho ono of lho iooo oscillaling whon j = 8 How fasl is lho iooo oscillaling
whon j = 0
12. Whal is lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) = sin
_
a
3
1
_
18. Whal is lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) = a(a 1) (a 2) (a 8)

14. Whal is lho ooiivalivo of j = a
2i
1. Whal is lho slopo ano oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = lan

2
(a sin(2a))
al a =
16. Lluo Spiuco aio giown foi oighl lo lwolvo yoais Lofoio Loing haivosloo foi
salo as Chiislmas lioos. Supposo lho lolal cosl of giowing a Lluo Spiuco foi
oighl yoais is givon Ly C (a) = 2800 1.8a0.002a
2
in oollais. Whal is lho
maiginal cosl of giowing 80 Lluo Spiuco foi oighl yoais Givo lho unils.
17. VrIte to Learn: In a couplo of sonloncos, uso lho logaiilhm ano lho facl
lhal [a[ =
_
a
2
lo piovo lhal
d
da
ln([a[) =
1
a
18. VrIte to Learn: A sphoio of iaoius r has a volumo of
\ =
4
8
r
3
ano a suifaco aioa of o = 4r
2
. Doiivo lho oqualion
d\
dr
= o
ano lhon oxplain il goomoliically Ly oiscussing why a small chango in lho
iaoius shoulo causo a small chango in volumo lhal is appioximaloly lho samo
as lho suifaco aioa of lho sphoio.
Jh Ar 5... Jh -1:.n.
Is lho concopl of lho limil aLsoluloly nocossaiy foi calculus Is lhoio somo way
lo oo" all of calculus similai lo lho oiop highoi powois of /" molhoo in chaploi
1 Inoooo lhoio is, ano oui noxl slop is lo Liioly oosciiLo a now lypo of calculus
lhal ooos nol ioquiio limils.
Whon wo say calculus wilhoul limils, lhon wo aio saying lhal wo can oolno lho
ooiivalivo, oovolop analoguos of oiloionlialion iulos, ano iocovoi lho inloipiolalion
of lho ooiivalivo as a slopo of a langonl lino ano as a ialo of chango. 1o oo so,
howovoi, ioquiios lhal wo lisl oovolop a oiloionl lypo of oiloionco quolionl.
1o Login wilh, lol`s iocall lhal lho ooiivalivo is oolnoo Ly lho limil
)
t
(a) = lim
|0
) (a /) ) (a)
/
2
, lhon ) (a /) = (a /)
2
ano
)
t
(a) = lim
|0
(a /)
2
a
2
/
= lim
|0
2a/ /
2
/
= lim
|0
(2a /) = 2a
Moioovoi, wo can liansfoim lho limil Ly lolling r = a /. In pailiculai,
/ = r a ano r appioachos a as / appioachos 0, so lhal lho oolnilion of lho
ooiivalivo Locomos
)
t
(a) = lim
:i
) (r) ) (a)
r a
(2.2)
2
, lhon ) (r) = r
2
ano
)
t
(a) = lim
:i
r
2
a
2
r a
= lim
:i
(r a) (r a)
r a
= lim
:i
(r a) = 2a
Lol`s supposo now lhal wo lol r = a, whoio is a numLoi. 1hon = ra ano
as r appioachos a, lho numLoi musl appioach 1. 1hus, (2.2) Locomos
)
t
(a) = lim
jl
) (a) ) (a)
a a
186 THL DLRlVATlVL
2
, lhon ) (a) =
2
a
2
ano
)
t
(a) = lim
jl
2
a
2
a
2
a a
= lim
jl
_
2
1
_
a
2
( 1) a
=
_
lim
jl
2
1
1
_
a = 2a
Nolico lhal lho lnal limil involvos only , which is unliko lho olhoi lwo calculalions
of lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) = a
2
.
Il is lhis sopaialion of lho limil fiom lho vaiiaLlo a lhal allows us lo oo"
calculus wilhoul limils. 1o Login wilh, wo lol Lo a lxoo numLoi lhal is closo lo
1 (o.g., lol = 1.01). Wo lhon oolno lho -inlogois [:[ lo Lo numLois of lho foim
[:[ =

n
1
1
ano wo nolico lhal lho -inlogois [0[ ano [1[ ioouco lo 0 ano 1, iospoclivoly:
[0[ =

0
1
1
=
1 1
1
= 0, [1[ =

l
1
1
=
1
1
= 1
Howovoi, lho olhoi -inlogois ioouco lo lho oioinaiy inlogois only .n h |.n. as
appioachos 1. Foi oxamplo,
[2[ =

2
1
1
which is nol oqual lo 2 foi any ,= 1. Yol in lho limil wo havo
lim
jl
[2[ = lim
jl
2
1
1
= lim
jl
( 1) ( 1)
1
= lim
jl
( 1) = 2
Wo now oolno lho -ooiivalivo lo Lo lho oiloionco quolionl
)
j
(a) =
) (a) ) (a)
a a
1his is nol lho oioinaiy ooiivalivo, Lul il ooos ioouco lo lho oioinaiy ooiivalivo
.n h |.n. as appioachos 1. Foi oxamplo, if ) (a) = a
2
, lhon
)
j
(a) =

2
a
2
a
2
a a
=
_
2
1
_
a
2
( 1) a
=
_
2
1
1
_
a = [2[ a
ano lhus, )
j
(a) appioachos )
t
(a) as appioachos 1.
Il can Lo shown lhal lho -ooiivalivo salislos iulos similai lo lho iulos of lho
oioinaiy ooiivalivo. Foi oxamplo, if wo lol
Jq
Jqi
oonolo lho -ooiivalivo opoialoi,
lhon
d
j
d
j
a
() (a) p (a)) = )
j
(a) p
j
(a)
Moioovoi, lho powoi iulo lakos on a voiy familiai foim foi posilivo inlogois :,
d
j
d
j
a
a
n
= [:[ a
nl
as ooos lho j-:J& :&| foi lwo funclions ) (a) ano p (a):
d
j
d
j
a
[) (a) p (a)[ = )
j
(a) p (a) ) (a) p
j
(a)
1hoio is also a -chain iulo, a -oxpononlial funclion, -logaiilhms, -liigonomoliic
funclions, ano a hosl of olhoi -analoguos of oioinaiy calculus.
Moioovoi, as lho oxamplos aLovo show, lho limil concopl is ioquiioo only lo
ioouco -calculus iosulls lo iosulls in oioinaiy calculuslimils aio nol ioquiioo
foi lho -calculus ilsolf! 1hoso inloiosloo in loaining moio mighl wanl lo ioao lho
unooigiaoualo loxlLook &nn&n n|&|& Ly Vicloi Kac ano Iokman Choung
(Spiingoi Voilag; ISLN: 088708418; 1sl ooilion, DocomLoi 1, 2001).
8
VrIte to Learn In a shoil ossay, ooiivo lho -ooiivalivo of ) (a) = a
3
ano lhon
oxplain whal il iooucos lo as appioachos 1.
VrIte to Learn Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you ooiivo lho -piooucl iulo
d
j
d
j
a
[) (a) p (a)[ = )
j
(a) p (a) ) (a) p
j
(a)
(Hinl: you mighl wanl lo slail on lho iighl ano simplify lo lho lofl of lho
aLovo oqualion).
VrIte to Learn Go lo lho liLiaiy oi soaich lho inloinol lo lno oul moio aLoul
lho -calculus. Iiosonl youi lnoings in a wiillon iopoil.
Crou LearnIng Lvon lhough lho -calculus avoios lho limil concopl, il will nol
ovoi ioplaco lho usual calculus. 1his is Locauso somo of lho mosl impoilanl
iosulls aLoul lho -calculus aio slaloo in loims of lho oioinaiy calculus. Foi
oxamplo, if ) (a) is a polynomial of oogioo :, lhon il can Lo shown lhal
)
j
(a) = )
t
(a)
a a
2!
)
tt
(a)
(a a)
2
8!
)
ttt
(a). . .
(a a)
nl
:!
)
(n)
(a)
(2.8)
whoio )
(n)
(a) is lho oioinaiy ooiivalivo ano :! = : (: 1) . . . 2 1
is lho piooucl of lho lisl : posilivo inlogois. Havo oach momLoi of lho
gioup poifoim ono of lho following slops. Iopoil youi iosulls in oilhoi a
piosonlalion oi a foimal papoi.
(a) Voiify (2.8) foi ) (a) = 1 ano ) (a) = a.
(L) Voiify (2.8) foi ) (a) = a
2
Ly showing lhal
d
j
d
j
a
a
2
= )
t
(a)
a a
2
)
tt
(a)
(c) Voiify (2.8) foi ) (a) = a
3
Ly showing lhal
d
j
d
j
a
a
3
= )
t
(a)
a a
2
)
tt
(a)
(a a)
2
6
)
ttt
(a)
(o) Voiify (2.8) foi ) (a) = a
d
Ly showing lhal
d
j
d
j
a
a
d
= )
t
(a)
a a
2
)
tt
(a)
(a a)
2
6
)
ttt
(a)
(a a)
3
24
)
(d)
(a)
JnnJ nr:
Logaiilhms woio inliooucoo inooponoonl of limils ano ovon calculus ilsolf. In
facl, long Lofoio compulois Locamo commonplaco, logaiilhms woio oflon usoo in
calculalions. 1hoso compulalions woio Lasoo piimaiily on lho piopoilios
ln(a/) = ln(a) ln(/) a:d ln(a
:
) = r ln(a)
8
Much of lhis maloiial was aoaploo fiom lho onlino nowslolloi 1his Wook`s Finos in Malh-
omalical Ihysics (Wook 188)" Ly John Laoz (hllp:malh.uci.oouhomoLaoz).
188 THL DLRlVATlVL
In pailiculai, lhis piopoily allows lho piooucl of lwo numLois a ano / lo Lo
iooucoo lo lho sum of lwo logaiilhms, ln(a) ano ln(/) . Foi oxamplo, lo compulo
2 8, wo coulo lisl oslimalo ln(2) ano ln(8):
ln(2) = 0. 60814 7180
ln(8) = 1. 00861 22887
ano lhon aoo lhoso oxpiossions logolhoi:
ln(2) ln(8) = 1. 7017 04602
1ho iosull is ln(6) , which lhus implios lhal 2 8 = 6.
1his concopl iosulloo in a mochanical oovico calloo a |.J :&|, which was
compiisoo of lwo iulois" maikoo ol in unils of logaiilhms of oocimal numLois.
1o compulo lho piooucl a /, lho numLoi 0" on lho uppoi iuloi was alignoo wilh
lho numLoi a on lho lowoi iuloi. 1ho numLoi / was lhon localoo on lho uppoi
iuloi, so lhal lho piooucl a / was lho coiiosponoing numLoi on lho lowoi iuloi.
Foi oxamplo, lo compulo lho piooucl of 1.2 ano 2.0, wo woulo lisl align lho
numLoi ln(1.2) on lho lowoi iuloi wilh 0" on lho uppoi iuloi:
NS-1: A Slioo Iulo is maikoo in logaiilhmic unils
1ho numLoi ln(2.0) woulo lhon Lo localoo on lho uppoi iuloi. Having oono so,
lho piooucl of 1.2 ano 2.0 is lho coiiosponoing localion on lho lowoi iuloi. 1hus,
lho slioo iulo lolls us lhal 1.2 2.0 = 2.4.
1. Uso lho lwo laLlos Lolow lo laLol lwo moliic iulois
Localion 0 4.0 cm 7.8 cm 10.1 cm 12. cm 14.6 cm 16. cm 18.2 cm
LaLol 0 ln(1.2) ln(1.) ln(1.7) ln(2) ln(2.2) ln(2.) ln(2.7)
Localion 10.8 cm 21.2 cm 22. cm 28.8 cm 24.0 26.0 27.1
LaLol ln(8) ln(8.2) ln(8.) ln(8.7) ln(4) ln(4.2) ln(4.)
ano lhon uso lhom lo compulo 1. 2..
2. Logaiilhms woio oiiginally invonloo Ly John Napioi. Howovoi, Napioi oolnoo
lho logaiilhm of lo Lo lho numLoi 1 foi which
= 10
7
_
1 10
7
_
1
Show lhal 1 is of lho foim
1 = log
o
_
10
7
_
Whal is a
3. How woulo you oo oivision wilh a slioo iulo Foi oxamplo, how woulo you
compulo 2.4 2.0
100 THL DLRlVATlVL
3. APPLlCATlONS OFTHLDLRlV-
ATlVL
Calculus was oovolopoo inooponoonlly in lho lalo sovonloonlh conluiy Ly Lolh Sii
Isaac Nowlon of Lnglano ano Gollfiioo LoiLniz of Goimany. Howovoi, Nowlon ano
LoiLniz oio nol oovolop calculus in lho conloxl of funclions. In facl, lho funclion
concopl was nol oslaLlishoo unlil a lwo volumo lioaliso Ly Luloi puLlishoo in
1748.
1
Insloao, Lolh Nowlon ano LoiLniz viowoo calculus as a lool lo Lo applioo
in lho sluoy of nnn|j. jn:j.
Unfoilunaloly, lho oiiginal foimulalions of calculus woio Lasoo on inluilion
ialhoi lhan iigoi, ano as a iosull, calculus soomoo lo pioouco conliaoicloiy iosulls.
In lho oaily 1800`s, lho malhomalician Auguslin-Louis Cauchy soughl lo ioclify
lhis silualion Ly oslaLlishing an axiomalic founoalion of Calculus similai in foim
lo lho axiomalic founoalions of goomoliy oslaLlishoo Ly Luclio. His piincipal lool
in lhis onooavoi was lho `nn 1n|& Jh:n, which ovon looay is consiooioo
founoalional lo much of calculus.
In pailiculai, lho Moan Valuo lhooiomis lho Lasis foi lho lools usoo in giaphing
funclions ano in lnoing lhoii oxliomo valuos. In lhis chaploi, wo Login wilh lho
Moan Valuo lhooiom ano ils implicalions, which in luin sols lho slago foi lho
applicalions of lho ooiivalivo in lho socono pail of lhis chaploi. 1ho iosull will
piovioo valuaLlo insighls inlo how concopls such as langonls ano ialos of chango
aio applioo lo ioal-woilo pioLloms.
3.1 The Mean Value Theorem
TLe Aean YaIue TLeoren
Whilo limils ano ooiivalivos aio funoamonlal concopls in calculus, lhoy alono aio
nol sumcionl lo allow calculus lo Lo as applicaLlo ano wiooly-usoo as il is looay.
Insloao, as wo will soo in lhis soclion, lho lhooiolical founoalion of calculus is lho
`nn 1n|& Jh:n.
Supposo ) (a) is oolnoo on [a, /[. If lho socanl lino lhiough (a, ) (a)) ano
(/, ) (/)) is lianslaloo voilically, lhon al loasl foi lho funclion in lho lguio Lolow,
lho iosull is a family of socanl linos lhal Locomos closoi ano closoi lo a langonl
1
Howovoi, Gollfiioo LioLniz oio uso lho loim funclion" in a mannoi consislonl wilh lho
funclion concopl wo uso looay.
APPLlCATlONS OF THL DLRlVATlVL 101
lino al somo inpul c in (a, /) .
1-1: Ono of lho paiallols is a langonl lino lo lho cuivo
1hus, lho slopo )
t
(c) of lho langonl lino musl Lo lho samo as lho slopo of lho
socanl lino, which moans lhal
) (/) ) (a)
/ a
= )
t
(c) (8.1)
Howovoi, lhis concopl is nol valio foi all funclions ) (a) . In lho plols Lolow,
lho socanl lino lhiough (a, ) (a)) ano (/, ) (/)) is also lianslaloo voilically, Lul in
lhoso casos wilhoul implying lho oxislonco of a langonl lino paiallol lo lho oiiginal
socanl.
1-2: Figuio 1-1 ioquiios conlinuily ano oiloionliaLilily of )
Figuio 1-2 illuslialos why ) (a) musl Lo conlinuous on [a, /[ ano oiloionliaLlo on
(a, /) in oiooi foi (8.1) lo holo. Givon lhoso conoilions, howovoi, lho following
lhooiom can Lo oslaLlishoo (lhough lho pioof is Loyono lhis loxl).
TLe Aean YaIue TLeoren: If ) (a) is conlinuous on [a, /[ ano is
oiloionliaLlo on (a, /) , lhon lhoio is a numLoi c in (a, /) such lhal
) (/) ) (a)
/ a
= )
t
(c) (8.2)
1-8: 1ho Moan Valuo 1hooiom
A moio usoful foim of lho Moan Valuo 1hooiom follows fiom 2 oLsoivalions: Fiisl,
if ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo on an opon inloival conlaining [a, /[ , lhon ) (a) musl Lo
conlinuous on [a, /[ . Socono, (8.2) is oquivalonl lo ) (/) ) (a) = )
t
(c) (/ a) .
102 APPLlCATlONS OF THL DLRlVATlVL
TLe Aean YaIue TLeoren {Hestated): If ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo
on an opon inloival conlaining [a, /[ , lhon lhoio is a numLoi c in [a, /[
such lhal
) (/) ) (a) = )
t
(c) (/ a) (8.8)
1his lalloi voision of lho Moan Valuo lhooiom (MV1) holos ovon whon a = /
(i.o., ovon whon [a, /[ is a singlo poinl). 1his makos il quilo usoful in pioving lho
funoamonlal lhooioms in calculus, such as lho ono Lolow:
TLeoren 1.2: If )
t
(a) = 0 foi all a in (j, ) , lhon ) (a) is conslanl
ovoi (j, ) .
IrooI. If [a, /[ is conlainoo in (j, ) , lhon lho MV1 implios lhal
) (/) ) (a) = )
t
(c) (/ a)
foi somo c in [a, /[ . Howovoi, )
t
(c) = 0 sinco c is in (j, ) , which
implios lhal
) (/) ) (a) = 0 or ) (/) = ) (a)
foi all a, / in (j, ) . 1hus, all lho oulpuls of ) (a) ovoi (j, ) aio lho
samo, which is lo say lhal ) (a) is conslanl.
Wo will nol piovo lho Moan Valuo lhooiom hoio, as lho pioof ioquiios somo io-
maikaLlo iosulls fiom lho sluoy of lho lopology of lho ioal lino. Howovoi, a skolch
of lho pioof is incluooo in lho apponoix foi complolonoss.
1& J & hn.n ;.) J:n ;..) Chock youi Ioaoing
DIerentIaIs HevIsIted
Lol`s look al anolhoi oxamplo in which lho Moan Valuo lhooiomis usoo lo oslaLlish
an impoilanl iosull in calculus. Iocall lhal lho J.]:n.n| of a ano j, which
aio oonoloo Ly da ano dj, iospoclivoly, aio oolnoo lo Lo small changos along lho
langonl lino lo lho cuivo al a poinl (a, j) .
1-4: 1ho oiloionlials da ano dj
1hus, if j = ) (a) passos lhiough (a, j) , lhon )
t
(a) is lho slopo of lho langonl
lino al (a, j) ano consoquonlly,
dj = )
t
(a) da (8.4)
Lquivalonlly, wo can wiilo (8.4) in lho foim dj = j
t
da.
THL MLAN VALUL THLORLM 108
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho oiloionlial dj foi lho cuivo j = a
3
2a.
SoIutIon: Sinco j
t
= 8a
2
2, lho oiloionlial dj is dj =
_
8a
2
2
_
da
IXAMIII 2 Fino dj foi j = asin(a) .
SoIutIon: Sinco j
t
= sin(a) acos (a) , lho oiloionlial is
dj = [sin(a) acos (a)[ da
Supposo now lhal ) (a) has a conlinuous ooiivalivo on a noighLoihooo of a poinl
j . If a = j ano / = j da, lhon lho MV1 implios lhal
) (j da) ) (j) = )
t
(c) da
1ho quanlily ^j = ) (j da) ) (j) is lho hnnj in j = ) (a) ovoi [j, j da[ .
Moioovoi, lho MV1 implios lhal
^j = )
t
(c) da
foi somo c in [a, /[ . Sinco )
t
is conlinuous, il follows lhal )
t
(c) - )
t
(j) whon da
is sumcionlly closo lo 0. As a iosull, ^j - dj. 1hal is, lho MV1 implios lhal lho
chango ^j is closoly appioximaloo Ly lho oiloionlial dj whon da is closo lo 0.
IXAMIII J Fino ^j ano dj foi ) (a) = a
3
whon j = 1 ano da = 0.0.
SoIutIon: Sinco ^j = ) (j da) ) (j) , wo havo
^j = ) (1.0) ) (1) = (1.0)
3
1
3
= 0.1762
Sinco )
t
(a) = 8a
2
, wo havo )
t
(1) = 8 ano
dj = )
t
(1) da = 8 0.0 = 0.1
which closoly appioximalos lho aclual valuo of ^j = 0.1762.
1j h& n&h J ^j J.]: J:n dj .n rnn| . Chock youi Ioaoing
ToIerances and DIerentIaIs
Giaphically, dj is a chango in j n|nj h nnjn |.n, whilo ^j is lho iosulling
chango in j n|nj h &:.
1-: dj is closo lo ^j foi da closo lo 0
1ho facl lhal ^j - dj whon da is sumcionlly closo lo 0 is lhus a ioloclion of lho
facl lhal a langonl lino is piaclically lho samo as a small soclion of lho cuivo.
IXAMIII ! Fino ^j ano dj foi ) (a) = a
3
2a whon j = 1 ano
da = 0.1, ano lhon illuslialo lhom giaphically.
SoIutIon: Sinco j = 1, ano j da = 1.1, wo havo
^j = ) (1.1) ) (1)
= (1.1)
3
2 (1.1)
_
1
3
2 1
_
= 0.81
1o lno dj, wo lisl nolico lhal )
t
(a) = 8a
2
2a so lhal )
t
(1) = . As
a iosull, lho oiloionlial dj is
dj = )
t
(a) da = )
t
(1) (0.1) = 0.1 = 0.
which closoly appioximalos lho aclual valuo of ^j = 0.81.
1-6: dj appioximalos dj
As a iosull, dj can Lo usoo lo appioximalo ^j in applicalions whoio da is sum-
cionlly closo lo 0. In pailiculai, a |:nn is oolnoo lo Lo lho maximumallowaLlo
oiioi in lho moasuiomonl of a quanlily, so lhal if da is lho loloianco foi a quanlily
a, lhon dj is oflon usoo as an appioximalion of lho loloianco in j.
IXAMIII Fino lho volumo \ ano appioximalo lho loloianco d\
of a sphoio whoso iaoius is moasuioo lo Lo inchos lo wilhin a loloianco
of
l
l6
of an inch.
1-7: Sphoio wilh iaoius of
l
l6
inchos.
SoIutIon: 1ho volumo of a sphoio wilh iaoius r is givon Ly
\ =
4
8
r
3
(8.)
which implios lhal lho volumo of a sphoio wilh iaoius inchos is
\ =
4
8
()
3
=
00
8
- 28.6 in
3
Sinco \
t
= 4r
2
, lho oiloionlial is d\ = 4r
2
dr. 1hus,
d\ = 4 ()
2
1
16
= 10.6 i:
3
1hal is, lho sphoio`s volumo is 28.6 i:
3
, givo oi lako aLoul 10.6 i:
3
.
IXAMIII 0 A iighl cylinoiical holo is Loioo lhiough a Llock of
slool wilh a unifoim wiolh of 48 cm. If lho iaoius of lho holo is cm
lo wilhin a loloianco of 1 mm, lhon whal is lho loloianco in lho volumo
of lho iosulling holo
1-8: Holo oiilloo lhiough a Llock
SoIutIon: If r is lho iaoius of lho holo, lhon lho volumo of lho holo is
\ = r
2
48 sinco lho hoighl of lho holo is 48 c:. Moioovoi, \
t
(r) =
06r ano lhus, \
t
(1) = 06 = 107.06. Sinco dr = 1 mm = 0.1
cm, wo havo
d\ = \
t
(1) dr = 107.06 0.1 = 10.706 cm
3
1hn . h |&n J h h| .n rnn| Chock youi Ioaoing
IrooIs Hased on tLe Aean YaIue TLeoren
1ho malhomalician Auguslin-Louis Cauchy liioo lo Laso all of calculus on lho
Moan Valuo lhooiom, much liko Luclio Lasoo goomoly on his poslulalos. Al-
lhough ho was nol complololy succossful, much of his piogiam is slill usoo looay.
1hal is, lho Moan Valuo lhooiom conlinuos lo Lo usoo in giaoualo ano unooigiao-
ualo malhomalics couisos lo piovo many of lho lhooioms of calculus.
IXAMIII 7 Uso lho MV1 lo piovo lhal if / 1, lhon
ln(/) _ / 1
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo apply lho MV1 in lho foim (8.8) lo lho
funclion ) (a) = ln(a) on [1, /[. 1hal is, sinco )
t
(a) =
l
i
, lhoio is a
numLoi c in [1, /[ such lhal
ln(/) ln(1) =
1
c
(/ 1)
Howovoi, c in [1, /[ implios lhal c _ 1, which moans lhal
l
c
_ 1. Sinco
ln(1) = 0, lhis yiolos
ln(/) =
1
c
(/ 1) _ / 1
Lol`s concluoo wilh ono moio oxamplo of how lho Moan Valuo 1hooiom is usoo as
lho founoalion foi Calculus.
IXAMIII 8 Supposo lhal ) (a) is conlinuous ano oiloionliaLlo
ovoiywhoio. Uso lho MV1 lo piovo lhal if ) (a) is poiiooic wilh poiioo
T, lhon )
t
(c) = 0 foi inlniloly many valuos of c.
SoIutIon: Aclually, lho pioof is quilo oasy. Sinco ) (0) = ) (T) , lho
MV1 implios lhal lhoio is a numLoi c
l
in (0, T) such lhal
)
t
(c
l
) =
) (T) ) (0)
T 0
= 0
Likowiso, lho MV1 implios lhal lhoio is a numLoi c
2
in (T, 2T) such
lhal
)
t
(c
2
) =
) (2T) ) (T)
2T T
= 0
ano conlinuing foi (2T, 8T) , (8T, 4T) , . . . , wo solocl inlniloly many
numLois c
l
, c
2
, . . . al which lho ooiivalivo vanishos (i.o, is oqual lo 0).
Lxoicisos:
n& h J.]:n.n| dj.
1. j = a
2
2. j = a
3
8. j = sin(a) 4. j = cos (a)
. j = lan(a) 6. j = soc (a)
7. j = c
i
8. j = 2
i
0. j =
_
1 a
2
10. j = sin
_
a
2
_
1.nJ dj nnJ ^j J: h j.n n|& J j nnJ â = da. 1&|J j& n|&J hn
dj . n jJ n:r.nn.n J ^j
11. )(a) = a
2
, j = 1, da = 0.01 12. )(a) = a
2
2a, j = 2, da = 0.02
18. )(a) = a
3
a
2
, j = 2, da = 0.1 14. )(a) = (a 1)
2
, j = 0, da = 0.01
1. )(a) = 2a 8, j = 1, da = 0.2 16. )(a) = 8a 1, j = 1., da = 0.2
17. j = 0.8a
2
0.7a 0. 18. j = 4a
2
8a 1
j = 0.2, da = 0.001 j = 10, da = 0.1
10. aj = 1, a = 0., da = 0.1 20. j
2
= a, a = 1.44, da = 0.1
1r:. .1-. .n| |:nn nnJ J.]:n.n| n n:r.nn.n.
21. A coilain ioclanglo has a longlh which is lwico ils wiolh. 1ho longlh is 1 cm
moasuioo lo wilhin a loloianco of 0.1 cm. Lslimalo lho maximum oiioi in
calculaling lho aioa of lho ioclanglo using lhis longlh. (Hinl: calculalo d.)
22. If a cuLo wilh has sioos of longlh a = 2 cm lo wilhin a loloianco of 0.1 cm,
lhon whal is lho loloianco in lho volumo of lho cuLo
23. A lhin ciiculai oisk has a iaoius r = 10 cm moasuioo lo wilhin a loloianco
of 0.8 cm. Lslimalo lho maximum oiioi in calculaling lho aioa of lho oisk
using lhis moasuiomonl. (Hinl: calculalo d.)
24. 1ho ciicumfoionco of lho lop of a soup can is moasuioo lo Lo 0
l
d
tt
lo wilhin
a 116 of an inch.
(a) Lxpioss lho aioa of a ciiclo as a funclion of lho ciicumfoionco of
lho ciiclo (Hinl: r = C2)
(L) Whal is lho aioa of lho lop of lho can
(c) ALoul how much vaiialion in lho aioa compulalion is possiLlo givon
lhal lho ciicumfoionco is accuialo only lo a sixloonlh of an inch
25. 1ho volumo of a pyiamio is ono-lhiio lho hoighl limos lho aioa of lho Laso. If
a pyiamio has a squaio Laso wilh lho longlh of ono sioo Loing 100:moasuioo
lo wilhin a loloianco of 0.1:, oslimalo lho maximum oiioi in lho volumo
moasuiomonl as a funclion of lho hoighl, /.
26. A cylinoiical holo is lo Lo Loioo in a Llock of molal. 1ho holo is lo havo
a capacily of 0cc (cc is cuLic conlimolois), a hoighl of / = 6.81c: ano a
iaoius of 1 = 1.88c:. 1ho volumo musl Lo accuialo lo wilhin 0.2cc, lhal
is [d\ [ < 0.2. 1ho volumo of a cylinooi is givon Ly \ = 1
2
/.
(a) If wo assumo lhal lho hoighl / is wilhoul oiioi, lo whal loloianco
dr musl wo koop lho iaoius in oiooi foi [d\ [ < 0.2.
(L) If wo assumo lhal lho iaoius 1 will Lo poifocl, lo whal loloianco
d/ musl wo koop lho hoighl
27. A coppoi wiio 8 :: in oiamoloi is lo Lo covoioo wilh a plaslic insulalion
0. :: lhick. Uso oiloionlials lo oslimalo lho volumo of lho plaslic nocos-
saiy lo coal a ioll of coppoi wiio 100: (100, 000 ::) in longlh.
28. A sphoiical sholl has a iaoius of 100 cm ano a lhicknoss of 0.1 cm. Uso
oiloionlials lo appioximalo lho volumo of lho sholl.
1r:. .:-u & h `nn 1n|& Jh:n : :&| .n n|&|&.
29. Uso lho Moan Valuo 1hooiom lo piovo lhal if )
t
(a) = 1 foi all a in (a, /)
ano if ) (a) is conlinuous on [a, /[ , lhon
) (/) ) (a) = / a
30. Uso lho Moan Valuo lhooiom lo piovo lhal if / a 1, lhon
/
l0
a
l0
10 (/ a)
(Hinl: lol ) (a) = a
l0
ano nolico lhal if c a, lhon also c 1).
31. Uso lho Moan valuo lhooiom lo piovo lhal if / _ a, lhon
sin(/) sin(a) _ / a
32. Uso lho Moan valuo lhooiom lo piovo lhal if 0 < a < /, lhon
_
a/ <
a /
2
(Hinl: lol ) (a) =
_
aa ano nolico lhal ) (a) = a, ) (/) =
_
a/ ano
_
a
c
< 1.)
33. HoIIe`s TLeoren: Show lhal if ) (a) = ) (/) = 0, if ) (a) is conlinuous on
[a, /[ , ano if ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo on (a, /) , lhon lhoio is a c in (a, /) such
lhal )
t
(c) = 0.
1-0: Iollo`s 1hooiom
34. Supposo lhal ) (a) is poiiooic wilh a poiioo T 0, ano supposo lhal )
tt
(a) =
j (a) ) (a) , whoio j (a) 0 foi all a. Show lhal ) (a) musl havo al loasl ono
ioal zoio. (Hinl: Show lhal )
t
(a) is poiiooic, ano lhon apply lho MV1 lo
)
t
(a) ovoi [0, T[).
35. Uso lho Moan valuo lhooiom lo piovo lho following: If lhoio is a numLoi
c < 1 such lhal [)
t
(a)[ _ c foi all a in an inloival (j, ) , lhon
[) (/) ) (a)[ _ c [/ a[ (8.6)
foi all inloivals [a, /[ in (j, ) . ( A funclion lhal salislos (8.6) is calloo a
n:n.n ).
36. FInd tLe Error: If ) (a) = lan(a) , lhon )
t
(a) = soc
2
(a) ano lhus on lho
inloival [0, /[ , whoio / 2, wo havo
lan(/) lan(0) = soc
2
(c) (/ 0)
foi somo numLoi c in (0, /) . Howovoi, soc
2
(c) _ 1, so lhal
lan(/) = soc
2
(c) (/ 0) _ / 0
1hal is, if / _ 2, lhon lan(/) _ / (Nolo: 1his conclusion can`l Lo liuo sinco
if / = , lhon lan() = 0 ).
37. Giaph )
t
(a) on lho inloival givon. Lslimalo min[)
t
(a)[ (i.o. lho minimum
valuo of )
t
(a) on lho givon inloival) ano max[)
t
(a)[ (lho maximum valuo of
)
t
(a) on lho givon inloival ).
2
Compaio oach lo lho quanlily
}(b)}(o)
bo
(a) )(a) = 8a 2a
3
on [1, 1[ (L) )(a) = 8a
l/2
a on [1, 8[
(c) )(a) = a
3
8a on [1, 1[ (o) ) (a) = c
i
on [0, ln(2)[
38. 1ho iosulls in lho piovious oxoiciso loao lo lho following conjocluio: If )(a)
is conlinuous on [a, /[ ano oiloionliaLlo on (a, /) , lhon
min[)
t
(a)[ _
)(/) )(a)
/ a
_ max[)
t
(a)[ (8.7)
Iiovo lhis iosull wilh lho Moan Valuo 1hooiom.
39. Uso lho lhooiom in oxoiciso 88 lo piovo lhooiom 1.2. (i.o., uso (8.7) lo show
lhal if )
t
(a) = 0 on (a, /), lhon )(a) is a conslanl funclion on (a, /) ).
40. VrIte to Learn: Al 8:00 p.m., lho ooomoloi on youi aulomoLilo ioaos
1,000 milos. Al 4:00 p.m., lho ooomoloi on youi aulomoLilo ioaos 1,060
milos. Lol r (t) oonolo youi ooomoloi ioaoing in milos al limo t in houis
sinco noon, ano lhon wiilo a shoil ossay in which you apply ano inloipiol lho
Moan Valuo 1hooiom lo r (t) ovoi [8, 4[. Whal insliumonl moasuios r
t
(t)
Whal ooos lho Moan Valuo lhooiom imply aLoul r
t
(c) al somo limo c in
[8, 4[
3.2 L`HpiLal`s Rule
L`HItaI`s HuIe Ior
0
0
Forns
Supposo lhal ) (a) ano p (a) aio oiloionliaLlo in a noighLoihooo of j ano lhal
Lolh ) (j) = 0 ano p (j) = 0.
2-1: ) (j) = p (j) = 0
2
If availaLlo, lho liaco" oplion can Lo usoo lo oslimalo lho maximum ano lho minimum of
)
(a) .
If a is closo lo j, lhon lho cuivos j = ) (a) ano j = p (a) aio piaclically lho samo
as lhoii langonl linos al (j, 0).
2-2: Linoaiizalion is Usoo lo Lvalualo Limils
Sinco ) (j) = p (j) = 0, lhoii langonl linos aio, iospoclivoly,
j = )
t
(j) (a j) a:d j = p
t
(j) (a j)
If a is appioaching j, lhon ) (a) - )
t
(j) (a j) ano p (a) - p
t
(j) (a j) , which
if p
t
(j) ,= 0 implios lhal
lim
i
) (a)
p (a)
= lim
i
)
t
(j) (a j)
p
t
(j) (a j)
=
)
t
(j)
p
t
(j)
(8.8)
1his iooa can Lo gonoializoo inlo 1`1.n|` :&| (pionouncoo Low-pi-lal").
L`HItaI`s HuIe: If ) (a) ano p (a) aio oiloionliaLlo on an opon
inloival (a, /) conlaining j, oxcopl possiLly al j ilsolf, ano if lim
i
}(i)
(i)
is of lho foim
0
0
, lhon
lim
i
) (a)
p (a)
= lim
i
)
t
(a)
p
t
(a)
(8.0)
whon Lolh limils oxisl.
Unliko (8.8), L`Hopilal`s iulo holos ovon if p
t
(j) = 0. In opoialoi nolalion, L`Hopi-
lal`s iulo says lhal if lim
i
) (a) =lim
i
p (a) = 0, lhon
lim
i
) (a)
p (a)
= lim
i
J
Ji
) (a)
J
Ji
p (a)
(8.10)
IXAMIII 1 Uso L`Hopilal`s iulo lo ovalualo
lim
il
a
2
1
a 1
SoIutIon: Fiisl wo nolico lhal lho limil is of lho foim
0
0
. As a iosull,
(8.10) says lhal
lim
il
a
2
1
a 1
= lim
il
J
Ji
_
a
2
1
_
J
Ji
(a 1)
= lim
il
2a
1
=
2
1
= 2
Nolico lhal al j = 1, lho langonl lino lo j = a
2
1 is j = 2 (a 1). 1hus, oxamplo
1 can Lo summaiizoo as saying lhal a
2
1 can Lo ioplacoo Ly 2 (a 1) foi a noai
1, so lhal lho limil is lho ialio of 2 (a 1) lo (a 1) , which is 2.
L`HPlTAL`S RULL 201
IXAMIII 2 Uso L`Hopilal`s iulo lo ovalualo
lim
i0
sin(a)
a
SoIutIon: 1ho limil is of lho foim
0
0
, so lhal
lim
i0
sin(a)
a
= lim
i0
J
Ji
sin(a)
J
Ji
a
= lim
i0
cos (a)
1
= cos (0) = 1
1ho lasl limil is ouo lo lho facl lhal cos (a) is conlinuous al a = 0.
Nol suipiisingly, lho pioof of (8.0) follows fiom lho Moan Valuo lhooiom. If a j,
lhon lho MV1 implios lhal lhoio aio numLois c ano d in (j, a) such lhal
) (a) ) (j) = )
t
(c) (a j) a:d p (a) p (j) = p
t
(d) (a j)
Sinco ) (j) = p (j) = 0, lhon ) (a) = )
t
(c) (a j) ano p (a) = p
t
(d) (a j) , so
lhal
lim
i
) (a)
p (a)
= lim
i
)
t
(c) (a j)
p
t
(d) (a j)
= lim
i
)
t
(c)
p
t
(d)
Howovoi, as a appioachos j, lhon c ano d also appioach j, so lhal
lim
i
) (a)
p (a)
= lim
i
)
t
(a)
p
t
(a)
if Lolh limils oxisl. 1ho pioof foi a < j is similai.
1& &&|J n|&n h |.n. .n rnn| 1 &.h& &.nj 1`1.n|` :&| Chock youi Ioaoing
InhnIte LInIts and LInIts to InhnIty
If ) (a) ano p (a) Lolh appioach as a appioachos a numLoi j, lhon
lim
i
) (a)
p (a)
is J h J:n
o
o
. Similaily, if ) (a) ano p (a) Lolh appioach as a appioachos
, lhon lho limil lo of
}(i)
(i)
is also of lho foim
o
o
. L`Hopilal`s iulo also holos
foi limils of lho foim
o
o
whon lho limil of
}
(i)
(i)
also oxisls.
lim
io
a
d
1
a
d
2a 8
(8.11)
SoIutIon: As a goos lo , lho quanlily a
d
also goos lo . 1hus,
(8.11) is of lho foim
o
o
ano can Lo ovalualoo using L`Hopilal`s iulo :
lim
io
a
d
1
a
d
2a 8
= lim
io
J
Ji
_
a
d
1
_
J
Ji
(a
d
2a 8)
= lim
io
4a
3
4a
3
2
1ho limil lim
io
di
di
2
is also of lho foim
o
o
, ano lhus, wo apply L`Hopi-
lal`s iulo again:
lim
io
4a
3
4a
3
2
= lim
io
J
Ji
_
4a
3
_
J
Ji
(4a
3
2)
= lim
io
12a
2
12a
2
= 1
In summaiy, wo showoo lhal
lim
io
a
d
1
a
d
2a 8
= lim
io
4a
3
4a
3
2
= lim
io
12a
2
12a
2
= 1
IXAMIII ! Lvalualo lho limil
lim
io
2
i
1
2
i
1
SoIutIon: Sinco 2
i
appioachos as a appioachos , lho limil is of
lho foim
o
o
. 1hus,
lim
io
2
i
1
2
i
1
= lim
io
J
Ji
(2
i
1)
J
Ji
(2
i
1)
= lim
io
2
i
ln(2)
2
i
ln(2)
= 1
Il is impoilanl lo nolico lhal L`Hopilal`s iulo is nol always holpful. Foi oxamplo,
lim
io
c
i
c
i
c
i
c
i
(8.12)
is of lho foim
o
o
. Applicalion of L`Hopilal`s iulo yiolos
lim
io
c
i
c
i
c
i
c
i
= lim
io
J
Ji
(c
i
c
i
)
J
Ji
(c
i
c
i
)
= lim
io
c
i
c
i
c
i
c
i
1ho iosulling limil is also of lho foim
o
o
, ano L`Hopilal`s iulo yiolos
lim
io
c
i
c
i
c
i
c
i
= lim
io
J
Ji
(c
i
c
i
)
J
Ji
(c
i
c
i
)
= lim
io
c
i
c
i
c
i
c
i
1hal is, L`Hopilal`s iulo simply lakos us Lack lo whoio wo slailoo!
In aooilion, applicalion of L`Hopilal`s iulo lo limils which do oxisl may iosull
in limils which do not oxisl. Foi oxamplo, in lho oxoicisos, wo will show lhal
lim
io
a sin(a)
2a 1
=
1
2
(8.18)
as is implioo Ly lho giaph of ) (a) =
a sin(a)
2a 1
Lolow:
x
100 80 60 40 20
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
2-8: L`Hopilal`s iulo ooos nol apply lo all
o
o
foims
L`HPlTAL`S RULL 208
Howovoi, ovon lhough lho limil (8.18) is of lho foim
o
o
, L`Hopilal`s iulo yiolos
lim
io
a sin(a)
2a 1
= lim
io
J
Ji
(a sin(a))
J
Ji
(2a 1)
= lim
io
1 cos (a)
2
1ho lasl limil ooos nol oxisl Locauso cos (a) ooos nol havo a hoiizonlal asymplolo.
1& &&|J & n|&n ;.1.) Chock youi Ioaoing
LInIts oI tLe Iorn 0
Allhough L`Hopilal`s iulo only applios lo limils of lho foim
0
0
oi
o
o
, lhoio aio
limils in oiloionl foims lhal can Lo simpliloo lo a valio L`Hopilal`s iulo foim. 1o L`Hopilal`s iulo
only applios lo
limils of lho foim
0
0
oi
o
o
illuslialo, consiooi lhal if
lim
i
) (a) = 0 ano lim
i
p (a) =
lhon lho limil
lim
i
[) (a) p (a)[
is saio lo Lo in 0 foim. A limil of lho foim 0 can Lo convoiloo inlo a valio
foim Ly laking lho iocipiocal of oilhoi ) (a) oi p (a).
IXAMIII Lvalualo lho limil
lim
io
_
a
2
c
i
_
(8.14)
SoIutIon: Sinco a
2
goos lo ano c
i
goos lo 0 as a appioachos ,
lho limil (8.14) is of lho foim 0 . 1hus, wo chango c
i
inlo
l
t
ano
apply L`Hopilal`s iulo:
lim
io
_
a
2
c
i
_
= lim
io
a
2
c
i
= lim
io
2a
c
i
1ho iosulling limil is of lho foim
o
o
, so wo apply L`Hopilal`s iulo again:
lim
io
_
a
2
c
i
_
= lim
io
2a
c
i
= lim
io
2
c
i
= 0
IXAMIII 0 Lvalualo
lim
i0
aln(a)
SoIutIon: Sinco ln(a) has a voilical asymplolo al a = 0, lho limil is
of lho foim 0 . 1hus, wo convoil il lo
lim
i0
ln(a)
a
l
which is of lho foim
o
o
. Consoquonlly, L`Hopilal`s iulo implios lhal
lim
i0
ln(a)
a
l
= lim
i0
1a
a
2
= lim
i0
1
a

_
a
2
_
Sinco oivision Ly a
2
is lho samo as mulliplicalion Ly a
2
, wo havo
lim
i0
ln(a)
a
l
= lim
i0
1
a
a
2
= lim
i0
a = 0
1hn . h h:..nn| njn J ) (a) = a
2
c
i
Chock youi Ioaoing
OtLer IndeternInate Forns
1ho iolalionship of c
i
lo ln(a) can Lo usoo lo ovalualo limils of lho foim
lim
i
[) (a)[
(i)
(8.1)
In pailiculai, if (8.1) is in ono of lho foims 0
0
,
0
oi 1
o
, lhon wo apply lho
following lhooiom
TLeoren 8.2: If lim
i
ln
_
[) (a)[
(i)
_
= 1, lhon lim
i
[) (a)[
(i)
= c
1
1hal is, wo lisl ovalualo lho |jn:.hn of (8.1). If (8.1) is in ono of lho foims
0
0
,
0
oi 1
o
, lhon lho iosull will ioouco lo a valio L`Hopilal`s foim. Wo lhon
apply lho oxpononlial, if lho limil oxisls.
IXAMIII 7 Lvalualo lho limil
lim
i0
(a 1)
l/i
SoIutIon: Sinco lho limil is of lho foim 1
o
, wo apply lho logaiilhm
lo oLlain
lim
i0
ln(a 1)
l/i
= lim
i0
1
a
ln(a 1) = lim
i0
ln(a 1)
a
which is of lho foim
0
0
. Applicalion of lho ooiivalivo iosulls in
lim
i0
ln(a 1)
l/i
= lim
i0
J
Ji
ln(a 1)
J
Ji
a
= lim
i0
l
il
1
=
l
0l
1
= 1
1hooiom 8.2 lhon implios lhal
lim
i0
(a 1)
l/i
= c
l
= c
In ioalily, lhoio is lilllo nooo lo liy lo iomomLoi lho foims 0
0
,
0
oi 1
o
. 1hooiom
8.2 applios lo any limil of lho foim lim
i
[) (a)[
(i)
. 1ho foims 0
0
,
0
oi 1
o
aio
simply lhoso which simplify lo a valio L`Hopilal`s foim.
IXAMIII 8 Apply lhooiom 2.2 lo
lim
i0
a
l/ In(i)
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, wo apply lho logaiilhm lo oLlain
lim
i0
ln
_
a
l/ In(i)
_
= lim
i0
1
ln(a)
ln(a) = lim
i0
1 = 1
L`HPlTAL`S RULL 20
As a iosull, lhooiom 2.2 implios lhal
lim
i0
a
l/ In(i)
= c
l
Nolico lhal lho foim of lho limil oio nol como inlo play.
Lxoicisos:
1:n.n h J:n nnJ n|&n h |.n. .J . r.. 1J h |.n. J n r.,
r|n.n &hj n.
1. lim
il
a
2
1
a 1
2. lim
i3
a
2
0
a 8
8. lim
i2
a
2
4a 4
a
2
4
4. lim
i3
a
2
2a
a
3
4a
2
8a 18
. lim
i
_
2
a
2
2
a
_
2
6. lim
il
a
d
8a 4
_
a 1
7. lim
i
_
2
(a
_
2)
7
a
2
2
8. lim
il
(a 1)
3/2
a
d
2a
2
1
0. lim
i0
a
c
i
c
i
10. lim
i0
c
2i
1
c
3i
c
i
11. lim
i0
ln(2a 1)
a
12. lim
il
ln(a)
a 1
18. lim
i0
sin(2a)
a
14. lim
i0
sin(a)
1 cos (a)
1. lim
i0
1 cos (2a)
sin
2
(a)
16. lim
|0
cos (/) 1
/
2
17. lim
it
2 sin(a) cos (a)
a
2

2
18. lim
it
sin
2
(a)
(a )
2
10. lim
i0
sin
2
(a)
1 cos (4a)
20. lim
i0
cos
d
(a) cos (2a)
sin
d
(a)
21. lim
io
2a
a 8
22. lim
io
a 8
4a 2
28. lim
io
a
2
_
a
a
2

_
a
24. lim
io
_
a
2
4a
a
2

_
a 2
2. lim
io
ln(a)
a
26. lim
io
ln(a)
ln(a
2
4)
27. lim
io
c
2i
1
c
2i
1
28. lim
io
c
i
c
i
c
i
20. lim
io
a
3
c
i
80. lim
io
_
ac
i
81. lim
io
asin
_
1
a
_
82. lim
io
aln
_
a
1 a
_
88. lim
i0
ln(a) ln(a 1) 84. lim

io
cos
_
l
i
_
8. lim
i0
a
2i
86. lim
io
a
l/i
87. lim
i0
a
sIn(i)
88. lim
i0
(1 a)
l/i
80. lim
io
_
1 a
2
_
l/ In(i)
40. lim
io
_
1
1
a
2
_
i
lim
il
8a
2
a 2
a
2
1
(8.16)
(a) unerIcaI: Complolo lho laLlo
a 0.0 0.00 0.000 0 1.001 1.01 1.1
3i
i2
i
l

Uso il lo oslimalo lho valuo of lho limil (8.16).
(L) Lvalualo lho limil (8.16) using L`hopilal`s iulo.
(c) Lvalualo lho limil (8.16) Ly facloiing lho numoialoi, cancoling ano
using conlinuily.
lim
i0.5
6a
2
a 4
a 0.
(8.17)
a 0.40 0.400 0.4000 0 0.001 0.01 0.1
6i
5id
i0.5

(L) Lvalualo lho limil (8.17) using L`hopilal`s iulo.
using conlinuily.
lim
|0
c
2|
1
c
|
1
(8.18)
/ -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01
t
!
l
t
!
l

L`HPlTAL`S RULL 207
(L) Lvalualo lho limil (8.18) using L`Hopilal`s iulo.
using conlinuily.
lim
i3
a
l/ In(i)
(8.10)
a 2.0 2.00 2.000 0 8.001 8.01 8.1
a
l/ In(i)

(L) Uso lhooiom 2.2 lo ovalualo (8.10).
(c) Uso lho oolnilion of [) (a)[
(i)
lo simplify a
l/ In(i)
. Whal is signif-
icanl aLoul lho funclion a
l/ In(i)
45. In lhis oxoiciso, wo ovalualo lho limil

lim
io
a sin(a)
2a 1
(8.20)
(a) Uso lho facl lhal 1 _ sin(a) _ 1 ano lho sanowich lhooiom lo
show lhal
lim
io
sin(a)
a
= 0
(L) Divioo lho numoialoi ano oonominaloi of (8.20) Ly a, ano lhon
uso pail a lo ovalualo lho limil.
lim
io
a
2
cos (a)
(a 1)
2
(8.21)
(a) Uso lho facl lhal 1 _ cos (a) _ 1 ano lho sanowich lhooiom lo
show lhal
lim
io
cos (a)
a
2
= 0
(L) Divioo lho numoialoi ano oonominaloi of (8.21) Ly a, ano lhon
uso pail a lo ovalualo lho limil.
47. Show lhal if )
t
(a) is conlinuous, lhon
lim
|0
) (a /) ) (a /)
2/
= )
t
(a)
(hinl: lako ooiivalivos wilh iospocl lo /). 1hon oiaw a oiagiam which shows
why
) (a /) ) (a /)
2/
can also Lo consiooioo a socanl lino appioximalion of )
t
(a) .
48. Uso L`Hopilal`s iulo lo show lhal if )
tt
(a) is conlinuous, lhon
lim
|0
) (a 2/) 2) (a /) ) (a)
/
2
= )
tt
(a)
(hinl: lako ooiivalivos wilh iospocl lo /).
49. VrIte to Iearn: In a shoil ossay, show lhal
lim
i
p (a)
) (a)
= lim
i
[) (a)[
l
[p (a)[
l
ano oxplain why if lho lisl limil is of lho foim
o
o
, lhon lho socono limil is
of lho foim
0
0
.
50. VrIte to Learn: In soclion 2.6, oolnilion 6.1, lho oxpononlial funclion is
oolnoo Ly lho limil
c
i
= lim
no
_
1
a
:
_
n
In a shoil ossay, show lhal c
i
c
|
= c
i|
Ly oxplaining why
c
i
c
|
= lim
no
_
1
a /
:

a/
:
2
_
n
ano lhon compuling lho limil using L`hopilal`s iulo.
51. VrIte to Learn: Lol`s apply linoaiizalion oiioclly lo lho limil
lim
il
a
3
8a
2
a 1
a 1
Show lhal if j = a
3
8a
2
a 1, lhon ils langonl lino al a = 1 is
j = 4 (a 1)
1hon in a shoil ossay, oxplain why
lim
il
a
3
8a
2
a 1
a 1
= lim
il
4 (a 1)
a 1
52. VrIte to Learn: Lol`s apply linoaiizalion oiioclly lo lho limil
lim
i2
a
3
a
2
12
a
2
4
Show lhal lho langonl linos al a = 2 of j = a
3
a
2
12 ano j = a
2
4 aio,
iospoclivoly,
j = 16 (a 2) ano j = 4 (a 2)
1hon in a shoil ossay, oxplain why
lim
i2
a
3
a
2
12
a
2
4
= lim
i2
16 (a 2)
4 (a 2)
3.3 AbsoluLe and RelaLive LxLrema
HeIatIve Extrena
Many applicalions of calculus ioquiio lho ioonlilcalion of lho r:n valuosi.o.,
lho highs ano lowsof a givon funclion. 1ho ooiivalivo can Lo usoo lo ooloimino
whoio lho oxliomo valuos, oi r:nn, of a funclion occui. Wo Login wilh somo
oolnilions.
ABSOLUTL AND RLLATlVL LXTRLMA 200
DehnItIon 3.1: A funclion ) (a) has a :|n. nnr.n&n al a = j if
lhoio is a noighLoihooo (a, /) of j such lhal ) (j) _ ) (a) foi all a in
(a, /) . A funclion ) (a) has a :|n. n.n.n&n al a = j if lhoio is a
noighLoihooo (a, /) of j such lhal ) (j) _ ) (a) foi all a in (a, /) .
8-1: Iolalivo Lxlioma
Nolico lhal lho oxlioma in lho lguio aLovo occui al inpuls whoio lho langonl lino
is hoiizonlal (soo c
l
aLovo), oi whoio lho funclion has a cusp (soo c
2
aLovo).
1o soo lhis malhomalically, nolico lhal if ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo al a = j, lhon
) (j /) = ) (j) )
t
(j) / o (/)
SuLliacling ) (j) fiom Lolh sioos lhus yiolos
)
t
(j) / o (/) = ) (j /) ) (j)
Supposo now lhal ) (a) has a maximum al a = j. 1hon lho quanlily ) (j /)
) (j) musl Lo nogalivo foi / sumcionlly small, which implios lhal )
t
(j) / _ 0 foi
all / (posilivo oi nogalivo) sumcionlly closo lo 0. Howovoi,
/ < 0 ==)
t
(j) _ 0, / 0 ==)
t
(j) _ 0
ano wo can havo Lolh )
t
(j) _ 0 ano )
t
(j) _ 0 only if )
t
(j) = 0. Similaily, if
) (a) has a minimum al a = j ano is oiloionliaLlo al a = j, lhon )
t
(j) = 0.
Sinco oxlioma can also occui al cusps, wo aio loo lo lho following oolnilion:
DehnItIon 3.2: Lol c Lo in lho oomain of a funclion ) (a). If )
t
(c) = 0
oi if )
t
(c) ooos nol oxisl, lhon c is calloo a :..n| .n of ) (a) .
In pailiculai, a ciilical poinl c foi which )
t
(c) = 0 is also known as a n.nn:j
.n of ) (a) .
1hus, lho oxlioma of a funclion musl occui al lho ciilical poinls of a funclion,
allhough nol all ciilical poinls loao lo oxlioma as shown Ly c
3
aLovo. Lxaminalion
of lho giaph of ) (a) can Lo usoo lo ooloimino if ano whal lypo of oxliomumoccuis
al a givon ciilical poinl..
IXAMIII 1 Ioonlify any oxlioma of ) (a) = a
d
4a
3
1.
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = 4a
3
12a
2
is a polynomial, )
t
(a) oxisls foi
all a. 1hus, lho ciilical poinls occui whoio )
t
(a) = 0.
4a
3
12a
2
= 0
4a
2
(a 8) = 0
a = 0, 8
Il follows lhal lho ciilical poinls of ) (a) = a
d
4a
3
1 aio a = 0 ano
a = 8. Wo now giaph lho funclion ) (a) ovoi an inloival conlaining
lho ciilical poinls 0 ano 8.
x
4 3 2 1 0 -1
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
8-2: A iolalivo minimum al a = 8
Cloaily, ) (a) = a
d
4a
3
1 ooos nol havo an oxliomum al a = 0, Lul
il ooos havo a iolalivo minimum al a = 8.
1hj nn n J&n.n hn nn r:n&n n nn .n& &h: n & &: Chock youi Ioaoing
HeIatIve Extrena oI AIgeLraIc FunctIons
AlgoLiaic funclions wilh oxpononls Lolwoon 0 ano 1 oflon havo cusps. Moioovoi,
if ) (a) is an algoLiaic funclion, lhon a cusp occuis al a poinl j whoio ) (j) is
oolnoo Lul )
t
(j) ooos nol oxisl.
IXAMIII 2 Ioonlify any oxlioma of ) (a) = (a 1)
2/3
.
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo lisl compulo lho ooiivalivo:
)
t
(a) =
2
8
(a 1)
l/3
=
2
8 (a 1)
l/3
Nolico lhal )
t
(a) is nol oolnoo al a = 1, allhough ) (1) is oolnoo. As
a iosull, a = 1 is a nonslalionaiy ciilical poinl of ) (a) , ano inoooo, a
minimum occuis al a = 1, as is shown Lolow:
x
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
8-8: A iolalivo minimum al a = 1
Howovoi, if noilhoi ) (j) noi )
t
(j) oxisl, lhon j is not a ciilical poinl of ) (a)
Locauso j is nol in lho oomain of ).
IXAMIII J Ioonlify any oxlioma of
) (a) =
1
a 1
SoIutIon: ) (a) has a ooiivalivo of
)
t
(a) =
1
(a 1)
2
Cloaily, noilhoi lho ooiivalivo )
t
(a) noi lho funclion ) (a) aio oolnoo
al a = 1. Inoooo, a = 1 is a :.n| njn of lho funclion ) (a) ,
as is shown Lolow:
x
3 2 1 0 -1
10
5
0
-5
-10
8-4: ) (a) =
l
il
has no iolalivo oxlioma
Sinco a = 1 is not a ciilical poinl of ) (a) , lho funclion ) (a) has no
ciilical poinls ano lhus has no iolalivo oxlioma.
1 ) (a) =
l
i2
hn nnj :..n| .n Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe Extrene YaIue TLeoren
If ) (j) _ ) (a) foi all ioal numLois a in [a, /[ , lhon ) (j) is calloo an nh|&
nnr.n&n of ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ . Likowiso, if ) (j) _ ) (a) foi all ioal numLois a in
[a, /[ , lhon ) (j) is calloo an nh|& n.n.n&n of ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ .
8-: ALsolulo Lxlioma
1ho 1r:n 1n|& Jh:n says lhal if a funclion ) (a) is conlinuous on [a, /[ ,
lhon il allains ils aLsolulo maximum ano ils aLsolulo minimum on [a, /[ , allhough
an aLsolulo oxliomum may occui al an onopoinl of [a, /[ .
IXAMIII ! Doloimino lho aLsolulo oxlioma of ) (a) = 2a a
2
ovoi [0, 2[ .
SoIutIon: Sinco ) (a) has a ooiivalivo of
)
t
(a) = 2 2a
lho ciilical poinls of ) (a) aio lho valuos of a whoio )
t
(a) = 0:
2 2a = 0, a = 1
1ho giaph of ) (a) = 2a a
2
shows us lhal lho aLsolulo maximum of
) (a) occuis al a = 1.
x
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
8-6
Moioovoi, lho aLsolulo minimum occuis al Lolh a = 0 ano a = 2.
IXAMIII Doloimino lho aLsolulo oxlioma of lho funclion
) (a) = (a 7) (a 2)
2/3
ovoi [0, 8[ .
SoIutIon: Applying lho piooucl iulo loaos lo
)
t
(a) =
_
d
da
(a 7)
_
(a 2)
2/3
(a 7)
d
da
(a 2)
2/3
= (a 2)
2/3
2
8
(a 7) (a 2)
l/3
1iansfoiming fiom a nogalivo oxpononl lo a fiaclion yiolos
)
t
(a) = (a 2)
2/3
2 (a 7)
8 (a 2)
l/3
Cloaily, lho ooiivalivo ooos nol oxisl whon a = 2. Sinco ) (2) = 0
implios lhal ) (2) is oolnoo, a = 2 is a ciilical poinl of ) (a) .
1o lno lho slalionaiy poinls, wo sol )
t
(a) oqual lo 0 ano solvo
foi a:
(a 2)
2/3
2 (a 7)
8 (a 2)
l/3
= 0
(a 2)
2/3
=
2 (a 7)
8 (a 2)
l/3
Mulliplying Lolh sioos Ly 8 (a 2)
l/3
yiolos
8 (a 2)
l/3
(a 2)
2/3
= 2a 14
Aooing oxpononls ano oxpanoing lhus yiolos
8 (a 2) = 2a 14
8a 6 = 2a 14
a = 20
a = 4
1hus, lho ciilical poinls of ) (a) aio a = 2 ano a = 4.
Howovoi, a = 4 is not in lho inloival [0, 8[ , so wo ignoio il. 1ho Whon lno-
ing aLsolulo
oxlioma ovoi
[a, /[ , uso only
lho ciilical
poinls in [a, /[ .
giaph of ) (a) ovoi [0, 8[ is shown Lolow:
x
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
8-7
Cloaily, ) (a) = (a 7) (a 2)
2/3
allains ils aLsolulo maximum al
a = 2, ano allains ils aLsolulo minimum al a = 0.
1ho oxliomo valuo lhooiom is ialhoi amazing, sinco il applios ovon lo fiaclal
inloipolalion funclions liko lho ono on pago 70! Howovoi, Locauso il applios lo
such funclions, lho oxliomo valuo lhooiom cannol Lo piovon unlil a laloi couiso.
1hj J.J & .jn: h :..n| .n a = 4 Chock youi Ioaoing
AIIcatIons to Hevenue
Finoing oxlioma is a common lask in many applicalions. Foi oxamplo, in Lusinoss
applicalions wo aio oflon givon lho iolalionship Lolwoon lho piico j of a piooucl
ano lho oomano a foi lhal piooucl, ano wo aio askoo lo lno lho piico ano oomano
which loao lo a nnr.n&n :n&. 1o oo so, wo uso lho facl lhal
Iovonuo = Iiico NumLoi Solo
IXAMIII 0 Supposo Acmo Aiilinos chaigos a $800 Laso piico foi a
soal on an aiiplano, ano supposo lhoy aoo $2 foi oach unsolo soal on
lhal aiiplano. Doloimino how many soals shoulo Lo solo on a 200 soal
aiiplano in oiooi lo maximizo iovonuo.
SoIutIon: If j oonolos lho piico poi soal, lhon
j = 800 2 lho numLoi of unsolo soals"
If wo lol a oonolo lho numLoi of soals which havo Loon solo, lhon lho
numLoi of unsolo soals is 200 a ano lhus j Locomos
j = 800 2 (200 a) = 700 2a
If 1 oonolos lho iovonuo fiom lho salo of soals, lhon
1 = ja = (700 2a) a = 700a 2a
2
Sinco lhoio aio only 200 soals on lho aiiplano, wo musl lno lho aLsolulo
maximum of 1(a) = 700a2a
2
ovoi [0, 200[ . Sinco 1
t
(a) = 7004a,
lho ciilical poinl(s) aio
700 4a = 0, a =
700
4
= 17
1ho giaph of 1(a) = 700a 2a
2
ovoi [0, 200[ is shown Lolow:
x
200 150 100 50 0
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
8-8
Cloaily, lho aLsolulo maximum occuis al a = 17 soals.
Lxoicisos:
CraLer: 1.nJ h :..n| .n J h J||&.nj J&n.n, nnJ hn j:nh h
J&n.n J:n.n h r:n&n, .J nnj, hn &: n nh :..n| .n.
1. ) (a) = a
2
2. ) (a) = a
d
8. ) (a) = a
3
4. ) (a) = a
5
. ) (a) = a
2/3
6. ) (a) = a
3/5
7. ) (a) = 2a a
2
8. )(a) = 2a
2
a 8
0. ) (a) = a
3
8a 10. ) (a) = a
3
8a
2
2
11. )(a) = 2a
3
a
2
a 1 12. ) (a) = 8a
3
2a
2
a
18. )(a) = aa
2
/a c, a 0 14. ) (a) = aa
2
/a c, a < 0
1. )(a) = a
2

a
16. )(a) =
1
a
2
2a 2
1.nJ h :..n| .n J ) (a) nnJ hn J:n.n h nh|& r:nn J h
n.n&& J&n.n ) (a) : h j.n .n:n|.
17. ) (a) = a
2
4a ovoi [0, 4[ 18. ) (a) = a
2
8a ovoi [2, 2[
10. ) (a) = 8a 2 ovoi [1, [ 20. ) (a) = 2a 1 ovoi [1, 1[
21. ) (a) = a
3
8a
2
ovoi [1, 1[ 22. ) (a) = a
d
8a
2
ovoi [1, 1[
28. )(a) = a
d
2a
2
ovoi [0, 8[ 24. ) (a) = a
d
8a
3
18a
2
ovoi [2, 2[
2. ) (a) = cos
_
a
2
_
ovoi [0, [ 26. ) (a) = cos
2
(a) ovoi [0, [
27. ) (a) = asin(a) ovoi [1, 1[ 28. ) (a) = sin
2
(a) ovoi [1, 8[
20. ) (a) = (a 8)
2/3
ovoi [0, 4[ 80. ) (a) =
_
a
2
2a 1
_
l/3
ovoi [2, 2[
81. ) (a) = a(a 1)
2/3
ovoi [0, [ 82. ) (a) = a
l/5
(a 1)
2/3
ovoi [2, 2[
88. ) (a) = a
d/3
2a
2/3
ovoi [0, 4[ 84. ) (a) =
_
a
l/3
1
_
2
ovoi [2, 0[
35. Supposo Acmo aiilinos chaigos $480 plus $8 foi ovoiy unsolo soal. On a 200
hunoioo soal aiiplano, how many soals shoulo Lo solo in oiooi lo maximizo
iovonuo
36. Supposo Acmo aiilinos chaigos $20 plus $2 foi ovoiy unsolo soal. On a 200
hunoioo soal aiiplano, how many soals shoulo Lo solo in oiooi lo maximizo
iovonuo
37. On lho inloival [0, 1[,lho funclion )(a) = a is laigoi lhan p(a) = a
2
. Al
which valuo of a in lho inloival [0, 1[ is ) (a) p (a) lho gioalosl Whal is
) (a) p (a) foi lhis a-valuo
38. On lho inloival [0, 1[, lho funclion )(a) = a
is laigoi lhan p(a) = a

l
whon
j 0. Al which valuo of a in lho inloival [0, 1[ is ) (a) p (a) lho gioalosl
Whal is ) (a) p (a) foi lhis a-valuo
39. Lolly slails a summoi oaycaio piogiam foi lisl lhiough lhiio giaoois in
hoi homo. Sho oniolls 1 sluoonls inilially, ano lho oniollmonl incioasos
Ly aLoul chiloion poi wook foi lho lisl fow wooks. Fiom oxpoiionco, sho
knows lhal lho oniollmonl will poak ano lhon lapoi lo 0 Ly lho ono of lho 12
wook summoi sossion (whon lho kios ioluin lo school). 1hus, hoi oniollmonl
) (a) as a funclion of lho numLoi of wooks a sinco sho Logan lho oaycaio
can Lo moooloo Ly lho funclion
) (a) = 1 a
2
48
a
2
Uso ) (a) lo answoi lho following quoslions.
(a) Show lhal ) (0) = 1. How ooos lhis iolalo lo Lolly`s oaycaio
(L) Show lhal )
t
(0) = . How ooos lhis iolalo lo Lolly`s oaycaio
(c) Fino lho aLsolulo oxlioma of ) (a) ovoi [0, 12[ . Why ooos lho aL-
solulo minimum occui al a = 12
(o) If Lolly has spaco foi 80 chiloion in hoi homo, will sho havo lo
luin any chiloion away 1hal is, will lho piooicloo maximum
oniollmonl oxcooo 80 sluoonls
40. 1ho noxl summoi, Lolly oniolls 18 chiloion inilially ano oniollmonl incioasos
Ly aLoul 7 chiloion poi wook lo Login wilh. 1his loaos lo an oniollmonl
funclion of
) (a) = 18 7a
07
144
a
2
Uso ) (a) lo answoi lho following quoslions.
(a) Show lhal ) (0) = 18. How ooos lhis iolalo lo Lolly`s oaycaio
(L) Show lhal )
t
(0) = 7. How ooos lhis iolalo lo Lolly`s oaycaio
(c) Fino lho aLsolulo oxlioma of ) (a) ovoi [0, 12[ . Why ooos lho aL-
solulo minimum occui al a = 12
(o) If Lolly has spaco foi 80 chiloion in hoi homo, will sho havo lo
luin any chiloion away 1hal is, will lho piooicloo maximum
oniollmonl oxcooo 80 sluoonls
41. In lhis oxoiciso, wo show lhal giaphs shoulo Lo usoo only afloi lho ciilical Giaphs shoulo
Lo usoo only
afloi lho ciilical
poinls havo Loon
ooloiminoo.
poinls havo Loon ooloiminoo.
(a) Giaph ) (a) = a
3
11a
2
16a ovoi [, [ . Doos il appoai lo havo
any oxlioma
(L) Zoom conloioo on lho maximum in (a) unlil you can oslimalo lho
a-cooioinalo of lho maximum lo foui oocimal placos. How many
zooms woio ioquiioo
(c) Fino lho ciilical poinl(s) of ) (a) = a
3
11a
2
16a Ly solving
)
t
(a) = 0.
(o) Giaph ) (a) ovoi an inloival conlaining n|| of lho ciilical poinls,
ano lhon uso lhal giaph lo oxplain why giaphs alono aio nol sum-
cionl foi ioonlifying lho oxlioma of a funclion.
42. Giaph ) (a) = a
3
8a
2
0a1 ovoi [2, 2[ , ano lhon lno ils ciilical poinls.
Aio all of lho ciilical poinls in [2, 2[ Is lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi [2, 2[ an
accuialo oopiclion of lho funclion Lxplain.
43. Giaph ) (a) = a
6
81a
d
a
2
81 ovoi [, [ , ano lhon lno ils ciilical
poinls. Aio all of lho ciilical poinls in [, [ Is lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi
[, [ an accuialo oopiclion of lho funclion Lxplain.
44. Show lhal if ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo al a = j ano if ) (a) has a minimum al
a = j, lhon )
t
(j) = 0.
3.4 MonoLoniciLy
AonotonIcIty
In lho lasl soclion, wo ioonliloo oxlioma Ly lnoing ciilical poinls ano lhon oLsoiv-
ing lho giaph of a funclion. In lhis soclion, wo inlioouco lochniquos foi oLlaining
infoimalion aLoul lho giaph of a funclion fiom ils ooiivalivos. Wo Login lhis
piocoss wilh lho following oolnilion.
DehnItIon 4.1 If ) (a) < ) (/) whonovoi a < / in (j, ) , lhon ) (a)
is saio lo Lo .n:n.nj on (j, ) . If ) (a) ) (/) whonovoi a < / in
MONOTONlClTY 217
(j, ) , lhon ) (a) is saio lo Lo J:n.nj on (j, ) .
4-1: Incioasing ano Docioasing Funclions
Whon a funclion is incioasing on (j, ) , lhon ils langonl linos ovoi (j, ) havo
posilivo slopos, ano lhus, )
t
(a) 0 foi all a in (j, ) .
4-2: Incioasing funclions havo langonl linos wilh posilivo slopos
Convoisoly, supposo lhal )
t
(a) 0 on (j, ) ano lhal a < / in (j, ) . 1hon
/ a 0 ano )
t
(c) 0 foi all c in [a, /[. As a iosull, lho Moan Valuo lhooiom
says lhal
) (/) ) (a) = )
t
(c) (/ a) 0
which implios lhal ) (/) ) (a). 1hus, if a < / in (j, ) , lhon ) (a) < ) (/) in
(j, ) , so lhal ) (a) is incioasing on (j, ) .
FIrst DerIvatIve Test: If )
t
(a) 0 foi all a in (j, ) , lhon ) (a) is
incioasing ovoi (j, ) . Likowiso, if )
t
(a) < 0 foi all a in (j, ) , lhon
) (a) is oocioasing ovoi (j, ) .
Wo say lhal ) (a) is nnn on (j, ) if )
t
(a) ooos nol chango signs ovoi (j, ) .
1o uso lho lisl ooiivalivo losl, wo lisl ooloimino lho inloivals of monolonicily
Ly lnoing all lho poinls whoio )
t
(a) can chango signs ano lhon losling lho sign
of )
t
(a) Lolwoon lhoso poinls. Wo will lhon soo lhal a funclion incioasos lo a
maximum ano lhon oocioasos immooialoly lhoioafloi, ano likowiso, oocioasos lo a
minimum ano lhon incioasos immooialoly afloiwaio.
4-8: Monolonicily ano Lxlioma
Howovoi, lhoio nooo nol Lo an oxliomum al oach ciilical poinl, as is shown al c
3
in lguio 6-2.
IXAMIII 1 Doloimino lho inloivals of monolonicily ano ioonlify
lho oxlioma of
) (a) = a
3
8a
SoIutIon: 1ho poinls whoio )
t
(a) can chango signs aio lho ciilical
poinls, which aio solulions lo )
t
(a) = 0. Sinco )
t
(a) = 8a
2
8, wo
havo
8a
2
8 = 0
8
_
a
2
1
_
= 0
8 (a 1) (a 1) = 0
As a iosull, )
t
(a) = 0 if a = 1, 1. Sinco )
t
(a) is conlinuous foi all a,
wo nooo only chock a singlo poinl in lho inloivals (, 1) , (1, 1)
ano (1, ), iospoclivoly, in oiooi lo ooloimino lho sign of )
t
on lhoso
inloivals. Sinco a = 2 is in (, 1) , lho calculalion
)
t
(2) = 8 (2)
2
8 = 0 0
implios lhal )
t
(a) 0 foi a in (, 1) ano lhus, lhal ) (a) is in-
cioasing on lho inloival (, 1) . Moioovoi,
)
t
(0) = 8 < 0
implios lhal )
t
(a) < 0 foi a in (1, 1) ano lhus, lhal ) (a) is oocioasing
on lho inloival (1, 1) . Sinco a = 2 is in (1, ) , lho calculalion
)
t
(2) =
4 1
4 1
=
8
0
implios lhal )
t
(a) 0 foi a in (1, ) ano lhus, lhal ) (a) is incioas-
ing on lho inloival (1, ) . Il follows lhal ) (a) musl havo a iolalivo
maximum al a = 1 ano a iolalivo minimum al a = 1.
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
4-4: Iolalivo oxlioma al a = 1 ano a = 1
: h r:nn .n ]j&: - n| nh|& r:nn 1r|n.n. Chock youi Ioaoing
YertIcaI Asyntotes, Cuss, and YertIcaI Tangents
1ho ooiivalivo may chango signs al poinls of oisconlinuily ano poinls of non-
oiloionliaLilily, ovon lhough such poinls may nol coiiospono lo oxlioma.
MONOTONlClTY 210
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho inloivals of monolonicily ano lho oxlioma of
) (a) =
4a
2
(a 2)
2
SoIutIon: 1ho quolionl iulo yiolos a lisl ooiivalivo of
)
t
(a) =
16a
(a 2)
3
1ho numoialoi is 0 whon a = 0, ano lho oonominaloi is 0 whon a = 2.
Sinco a = 0, 2 aio lho only poinls whoio lho ooiivalivo can chango sign,
)
t
(a) is conlinuous ano singlo-signoo on oach of lho inloivals (, 0) ,
(0, 2) , ano (2, ). 1osling in lhoso inloivals yiolos
)
t
(1) =
l6
27
< 0 == ) (a) on (, 0)
)
t
(1) = 16 0 == ) (a) on (0, 2)
)
t
(8) = 48 < 0 == ) (a) on (2, )
Sinco a = 0 is a ciilical poinl of ), lho laLlo aLovo implios lhal ) has
a iolalivo minimum al a = 0. Howovoi, a = 2 is not a ciilical poinl of
) sinco a = 2 is a :.n| njn of ). 1hus, lhoio is no oxliomum
al a = 2.
x
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
4-: Voilical asymplolo al a = 2
Howovoi, oxlioma can occui al poinls of non-oiloionliaLilily, as is shown in lho
noxl oxamplo.
IXAMIII J Fino lho oxlioma, lho inloclion poinls, ano lho inloi-
vals of monolonicily ano concavily of
) (a) = a
l/3
(a 8)
2/3
)
t
(a) =
1
8
a
2/3
(a 8)
2/3
2
8
a
l/3
(a 8)
l/3
which simplilos lo
)
t
(a) =
a 1
a
2/3
(a 8)
l/3
1ho numoialoi is 0 whon a = 1, ano lho oonominaloi is 0 whon a =
0, 8. 1hus, wo musl losl foi lho sign of )
t
(a) on (, 0) , (0, 1) , (1, 8) ,
ano (8, ) .
)
t
(1) = 2 0 == ) (a) on (, 0)
)
t
(0.) = 1.474 < 0 == ) (a) on (0, 1)
)
t
(2) = 0.2 < 0 == ) (a) on (1, 8)
)
t
(4) = 1. 10 0 == ) (a) on (8, )
Sinco ) is oolnoo ano conlinuous al a = 1 ano a = 8, lho funclion )
has a iolalivo maximum al a = 1 ano a iolalivo minimum al a = 8.
x
5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
4-6: Giaph of

_
a(a 8)
2
1hn n: h .n J nn-J.]:n.nh.|.j .n ]j&: - Chock youi Ioaoing
SInIe Curve SketcLIng
1hoio aio funclions whoso giaphs cannol Lo piooucoo wilh a giaphoi. Foilunaloly,
lho oxlioma ano inloivals of monolonicily can Lo usoo lo pioouco a ciuoo skolch
of a funclion ovon whon giaphois fail.
Slalionaiy poinls coiiospono lo hoiizonlal langonls. Similaily, poinls of non-
oiloionliaLilily may coiiospono lo cusps oi voilical langonls (allhough lhoy may
also coiiospono lo oisconlinuilios). Inloivals of monolonicily lhon loao lo a gamo
of connocl lho ools" in which langoncy ano olhoi foaluios of lho giaph aio pio-
soivoo.
IXAMIII ! Skolch lho giaph of ) (a) = a
9
0a
5
.
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = 4a
S
4a
d
, lho ciilical poinls salisfy
4a
S
4a
d
= 0
4a
d
_
a
d
1
_
= 0
Sinco a
d
= 0 whon a = 0 ano a
d
1 = 0 whon a = 1, lho slalionaiy
poinls aio al 1, 0, 1. 1hus, wo musl losl foi lho sign of )
t
(a) on
(, 1) , (1, 0) , (0, 1) , ano (1, ) .
)
t
(2) = 10, 800 0 == ) (a) on (, 1)
)
t
(0.) = 2.68 < 0 == ) (a) on (1, 0)
)
t
(0.) = 2. 68 < 0 == ) (a) on (0, 1)
)
t
(2) = 10, 800 0 == ) (a) on (1, )
Nolico now lhal ) (1) = 4, ) (0) = 0, ano ) (1) = 4. 1hus, wo placo
shoil hoiizonlal langonls al lho poinls (1, 4) , (0, 0) , ano (1, 4) .
MONOTONlClTY 221
1ho cuivo incioasos lo langoncy al (1, 4) , ano lhon oocioasos lo
langoncy al (0, 0) . 1o oo so, il musl havo al loasl an S" shapo Lolwoon
(1, 4) ano (0, 0) . Likowiso, in oocioasing lo (1, 4) , ano lhon lho
cuivo incioasos afloiwaios.
4-8: Ciuoo skolch of j = a
9
0a
5
If lhoio aio any hoiizonlal asymplolos, lhoy shoulo also Lo incluooo in lho skolch.
IXAMIII Skolch lho giaph of ) (a) = a
2
c
i
.
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = 2ac
i
a
2
c
i
, lho ciilical poinls salisfy
ac
i
(2 a) = 0
Sinco c
i
,= 0, lho ciilical poinls aio a = 0 ano a = 2. 1hus, wo musl
losl foi lho sign of )
t
(a) on (, 0) , (0, 2) , ano (2, ) .
)
t
(1) = 8c
l
< 0 == ) (a) on (, 0)
)
t
(1) = c
l
0 == ) (a) on (0, 2)
)
t
(8) = 8c
l
< 0 == ) (a) on (2, )
Sinco ) (0) = 0 ano ) (2) = 4c
l
, wo placo shoil hoiizonlal langonls
al (0, 0) ano
_
2, 4c
l
_
. In aooilion,
lim
io
a
2
c
i
= lim
io
a
2
c
i
= lim
io
2a
c
i
= lim
io
2
c
i
= 0
Howovoi, as a appioachos , lho oxpononlial c
i
appioachos ,
so lhal lhoio is lho hoiizonlal asymplolo of j = 0 applios only as a
appioachos .
1ho giaph oocioasos lo (0, 0) . 1hon lo piosoivo langoncy, il incioasos
in an S" shapo lo
_
2, 4c
l
_
. Finally, il oocioasos lo lho hoiizonlal
asymplolo as a appioachos .
4-10: Ciuoo Skolch of j = a
2
c
i
1hn J h j:nh J ) (a) = a
9
0a
5
: [2, 2[ || |.| n n j:nh: Chock youi Ioaoing
AonotonIcIty CIven tLe CraL oI )
t
(a)
Monolonicily can also Lo ascoilainoo fiom lho giaph of lho ooiivalivo )
t
(a) of a
funclion ) (a) . In pailiculai, whon lho giaph of )
t
(a) is aLovo lho a-axis, lhon
)
t
(a) 0 ano lho funclion ilsolf is incioasing. Whon lho giaph of )
t
(a) is Lolow
lho a-axis, lhon )
t
(a) < 0 ano ) is oocioasing.
4-11: Giaph of )
t
(a)
In aooilion, slalionaiy poinls of ) (a) aio zoioos of )
t
(a).
IXAMIII 0 Skolch lho giaph of ) (a) givon lho giaph of )
t
(a)
shown in lguio 4-12.
x
3 2 1 0 -1
3
2
1
0
-1
4-12: Giaph of )
t
(a)
SoIutIon: 1ho giaph of )
t
(a) ciossos lho a-axis al a = 0, 2, which
implios lhal a = 0, 2 aio slalionaiy poinls of ) (a) . Moioovoi, lho
giaph is nh lho a-axis foi a in (, 0) ano (2, ) , lhus implying
lhal ) (a) is incioasing on (, 0) ano (2, ) . Likowiso, )
t
(a) < 0 on
(0, 2) implios lhal ) (a) is oocioasing on (0, 2) .
MONOTONlClTY 228
Allhough wo oon`l know lho j-valuos of lho slalionaiy poinls, wo
can placo shoil hoiizonlal langonls lo holp ooloimino lho giaph.
Connocling lhoso poinls lhon piovioos somo inoicalion of whal lho
giaph of lho funclion ) (a) mighl look liko.
4-14: Ciuoo Skolch of j = ) (a)
IXAMIII 7 Skolch lho giaph of ) (a) givon lho giaph of )
t
(a)
shown in lguio 4-1.
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
4-1: Giaph of )
t
(a)
SoIutIon: Nolico lhal lho giaph of )
t
(a) is complololy aLovo lho a-
axis. 1hus, )
t
(a) 0 foi all a ano ) (a) is always incioasing wilh no
hoiizonlal langonls oi oxlioma of any kino. 1hus, lho giaph of ) (a)
is simply a cuivo which is always incioasing
4-16: Funclion is incioasing ovoiywhoio
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h .n:n| J nnn..j nnJ h r:nn J h J||&.nj J&n.n.
`n| n :&J |h J h j:nh &.nj nnn..j nnJ r:nn. 1:.Jj j&:
:&| hj nn:.nj n j:nh J h J&n.n :J&J &.h n j:nh:.
1. ) (a) = a
2
2a 2. ) (a) = a
2
4a 2
8. ) (a) = a
3
8a
2
4. ) (a) = a
d
2a
2
. ) (a) = 2a 1 6. ) (a) = 4 7a
7. ) (a) = a
d
4a
2
4 8. ) (a) = a
7
7a
5
0. ) (a) = 8a
5
a
3
10. ) (a) = 2a
5
a
2
11. ) (a) = a(a 8)
3
12. ) (a) = a
5
(a )
2
18. ) (a) =
a
3
a
2
1
14. ) (a) =
a
d
a
2
1
1. ) (a) = (a 2)
l/3
16. ) (a) = (a 1)
2/3
17. ) (a) = a
d/3
2a
2/3
18. ) (a) = a
d/3
4a
l/3
10. ) (a) = ac
i
20. ) (a) = ac
3i
21. ) (a) = c
i
/2
22. ) (a) = a c
i
28. ) (a) = ln
_
a
2
1
_
24. ) (a) = a ln(a)
1:n.n h .n:n| J nnn..j nnJ h |n.n J h r:nn J h
J&n.n ) (a) j.n h j:nh J . J:.n. )
t
(a) .
2. Giaph of )
t
(a) :
x
3 2 1 0 -1
2
1
0
-1
-2
26. Giaph of )
t
(a) :
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
3
2
1
0
-1
27. Giaph of )
t
(a) :
x
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
4
2
0
-2
-4
28. Giaph of )
t
(a) :
x
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
4
2
0
-2
-4
20. Giaph of )
t
(a) :
t
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
80. Giaph of )
t
(a) :
t
2 1 0 -1 -2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
MONOTONlClTY 22
31. Supposo an oLjocl in fioo fall has a hoighl al limo t of r (t) , ano supposo
lhal ils volocily funclion ovoi [0, 4[ is as in lguio 4-17.
t
4 3 2 1 0
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
4-17: Giaph of (t)
(a) Fino lho inloivals of monolonicily ano oxlioma of r (t) .
(L) Skolch lho giaph of r (t) . Whon ooos il allain ils maximumhoighl
(c) If (t) is linoai, lhon whal ooos lho accoloialion a (t) look liko
32. Supposo an oLjocl in fioo fall has a hoighl al limo t of r (t) , ano supposo
lhal ils volocily funclion ovoi [0, 4[ is as in lguio 4-18.
t
4 3 2 1 0
40
20
0
-20
-40
4-18: Giaph of (t)
(a) Fino lho inloivals of monolonicily ano oxlioma foi t in [0, 4[ .
(L) Skolch lho giaph of r (t) . Whon ooos il allain ils maximumhoighl
(c) Whal ooos lho accoloialion a (t) look liko
33. Fino lho inloivals of monolonicily ano oxlioma of lho funclion ) (a) = a
i
foi a _ 0. Whal is signilcanl aLoul lho oxlioma of )
34. If : 2 is a posilivo inlogoi, lhon how many maxima ooos lho funclion
) (a) = a
n
c
i
havo How many minima
35. VrIte to Learn: Supposo an oLjocl liavoling along a lino has a posilion of
r (t) on lho lino al limo t ano supposo ils volocily funclion is as shown in
lguio 4-10,
t
5 4 3 2 1 0
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
4-10: Giaph of volocily (t)
Wiilo a shoil ossay oosciiLing ils molion Lolwoon limo t = 0 ano t = , ano
oxplain how you aiiivoo al lhal oosciiplion.
36. VrIte to Learn: Supposo an oLjocl liavoling along a lino has a posilion of
r (t) on lho lino al limo t ano supposo ils volocily funclion is as shown in
lguio 4-20,
t
5 4 3 2 1 0
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
4-20: Giaph of volocily (t)
Wiilo a shoil ossay oosciiLing ils molion Lolwoon limo t = 0 ano t = , ano
oxplain how you aiiivoo al lhal oosciiplion.
37. Uso monolonicily ano oxlioma lo skolch lho giaph of j (a) = aa
2
/a c
wilh a, /, c posilivo.
38. Uso monolonicily ano oxlioma lo skolch lho giaph of j (a) = aa
2
/a c
wilh a, /, c posilivo.
39. Uso monolonicily ano oxlioma lo skolch lho giaph of j (a) = a
3
aa wilh
a posilivo.
40. Uso monolonicily ano oxlioma lo skolch lho giaph of j (a) = a
3
aa wilh a
posilivo.
3.5 ConcaviLy
ConcavIty and InectIon IoInts
1ho uso of monolonicily lo ioonlify oxlioma ioquiios lhal all inloivals of monolonic-
ily Lo ioonliloo. Howovoi, lho poinls whoio a ooiivalivo changos sign may Lo
oimcull lo calculalo oi ovon lo oslimalo. 1hus, in lhis soclion, wo inlioouco a
molhoo foi ioonlifying oxlioma known as lho nJ J:.n. lhal usos lho
socono ooiivalivo n lho ciilical poinl insloao.
If lho giaph of a funclion ) (a) is nh ils langonl linos ovoi (a, /) , lhon wo
say lhal ) (a) is nn & ovoi (a, /) . Similaily, if lho giaph of ) (a) is h|& ils
langonl linos ovoi (a, /) , lhon wo say lhal ) (a) is nn J&n ovoi (a, /) .
-1: Concavily
CONCAVlTY 227
Supposo now lhal )
tt
(a) 0 on (j, ) ano lol a ano / Lo in (j, ) such lhal a < /.
1ho Moan Valuo lhooiom says lhal lhoio is a numLoi c in (a, /) such lhal
) (/) ) (a)
/ a
= )
t
(c)
Howovoi, )
tt
(a) 0 on (j, ) implios lhal )
t
(a) is incioasing on (j, ) . 1hus,
)
t
(c) )
t
(a) ano
) (/) ) (a)
/ a
)
t
(a)
1hus, lho lino lhiough (a, ) (a)) wilh slopo
}(b)}(o)
bo
is nh lho langonl lino
j = 1
o
(a), which is lho lino lhiough (a, ) (a)) wilh slopo )
t
(a) .
-2: 1angonl lino is Lolow lho socanl lino
(8.22)
Il follows lhal ) (/) 1
o
(/) foi all a < / in (j, ) , which is lo say lhal lho giaph
of ) (a) is aLovo ils langonl linos foi all a in (j, ) .
TLeoren 5.1: If )
tt
(a) 0 on (j, ) , lhon ) (a) is concavo up ovoi
(j, ) , ano if )
tt
(a) < 0 on (j, ) , lhon ) (a) is concavo oown ovoi
(j, ) .
In aooilion, an .n.n .n is a poinl on lho giaph of a funclion whoio lhoio
is a chango in concavily:
-8: Inloclions poinls
An inloclion poinl musl Lo in do:()) . 1hus, a voilical asymplolo cannol Lo an
inloclion poinl.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho inloivals of concavily ano lho inloclion poinls
of
) (a) = a
3
8a
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = 8a
2
8, lho socono ooiivalivo is )
tt
(a) = 6a.
Sinco )
tt
(a) can only chango signs al a = 0, wo losl )
tt
(a) al poinls
on oilhoi sioo of 0:
)
tt
(1) = 6 < 0 == ) (a) is concavo oown on (, 0)
)
tt
(1) = 6 0 == ) (a) is concavo up on (0, )
Moioovoi, sinco )
tt
(a) changos signs al a = 0, an inloclion poinl musl
occui al a = 0.
Wo oflon uso Cl ano C1 lo oonolo concavo up ano concavo oown, iospoclivoly.
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho inloivals of concavily ano lho inloclion poinls
of
) (a) = ac
i
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = c
i
ac
i
, lho socono ooiivalivo is
)
tt
(a) = c
i
c
i
ac
i
= (a 2) c
i
1hus, wo losl foi lho sign of )
tt
(a) on (, 2) ano (2, ) :
)
tt
(0) = (0 2) c
0
= 2 < 0 == ) (a) C1 on (, 2)
)
tt
(8) = (8 2) c
3
= c
3
0 == ) (a) Cl on (2, )
As a iosull, lho inloclion poinl is al a = 2.
x
5 4 3 2 1 0 -1
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-4: Giaph of ) (a) = ac
i
1 . .h| J: )
tt
(j) = 0 nnJ j n h nn .n.n .n J ) Chock youi Ioaoing
Extrena and ConcavIty
Lol us oLsoivo lhal if ) (a) is socono oiloionliaLlo al a = j ano if ) (a) has
a iolalivo maximum al a = j, lhon )
t
(j) = 0 ano lho giaph of ) (a) musl Lo
concavo oown in lho vicinily of j.
-: Concavily can Lo usoo lo ioonlify oxlioma
Likowiso, if ) (a) has a iolalivo minimum al a = j, lhon )
t
(j) = 0 ano lho giaph
of ) (a) is concavo up in lho vicinily of a = j. 1ho convoisos of lhoso slalomonls
aio also liuo, as is givon Ly lho following lhooiom.
CONCAVlTY 220
TLe Second DerIvatIve Test: If )
t
(j) = 0 ano )
tt
(j) < 0, lhon
) (a) has a maximum al a = j. If )
t
() = 0 ano )
tt
() 0, lhon ) (a)
has a minimum al a = .
Unfoilunaloly, if )
t
() = )
tt
() = 0, lhon lho socono ooiivalivo losl piovioos no
infoimalion ano anolhoi molhoo musl Lo usoo.
IXAMIII J Uso lho socono ooiivalivo losl lo ioonlify lho oxlioma
of ) (a) = a
3
8a
2
.
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = 8a
2
6a, solling )
t
(a) = 0 yiolos
8a
2
6a = 0, 8a(a 2) = 0
1hus, lho slalionaiy poinls aio a = 0 ano 2. Moioovoi, lho socono
ooiivalivo is )
tt
(a) = 6a 6, so lhal lho socono ooiivalivo losl yiolos
)
tt
(0) = 6 0 6 = 6 < 0 == ) (a) has a maximum al a = 0
)
tt
(2) = 6 2 6 = 6 0 == ) (a) has a minimum al a = 0
1hoso iosulls aio conlimoo Ly lho giaph of ) (a) = a
3
8a
2
Lolow:
x
3 2 1 0 -1 -2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-6
IXAMIII ! Ioonlify lho oxlioma of ) (a) = ac
2i
.
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = c
2i
2ac
2i
, lho slalionaiy poinls salisfy
c
2i
(1 2a) = 0
Sinco c
2i
0 foi all a, lho slalionaiy poinl is lho solulion lo
1 2a = 0
which is a = 12. In aooilion, )
tt
(a) = 4c
2i
4ac
2i
ano )
tt
_
l
2
_
=
4c
l
2c
l
= 0.74 0. 1hus, ) (a) = ac
2i
has a minimum al a =
12.
If j is a slalionaiy poinl of ) (a) ano if )
tt
(j) = 0, lhon lho socono ooiivalivo losl
piovioos no infoimalion. 1his is Locauso lhoio may Lo a maximum, a minimum,
oi an inloclion poinl al j. Foi oxaamplo, if ) (a) = a
3
, lhon )
tt
(0) = 0 ano lhoio
is a poinl of inloclion al a = 0, Lul if p (a) = a
d
, lhon p
tt
(0) = 0 ano lhoio is a
minimum al a = 0.
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-7a: Giaph of ) (a) = a
3
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-7L: Giaph of p (a) = a
d
IXAMIII Fino lho oxlioma of
) (t) = 8 cos
_
t
3
_
SoIutIon: Using lho chain iulo, il can Lo shown lhal
)
t
(t) = 8 sin
_
t
3
_
d
dt
t
3
= 0t
2
sin
_
t
3
_
Ciilical poinls occui whon sin
_
t
3
_
= 0, so lho ciilical poinls aio
t
3
= 0, , 2, . . . or t = 0,

_
,

_
2, . . .
1ho socono ooiivalivo Logins wilh lho piooucl iulo,
)
tt
(t) =
d
dt
_
0t
2
sin
_
t
3
__
=
_
d
dt
0t
2
_
sin
_
t
3
_
0t
2
d
dt
sin
_
t
3
_
afloi which wo apply lho chain iulo:
)
tt
(t) = 18t sin
_
t
3
_
0t
2
cos
_
t
3
_
d
dt
t
3
= 18t sin
_
t
3
_
27t
d
cos
_
t
3
_
Al lho slalionaiy poinl t =

_
wo havo
)
tt
_

_
_
= 18

_
sin() 27
_

_
_
d
cos () = 27
_

_
_
d
0
1hus, lhoio is a iolalivo minimum al t =

_
. Likowiso, il is oasy lo
show lhal
)
tt
_

_
2
_
< 0, )
tt
_

_
8
_
0, . . .
so lhoio is a maximum al t =

_
2, a minimum al

_
8 < 0, ano so
on.
Al lho ciilical poinl t = 0, wo havo )
tt
(0) = 0 ano lhus, lho socono
ooiivalivo losl yiolos no infoimalion aLoul ) (t) al t = 0. Howovoi, lho
CONCAVlTY 281
giaph of ) (t) = cos
_
t
3
_
has a maximum, ano nol an inloclion poinl,
al t = 0.
t
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-8: )
tt
(0) = 0 al a maximum
1h: .
9t
d
on lho a-axis in lguio -7 Chock youi Ioaoing
CraLs oI HarnonIc OscIIIatIons
Iocall lhal a hn:nn. .||n.n is a funclion of lho foim
j (t) = a cos (.t) / sin(.t) `
whoio a, /, ., ano ` aio conslanls. 1ho oxlioma of a haimonic oscillalion aio
ooloiminoo using lho socono ooiivalivo losl, which in luin oflon ioquiios lho uso
of lho following laLlo:
0 0
t
6
t
d
t
3
t
2
lan(0) 0
l
_
3
1
_
8 \
5-3: Iofoionco anglos foi lan(0)
In lho laLlo, \ slanos foi voilical asymplolo.
IXAMIII 0 TIdes: 1ho hoighl / in fool aLovo oi Lolow soa lovol
of lho ocoan noai Liiogopoil, Connoclicul, al limo t in houis sinco
mionighl on Sopl. 1, 1001, is appioximaloo Ly
/(t) = 8.8 8 cos
_
t
2
_
8
_
8 sin
_
t
2
_
How long afloi t = 0 ooos lho lisl high lioo occui
SoIutIon: Sinco /
t
(t) = 0 whon
3
2
sin
_
|
2
_

3
_
3
2
cos
_
|
2
_
= 0, lho
slalionaiy poinls aio lho solulion lo
8
2
sin
_
t
2
_
=
8
_
8
2
cos
_
t
2
_
sin(t2)
cos (t2)
=
8
_
82
82
lan
_
t
2
_
=
_
8
1hus, laLlo 6.8 implios lhal
|
2
=
t
3
:, whoio : is any inlogoi, ano
as a iosull, lho ciilical poinls aio of lho foim
t =
2
8
2:
1ho socono ooiivalivo is /
tt
(t) =
3
d
cos
_
|
2
_
3
_
3
d
sin
_
|
2
_
. 1ho lisl
posilivo ciilical poinl occuis whon : = 0, which yiolos t =
2t
3
ano
/
tt
_
2
8
_
=
8
4
cos
_
1
2
2
8
_
8
_
8
4
sin
_
1
2
2
8
_
= 1. < 0
1hus, /(t) has a maximum al t =
2t
3
= 2.0044, so lhal lho lisl high
lioo occuis al 2:06 a.m.
t
12 10 8 6 4 2 0
6
5
4
3
2
1
-0: High 1ioo lisl occuis al 2:06 a.m.
1ho oxlioma, lho ampliluoo, ano lho poiioo of an oscillalion can Lo usoo lo
consliucl ils giaph. In facl, poiiooicily can Lo usoo lo oxlono lho giaph of lho
oscillalion ovoi a singlo poiioo lo lho giaph of lho funclion on lho wholo lino.
IXAMIII 7 Doloimino lho ampliluoo, poiioo, oxlioma ano giaph
of lho funclion
j (t) = 2
_
8 cos (4t) 2 sin(4t)
SoIutIon: Sinco . = 4, lho poiioo is
T =
2
4
=
1
2
soc
Moioovoi, sinco a = 2
_
8 ano / = 2, lho ampliluoo is
n
=
_
2
2
8 2
2
=
_
16 = 4
Sinco j
t
(t) = 8
_
8 sin(4t)8 cos (4t) , lho ciilical poinls of j (t)
aio solulions lo lho following oqualion:
8
_
8 sin(4t) = 8 cos (4t)
_
8
sin(4t)
cos (4t)
= 1
lan(4t) =
1
_
8
CONCAVlTY 288
1aLlo 6.1 implios lhal
4t =

6
:
whoio : is an inlogoi. 1hus, lho oxlioma aio localoo al
t =
1
24

:
4
Sinco j
_
l
2d
_
= 4, lhoio is a maximum al t =
l
2d
, a minimum al t =
l
2d

l
d
, a maximum again al t =
l
2d

l
2
, ano so on.
-10: Lxlioma ano Ioiioo ooloiminos a haimonic oscillalion
5h& hn .J ) (a) = a
d
, hn )
tt
(0) = 0. 1hn j J r:n&n J ) (a) = a
d
Chock youi Ioaoing
hn n a = 0
Extrena tLat Cannot Le EasIIy YIsuaIIzed
1hoio aio funclions whoso oxlioma cannol Lo oasily visualizoo. Foi oxamplo, lho 1ho giaph of a
funclion may
havo foaluios
which cannol
Lo oLsoivoo
visually.
giaph of lho funclion ) (a) = 4a
2
cos (8a) appoais lo ioach a minimum whon
a = 0.
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
-11
Howovoi, lhis is nol lho caso. Zooming conloioo al lho oiigin iovoals lhal lhoio is
aclually a maximum al a = 0.
x
0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4
1.06
1.04
1.02
1
0.98
-12
Foilunaloly, lho socono ooiivalivo losl can Lo omployoo whon visualizalion ano
giaphing piovos lo Lo unioliaLlo.
IXAMIII 8 Givon ) (a) = 4a
2
cos (8a) , show lhal )
t
(0) = 0 ano
lhon ooloimino if ) (a) has a maximum oi a minimum whon a = 0.
SoIutIon: 1ho ooiivalivo of ) (a) = 4a
2
cos (8a) is
)
t
(a) =
d
da
_
4a
2
cos (8a)
= 8a sin(8a)
_
d
da
8a
_
= 8a 8 sin(8a)
ano if wo lol a = 0, lhon
)
t
(0) = 8 (0) 8 sin(0) = 0
lhus voiifying lhal ) (a) has a slalionaiy poinl al a = 0. Moioovoi,
lho socono ooiivalivo is
)
tt
(a) = 8 0 cos (8a)
ano al a = 0 wo havo
)
tt
(0) = 8 0 cos (0) = 8 0 = 1 < 0
1hus, lho socono ooiivalivo losl conlims lhal ) (a) = 4a
2
cos (8a)
has a nnr.n&n n a = 0.
Lvon zooming ooos nol guaianloo lhal all lho foaluios of a giaph will Lo iovoaloo.
Foi oxamplo, lho funclion
) (a) = a
3
0.01 cos (a)
ooos nol appoai lo havo any oxlioma, ano zooming ooos nol iovoal any now
infoimalion aLoul lho funclion.
x
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
x
0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1
0.0108
0.0106
0.0104
0.0102
0.01
0.0098
0.0096
0.0094
0.0092
0.009
-18: Zooming ooos nol iovoal any oxlioma
Lul lhoio is moio hoio lhan mools lho oyo!
IXAMIII 0 Show lhal a = 0 is a slalionaiy poinl of ) (a) = a
3
0.01 cos (a) ano lhon ooloimino if ) (a) has a maximum oi a minimum
al a = 0.
CONCAVlTY 28
SoIutIon: 1ho lisl ooiivalivo is
)
t
(a) = 8a
2
0.0 1 sin(a)
ano cloaily, )
t
(0) = 0. Sinco )
tt
(a) = 6a 0.01 cos (a) , wo havo
)
tt
(0) = 0.01
1hus, Ly lho socono ooiivalivo losl, lhoio is a maximum al a = 0, ovon
lhough zooming may novoi iovoal ils piosonco.
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h .n:n| J nn.j nnJ h .n.n .n J h J||&.nj J&n.n.
;A: `& J&nJ .n:n| J nnn..j J h J&n.n .n h :.& -
.n.)
1. ) (a) = a
2
2a 2. ) (a) = a
2
4a 2
8. ) (a) = a
3
8a
2
4. ) (a) = a
d
2a
2
. ) (a) = a
d
4a
2
4 6. ) (a) = a
7
7a
5
7. ) (a) = 8a
5
a
3
8. ) (a) = 2a
5
a
2
0. ) (a) = a(a 8)
3
10. ) (a) = a
5
(a )
2
1 h nJ J:.n. ]nJ h r:nn J nh J&n.n.
11. ) (a) = a
3
8a 1 12. ) (a) = a
d
4a
2
18. ) (a) = a(a 4)
3
14. ) (a) = a
2
(a 4)
3
1. ) (a) = ac
i
16. ) (a) = a
2
c
i
17. ) (a) = a ln(a) 18. ) (a) = aln(a)
10. ) (t) = sin
_
t
2
_
20. ) (t) = cos
_
_
t
_
21. ) (t) = sin
2
(t) 22. ) (t) = cos
2
(t)
28. ) (t) = t 2 cos (t) 24. ) (t) = t cos (t)
2. ) (a) = c
i
sin(a) 26. ) (a) = c
i
cos (a)
1: nh J h J||&.nj, h& hn )
t
(0) = 0. Jhn n& )
tt
(0) J:n.n
.J h J&n.n hn n nnr.n&n : n n.n.n&n &hn a = 0. G:nh ) (a) n [1, 1[ .
1 h j:nh :n| h r:n&n n a = 0
27. )(a) = 12a
2
cos(a) 28. )(a) = 24a
2
cos(7a)
20. ) (a) = c
i
a cos (1.01a) 80. ) (a) = c
i
a cos (0.00a)
81. )(a) = asin(a) 2.001 cos(a) 82. )(a) = asin(a) 1.000 cos(a)
88. ) (a) = sin
_
a
3
_
0.01 cos (a) 84. ) (a) = 4 sin
_
a
2
_
cos (8a)
1.nJ h :.J, J:j&nj, nnJ nn|.&J J h .||n.n. 1n h r:nn
nnJ & hn |h h j:nh J h .||n.n. h| j&: &:| hj nn:.nj
n | :J&J hj n j:nh:.
8. j (t) = sin(8t) 86. j (t) = cos (8t)
87. j (t) = cos (t) 88. j (t) = sin
_
2
t
_
80. j (t) =
_
2 cos
__
7 t
_
40. j (t) = 12 sin(
_
t)
41. j (t) = cos (t) sin(t) 42. j (t) = cos (t) sin(t)
48. j (t) = cos (8t) sin(8t) 44. j (t) =
_
8 cos (t)
_
8 sin(t)
4. j (t) =
_
8 cos (2t) sin(2t) 46. j (t) = 2 cos (t)
_
12 sin(t)
47. 1ho piico j poi pouno of giouno Loof al limo t in yoais sinco 1080 (ano up
lo 1008) is appioximaloly lho samo as lho funclion
j (t) = 1. 8 0.1 sin
_
2
0
t
_
Whal is lho poiioo of lho oscillalion Whon ooos lho piico of hamLuigoi
lisl ioach ils poak Whal is lho maximum piico of giouno Loof ouiing lhis
limo
8
48. Llmo`s ico cioam shop nolos lhal if j oonolos lho numLoi of cuslomois poi
wook al t wooks sinco lho Loginning of lho yoai, lhon
j (t) = 200 20 cos
_

26
t
_
20
_
8 sin
_

26
t
_
How fasl is lho numLoi of cuslomois poi wook incioasing afloi 18 wooks
Whon ooos Llmo havo lho mosl cuslomois Whal is lho maximum numLoi
of cuslomois ho can oxpocl
49. 1ho avoiago monlhly lompoialuios j in Donvoi, Coloiaoo al t monlhs afloi
lho Loginning of lho yoai can Lo closoly appioximaloo Ly lho funclion
j = 1.6 10.0
_
8 cos
_
6
t
_
10.0 sin
_
6
t
_
Which monlh is lho coloosl monlh of lho yoai Which is lho hollosl monlh
50. 1ho cuiionl lhiough a coilain 1C ciicuil is givon Ly
1 (t) = 2 cos (1800t) 2 sin(1800t) a:j-
Doloimino lho poiioo, ampliluoo, fioquoncy, ano oxlioma of lho oscillalion.
Skolch lho giaph of 1 (t) .
51. CraLer: If j oonolos lho limo lho sun iisos in Johnson Cily, 1N, on lho
oay which is t oays afloi lho Loginning of 1000, lhon
j (t) = 6. 4408 1.8008 cos
_
2
86
t
_
0.1808 sin
_
2
86
t
_
(a) Giaph j (t) on lho inloival [0, 86[ . Uso lho giaph lo oslimalo lho
iolalivo maximum ano iolalivo minimum of j (t) .
(L) Whal ooos lho moool piooicl will Lo lho oailiosl suniiso of lho
yoai in oasloin slanoaio limo, ano on which oay will il occui
Whal ooos lho moool piooicl will Lo lho lalosl suniiso of lho yoai,
ano which oay will il occui
(c) Giaph j
t
(t) on [0, 86[ . Whoio ooos il cioss lho t-axis How is
lhal iolaloo lo (a) ano (L)
52. CraLer: If j (t) oonolos lho numLoi of houis of oaylighl in Johnson Cily,
1N, on lho oay which is t oays afloi lho Loginning of 1000, lhon j (t) is
closoly appioximaloo Ly
j (t) = 12.2 2. 28 cos
_
2
86
t
_
0. 4086 sin
_
2
86
t
_
8
Lasoo on Luioau of LaLoi Slalislics oala ano on oxamplos fiom Slofan Wagnoi ano Slovon
I. CoslonoLlo of Hofslia Univoisily.
CONCAVlTY 287
(a) Giaph j (t) on lho inloival [0, 86[ . Uso lho giaph lo oslimalo lho
iolalivo maximum ano iolalivo minimum of j (t) .
(L) Whal ooos lho moool piooicl will Lo lho longosl oay of lho yoai
ano how long will il Lo Whal ooos lho moool piooicl will Lo lho
shoilosl oay of lho yoai ano how shoil will il Lo
(c) Giaph j
t
(t) on [0, 86[ . Whoio ooos il cioss lho t-axis How is
lhal iolaloo lo (a) ano (L)
53. Unooi whal conoilion ooos
)(a) = a
2
cos(.a)
havo a maximum al lho oiigin
54. VrIte to Learn: In a shoil ossay, oxplain why lho socono ooiivalivo yiolos
no infoimalion aLoul lho oxlioma of ) (t) = sin
2
_
t
2
_
whon t = 0. 1hon
oxplain why sin
2
_
t
2
_
musl havo a minimum al t = 0.
55. 1ho giaph of ) (a) = c
i
/2
is lho familiai Loll cuivo" of slalislics.
x
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-14
1ho nnJn:J J.n.n of ) (a) is lho oislanco fiomlho oiigin lo an inloclion
poinl of ) (a) . Whal is lho slanoaio oovialion of ) (a) = c
i
/2
56. If o 0 is a conslanl, lhon whal is lho slanoaio oovialion (soo oxoiciso )

of
) (a) = c
i
/(2c
)
3.6 OpLimizaLion
OtInIzatIon vItL ConstraInts
O.n..n.n :h|n aio applicalions in which lho oosiioo answoi is a maxi-
mum oi minimum of a funclion. Foi oxamplo, a Lusinossman mighl ask Whal
piico maximizos iovonuo" oi an ocologisl mighl ask How oo wo minimizo lho
impacl on lho onviionmonl" In lhis soclion, wo oxploio oplimizalion pioLloms
lo illuslialo how calculus is usoo lo answoi quoslions liko lhoso aLovo.
1ho lypical oplimizalion Logins wilh a singlo oulpul vaiiaLlo suLjocl lo ono oi
moio n:n.n, whoio a consliainl is an oqualion involving lwo oi moio inpul
vaiiaLlos. 1ho consliainls aio usoo lo ioouco lho oulpul vaiiaLlo lo a funclion
of only ono inpul vaiiaLlo, ano lhon lho nh|& r:nn of lhal funclion aio
ooloiminoo, allhough in somo applicalions iolalivo oxlioma aio sumcionl.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho lwo nonnogalivo numLois a ano j whoso sum
is 10 ano whoso piooucl is a maximum.
SoIutIon: 1ho consliainl is aj = 10. If wo lol 1 oonolo lho piooucl
of a ano j, lhon oui oplimizalion pioLlom is
àai:i.c 1 = aj -n/cct to a j = 10
Wo musl lisl wiilo 1 as a funclion of a .nj| inpul vaiiaLlo. Solving
foi j in lho consliainl yiolos
j = 10 a
SuLsliluling foi j iosulls in
1 (a) = a(10 a)
Sinco a ano j aio nonnogalivo, a is in [0, 10[ . 1hus, wo musl lno lho
aLsolulo maximum of 1 (a) ovoi [0, 10[ . 1o oo so, wo lisl ioonlify any
ciilical poinls in [0, 10[ . Solling 1
t
(a) = 10 2a oqual lo 0 yiolos
10 2a = 0
a =
1ho giaph of 1 (a) ovoi [0, 10[ implios an aLsolulo maximum al a = .
x
10 8 6 4 2 0
25
20
15
10
5
0
6-1: Maximum occuis al a =
Finally, sinco j = 10 a, lho valuo of j coiiosponoing lo a = is
j = 10 =
1hn . h nnr.n&n n|& J 1 .n rnn| 1 Chock youi Ioaoing
OtInIzatIon Vord IroLIens
Oulpul vaiiaLlos aio oflon calloo JnJn n:.nh|, ano lho inpul vaiiaLlos aio
oflon calloo .nJnJn n:.nh|. Whon lho oplimizalion pioLlom is piosonloo
as a woio pioLlom, lho ooponoonl vaiiaLlo is lho quanlily lo Lo oilhoi maximizoo
oi minimizoo. 1ho iomaining vaiiaLlos aio lypically inooponoonl vaiiaLlos lhal
aio usoo lo foim consliainls.
OPTlMlZATlON 280
IXAMIII 2 John wanls lo slail a konnol Ly Luiloing ioonlical
aojaconl ioclangulai iuns oul of 400 fool of foncing (soo lguio 6-2),
6-2
Fino lho oimonsions of a ioclangulai iun which yiolo a maximum aioa
foi oach iun.
SoIutIon: Wo lisl nolico lhal lho aioa of oach iun is lo Lo maximizoo,
so lhal oui ooponoonl vaiiaLlo is
= aioa of a iun in squaio fool
1ho inooponoonl vaiiaLlos aio lho oimonsions of lho inoivioual iuns:
| = longlh of oach iun in fool (soo lguio aLovo)
n = wiolh of oach iun in fool (soo lguio aLovo)
Lach iun is a ioclanglo, so lhal is lho piooucl of lho longlh ano lho
wiolh:
= |n (8.28)
Sinco 400 fool of fonco will Lo usoo foi 10 soclions of longlh n ano
foi 6 soclions of longlh | (soo lho lguio), lho consliainl is
10n 6| = 400 (8.24)
Solving foi n in (8.24) yiolos
n = 40 0.6|
afloi which suLslilulion inlo (8.28) yiolos
(|) = | (40 0.6|) = 40| 0.6|
2
Sinco |, n, ano musl Lo nonnogalivo, | musl Lo iosliicloo lo lho
inloival
_
0,
200
3
.
1o lno lho ciilical poinl(s) of (|) , wo sol
t
(|) = 401.2| oqual
lo zoio:
40 1.2| = 0
| = 88
1
8
fool
1ho giaph of (|) = 40| 0.6|
2
iovoals a maximum al | = 88 fool, 4
inchos.
l
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
-100
6-8
1ho coiiosponoing wiolh which maximizos lho aioa musl Lo
n = 40 0.6
_
88
1
8
_
= 20 fool
1hus, a longlh of 88 fool, 4 inchos ano a wiolh of 20 fool maximizos
lho aioa of oach iun.
Somo of lho mosl impoilanl oplimizalion pioLloms aio lhoso in which lho oo-
ponoonl vaiiaLlo is n.n.n..Jminimizing cosls, minimizing oiioi, minimizing
onoigy, minimizing oislanco liavoloo, minimal suifacos, olcoloia.
IXAMIII J A coilain cylinoiical can is lo havo a volumo of 0.2
cuLic fool (appioximaloly 2 gallons). Fino lho hoighl / ano iaoius r
of lho can lhal will minimizo suifaco aioa of lho can. Whal is lho
iolalionship Lolwoon lho iosulling r ano /
6-4
SoIutIon: Figuio 6-4 shows us lhal lho suifaco aioa o is lho sum
of lho aioas of 2 ciiclos of iaoius r ano a ioclanglo wilh hoighl / ano
wiolh 2r. 1hus,
o = 2r
2
2r/
Moioovoi, lho volumo of 0.2 )t
3
is a consliainl lhal is oqual lo lho
piooucl of lho aioa r
2
of lho Laso ano lho hoighl /, which wo lhon
solvo foi /:
r
2
/ = 0.2, / =
0.2
r
2
SuLslilulion foi / iooucos lho suifaco aioa lo a funclion of 1 vaiiaLlo:
o (r) = 2r
2
2r
_
0.2
r
2
_
= 2r
2
0.r
l
Sinco o
t
(r) = 4r 0.r
2
, lho ciilical poinls aio solulions lo
4r 0.r
2
= 0
4r = 0.r
2
r
3
=
12
4
r =

_
1
8
=
1
2

_
OPTlMlZATlON 241
1ho giaph of o (r) iovoals lhal a minimum occuis.
r
1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
6-: Giaph of o (r)
Il can also Lo shown lhal o
t
(r) < 0 foi all 0 < r <
l
2

_
t
ano lhal
o
t
(r) 0 foi all r
l
2

_
t
, so lhal lho minimum musl Lo an aLsolulo
minimumfoi r in (0, ). 1hus, lho can has lho loasl suifaco aioa whon
r =
l
2

_
t
ano
/ =
0.2
_
l
2

_
t
_
2
=
1
Moioovoi, nolico lhal / = 2r, which implios lhal lho can wilh lho loasl
suifaco aioa is lho ono in which lho hoighl is lho samo as lho oiamoloi
of lho Lasolhal is, lho ono whoso cioss-soclion is a squaio.
1hj J & n|j n.J: r .n (0, ) .n rnn| Chock youi Ioaoing
Conuter AIgeLra Systens
In lho lflios ano sixlios, slioo iulos maoo mulliplicalion ano oivision oasioi lo
poifoim, Lul lhoy oio nol oliminalo lho nooo lo loain aiilhmolic. In lho sovonlios
ano oighlios, scionlilc calculalois Locamo commonplaco in ovalualing scionlilc
funclions, Lul lhoy oio nol oliminalo lho nooo lo loain liigonomoliy. In lho A conpua:
uau| on|, ta
unua:anu a
:au| p:o-
uuca.
ninolios, giaphing calculalois Locamo lho lool of choico foi giaphing funclions,
Lul lhoy oio nol oliminalo lho nooo lo loain calculus. In oach of lhoso casos,
lochnology onhancoo malhomalics, Lul il oio nol ioplaco lho malhomalics ilsolf.
Likowiso, compuloi algoLia sysloms can Lo usoo lo oiloionlialo funclions ano
oslimalo ciilical poinls, Lul lhoy aio of lilllo valuo in ioonlifying consliainls oi
ooloimining which quanlily is lo Lo oplimizoo. Howovoi, lhoy aio a usoful lool
whon calculalion Ly hano is oilhoi looious oi piohiLilivoly limo-consuming.
IXAMIII ! Fioo wanls lo Luilo a houso lhal is 0 fool long, 80
fool wioo, ano 2 fool lall al ils lallosl, as shown in lguio 6-6 Lolow:
6-6: Hoighl al conloi of sioo is 2 fool
If sioing cosls $8 poi squaio fool ano ioolng cosls $10 poi squaio fool,
whal oimonsions / ano | minimizo lho cosl of lho oxloiioi of lho houso
SoIutIon: 1ho aioa of lho ioof is 2 0 |, so lho cosl of lho ioof is
10100| = 1000|. 1ho aioa of lho fionl ano Lack is 20/, so lhal piico
of lho fionl ano Lack is 8 100/ = 800/. Lach ono is a ioclanglo wilh
aioa 80/ suLlonooo Ly an isoscolos liianglo wilh aioa
l
2
(2 /) 80, so
lho lolal aioa of lho 2 onos is 2 (80/ 1 (2 /)) ano lho cosl of lho
lwo onos is 8 2 (1/ 87) = 00/ 220. 1hus, lho lolal cosl C is
C = 1000| 800/ 00/ 220
1ho consliainl iolaling | lo / follows fiom lho Iylhagoioan lhooiom,
which says lhal
(2 /)
2
(1)
2
= |
2
or | =
_
(2 /)
2
22
SuLsliluling | inlo lho cosl lhon implios lhal
C (/) = 1000
_
(2 /)
2
22 800/ 220
1ho ooiivalivo follows fiom lho chain iulo ano is givon Ly
C
t
(/) =
1000 (/ 2)
_
(2 /)
2
22
800
Wo lhon uso a compuloi algoLia syslomlo oslimalo lho zoioos of C
t
(/)
in [0, 18[ .
1000 (/ 2)
_
(2 /)
2
22
800 = 0 == / = 18.644 )t
Wo also uso lho compuloi algoLia syslom lo compulo C (/) al lho
onopoinls ano lho ciilical poinl:
C (0) = 1000
_
2
2
22 220 = $81, 404.76
C (18.644) = 1000
_
(2 18.644)
2
22 800 18.644 220 = $2, 812.22
C (18) = 1000
_
0
2
22 800 2 220 = $27, 000
1hus, lho cosl of lho oxloiioi of lho houso is minimizoo whon / =
18.644 fool.
OPTlMlZATlON 248
nnJn:J :J hn n .h J 80
. 1: h h& .n rnn| , h. &&|J Chock youi Ioaoing

:&| .n n h.jh J / = 16.84 J. 1hn . h n| .n rnn| &hn
/ = 16.84 J
DIstance Iron a IoInt to a Curve
A common oplimizalion pioLlom is lhal of lnoing lho shoilosl oislanco fiom a
cuivo lo a givon poinl. Oflon, lho iosulling minimumoislanco is calloo lho oislanco
fiom lho poinl lo lho cuivo.
IXAMIII Fino lho poinl on lho cuivo j = a
3
1 which is clososl
lo lho oiigin.
6-7: 1 is lho oislanco fiom (a, j) lo (0, 0)
SoIutIon: 1ho ooponoonl vaiiaLlo is lho oislanco 1 fiom lho oiigin
lo a poinl (a, j) on lho lino, which Ly lho oislanco foimula is
1 =
_
(a 0)
2
(j 0)
2
=
_
a
2
j
2
Moioovoi, inspoclion of lho giaph iovoals lhal lho minimum oislanco
musl occui whon a is in [1, 0[ . Sinco lho consliainl is lho cuivo ilsolf
j = a
3
1, suLsliluling foi j yiolos
1(a) =
_
a
2
(a
3
1)
2
Now lol us uso a compuloi algoLia syslom lo calculalo ano simplify
1
t
(a):
d
da
_
a
2
(a
3
1)
2 ~olut:
8a
5
8a
2
a
_
a
2
(a
3
1)
2
1ho ciilical poinls occui whon 1
t
(a) = 0, which is whon
8a
5
8a
2
a = 0
Allhough ono solulion cloaily is a = 0, wo musl uso a compuloi algoLia
syslom lo numoiically oslimalo olhoi solulions:
8a
5
8a
2
a = 0
~olut:
a = 0.846, 0.848, 0
1ho giaph of 1(a) ovoi [1, 0[ is of lho foim
x
0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1
1.02
1
0.98
0.96
0.94
6-8
ano 1(a) is minimizoo whon a = 0.846. If a = 0.846, lhon
j = (0.846)
3
1 = 0.80
1hus, lho poinl (0.846, 0.80) is lho poinl on lho cuivo j = a
3
1
lhal is clososl lo lho oiigin..
Lxoicisos:
1. Maximizo = aj suLjocl lo lho consliainl 8a j = 80.
2. Maximizo = a
2
j suLjocl lo lho consliainl a j = 80.
3. Maximizo = a
2
j suLjocl lo lho consliainl a j = 80.
4. Minimizo = aj suLjocl lo lho consliainl a
2
j = 80.
5. Minimizo 1 = a
2
j
2
suLjocl lo lho consliainl j = a 1.
6. Minimizo 1 = a
2
j
2
suLjocl lo lho consliainl j
2
= 1 a.
7. Maximizo lho piooucl of lwo posilivo numLois whoso sum is 86.
8. Minimizo lho sum of lwo posilivo numLois whoso piooucl is 86.
9. A faimoi has 400 fool of fonco wilh which lo oncloso a ioclangulai lolo Loi-
ooiing a iivoi. Whal oimonsions of lho lolo maximizo lho aioa if lho lolo
is lo Lo foncoo on only lhioo sioos (soo picluio Lolow)
6-0
10. A faimoi has 400 fool of fonco wilh which lo fonco in a ioclangulai lolo
aojoining lwo oxisling foncos which mool al a iighl anglo. Whal oimonsions
maximizo lho aioa of lho lolo
OPTlMlZATlON 24
6-10
11. A faimoi wanls lo oncloso a 4,000 fl
2
lolo Ly using as lilllo fonco as possiLlo.
If lho lolo aojoins a iivoi so lhal only lhioo sioos will Lo foncoo, lhon whal
oimonsions of lho lolo minimizo lho amounl of foncing ioquiioo
6-11
12. Iooo oxamplo 4 whon lho cosl of sioing is $ poi squaio fool ano lho piico
of ioolng is $8 poi squaio fool.
13. Supposo lho lwo onclosuios shown Lolow aio lo Lo foncoo using 8000 fool of
fonco
6-12
Whal valuos of n ano | maximizo lho lolal aioa of lho lwo onclosuios. Whal
is lho lolal aioa onclosoo wilh iospocl lo lhoso valuos
14. Supposo lho lwo onclosuios in oxoiciso 18 aio lo oncloso a lolal aioa of 41,000
squaio fool. Whal oimonsions n ano | loao lo lho shoilosl possiLlo fonco
Whal is lho lolal longlh of fonco nooooo
15. Acmo fasl fooo solls 00 mogawhoppois a oay whon lho piico of a mogawhop-
poi is $2, ano lhoy soll 70 mogawhoppois a oay whon lho piico of a mogawhop-
poi is $1. If lho numLoi solo oach oay is a linoai funclion of lho piico, whal
shoulo lho piico of a mogawhoppoi Lo in oiooi lo maximizo lho oaily iovonuo
fiom mogawhoppois
16. Acmo spoiling gooos solls 10 lonnis iackols oach wook whon lho piico of oach
iackol is $60, ano il solls 1 lonnis iackols oach wook whon lho piico is $.
Assuming lho iolalionship Lolwoon piico ano lho numLoi of iackols solo is
linoai, whal piico will maximizo wookly iovonuo
17. In oach of (a) ano (L) Lolow, a Lox wilh an opon lop is maoo Ly culling
squaios fiom lho coinois of a shool of papoi ano lhon foloing lho iosull inlo
a Lox.
6-18
In oach caso, a is lho longlh of lho sioo of lho squaio cul fiom lho coinoi
ano lho goal is lo maximizo lho volumo.
(a) Supposo lho squaios of longlh a aio cul fiom lho coinois of an
8 inch Ly 8 inch shool of papoi (soo lguio Lolow lofl). Whal valuo
of a maximizos lho volumo of lho Lox
(L) Supposo lho squaios of longlh a aio cul fiom lho coinois of an 8
l
2
inch Ly 11 inch shool of papoi (soo lguio Lolow iighl). Whal valuo
of a maximizos lho volumo of lho Lox
18. Whal oimonsions of a 80 fl
2
Lalcony minimizo lho longlh of lho iail aiouno
il
Lxoiciso 18 Lxoiciso 10
19. Supposo a LookLinooi musl loavo maigins of 2 inchos on lho lofl ano 1 inch
on lho lop, iighl ano Lollom of a pago. If lho loxl iogion is lo havo an aioa
of 12 squaio inchos, whal oimonsions of a pago mako lho aioa of lho pago a
minimum
20. A Lox wilh a squaio Laso ano an opon lop is lo havo a lxoo volumo of 60
in
3
. Whal oimonsions minimizo lho suifaco aioa of lho Lox
21. You wish lo havo a gas lino iun lo youi houso. 1ho gas lino, shown in Lluo
Lolow, will Login al a gas main sluL lhal is on lho opposilo sioo of youi
oiivoway, as shown Lolow:
OPTlMlZATlON 247
6-14
1ho conliacloi chaigos $8.0 poi fool lo inslall lho lino unooi oailh only
ano $.0 poi fool lo inslall lho lino unooi youi oiivoway sinco il will havo
lo Lo palchoo. Whal valuo of a minimizos lho cosl of lho gas lino Whal is
lho minimum cosl
22. Supposo lhal ) (a) is conlinuous, oiloionliaLlo ano concavo oown on [a, /[.
6-1
Show lhal lho aioa of lho shaooo iogion in lguio 6-1 is a maximum whon
c is lho numLoi in [a, /[ which salislos lho Moan Valuo 1hooiom,
) (/) ) (a)
/ a
= )
t
(c)
23. TLe ornan VIndov IroLIen. 1ho winoow Lolow is calloo a Noiman
winoow.
6-16
(a) Fino a foimula foi lho aioa of lho Noiman winoow in loims of r
ano /.
(L) If lho poiimoloi of lho Noiman winoow is lo iomain a conslanl, 1,
lno lho aioa of lho winoow as a funclion of r.
(c) Fino lho iaoius which maximizos lho aioa givon lho lxoo poiimoloi
1.
24. A long shool of molal which is 12 inchos wioo is lo Lo maoo inlo a iain gulloi
Ly luining up lwo sioos al iighl anglos lo lho shool. How many inchos shoulo
Lo luinoo up in oiooi lo givo lho gulloi ils gioalosl capacily
6-17
25. A houso wilh wiolh n ano longlh | is Lo 18 fool lall al ils lallosl ano 10 fool
lall al oach coinoi.
6-18
Whal oimonsions foi a 2000 squaio fool houso (i.o., n| = 2000) minimizo
lho aioa of lho ioof ano sioos of lho houso
26. Whal oimonsions woulo minimizo lho cosl of lho oxloiioi of lho houso in
oxoiciso 2 if sioing is $8 poi squaio fool ano ioolng is $10 poi squaio fool
1n r:. .7-, ]nJ h .n n h &: | h j.n .n. `& nnj
&nn & n n&: |jh:n jn n. .n h n|&|n.n.
27. 1ho poinl on j = 2a 8 clososl lo (0, 0)
28. 1ho poinl on j = 1 a clososl lo (8, )
29. 1ho poinl on j = a
3
2a 8 clososl lo (0, 0)
30. 1ho poinl on j = a
d
2a
2
1 clososl lo lho oiigin.
31. 1ho poinl on a
2
j
2
= (1 2j)
2
clososl lo lho oiigin.
32. 1ho poinl on 2a
2
j
2
= clososl lo (1, 1)
33. 1ho poinl on a
2
4j
2
= 4 clososl lo lho poinl (2, 1) .
34. 1ho poinl on a
2
j = 1 clososl lo lho oiigin
35. Conuter AIgeLra Systen. 1ho moon`s oiLil aLoul lho oailh is woll-
appioximaloo Ly lho cuivo
a
2
j
2
= (288, 07 0.040j)
2
whoio oislanco is in milos. How closo is lho moon lo lho oailh al ils clososl
poinl Whal is lho gioalosl oislanco Lolwoon lho moon ano lho oailh
OPTlMlZATlON 240
36. Show lhal if (j, ) is lho poinl on lho lino j = :a / clososl lo lho oiigin,
lhon lho lino fiom lho oiigin lhiough (j, ) is :nJ.&|n: lo j = :a /.
6-10
37. Conuter AIgeLra Systen. Foi a 0, consiooi 1 ano 1 as shown in
lguio 6-20. Whoio on lho hoiizonlal shoulo lho poinl 1 Lo in oiooi foi 11
lo Lo a minimum
6-20
38. Supposo lhal a coilain cylinoiical can is lo havo a volumo of 0.2 cuLic fool
(appioximaloly 2 gallons) Lul lhal lho lop ano Lollom of lho can aio Lolh
punchoo oul of squaios wilh sioos of longlh 2r (soo lguio 6-21 Lolow). Fino
lho hoighl / ano iaoius r of lho can lhal will minimizo suifaco aioa of lho
can. Whal is lho iolalionship Lolwoon lho iosulling r ano /
6-21
39. Conuter AIgeLra Systen. Supposo in oxoiciso 88 lhal lho cosl of
piooucing lho sioo of lho conlainoi is $0.20 poi squaio fool ano lho cosl
of piooucing lho lios is $0.80 poi squaio fool. 1ho cylinoiical conlainoi
piooucoo will havo a volumo of 0.2 cuLic fool (appioximaloly 2 gallons).
(a) Fino lho cosl funclion, C(r), foi piooucing lhis conlainoi in loims
of lho iaoius of lho cylinooi, r.
(L) Fino lho valuo of r which minimizos lho cosl funclion C(r).
(c) Whal is lho cosl of piooucing such a conlainoi
40. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay showing lhal of all lho cylinoiical
cans wilh a lxoo volumo \, lho ono wilh lho loasl suifaco aioa is lho ono in
which lho cioss-soclion of lho can is a squaio.
41. 1o mako a iighl ciiculai cono fiom a lal ciiculai oisk wilh a 1 fool iaoius, a
pio shapoo woogo is cul fiom lho oisk ano lho lwo iaoial oogos aio connocloo
lo foim an opon cono.
6-22
Lol c oonolo lho anglo of lho pio shapoo woogo cul fiom lho ciiculai oisk:
6-28
(a) Lxplain why lho ciicumfoionco of lho Laso of lho cono is 2 c.
Whal is lho hoighl / ano lho iaoius of lho Laso r of lho cono
(L) Show lhal lho volumo of lho cono as a funclion of c is
\ (c) =

8
_
1
1
2
c
_
2
_
1
_
1
1
2
c
_
2
(Iocall: Volumo foimula foi cono is \ =
l
3
r
2
/ ).
(c) Whal anglo c maximizos lho volumo of lho cono
42. CraL TLeory: A colloclion of poinls calloo :. wilh a sol of connoc-
lions calloo Jj is calloo a j:nh if oach paii of voilicos has al mosl ono
oogo Lolwoon lhom ano no voilox is connocloo lo ilsolf.
6-24: Giaphs havo al mosl ono oogo Lolwoon any lwo voilicos
Supposo lhal an ovon numLoi : voilicos aio lo Lo oisliiLuloo Lolwoon a
giaph wilh a voilicos ano anolhoi giaph wilh j voilicos. Supposo also lhal
ovoiy voilox in lho giaph wilh a voilicos is connocloo lo ovoiy olhoi voilox
in lho giaph wilh a voilicos, ano ovoiy voilox in lho giaph wilh j voilicos
is connocloo lo ovoiy olhoi voilox in lho giaph wilh j voilicos, Lul lhoio
aio no oogos Lolwoon lho lwo giaphs. (o.g., lwo sopaialo nolwoiks of fully
OPTlMlZATlON 21
connocloo compulois).
6-2: Minimizo lho connoclivily
Whal valuos foi a ano j minimizo lho lolal numLoi of oogos in lho lwo
giaphs
3.1 LeasL Squares
Averages and TotaI Squared Error
Slalislical moasuios aio oflon Lasoo on lho piinciplo lhal lho h moasuio of a
oala sol is lho ono wilh lho |n oiioi. As a iosull, oplimizalion is usoo lo oovolop
somo of lho mosl impoilanl lochniquos in slalislics.
Foi oxamplo, if a oonolos an aiLiliaiy appioximalion of lho sol of numLois
a
l
, . . . , a
n
lhon foi oach = 1, . . . , :, lho .nJ..J&n| ::: oi :.J&n| in appioximaling a
Ly
a is oolnoo lo Lo lho numLoi
= a a
Howovoi,
can Lo oilhoi posilivo oi nogalivo, which moans lho smallosl possiLlo

oiioi is whon all lho iosiouals appioach . In aooilion, aooing up lho inoivioual
oiiois mighl loao lo unoosiiaLlo cancolalion.
As a iosull, wo woik wilh lho j&n: of lho iosiouals, in lhal wo oolno lho
n| j&n:J ::: 1(a) lo Lo lho sum of lho squaios of lho inoivioual oiiois:
1(a) =
2
l

2
2
. . .
2
n
= (a a
l
)
2
(a a
2
)
2
. . . (a a
n
)
2
In pailiculai, 1(a) small moans lhal oach of lho
musl also Lo small in magni-

luoo.
IXAMIII 1 Supposo a coilain sluoonl has losl scoios of 72, 82
ano 70. Whal numLoi a Losl iopiosonls lhoso losl scoios in lhal il
minimizos lho lolal squaioo oiioi
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, lho lolal squaioo oiioi funclion foi lho sol
78, 82, 70 is
1(a) = (a 78)
2
(a 82)
2
(a 70)
2
Oui goal is lo lno lho numLoi a which minimizos lho lolal squaioo
oiioi. 1o oo so, wo compulo lho ooiivalivo of 1(a),
1
t
(a) = 2 (a 78) 2 (a 82) 2 (a 70)
ano sol il oqual lo 0:
2 (a 78 a 82 a 70) = 0
8a (78 82 70) = 0
8a = 78 82 70
a =
78 82 70
8
= 78 (8.2)
1ho giaph of 1(a) iovoals a minimum whon a = 78,
x
84 82 80 78 76 74 72 70
100
80
60
40
20
0
7-1: Minimum oiioi whon a = 78
In oxamplo 1, lho Losl appioximalion is lho avoiago oi nnn of lho numLois in
lho oala sol, which wo oonolo Ly a. In gonoial, lho moan a of a oala sol minimizos
lolal squaioo oiioi ano is lhus consiooioo lho Losl appioximalion of lho oala sol
in many applicalions.
Moioovoi, lho nnJn:J J.n.n o of lho oala sol is lho :-nnn-j&n:
oiioi, which is lho squaio iool of lho avoiago of lho squaioo oiioi in appioximaling
lho oala sol wilh lho moan a:
o =
_
( a a
l
)
2
( a a
2
)
2
. . . ( a a
n
)
2
:
In loims of lho lolal squaioo oiioi, lho slanoaio oovialion is givon Ly
o =
_
1( a)
:
In oxamplo 1, lho slanoaio oovialion is
o
i
=
_
1(78)
8
=
_
42
8
= 8. 7416 7
Il givos us a sonso of lho avoiago oislanco of oach of lho inoivioual valuos fiom
lho avoiago valuo of 78. 1hal is, a poinl in lho sol 78, 82, 70 is on avoiago aLoul
8.74 unils away fiom lho avoiago valuo of 78.
1r|n.n &hj 1(:) n& n|&nj h n n:nh|n &h.h n &&n:J. Chock youi Ioaoing
LLAST SQUARLS 28
TLe Least Squares LIne.
A 2-oimonsional oala sol is a colloclion of poinls of lho foim
(a
l
, j
l
) , (a
2
, j
2
) , . . . , (a
n
, j
n
)
Wo oflon oosiio lo appioximalo a 2-oimonsional oala sol wilh a sliaighl lino j =
1(a) lhal passos lhiough lho moans ( a, j) of lho oala.
7-2: 1ho Loasl Squaios Lino
Sinc lho lino passos lhiough ( a, j) , lhon j = 1(a) musl Lo of lho foim
1(a) = j :(a a) (8.26)
whoio lho slopo is a vaiiaLlo. Oui goal is lo lno lho slopo : foi which j = 1(a)
h n:r.nn lho oala sol.
1ho
||
oiioi, oi :.J&n|, in appioximaling j
Ly 1(a
) is
= 1(a
) j
= j :(a
a) j
(8.27)
foi = 1, 2, . . . , :. Moioovoi, (8.27) simplilos lo
= :(a
a) j j
(8.28)
Goomoliically, [
[ is lho voilical oislanco fiom lho lino lo lho

||
oala poinl.
7-8: Liiois in appioximaling lho oala sol wilh lho lino
If wo oolno lho lolal squaioo oiioi lo Lo 1 =
2
l
. . .
2
n
, lhon il follows
lhal
1(:) = (:(a
l
a) j j
l
)
2
. . . (:(a
n
a) j j
n
)
2
1ho lino j = 1(a) whoso slopo is lho minimum of 1(:) is calloo lho |n j&n:
|.n, Locauso il is lho lino lhal minimizos lho lolal squaioo oiioi Lolwoon ilsolf
ano lho oala sol.
IXAMIII 2 John scoioo a 60 on his lisl calculus losl, a 78 on his
socono losl, an 84 on his lhiio losl ano an 86 on his fouilh losl. Fino
lho loasl squaios lino foi lho losl scoio oala sol.
SoIutIon: If wo paii lho losl numLoi wilh lho losl scoio, wo oLlain
lho oala sol
(1, 60) , (2, 78) , (8, 84) , (4, 86) (8.20)
1ho moans of lho a-cooioinalo ano j-cooioinalo aio
a =
1 2 8 4
4
= 2., j =
60 78 84 86
4
= 77
1o lno lho iosiouals as funclions of :, wo complolo lho laLlo Lolow.
Il follows lhal lho lolal squaioo oiioi is lho sum of lho lasl column:
a
a j j
1 60 1. 17 1.: 17 2. 2:
2
1.0: 280
2 78 0. 1 0.:1 0.2:
2
1.0: 1
8 84 0. 7 0.:7 0.2:
2
7.0: 40
4 86 1. 0 1.:0 2. 2:
2
27.0: 81
1(:) = :
2
84: 420
Sinco 1(:) = :
2
84420, ils ooiivalivo is 1
t
(:) = 10:84.
Solling 1
t
(:) = 0 yiolos
10:84 = 0, : = 8.4
1ho giaph of 1(:) iovoals lhal il musl havo a minimum al : = 8.4:
m
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
7-4
As a iosull, lho loasl squaios lino foi (8.20) is lho lino which passos
lhiough ( a, j) = (2., 77) wilh a slopo of : = 8.4, which is
1(a) = 77 8.4 (a 2.)
ano which simplilos lo 1(a) = 6 8.4a.
x
5 4 3 2 1 0
90
80
70
60
7-: 1ho loasl squaios lino foi lho losl scoio oala sol
1hal is, John`s scoio`s incioasoo Ly aLoul 8.4 poinls poi losl.
LLAST SQUARLS 2
1ho piocoss of oLlaining a loasl squaios linoai appioximalion lo a oala sol is calloo
|.nn: :j:.n, ano il is oflon calculaloo mochanically. Foi oxamplo, if lho oala
sol (8.20) is onloioo inlo a giaphing calculaloi, lhon lho calculaloi will ioluin lho
loasl squaios lino
1(a) = 6 8.4a
Moioovoi, such oovicos also commonly piovioo lho ::|n.n .n r of lho
ll, which in loims of lho loasl squaios lino slopo ` is givon Ly
r =
o
i
o
`
whoio o
i
ano o
aio lho slanoaio oovialion of lho a-cooioinalos ano j-cooioinalos,

iospoclivoly. Il can Lo shown lhal 1 _ r _ 1, ano lypically (lhough nol always)
lho closoi [r[ is lo 1, lho Lolloi lho oala can Lo appioximaloo Ly a sliaighl lino.
1n rnn| ., &hn n.jh h j-.n: J &jj nh& Jhn` || J Chock youi Ioaoing
:n:n.n n.nj .n h |n
Least Squares FIts oI TransIorned Data Sets
Oflon oala sols aio liansfoimoo lo ll linoai moools, lhus allowing us lo uso lho
loasl squaios lino lo ll oala sols lo a wiooi colloclion of cuivos. In pailiculai,
oolning now inooponoonl ano ooponoonl vaiiaLlos oflon loaos lo a linoai moool.
IXAMIII J If an oLjocl is ioloasoo fiom iosl, lhon ils hoighl r in
fool al limo t in soconos is
r = a /t
2
(8.80)
Moioovoi, oLsoivalions of a falling oLjocl loao lo lho following (t, r)
oala sol:
(1, 484) , (2, 487) , (8, 87) , (4, 244)
Uso lhis oala sol lo oslimalo a ano /.
SoIutIon: 1ho foimula T = t
2
liansfoims (8.80) inlo lho sliaighl lino
moool
r = a /T
1hus, lolling T = t
2
iosulls in a now oala sol lhal can Lo ll lo a
sliaighl lino:
t r
1 484
2 487
8 87
4 244
is liansfoimoo inlo
T = t
2
r
1 484
4 487
0 87
16 244
If wo now apply lho loasl squaios molhoo lo lho (T, r) oala, lhon wo
oLlain lho loasl squaios lino
r = 00.6168 16.01 T
1hus, lho oiiginal oala is Losl appioximaloo (in somo sonso) Ly lho
cuivo
r = 00.6168 16.01 t
2
(8.81)
IXAMIII ! Doloimino / ano C foi which lho ollipso
j
2
= C /a
2
(8.82)
Losl lls lho oala sol lisloo in lho laLlo ano giaphoo Lolow.
a j
0 7.14
1 7
2 6.6
8 .74
4 4.86
1
x
5 4 3 2 1 0
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
7-6
SoIutIon: Wo lol A = a
2
ano 1 = j
2
, so lhal (8.82) is liansfoimoo
inlo
1 = C /A
1ho olo oala sol is liansfoimoo inlo lho now oala sol shown Lolow.
A 1
0 0.08
1 40
4 48.08
0 82.0
16 10.01
2 1
X
25 20 15 10 5 0
50
40
30
20
10
7-7
1ho loasl squaios lino foi lho now (A, 1 ) oala sol is
1 = 0. 00 2A
As a iosull, lho ollipso which h ] lho :.j.nn| oala sol is
j
2
= 0. 00 2a
2
In lguio 7-8, lho ollipso is shown along wilh lho oala.
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
7-8
LLAST SQUARLS 27
1his lasl oxamplo also illuslialos lho oiigins of lho loasl squaios molhoo ilsolf.
1ho asloioio Coios was lisl oiscovoioo on Januaiy 1, 1800, only lo Lo losl again
a fow wooks laloi whon aslionomois failoo lo iolocalo il in lho nighl sky. Il
iomainoo losl unlil 1807, whon lho malhomalician Cail Gauss oovolopoo lho loasl
squaios molhoo ano applioo il lo lho oLsoivalional oala fiom sovon yoais oailioi.
As a iosull, ho was aLlo lo ooloimino Coios` olliplical oiLil ano piooicl whoio in
lho nighl sky lho planol" woulo io-appoai. Coios was iooiscovoioo in 1807 in
agioomonl wilh Gauss` piooiclion.
1hn . h n|:n.n J h h] &h h.jh n .n t . j.n hj ;.1) Chock youi Ioaoing
Curve FIttIng and OtInIzatIon
Il may nol always Lo possiLlo oi aovanlagoous lo liansfoima cuivo-llling pioLlom
inlo a linoai iogiossion. An alloinalivo appioach is lo appioximalo a oala sol
(a
l
, j
l
) , (a
2
, j
2
) , . . . , (a
n
, j
n
)
wilh a class of funclions )
n
(a) paiamoliizoo Ly :. 1ho n| j&n:J ::: foi
lhis alloinalivo is givon Ly
1(:) = ()
n
(a
l
) j
l
)
2
. . . ()
n
(a
n
) j
n
)
2
If :
+
oonolos lho valuo of : which minimizos 1(:) , lhon lho cuivo
j = )
n
(a)
is calloo lho |n j&n: ] of lho oala.
IXAMIII An oLjocl launchoo inlo lho aii wilh an inilial volocily
of : has a hoighl r in fool al limo t in soconos of
r = :t 16t
2
(8.88)
noglocling aii iosislanco. Hoighls aio moasuioo al vaiious limos lo
pioouco lho following oala sol:
limo: t = 1 2 8 4
hoighl: r = 8 18 1 14
Uso a loasl squaios ll of lho lho oala lo oslimalo lho inilial volocily.
SoIutIon: Sinco lho paiamoloi in (8.88) is :, wo havo
r (1) = :16, r (2) = 2:64, r (8) = 8:144, ano r (8) = 4:26
As a iosull, lho lolal squaioo oiioi is
1(:) = (:16 8)
2
(2:64 18)
2
(8:144 1)
2
(4:26 14)
2
= (:101)
2
(2:100)
2
(8:200)
2
(4:401)
2
1o lno 1
t
(:) , wo uso lho chain iulo:
1
t
(:) = 2 (:101) 4 (2:100) 6 (8:200) 8 (4:401)
1his simplilos lo 1
t
(:) = 60:6000, ano cloaily, 1
t
(:) = 0 whon
: = 100. Moioovoi, 1
tt
= 60 0, so 1
t
(:) has a minimum al
: = 100. 1hus, lho loasl squaios oslimalo of lho inilial volocily is
: = 100 foolsoc.
In oxamplo , lho cuivo r = 100t 16t
2
is lho |n j&n: ] of lho oala, as is
shown Lolow.
t
4 3 2 1 0
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
7-0: A loasl squaios quaoialic ll
Moioovoi, 1(100) = (100 101)
2
(200 100)
2
(800 200)
2
(400 401)
2
= 4,
so lhal lho :n oiioi is
o =
_
1(100)
4
= 1
1hus, lho inilial volocily is 100 fool poi socono, givo oi lako aLoul 1 fool poi
socono.
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h n&nh: a hn h n:r.nn h j.n J n&nh: hj n.n.n...nj
h n| j&n:J :::. Jhn ]nJ h nnJn:J J.n.n J: hn n:r.nn.n..
1. 1, 8, , 2 2. 1, 0, 2,
8. 2, 2, 4, 6, 6 4. 1, 2, 8, 4,
. 4.1, 2.8, .7, 0.2 6. , , ,
unerIcaI: 1: nh j.n Jnn , & n nh| J h J:n h|& n&
1(:) .
a
a j j
= (a
a) : j j
1(:) = lolal
Jhn n.n.n.. 1(:) nnJ J:n.n h |n j&n: |.n.
7. (1, 1) , (2, 2) , (8, 8) 8 . (1, 72) , (2, 07) , (8, 88)
0. (0, 8.1) , (1, ) , (2, 6.0) 10. (0, 4.1) , (1, 8.0) , (2, 4.1)
11. (1, 7) , (2, 70) , (8, 8) , (4, 81) 12. (1, 7) , (2, 70) , (8, 81) , (4, 8)
unerIcaI: 1. h J||&.nj &: h j.n Jnn &.nj h &|.J
:nnJ:nn.n:
18.
j = C /t
2
T = t
2
,
t j
0 160
1 144
2 06
8 16
14.
j = C /t
2
T = t
2
,
t j
0 0
1 1
2 4
8 0
1.
j = C /t
2
T = t
2
,
t j
0 184
1 107
2 6
8 10
16.
j =
_
C /t
1 = j
2
,
t j
18 0
10 1
72 2
80 8
LLAST SQUARLS 20
17.
j
2
= /a
2
C
1 = j
2
, T = t
2
,
t j
2 0.708
4 0.16
6 7.041
8 6.012
18.
j
2
= /a
2
C
1 = j
2
, T = t
2
,
t j
0 10
6 8
8 6
10 0
10.
j =
1
C /t
2
T = t
2
, 1 =
1
j
,
t j
0.0 1.000
0. 0.800
1.0 0.00
1. 0.808
2.0 0.200
2. 0.188
20.
j = 1
_
/t
2
C
1 = (j 1)
2
, T = t
2
,
t j
0 8.286
1 8.646
2 4.606
8 .706
21. unerIcaI: Diopping a iock fiom a hoighl of 10 fool gonoialos lho oala
sol
t = 1imo (soc) r = Hoighl (fool)
0 10
1 18
2 8
8 7
Diopping lho iock implios an inilial volocily of 0, which moans lhal lho
hoighl r is iolaloo lo limo t via a paiaLola of lho foim
r = C /t
2
1iansfoim lho oala so lhal a loasl squaios lino can Lo usoo lo oslimalo C
ano /. Why is / closo lo 16 ano C closo lo 10
22. unerIcaI: Diopping a iock fiom a hoighl of 10 fool nh h &:Jn J
`n: gonoialos lho oala sol
t = 1imo (soc) r = Hoighl (fool)
0 10
1 144
2 12
8 0
Using lho facl lhal an inilial volocily of 0 loaos lo
r = C /t
2
liansfoim lho oala so lhal linoai iogiossion can Lo usoo lo oslimalo C ano
/. Whal is lho accoloialion of lho iock
23. unerIcaI: If a piojoclilo wilh an inilial hoighl of 0 is launchoo fiom lho
suifaco of lho oailh, lho piojoclilo`s posilion r (t) is of lho foim
r (t) = Ct /t
2
If wo lol j =
r
t
, lhon j = C /t. Fino lho valuos of C ano / which Losl
oosciiLo lho oala
t = limo in soconos 1 2 8 4
r = hoighl in fool 088 1087 286 8744
Ly liansfoiming lho oala using j =
:
|
ano applying linoai iogiossion. Whal
is lho inilial volocily of lho piojoclilo
24. unerIcaI: If a piojoclilo wilh an inilial hoighl of 0 is launchoo fiom lho
suifaco of `n:, lho piojoclilo`s posilion r (t) is of lho foim
r (t) = Ct /t
2
If wo lol j =
r
t
, lhon j = C /t. Fino lho valuos of C ano / which Losl
oosciiLo
r = hoighl in fool 004 1076 204 8002
Ly liansfoiming lho oala using j =
:
|
ano applying linoai iogiossion. Whal
is lho inilial volocily of lho piojoclilo
25. unerIcaI: 1ho poinls in lho oala sol
(0, ) , (8, 4) , (4, 8) , (, 0)
aio poinls on an ollipso of lho foim
j
2
= C /a
2
1iansfoim lho oala sol ano uso a loasl squaios lino lo oslimalo C ano /.
26. unerIcaI: 1ho poinls in lho oala sol
(1, 7) , (2, 6.8) , (8, 6.4) , (, )
aio poinls on an ollipso of lho foim
j
2
= C /a
2
1iansfoim lho oala sol ano uso a loasl squaios lino lo oslimalo C ano /.
27. unerIcaI: Fino lho valuo of : foi which j = :
i
Losl lls lho lhioo
poinls (0, 1) , (1, 2) , ano (2, 4) Ly oiioclly minimizing lho loasl squaioo oiioi
funclion.
28. Conuter AIgeLra Systen: Fino lho valuo of : foi which j = :
i
Losl
lls lho lhioo poinls (0, 1) , (1, 2) , ano (2, 4) Ly oiioclly minimizing lho loasl
squaioo oiioi funclion.
a 0.1 0.2 0.8
j 1.11 1.2 1.80
(Hinl: Lslimalo lho zoio of 1
t
(:) giaphically).
29. unerIcaI: A oLjocl oioppoo fiom a hoighl of 0 fool aLovo lho suifaco of
lho moon has a hoighl of
r = 0
1
2
pt
2
(8.84)
whoio p is lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily on lho moon`s suifaco. If lho
following hoighls aio moasuioo al lho givon limos,
r = hoighl in fl 47.4 80.4 26.2 7.6
(8.8)
lhon whal valuo of p yiolos lho |n n| j&n:J ::: in llling lho cuivo
(8.84) lo lho oala (8.8)
LLAST SQUARLS 261
30. unerIcaI: Iopoal oxoiciso 20 foi lho funclion r (t) = 200
l
2
pt
2
(i.o.,
oioppoo fiom 10 fool) ano lho oala sol
r = hoighl in fl 180.4 17.6 104.6 80.4
31. unerIcaI: Supposo lhal Acmo spoiling gooos collocloo lho following sol
of oala iolaling piico chaigoo foi a iackol, a, lo lho numLoi of iackols poi
wook solo al lhal piico.
a = piico $0 $ $60 $6
j = wookly salos 18 1 10 6
(a) Uso linoai iogiossion lo ooloimino lho loasl squaios lino of j as a
funclion of a.
(L) Lxplain why lho wookly iovonuo 1 fiom lho salo of lonnis iackols
is a funclion of lho foim
1 = aj
Using lho lino of Losl ll in (a) as a consliainl, wiilo 1 as a funclion
of lho vaiiaLlo a.
(c) Giaph 1(a) wilh a giaphing calculaloi ano ooloimino lho piico a
which maximizos wookly iovonuo.
32. unerIcaI: Acmo fasl fooo changos lho piico of ils mogawhoppoi sano-
wich onco oach wook foi 4 wooks, ano coiiosponoingly, il collocls wookly
mogawhoppoi salos oala foi lhoso wooks. 1ho iosull is lho oala sol Lolow:
j = piico poi mogawhoppoi $2 $1 $1.0 $1.2 $1.7
a = wookly salos 800 6000 400 000 4000
If lho numLoi solo oach oay is a linoai funclion of lho piico, whal shoulo
lho piico of a mogawhoppoi Lo in oiooi lo maximizo lho oaily iovonuo fiom
mogawhoppois (Hinl: Soo insliuclions foi oxoiciso 81.)
33. VrIte to Learn: If couiso giaoos woio lo iolocl Lolh lho avoiago losl scoio
ano lho avoiago chango in lho losl scoios, lhon lho lnal giaoo mighl Lo
Lasoo on lho foimula
Final Scoio = Avoiago Scoio Avoiago Chango in Scoio (8.86)
In oxamplo 2, John`s lnal numoiical giaoo woulo Lo 77 8.4 = 8.4, lhus
giving him a L" foi lho couiso.
4
Whal woulo lho lnal numoiical giaoo
Lo foi a sluoonl wilh losl scoios of 08, 68, 68 ano 8, iospoclivoly. Wiilo a
shoil ossay oosciiLing how you as an insliucloi mighl oxplain lhis giaoing
scalo lo John ano how you camo up wilh his scoios unooi lhis scalo.
34. unerIcaI: 1ho aulhoi has founo lhal mosl of his sluoonls oo nol havo
signilcanl lionos upwaio oi oownwaio. Uso (8.86) lo ooloimino lho lnal nu-
moiical giaoo of a sluoonl wilh losl scoios of 87, 82, 78 ano 84, iospoclivoly,
unooi lho aulhoi`s giaoing syslom oosciiLoo aLovo.
4
&h:` A: Foi mosl sluoonls, a simplo avoiago is a sumcionl moasuio of poifoimanco.
Moioovoi, whon lho avoiago ooos havo a laigo oiioi, il is usually ouo lo an ovoiall ooclino in
poifoimanco. Howovoi, lhoio havo Loon sluoonls liko John who havo iocoivoo giaoos highoi lhan
lhoii avoiago Locauso of lhoii maikoo impiovomonl lhioughoul a couiso.
35. Sinco 1(:) is a quaoialic funclion, il musl Lo in lho foim
1(:) = a:
2
/:c
In lhis oxoiciso, wo ooloimino lho valuos of a, /, ano c. (soo lho Chock youi
ioaoing" quoslion on pago 28 ).
(a) Uso lho facl lhal
1(:) = (:(a
l
a) j j
l
)
2
. . . (:(a
n
a) j j
n
)
2
lo oxplain why 1(0) = :o
2
. Whal is lho valuo of c

(L) Lol ` oonolo lho slopo of lho loasl squaios lino. Uso lho facl lhal
1
t
(`) = 0 lo show lhal
/
2a
= `
(c) Diloionlialo 1(:) lwico wilh iospocl lo : lo show lhal
1
tt
(:) = 2 (a
l
a)
2
. . . 2 (a
n
a)
2
Uso lho iosull lo show lhal a = :o
2
i
ano lhon uso lhis ano lho
iosull in (L) lo lno lho valuo of /.
36. In oxoiciso 8 wo show lhal lho lolal squaioo oiioi foi lho loasl squaios
molhoo is of lho foim
1(:) = o
2
i
:
2
2o
i
o
r :o
2
whoio r =
c
c
` is lho coiiolalion coomcionl of lho oala sol ano ` is lho
loasl squaios slopo.
(a) Uso lho facl lhal ` =
c
c
r lo show lhal
1(`) = o
2
_
1 r
2
_
(L) Uso lho iosull in (a) lo oxplain why r = 1 implios lhal 1(`) = 0.
Whal ooos lhis say aLoul lho loasl squaios lino appioximalion
(c) Uso lho iosull in (a) ano lho facl lhal 1(:) _ 0 lo show lhal
1 _ r _ 1.
37. Fino r foi lho loasl squaios linoai appioximalion of
(1, 60) , (2, 78) , (8, 84) , (4, 86)
using lho foimula r =
c
c
`. Compaio lho iosull lo lho iosull piooucoo Ly

a calculaloi oi compuloi.
38. Fino r foi lho loasl squaios linoai appioximalion of
(1, 06) , (2, 68) , (8, 68) , (4, 8)
using lho foimula r =
c
c
`. Compaio lho iosull lo lho iosull piooucoo Ly
a calculaloi oi compuloi.
39. VrIte to Learn: Lvon whon r is voiy closo lo 1, il ooos nol guaianloo lhal
lho loasl squaios lino is a gooo appioximalion of lho oala sol. Foi oxamplo,
lho sol of oala
(1, 1) , (2, 4) , (8, 0) , (4, 16)
was gonoialoo fiom lho funclion ) (a) = a
2
. Fino lho loasl squaios lino ano
lho coiiolalion coomcionl foi lhis oala sol. Doos lho valuo of r juslify lho
uso of a sliaighl lino lo appioximalo lho oala Why oi why nol
LLAST SQUARLS 268
40. How woulo wo inloipiol lho caso lhal r = 0 Whal ooos il say aLoul lho loasl
squaios lino
41. Show lhal if : is an inlogoi, lhon
ob
2
minimizos lho funclion
1(a) = (a a)
2n
(a /)
2n
42. 1ho hn:nn. nnn

1 of a sol of posilivo numLois 1
l
, 1
2
, . . . , 1
n
is oolnoo
Ly
1
1
=
1
1
l

1
1
2
. . .
1
1
n
Show lhal lho haimonic moan minimizos lho n| :|n. ::: J&n.n
1(a) =
_
1
a
1
l
_
2
_
1
a
1
2
_
2
. . .
_
1
a
1
n
_
2
43. Supposo lhal a
l
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
is a sol of possiLlo ianoomoulcomos foi a givon
ovonl ano supposo lhal j
is lho pioLaLilily lhal a
is choson al ianoomfiom
lho sol. If lho sol is appioximaloo Ly a numLoi a, lhon lhoio is a pioLaLilily
of j
of lho squaioo oiioi loim

2
= (a a
)
2
occuiiing. 1hus, lho lolal
squaioo oiioi in lhis caso is oolnoo
1(a) = (a a
l
)
2
j
l
(a a
2
)
2
j
2
. . . (a a
n
)
2
j
n
1ho valuo of a which minimizos lho lolal squaioo oiioi is calloo lho rJ
n|& of lho ovonl. Fino a foimula foi oxpocloo valuo, ano lhon show lhal
il iooucos lo lho moan whon oach of lho a
aio oqually likoly.

44. 1ho possiLlo oulcomos foi lho sumof lwo iolloo oico aio 2, 8, 4, , 6, 7, 8, 0, 10, 11, 12 ,
whoio lhoio is
a pioLaLilily of
l
36
of iolling a 2 oi a 12
a pioLaLilily of
l
lS
of iolling a 8 oi an 11
a pioLaLilily of
l
l2
of iolling a 4 oi a 10
a pioLaLilily of
l
9
of iolling a oi a 0
a pioLaLilily of
5
36
of iolling a 6 oi an 8
a pioLaLilily of
l
6
of iolling a 7
Whal is lho rJ n|& of lho sum of lwo iolloo oico (soo oxoiciso 48)
Solf 1osl
J h h|.
1. Answoi oach slalomonl as liuo oi falso. If falso, ooloimino lho ioason.
(a) If )
t
(a) = p
t
(a) foi all a in (a, /) , lhon lhoio is a conslanl C such lhal
) (a) = p (a) C foi all a in (a, /) .
(L) Limils of lho foim
0
0
cannol oxisl.
(c) If a = j is a ciilical poinl of ) (a) , lhon ) (a) has a iolalivo oxliomum
al a = j.
(o) If ) (a) has a iolalivo oxliomum al a = j, lhon a = j is a ciilical poinl
of ) (a) .
(o) A funclion cannol Lo Lolh concavo oown nnJ incioasing on an inloival.
(f) 1ho oxpononlial funclion, c
i
, is incioasing ano concavo oown on lho
ioal lino.
(g) If )
t
(j) = 0 ano )
tt
(j) 0, lhon ) (a) has a minimum al a = j.
2. Lvalualo lim
i0
sin(a) a
a
3
(a)
1
6
(L) 0 (c)
1
6
(o)
8. Lvalualo lim
il
a 2
a
2
2
(a) 0 (L)
1
4
(c)
1
2
(o) 1
4. Lvalualo lim
io
(8c
i
1)
2
c
2i
a
2
(a) 0 (L) 1 (c) 8 (o) 0
. Lvalualo lim
i0
[sin(a) ln(a)[
(a) 1 (L) 0 (c) 1 (o) ooos nol oxisl
6. 1ho lisl ano socono ooiivalivo of a funclion ) (a) aio giaphoo Lolow: (1ho
lhickoi cuivo is lho giaph of )
t
(a) ).
x
3 2 1 0 -1
4
2
0
-2
-4
Which of lho following is not liuo
LLAST SQUARLS 26
(a) ) (a) has a maximum al a = 0
(L) ) (a) has a minimum al a = 1
(c) ) (a) has a minimum al a = 2
(o) ) (a) has an inloclion poinl al a = 1
7. Consiooi lho funclion ) (t) = t
3
8t
2
, 8 _ t < . On whal inloival is lhis
funclion concavo up
(a) (0, ) (L) (1, ) (c) (0, 2) (o) ) (t) is always concavo oown
8. Whal ooos lho giaph of ) (a) = 8a
2
sin
_
a
2
_
havo al a = 0
(a) |oca| maximum (L) |oca| minimum
(c) inloclion poinl (o) cusp
0. If j = a cos (.t) / sin(.t) ` has maxima of (0, 8) , (2, 8) , (4, 8) ano so
on, ano minima of (1, 1) , (8, 1) , (, 1) , ano so on, lhon whal is j
t
(0.)
(a) 1 (L) 0 (c) 1 (o) 1 (o)
(f) 2 (g) 2 (h) ooos nol oxisl
10. In an oplimizalion pioLlom lho consliainls aio usoo lo
(a) oolno vaiiaLlos.
(L) lno lho oplimal valuos.
(c) mako lho pioLlom oimcull.
(o) ioouco lho numLoi of vaiiaLlos in lho oqualion lo Lo oplimizoo.
11. 1ho slopo of lho loasl-squaios lino minimizos lho
(a) sum of lho oiiois.
(L) sum of lho squaios of lho oiiois.
(c) squaio of lho sum of lho oiiois.
(o) lolal oiioi.
12. Whal aio lho aLsolulo oxlioma of ) (a) = a
d
8a
2
ovoi [1, 1[
18. Iioouco a skolch of ) (a) = 2a
3
0a
2
12a which oolails lho ciilical poinls,
monolonicily, oxlioma, ano inloclion poinls.
14. Uso lho giaph of )(a) Lolow lo answoi (a)-(o)
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
(a) Whal is lho laigosl inloival ovoi which )
t
(a) is posilivo
(L) Al whal lwo poinls on lho giaph is )
t
(a) = 0
(c) If )
tt
(10) = 0, lhon whal is lho laigosl inloival on lho oomain shown
whoio )
tt
(a) < 0
(o) If )(a) iopiosonls lho volocily of an oLjocl, lhon al which limo(s) a is
lho oLjocl al iosl
(o) If )(a) iopiosonls lho volocily of an oLjocl slailing al limo a = 0, ooos
lho oLjocl ovoi gol Lack lo ils slailing posilion ouiing lho liip fiom
limo a = 0 lo a = 80
1. Can a funclion havo Lolh a minimum ano an inloclion poinl al lho samo
inpul Lxplain why oi why nol.
16. Fino lho poiioo, fioquoncy, ampliluoo, ano oxlioma of lho oscillalion givon
Ly j(t) = 8 cos(8t) 4 sin(8t).
17. Maximizo . = j
3
a
3
suLjocl lo j = a 1.
18. A Lox has a squaio Laso wilh lho consliainl lhal lho giilh plus lho hoighl
cannol oxcooo 86". Whal oimonsions yiolo lho maximum volumo
10. 1ho pioouclion 1 al an Acmo wiogol facloiy is moooloo Ly a CoLL-Douglass
funclion
1 = 00a
0.d
j
0.S
whoio a is lho numLoi of unils of laLoi ano j is lho numLoi of unils of
capilal oxponoiluio. If laLoi cosls $60 poi unil ano capilal oxponoiluio is
$8 poi unil, lhon whal is lho loasl coslly comLinalion of capilal ano laLoi
lhal will pioouco 10,000 wiogols
20. Fino lho hypoiLola of lho foim j
2
= C /a
2
which Losl lls lho oala Ly
liansfoiming lho oala Lolow ano lhon compuling lho loasl squaios lino of
lho liansfoimoo oala.
a 2 8 4
j 1.2 2 2.7 8.
21. VrIte to Learn: A coilain slock is oloioo inilially al $20 a shaio al 10:00
a.m. ono moining, ano lhon lho piico incioasos oxpononlially lhioughoul
lho oay, lhus piooucing lho following oala sol:
limo 10 a.m. 11 a.m. 12 p.m. 1 p.m. 2 p.m. 8 p.m. 4 p.m.
piico 20 21 24 26 20 82 8
In a fow shoil sonloncos, oxplain how wo mighl uso a loasl squaios appioxi-
malion lo lno lho valuo of lho paiamoloi / foi which j = 20c
||
Losl lls lho
oala.
LLAST SQUARLS 267
Jh Ar 5... 5nnn|.j
In soclion 8-6, wo sluoioo oscillalions of lho foim
j (t) = ` a cos (.t) / sin(.t)
Lul can a sol of oala Lo usoo lo ooloimino a ano / in lho oscillalion Coilainly!
Lol`s lako lho noxl slop ano oxamino how loasl squaios can Lo usoo lo sluoy
oscillalions.
In pailiculai, lol`s supposo wo havo a sol of oala which lls a nnn| :
i.o., a piocoss which iopoals ilsolf onco oach yoai. If limo t is moasuioo in monlhs,
lhon lho soasonal piocoss can Lo moooloo Ly
j = ` acos
_
2
12
t
_
/ sin
_
2
12
t
_
(8.87)
whoio ` is lho n:nj n|& of lho oscillalion. If limo is moasuioo in oays, lhon
lho moool is
j = ` a cos
_
2
86
t
_
/ sin
_
2
86
t
_
(8.88)
In Lolh casos, lho avoiago valuo ` ano lho angulai volocily . aio known a piioii.
Foi limo in oays, wo suLliacl ` fiom j ano oivioo Ly cos
_
2t
365
t
_
, iosulling in
j `
cos
_
2t
365
t
_ = a /
sin
_
2t
365
t
_
cos
_
2t
365
t
_
1his in luin iooucos lo
(j `) soc
_
2
86
t
_
= a / lan
_
2
86
t
_
(8.80)
If wo now lol
1 = (j `) soc
_
2
86
t
_
ano T = lan
_
2
86
t
_
(8.40)
lhon (8.80) is liansfoimoo inlo lho linoai moool
1 = a /T (8.41)
1hus, a ano / can Lo oslimaloo Ly applying loasl squaios lo lho liansfoimoo oala.
Foi oxamplo, lho following laLlo lisls sovoial suniiso limos foi lho cily of John-
son Cily, 1N in lho yoai 1000. 1ho vaiiaLlo t iopiosonls lho numLoi of oays sinco
Januaiy 1, ano lho vaiiaLlo j oonolos lho oocimal limo of lho suniiso (foi oxamplo,
7:80 a.m. Locomos 7. ) in Lasloin Slanoaio limo.
Dalo t = = of oays j = Suniiso limo
Jan. 1 1 7.6667
FoL. 1 46 7.8000
Maich 1 60 7.0000
Maich 1 74 6.6888
Apiil 1 10 .0888
1ho avoiago suniiso foi Johnson Cily in 1000 is ` = 6. 4408 (i.o., aLoul 6:26
a.m.).
A = 6.110S was oLlainoo fiom lho avoiago of lho suniiso limos of lho lisl ano lfloonlh of
oach monlh.
1o ll lho oala wilh lho cuivo (8.88), wo lhus uso lho liansfoimalion
T = lan
_
2
86
t
_
ano 1 = (j 6. 4408) soc
_
2
86
t
_
Foi oxamplo, lho oala foi Januaiy 1 is liansfoimoo inlo
T = lan
_
2
86
1
_
= 0.26411
1 = (7.6667 6. 4408) soc
_
2
86
1
_
= 1.268
1ho iomaining oala is likowiso liansfoimoo, iosulling in
T 1
0.26411 1.268
1.0180 1.2287
1.6761 1.0024
8.2681 0.880
4.146 2.1621
Applicalion of lho loasl squaios molhoo lo (T, 1 ) oala yiolos
1 = 1.8008 0.1808 T
Compaiing lo (8.41) iovoals lhal a = 1.8008 ano / = 0.1808. 1hus, lho soasonal
moool foi suniiso limos in Johnson Cily is
j = 6. 4408 1.8008 cos
_
2
86
t
_
0.1808 sin
_
2
86
t
_
(8.42)
1ho oiiginal oala is giaphoo along wilh lho cuivo (8.42) in lho lguio Lolow:
t
350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
NS-1: Iiooicloo sino wavo ano aclual oala
Il appoais lhal lho moool is a gooo ll of lho oala. Moioovoi, on May 1, 1000,
which is t = 121 oays sinco lho Loginning of lho yoai, lho sun ioso in Johnson Cily
al :87 a.m. Lasloin slanoaio limo. SuLsliluling t = 121 inlo (8.42) iosulls in
j = 6. 4408 1.8008 cos
_
2
86
121
_
0.1808 sin
_
2
86
121
_
= . 6010
1hal is, lho moool piooicls lhal lho sun ioso aLoul :86 a.m.
VrIte to Learn 1ho following oala sol lisls lho 80 yoai avoiago noimal lompoi-
aluios Ly monlh foi Junoau, Alaska, whoio t is in monlhs ano j is in

1.
(wo assumo lho avoiago coiiosponos lo lho mioolo of oach monlh).
Monlh Jan FoL Mai Api May Jun Jul Aug Sop Ocl Nov Doc
t 0. 1. 2. 8. 4. . 6. 7. 8. 0. 10. 11.
j 22 28 81 80 46 8 6 40 42 88 27
LLAST SQUARLS 260
1ho avoiago yoaily lompoialuio is ` = 40.1
1. 1iansfoim lho oala using

(8.40), ano lhon oslimalo a ano / Ly applying loasl squaios lo lho lians-
foimoo oala. Giaph lho oala ano lho soasonal cuivo (8.87) which Losl lls
lho oala. Incluoo lho giaph in a shoil papoi which oosciiLos youi molhoos
ano conclusions.
VrIte to Learn Hoio aio sovoial sunsol limos in Lasloin Slanoaio limo foi John-
son Cily, 1N in lho yoai 1000.
Dalo t = = of oays j = Sunsol limo
Jan. 1 1 .6888
FoL. 1 46 6.1667
Maich 1 60 6.4000
Maich 1 74 6.6167
Apiil 1 10 7.000
1ho avoiago sunsol limo is ` = 6.417 (i.o., aLoul 6:82 p.m. ). 1iansfoim
lho oala using (8.40), ano lhon oslimalo a ano / Ly applying loasl squaios
lo lho liansfoimoo oala. On Juno 1, which is t = 166 oays afloi lho
Loginning of lho yoai, lho sun sol al 7:40 oasloin slanoaio limo. Uso lho
moool lo piooicl lho sunsol on Juno 1. Wiilo a shoil papoi oosciiLing youi
iosulls ano how lhoy woio oLlainoo.
VrIte to Learn Go lo lho liLiaiy oi soaich lho inloinol lo lno moio on llling
oala lo oscillaloiy moools. 1hon wiilo a iopoil piosonling youi iosoaich.
Crou LearnIng J:j . &! Iocoio Lolh suniiso oi sunsol oala fiom youi local
papoi foi an oxlonooo poiioo of limo, ano lhon ooloimino lho numLoi of
houis of oaylighl in oach of lhoso oays. Assumo lho avoiago numLoi of houis
of oaylighl is ` = 12.2 houis, ano lhon liansfoim lho oala using (8.40).
Lslimalo a ano / Ly applying loasl squaios lo lho liansfoimoo oala, ano uso
lho iosulling moool lo oslimalo lho longlhs of lho longosl ano shoilosl oays
of lho yoai whoio you livo. 1hon havo lho lisl momLoi of lho gioup piosonl
lho oala, lho socono piosonl lho moool, lho lhiio piosonl lho ll lo lho oala,
ano lho fouilh piosonl lho conclusions.
JnnJ nr:
Much of oui woik in lhis chaploi ooponos on lho facl lhal
j
tt
= j, j (0) = j, j
t
(0) = (8.48)
has only ono solulion foi oach choico of j ano . In lho following oxoicisos, wo
oovolop a pioof of lhis facl along wilh somo olhoi inloiosling iooas aLoul lho
oiloionlial oqualion (8.48). Howovoi, oui pioof is only foi lho caso lhal j ,= 0.
1. Lofoio wo Login, wo nooo lo piovo lho following: If n ano aio non-zoio
oiloionliaLlo funclions salisfying
n
t
(a)
n(a)
=

t
(a)
(a)
(8.44)
lhon lhoio is a conslanl 1 such lhal
n(a) = 1 (a)
(a) Lol /(a) =
u(i)
u(i)
ano show lhal
/
t
(a) =
n
t
(a)
(a)

n(a)
(a)

t
(a)
(a)
(L) Uso (8.44) lo show lhal /
t
(a) = 0, ano lhus lhal /(a) = 1 foi
somo conslanl 1. Why ooos lhis imply lhal n(a) = 1 (a)
2. Now lol`s supposo lhal n(a) ano (a) aio Lolh solulions lo (8.48)lhal is,
lhal
n
tt
= n, n(0) = j, n
t
(0) = (8.4)
ano lhal
tt
= , (0) = j,
t
(0) = (8.46)
Oui goal is lo show lhal n(a) = (a) foi all a, which wo oo using lho
1:n|.nn of n ano givon Ly
\ (a) = n(a)
t
(a) n
t
(a) (a)
(a) Show lhal \
t
(a) = 0, which implios lhal \ (a) is conslanl.
(L) Lol a = 0 ano compulo \ (0) . Why ooos lhis imply lhal
n
t
(a) (a) = n(a)
t
(a)
(c) Show lhal slop (L) implios lhal
n
t
(a)
n(a)
=

t
(a)
(a)
ano oxplain why lhis implios lhal n(a) = 1 (a) foi somo conslanl
1.
(o) Lol a = 0 ano show lhal 1 = 1.
3. Iopoal lho slops in lho piovious oxoiciso lo show lhal
j
tt
.
2
j = 0, j (0) = j, j
t
(0) =
has only ono solulion. Hoio .
2
is a posilivo conslanl.
LLAST SQUARLS 271
4. lNTLCRATlON
Gollfiioo LoiLniz of Goimany inooponoonlly oovolopoo lho calculus aLoul lho
samo limo lhal Nowlon oio. Inoooo, il is LoiLniz who inliooucoo much of lho
nolalion usoo in calculus, incluoing lho symLols usoo foi oiloionlials ano foi
anliooiivalivos (wo say lhal 1 (a) is an anliooiivalivo of ) (a) if 1
t
(a) = ) (a)).
Howovoi, LoiLniz`s oovolopmonl of calculus was nol molivaloo Ly a oosiio lo sluoy
volocilios ano accoloialions.
Insloao, LoiLniz was molivaloo in his oovolopmonl of calculus Ly lho pioLlom
of lnoing lho aioa of lho iogion unooi a cuivo.
Inoooo, lho oosiio lo appioximalo ano calculalo aioas loaos us lo a now lool
ano a now concopl in calculuslhal of lho J]n. .nj:n|.
Liko LoiLniz, oui goal in lhis chaploi is lo oovolop lho oolnilo inlogial inlo a
lool which can Lo usoo lo oxploio lho goomoliy of a iogion oi a solio. Wo will
Login Ly oxploiing a molhoo foi appioximaling a funclion ovoi an inloival [a, /[ .
Wo will lhon oovolop lhis molhoo of appioximalion inlo lho lool known as lho
J]n. .nj:n|. Mosl impoilanlly, wo will soo lhal lhoio is a connoclion Lolwoon
anliooiivalivos ano oolnilo inlogials, a connoclion wo now call lho 1&nJnnnn|
Jh:n J n|&|&.
Finally, wo will soo lhal lho concopl of lho oolnilo inlogial is funoamonlal
lo many scionlilc ano malhomalical puisuils, incluoing oiloionlial oqualions,
pioLaLilily, goomoliy, ano mochanics. Inoooo, much of lwonliolh conluiy scionco
is Lasoo on lho concopl of lho oolnilo inlogial, ano much of lwonliolh conluiy
malhomalics has Loon oovoloo lo oxpanoing lho oolnilion of lho oolnilo inlogial.
Ano noaily all of lwonliolh conluiy malhomalics ano scionco has ulilizoo ano
Lonolloo fiom lho funoamonlal lhooiom of calculus.
4.1 Simple FuncLion ApproximaLion
Har CraLs and SInIe FunctIons
Doiivalivos ano linoaiizalion appioximalo a funclion only noai a givon poinl. In
many applicalions, il is nocossaiy lo appioximalo a funclion ) (a) ovoi an onliio
inloival [a, /[ .
1ho main lool foi consliucling such appioximalions is lho hn: j:nh. Givon
a funclion j = ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ , a Lai giaph is a colloclion of non-ovoilapping
lNTLCRATlON 278
ioclangulai Lais covoiing [a, /[ whoso lops inloisocl lho giaph.
1-1: Lai giaph appioximalion of j = ) (a) ovoi [a, /[
Malhomalically, a Lai giaph is known as a .n| J&n.n n:r.nn.n of a
givon funclion ) (a) ovoi an inloival [a, /[ .
1o consliucl a simplo funclion appioximalion (i.o., a Lai giaph) of a funclion
) (a) ovoi an inloival [a, /[ , wo lisl oivioo lho inloival inlo : soclions calloo
&h.n:n|, whoio : is lho numLoi of ioclanglos lo Lo usoo in lho Lai giaph. If
all lho suLinloivals havo lho samo wiolh, lhon lho appioximalion is saio lo Lo
:j&|n:.
1hioo lypos of simplo funclion appioximalions aio pailiculaily impoilanl in
calculus. If lho hoighl of oach Lai coiiosponos lo lho valuo of ) al lho lofl of lho
suLinloival, lhon lho appioximalion is a |J nJ.n n:r.nn.n. If lho hoighl
coiiosponos lo lho iighl, il is a :.jh nJ.n appioximalion.
1-2: Lofl ano iighl onopoinl appioximalions
Similaily, if lho hoighl of oach Lai coiiosponos lo lho valuo of ) ovoi lho miopoinl
of lho suLinloival, lhon lho appioximalion is calloo a n.J.n n:r.nn.n.
1-8: A miopoinl appioximalion
IXAMIII 1 Diaw lofl onopoinl, iighl onopoinl, ano miopoinl ap-
pioximalions lo j = a
2
1 ovoi [1, 2[ using 6 Lais.
SoIutIon: In oiooi lo havo 6 Lais ovoi [1, 2[ which is 8 unils long,
oach Lai will havo a wiolh of
l
2
unil. 1ho lofl onopoinl appioximalion
274 lNTLCRATlON
has hoighls lhal coiiospono lo lho lofl onopoinls. Foi oxamplo, on lho
lisl inloival [1, 12[ , lho Lai will havo a hoighl of j = (1)
2
1 = 2.
1-4: Lofl ano iighl onopoinl appioximalions
Convoisoly, lho iighl onopoinl appioximalion has hoighls coiiospono-
ing lo iighl onopoinls. Foi oxamplo, on lho lisl inloival [1, 12[ ,
lho Lai will havo a hoighl of j = (12)
2
1 = 1.2.
In lho miopoinl appioximalion, lho hoighl coiiosponos lo lho miopoinl
of lho inloival. Foi oxamplo, on lho lisl inloival [1, 12[ , lho Lai
will havo a hoighl of j = (84)
2
1 = 1. 62.
1-: A miopoinl appioximalion
1hn . h h.jh J h |n :nnj| .n h :.jh nJ.n n:r.nn.n .n Chock youi Ioaoing
rnn| 1
Tagged IartItIons and SInIe FunctIons
Lol`s oovolop somo loiminology foi consliucling a simplo funclion appioximalion
of a funclion ) (a) ovoi an inloival [a, /[. Fiisl, wo oivioo [a, /[ inlo a colloclion
of : smalloi inloivals [a
l
, a
[ , = 1, . . . , :. 1his is known as n:..n.nj lho

inloival. Wo lhon chooso a singlo numLoi t
fiom oach suLinloival [a

l
, a
[ . 1his
is known as njj.nj lho paililion.
DehnItIon 1.1: A sol of numLois a
, t
n
=l
is calloo a njjJ n:.-
.n of [a, /[ if
a = a
0
< a
l
< . . . < a
n
= / (4.1)
ano if t
is in [a
l
, a
[ foi all = 1, . . . , :..

SlMPLL FUNCTlON APPROXlMATlON 27
1ho inloivals [a
0
, a
l
[, [a
l
, a
2
[, . . . , [a
nl
, a
n
[ aio calloo lho &h.n:n| of lho pai-
lilion, ano lho numLois t
l
, t
2
, . . . , t
n
aio calloo lho nj of lho suLinloivals. 1ho
quanlilios â
= a
a
l
aio lho &.Jh of lho suLinloivals, iospoclivoly.
1-6: A laggoo paililion of [a, /[.
1ho valuos of ) al lho lags aio lhon usoo lo gonoialo lho hoighls of lho Lais" of
lho simplo funclion appioximalion.
DehnItIon 1.2: 1ho .n| J&n.n n:r.nn.n of ) (a) jn:nJ
hj n njjJ n:..n a
, t
n
=l
is oolnoo
- (a) =
_
_
) (t
l
) i) a
0
_ a < a
l
) (t
2
) i) a
l
_ a < a
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
) (t
n
) i) a
nl
_ a _ a
n
(4.2)
If lho lags aio lho n.J.n of lho suLinloivals of lho paililion, lhon - (a) is calloo
a n.J.n n:r.nn.n of ) (a). Likowiso, if lho lags aio lho lofl onopoinls, lhon
- (a) is calloo a |J nJ.n n:r.nn.n, ano if lho lags aio lho iighl onopoinls,
lhon - (a) is a iighl onopoinl appioximalion.
1-7: 1hioo lypos of Simplo Funclion Appioximalions
Nolico lhal lho voilical linos in lguio 17 aio nol pail of lho giaph of - (a) .
1hoy aio simply incluooo foi omphasis ano lo illuslialo lho connoclion of a simplo
funclion appioximalion lo a Lai giaph.
IXAMIII 2 Consliucl lho miopoinl appioximalion of ) (a) = a
2
1 ovoi lho inloival [1, 2[ givon lho paililion

a
0
= 1, a
l
= 0., a
2
= 0, a
3
= 0., a
d
= 1, a
5
= 1., a
6
= 2
(4.8)
SoIutIon: Sinco (4.8) foims a paililion of [0, 1[ , a miopoinl appioxi-
malion oiclalos lhal lho lags aio lho miopoinls
t
l
= 0.7, t
2
= 0.2, t
3
= 0.2, t
d
= 0.7, t
5
= 1.2, t
6
= 1.7
(4.4)
Moioovoi, ) (t
l
) = (0.7)
2
1 = 1.62. 1hus, - (a) = 1.62 whon
a is in [1, 0.). Likowiso, ) (t
2
) = (0.2)
2
1 = 1.062, so - (a) =
276 lNTLCRATlON
1.062 whon a is in [0., 0). 1ho miopoinl appioximalion of ) (a) =
a
2
foi lho paililion (4.8) wilh lags (4.4) is
- (a) =
_
_
1.62 i) 1 _ a < 0.
1.062 i) 0. _ a < 0
1.062 i) 0 _ a < 0.
1.62 i) 0. _ a < 1
2.62 i) 1 _ a < 1.
4.062 i) 1. _ a _ 2
(4.)
1ho giaph of - (a) voisus ) (a) = a
2
1 ovoi [1, 2[ is shown in lho samo
as lguio 1- aLovo. Howovoi, wo iopoal lho giaph hoio foi omphasis..
1-: A miopoinl appioximalion
5|h h j:nh J h .n| J&n.n Chock youi Ioaoing
- (a) =
_
_
1 i) 0 _ a < 2
8 i) 2 _ a < 4
2 i) 4 _ a < 6
i) 6 _ a < 8
TaLuIar ConstructIon oI SInIe FunctIons
Wo oflon uso laLlos lo oiganizo oui consliuclion of simplo funclion appioxima-
lions. Foi oxamplo, lol us consliucl lho miopoinl appioximalion of ) (a) = ac
i
ovoi lho inloival [0, 1.[ wilh lho paililion
a
0
= 0, a
l
= 0.1, a
2
= 0.8, a
3
= 0.6, a
d
= 1.0, a
5
= 1. (4.6)
1o oo so, wo placo lho oala in (4.6) inlo a laLlo, ano lhon oolno lho column of
lags lo Lo lho n:nj of lho columns laLoloo a
l
ano a
,
a
l
a
) (t
)
1 0.0 0.1 0.0
2 0.1 0.8 0.2
8 0.8 0.6 0.84
4 0.6 1.0 0.8
1.0 1. 1.2
Wo complolo lho lasl column Ly ovalualing ) (a) on lho lags (lo 8 oocimal placos
of accuiacy):
a
l
a
) (t
)
1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0c
0.05
= 0.048
2 0.1 0.8 0.2 0.2c
0.2
= 0. 164
8 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.4c
0.d5
= 0. 287
4 0.6 1.0 0.8 0.8c
0.S
= 0. 80
1.0 1. 1.2 1.2c
l.25
= 0. 88
As a iosull, lho miopoinl appioximalion is
- (a) =
_
_
0.048 i) 0.0 _ a < 0.1
0.164 i) 0.1 _ a < 0.8
0.287 i) 0.8 _ a < 0.6
0.80 i) 0.6 _ a < 1.0
0.88 i) 1.0 _ a _ 1.
which is shown Lolow along wilh lho funclion ) (a) = ac
i
:
x
1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1-0: Miopoinl appioximalion of ) (a) = ac
i
ovoi [0, 1.[
IXAMIII 2 Appioximalo ) (a) = sin(a) ovoi lho inloival [0, [
using lho paililion
a
0
= 0, a
l
=

6
, a
2
=

4
, a
3
=

8
, a
d
=

2
, a
5
= (4.7)
SoIutIon: Foi a lofl onopoinl appioximalion, lho column of lags is
lho samo as lho column laLoloo a
l
:
a
l
a
= ) (t
)
1 0
t
6
0 sin(0) = 0
2
t
6
t
d
t
6
sin
_
t
6
_
=
l
2
8
t
d
t
3
t
d
sin
_
t
d
_
=
_
2
2
4
t
3
t
2
t
3
sin
_
t
3
_
=
_
3
2
t
2

t
2
sin
_
t
2
_
= 1
As a iosull, lho lofl onopoinl appioximalion is
- (a) =
_
_
0 i) 0 _ a <
t
6
l
2
i)
t
6
_ a <
t
d _
2
2
i)
t
d
_ a <
t
3 _
3
2
i)
t
3
_ a <
t
2
1 i)
t
2
_ a _
(4.8)
1h.h & |&nn n: h nn .n n :.jh nJ.n n:r.nn.n Chock youi Ioaoing
HeguIar IartItIons
A :j&|n: n:..n of an inloival [a, /[ is a paililion of [a, /[ in which oach suLin-
loival has lho samo wiolh, â.
1-10: A iogulai paililion of [a, /[
278 lNTLCRATlON
A iogulai paililion wilh suLinloivals of wiolh â is also known as a â-n:..n
J [a, /[ .
If a
0
, a
l
, . . . , a
n
is a iogulai paililion of [a, /[ wilh : suLinloivals, lhon
â =
/ a
:
ano a
= a â foi all = 0, 1, . . . , :.
IXAMIII J Consliucl lho iighl onopoinl appioximalion of ln(a)
ovoi a iogulai paililion of [1, 2[ wilh â = 0.2 (i.o., ovoi a 0.2-paililion
of [1, 2[ .
SoIutIon: Il follows lhal lho paililion is
a
0
= 1, a
l
= 1.2, a
2
= 1.4, a
3
= 1.6, a
d
= 1.8, a
5
= 2.0
Wo lhus complolo lho following laLlo (lo oocimal placos of accuiacy),
a
l
a
) (t
)
1 1.0 1.2 1.2 ln(1.2) = 0.18282
2 1.2 1.4 1.4 ln(1.4) = 0.88647
8 1.4 1.6 1.6 ln(1.6) = 0.47000
4 1.6 1.8 1.8 ln(1.8) = 0.8770
1.8 2.0 2.0 ln(2.0) = 0.6081
which loaos lo lho following iighl onopoinl appioximalion:
- (a) =
_
_
0.18282 i) 1 _ a < 1.2
0.88647 i) 1.2 _ a < 1.4
0.47000 i) 1.4 _ a < 1.6
0.8770 i) 1.6 _ a < 1.8
0.6081 i) 1.8 _ a _ 2.0
(4.0)
1ho giaph of - (a) is shown voisus ln(a) Lolow:
2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1-11: Iighl onopoinl appioximalion of ) (a) = ln(a) ovoi [1, 2[
IXAMIII ! Consliucl lho miopoinl appioximalion of a
2
ovoi a
iogulai paililion of [0, 2[ wilh â = 0..
SoIutIon: Il follows lhal lho paililion is
a
0
= 0, a
l
= 0., a
2
= 1, a
3
= 1., a
d
= 2
Wo lhus complolo lho following laLlo
a
l
a
) (t
)
1 0 0. 0.2 (0.2)
2
= 0.062
2 0. 1.0 0.7 (0.7)
2
= 0.62
8 1.0 1. 1.2 (1.2)
2
= 1.62
4 1. 2.0 1.7 (1.7)
2
= 8.062
which loaos lo lho following iighl onopoinl appioximalion:
- (a) =
_
_
0.062 i) 0.0 _ a < 0.
0.62 i) 0. _ a < 1.0
1.62 i) 1.0 _ a < 1.
8.062 i) 1. _ a _ 2.0
(4.10)
1ho giaph of - (a) is shown voisus ) (a) = a
2
Lolow:
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
4
3
2
1
0
1-12: Miopoinl appioximalion of ) (a) = a
2
ovoi [0, 2[
Lxoicisos:
5|h |J nJ.n, :.jh nJ.n, nnJ n.J.n n:r.nn.n h j.n
&: : h .n:n| .n|.J hj h j:nh. 1 n :nnj|, &h: n . j.n.
1. j = a
3
8a
2
1, : = 4 2. j = sin(a) , : =
x
4 3 2 1 0
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
x
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
8. j = a 2
i
, : = 4 4. j =
1
1 a
, : = 4
x
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
x
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
5
4
3
2
1
280 lNTLCRATlON
G:nh h J||&.nj .n| J&n.n.
. -(a) =
_
_
_
8 i) 0 _ a < 1
1 i) 1 _ a < 8
2 i) 8 _ a _ 4
6. -(a) =
_
_
_
2 i) 0 _ a < 2
1 i) 2 _ a < 8
1 i) 8 _ a _ 4
7. -(a) =
_
_
_
1. i) 0 _ a < 2
1.2 i) 2 _ a < 8
1.8 i) 8 _ a _ 4
8. -(a) =
_
_
_
1. i) 0 _ a < 2
0.4 i) 2 _ a < 4
1.8 i) 4 _ a _ 6
n:& h n.J.n n:r.nn.n nh J&n.n h|& : h j.n n:-
..n, nnJ hn j:nh h J&n.n nnJ . n.J.n n:r.nn.n.
0. )(a) =
l
2
a 4 a
0
= 1, a
l
= 0, a
2
= 1, a
3
= 2
10. )(a) = 2a 1 a
0
= 0, a
l
= 0., a
2
= 1.0, a
3
= 1.
11. )(a) = a
2
1 a
0
= 1, a
l
= 1.2, a
2
= 1.4, a
3
= 1.6, a
d
= 1.8
12. r(a) = 2
i
a
0
= 0, a
l
= 0.8, a
2
= 0.6, a
3
= 0.0, a
d
= 1.2
18. ) (a) = c
i/2
iogulai paililion of [0, 2[ wilh â = 0.4
14. ) (a) = c
i
c
i
1. ) (a) = cos (a) iogulai paililion of [0, [ wilh â =
t
6
16. ) (a) = ln(a 1) iogulai paililion of [0, c[ wilh â =
t
d
n:& h |J nJ.n n:r.nn.n n h j.n n:..n, nnJ hn j:nh
h J&n.n nnJ h :&|.nj n:r.nn.n.
17. )(a) =
l
2
a 4 a
0
= 1, a
l
= 0, a
2
= 1, a
3
= 2
18. )(a) = 2a 1 a
0
= 1, a
l
= 1.2, a
2
= 1.4, a
3
= 1.6, a
d
= 1.8
10. )(a) = a
2
1 iogulai paililion of [0, 1.[ wilh â = 0.
20. ) (a) = a
2
iogulai paililion of
_
0,
_
82
wilh â =
_
2
21. ) (a) = c
i/2
22. ) (a) = cos (a) iogulai paililion of [0, [ wilh â =
t
6
n:& h .n| J&n.n n:r.nn.n J h j.n J&n.n hj n|.nj
h nh| |..nj h n:..n Jnn. Jhn j:nh h J&n.n nnJ . .n| J&n.n
n:r.nn.n.
28. ) (a) = a
3
a
l
a
) (t
)
1 1 8 2
2 8 4 8
8 4
4 7 6
24. ) (a) = ln(a)
a
l
a
) (t
)
1 1 c
2
c
2 c
2
c
d
c
3
8 c
d
c
6
c
5
4 c
6
c
S
c
7
25. Dolno a simplo funclion which moools lho following piocoss. Foi lho lisl
lfloon minulos of a coilain houi, John oiovo his cai al 60 m.p.h., Lul foi
lho noxl lwonly minulos, ho oiovo al only 40 m.p.h. Foi lon minulos afloi
lhal, ho oiovo only 80 m.p.h., ano lhon foi lho lasl lfloon minulos, ho oiovo
al 6 m.p.h.
26. Dolno a simplo funclion which moools lho following piocoss. A coilain slock
Logins lho oay al $8, Lul afloi an houi lho piico climLs lo $40. 1hiily
minulos laloi, lho piico has iison lo $4, whoio il slays foi an houi. Il lhon
oiops Lack lo $42, iomaining lhoio foi an houi ano a half. Il lhon iallios
ano solls foi $0 foi lho noxl houi, afloi which il oiops lo $48 foi an houi.
1ho piico lhon oiops lo $40 foi anolhoi houi, ano lhon lnishos lho lasl houi
of lho oay al $4.
27. Dolno a simplo funclion which moools lho following piocoss. 1ho unomploy-
monl ialo foi lho lisl monlh of lho yoai is /, Lul il iisos lo 6./ foi lho
noxl lwo monlhs. 1ho fouilh monlh soos a slighl ooclino lo .8/. Foi lho
noxl monlh ano a half, lho unomploymonl ialo is ./, afloi which il oiops
lo 4.0/ foi lho lnal half of lho sixlh monlh.
28. A lighl of slops iopiosonls a simplo funclion. Diaw lho simplo funclion lhal
coiiosponos lo 18 slops oach wilh a wiolh of 12 inchos ano a iiso of 6 inchos.
29. Iiovo lho following: If a simplo funclion is mulliplioo Ly a conslanl, lhon
lho iosull is also a simplo funclion.
30. Iiovo lho following: 1ho sum of lwo simplo funclions is a simplo funclion.
31. Iiovo lho following: 1ho oiloionco of lwo simplo funclions is a simplo func-
lion.
32. Is lho piooucl of simplo funclions also a simplo funclion 1iy il oul. Dolno
-
l
(a) =
_
_
0.048 i) 0.0 _ a < 0.1
0.164 i) 0.1 _ a < 0.8
0.287 i) 0.8 _ a < 0.6
0.80 i) 0.6 _ a < 0.0
0.88 i) 0.0 _ a _ 1.0
-
2
(a) =
_
_
2 i) 0.0 _ a < 0.1
8.2 i) 0.1 _ a < 0.2
4.82 i) 0.2 _ a < 0.8
4.016 i) 0.8 _ a < 0.4
4.000 i) 0.4 _ a _ 1.0
ano lhon giaph lhoii piooucl ovoi [0, 1[. Is il a simplo funclion
33. Hoio wo oxploio lho simplo funclion
- (a) =
_
_
1 i) 0 _ a < 2
8 i) 2 _ a < 4
2 i) 4 _ a < 6
i) 6 _ a _ 8
(a) Lxplain why -
t
(a) = 0 as long as a is nol an ovon inlogoi in [0, 10[.
(L) Cloaily, - (a) is nol conslanl, ano yol ils ooiivalivo is 0 oxcopl al
foui poinls. Why ooos lhis nol conliaoicl lhooiom 1.2 in soclion 1
of chaploi 8
(c) Giaph lho lwo piocowiso-oolnoo funclions shown Lolow:
o
l
(a) =
_
_
a 1 i) 0 _ a < 2
8a 2 i) 2 _ a < 4
2a 8 i) 4 _ a < 6
a 4 i) 6 _ a _ 8
o
2
(a) =
_
_
a 4 i) 0 _ a < 2
8a 2 i) 2 _ a < 4
2a 8 i) 4 _ a < 6
a i) 6 _ a _ 8
Lxplain why o
t
l
(a) = o
t
2
(a) = - (a) oxcopl whon a is an ovon
inlogoi in [0, 10[. Do o
l
(a) ano o
2
(a) oiloi Ly a conslanl Why
ooos lhis nol conliaoicl whal wo piovoo oailioi in lho loxl
282 lNTLCRATlON
34. Lol o (a) oonolo lho piocowiso oolnoo funclion
o (a) =
_
_
c
l
a /
l
i) a
0
_ a < a
l
c
2
a /
2
i) a
l
_ a < a
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
c
n
a /
n
i) a
nl
_ a _ a
n
Whal is o
t
(a) Why ooos o
t
(a) nol oopono on lho valuos of /
l
, /
2
, . . . , /
n
Jh : nnJ .|.nj J&n.n n: J]nJ hj

)|oor (a) = a| = laigosl inlogoi _ a
cci| (a) = a| = smallosl inlogoi _ a
1: rnn|, 2.8| = 2 nnJ 2.8| = 8. 1J ) (a) . n.n&& n [a, /[ nnJ .J
/ 0, hn h J&n.n
1
|
(a) = /
_
) (a)
/
_
a:d l
|
(a) = /
_
) (a)
/
_
n: .n| J&n.n n||J |&: nnJ &: n:r.nn.n, :.|j. 1n r:-
. -., & r|: n J h ::. J &: nnJ |&: n:r.nn.n
35. CraLer: Giaph lho uppoi ano lowoi appioximalions of ) (a) = 8a 1 on
[0, 2[ using / = 0.2. 1hal is, giaph ) ovoi [0, 2[ along wilh lho funclions
1
0.25
(a) = 0.2
_
8a 1
0.2
_
a:d l
0.25
(a) = 0.2
_
8a 1
0.2
_
36. CraLer: Giaph lho uppoi ano lowoi appioximalions of ) (a) = a
2
on [0, 1[
using / = 0.1. 1hal is, giaph ) ovoi [0, 1[ along wilh lho funclions
1
0.l
(a) = 0.1
_
a
2
0.1
_
a:d l
0.l
(a) = 0.1
_
a
2
0.1
_
37. VrIte to Learn: Lol [c, d[ Lo an inloival on lho j-axis lhal conlains lho
iango of a Lounooo funclion ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ , ano supposo wo paililion [c, d[
inlo a iogulai paililion in which oach suLinloival has a wiolh of /. Show lhal
1
|
(a) is lho laigosl simplo funclion wilh oulpuls oolnoo Ly lho paililion
of [c, d[ lhal lios h|& ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ .
Similaily, show lhal l
|
(a) is lho smallosl simplo funclion nh ) (a) ovoi
[a, /[ whoso iango coiiosponos lo lho /-iogulai paililion of [c, d[ .
38. Consliucl 1
0.l
(a) ano l
0.l
(a) foi ) (a) =
_
a on [0, 4[ , / = 0.2 using a
0.2-paililion of lho iango of
_
a ovoi [0, 4[ ano lho oiscussion in oxoiciso
87.
39. * VrIte to Learn: Show lhal if ) is conlinuous on [a, /[ ano a is in [a, /[,
lhon
lim
|0
1
|
(a) = ) (a)
(Hinl: Lxplain why if
}(i)
|
has a oocimal oxpansion of d
0
.d
l
d
2
. . . whoio d
0
is an inlogoi ano d
l
, d
2
, . . . aio oigils fiom 0 up lo 0, lhon
) (a)
/

_
) (a)
/
_
= 0.d
l
d
2
. . . < 1
1hon mulliply Ly [/[ ano uso lho squoozo lhooiom.)
40. * VrIte to Learn: Show lhal if ) is conlinuous on [a, /[ ano a is in [a, /[,
lhon
lim
|0
l
|
(a) = ) (a)
(Hinl: Similai lo oxoiciso 80).
41. Show lhal 1
|
(a) = l
|
(a) . Whal is l
|
(a)
42. VrIte to Learn: Consiooi lho funclion
) (a) =
_
0 i) a i- a ratio:a| :n:/cr
1 i) a i- a: irratio:a| :n:/cr
Foi oach /, whal aio 1
|
(a) ano l
|
(a) whon a is ialional Whon a is
iiialional Aio 1
|
(a) ano l
|
(a) simplo funclions Lxplain.
4.2 Riemann Sum ApproximaLions
Area \nder a Curve
Lol`s consiooi somo applicalions of simplo funclion appioximalion. Wo Login wilh
lho uso of simplo funclions lo appioximalo lho aioa of lho iogion unooi j = ) (a)
ano ovoi [a, /[ .
2-1: 1ho iogion unooi j = ) (a) ano ovoi [a, /[ .
1o oo so, wo appioximalo ) (a) wilh a simplo funclion ano nolico lhal lho
giaph of a simplo funclion is a colloclion of : ioclanglos wilh hoighls ) (t
) ano
284 lNTLCRATlON
wiolhs â
, whoio t
is lho lag ano â
is lho wiolh of lho suLinloival [a

l
, a
).
2-2: Aioa of
||
ioclanglo is ) (t
) â
1hal is, lho lisl ioclanglo has aioa ) (t

l
) â
l
, lho socono ioclanglo has aioa
) (t
2
) â
2
, ano so on
2-8: Appioximalion wilh ioclanglos
1ho aioa of lho iogion is lhus appioximaloo Ly lho sum of lho aioas of lho ioc-
langlos:
rca - ) (t
l
) â
l
) (t
2
) â
2
. . . ) (t
n
) â
n
(4.11)
Oflon wo uso lho nolalion , which is pionouncoo Sigma," lo oonolo lho opoialion
of summalion, so lhal wo can wiilo lho sum in (4.11) in compacl foim as
n
=l
) (t
) â
= ) (t
l
) â
l
) (t
2
) â
2
. . . ) (t
n
) â
n
DehnItIon 2.1: If a
, t
n
=l
is a laggoo paililion of [a, /[ ano ) (a)
is oolnoo on [a, /[ , lhon
n
=l
) (t
) â
is calloo a 1.nnnn &n appioximalion of ) (a) : [a, /[.

1hus, if ) (a) _ 0 on [a, /[ , lhon lho aioa of lho iogion unooi j = ) (a) ovoi [a, /[
is appioximaloo Ly a Iiomann sum.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho Iiomann sum appioximalion of lho aioa of
lho iogion unooi j = a
2
ovoi [0, 1[ using lho iighl onopoinl appioxi-
malion ovoi lho paililion
a
0
= 0, a
l
= 0.8, a
2
= 0., a
3
= 0.7, a
d
= 0.0, a
5
= 1.0 (4.12)
RlLMANN SUM APPROXlMATlONS 28
SoIutIon: 1o compulo a Iiomann sum appioximalion, wo aoo a col-
umn of aioas ) (t
) â
lo lho laLulai calculalions of simplo funclion

appioximalions in lho lasl soclion.
a
l
a
) (t
) â
) (t
) â
1 0.0 0.8 0.8

2 0.8 0. 0.
8 0. 0.7 0.7
4 0.7 0.0 0.0
0.0 1.0 1.0
5
|=l
) (t
) â
Sinco ) (t
) = t
2
, lho iosull is as follows:

a
l
a
t
2
â
t
2
â
1 0.0 0.8 0.8 0.00 0.8 (0.00) (0.8) = 0.027

2 0.8 0. 0. 0.2 0.2 (0.2) (0.2) = 0.00
8 0. 0.7 0.7 0.40 0.2 (0.40) (0.2) = 0.008
4 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.81 0.2 (0.81) (0.2) = 0.162
0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.1 (1.0) (0.1) = 0.1
5
|=l
t
2
â
= sum
Summing ovoi lho lasl column lhon yiolos oui appioximalion
rca -
5
|=l
t
2
â
= 0.027 0.00 0.008 0.162 0.1 = 0.487

2-4: A Iiomann Sum Appioximalion of j = a
2
A calculaloi oi compuloi can Lo usoo lo appioximalo aioas Ly using similai molh-
oos lo appioximalo a J]n. .nj:n|
_
b
o
) (a) da. Foi oxamplo, using Maplo c _ lo
oslimalo
_
l
0
a
2
da lo sovon oocimal placos iosulls in
_
l
0
a
2
da = 0. 8888888
1his is lho aclual aioa of lho iogion unooi j = a
2
ovoi [0, 1[ lo 7 oocimal placos.
1& | nn j&: n|&|n: n h rn n|& J: rnn| 1 J Chock youi Ioaoing
rca =
1
8
286 lNTLCRATlON
AIdoInt AroxInatIons oI Area
If ) (a) is linoai, lhon lho ovoishool on ono sioo of lho miopoinl is oxaclly lho
samo as lho unooishool on lho olhoi sioo of lho miopoinl.
2-: Miopoinl Appioximalion of a Linoai Funclion
1hus, lho miopoinl appioximalion is oxacl whon j = ) (a) is a sliaighl lino.
IXAMIII 2 Calculalo lho aioa of lho iogion unooi j = 2 a ano
ovoi [0, 2[ lisl Ly using simplo goomoliy ano lhon Ly using a miopoinl
appioximalion.
SoIutIon: Sinco lho iogion unooi j = 2 a on lho inloival [0, 2[ is a
iighl liianglo wilh Laso 2 ano hoighl 2, wo havo
rca =
1
2
2 2 = 2
x
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Lol`s apply lho miopoinl appioximalion using lho iiiogulai paililion
a
0
= 0, a
l
= 0.2, a
2
= 1.0, a
3
= 1.4, a
d
= 1.6, a
5
= 2.0
1o oo so, wo consliucl lho laLlo Lolow:
a
l
a
2 t
â
(2 t
) â
1 0.0 0.2 0.1 1.0 0.2 0.88

2 0.2 1.0 0.6 1.4 0.8 1.12
8 1.0 1.4 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.82
4 1.4 1.6 1. 0. 0.2 0.10
1.6 2.0 1.8 0.2 0.4 0.08
5
=l
(2 t
) â
1ho miopoinl appioximalion lhus yiolos

rca -
5
=l
(2 t
) â
= 0.88 1.12 0.82 0.10 0.08 = 2

As oxpocloo, lho miopoinl appioximalion yiolos lho oxacl valuo of lho
inlogial.
Moioovoi, if ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo ano lho suLinloivals of lho paililion aio sum-
cionlly shoil, lho giaph of ) (a) is piaclically a sliaighl lino ovoi oach suLinloival,
in which caso lho miopoinl appioximalion is lho Losl of lho lhioo molhoos wo`vo
soon lhus fai.
2-6: Unooishools lono lo cancol ovoishools
IXAMIII J Fino lho Iiomann sum appioximalion of lho aioa of
lho iogion unooi j = a
2
ovoi [0, 1[ using lho lofl onopoinl appioxima-
lion ovoi lho paililion
a
0
= 0, a
l
= 0.2, a
2
= 0.4, a
3
= 0.6, a
d
= 0.8, a
5
= 1.0
SoIutIon: 1ho calculalion is similai lo lhoso in oxamplos 1 ano 2:
a
l
a
t
2
â
t
2
â
1 0.0 0.2 0.1 (0.1)

2
= 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.2 = 0.002
2 0.2 0.4 0.8 (0.8)
2
= 0.00 0.2 0.00 0.2 = 0.018
8 0.4 0.6 0. (0.)
2
= 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 = 0.00
4 0.6 0.8 0.7 (0.7)
2
= 0.40 0.2 0.40 0.2 = 0.008
0.8 1.0 0.0 (0.0)
2
= 0.81 0.2 0.81 0.2 = 0.162
n
=l
t
2
â
Summing ovoi lho lasl column lhon yiolos oui appioximalion

rca -
n
=l
t
2
â
= 0.002 0.018 0.0 0.008 0.162 = 0.88

Nolico lhal lhis is much closoi lo lho aclual valuo of rca =
l
3
lhan is lho iighl
onopoinl appioximalion in oxamplo 1.
1 ]j&: .-7 r|n.n &hj h n.J.n n:r.nn.n .n rnn| . h: Chock youi Ioaoing
hnn h |J nJ.n n:r.nn.n.
2-7: Which ono is Lolloi
288 lNTLCRATlON
DIsIacenent and YeIocIty
If an oLjocl moving in a sliaighl lino has a volocily of (t) al limo t, lhon il movos
fiom a posilion r (a) lo a posilion r (/) ovoi lho limo inloival [a, /[ . 1ho oiloionco
r (/) r (a) is calloo lho J.|nnn of lho oLjocl ano can Lo oilhoi posilivo oi
nogalivo.
2-8: Displacomonl of a falling oLjocl
Wo can uso Iiomann sums lo oslimalo lho oisplacomonl.
1o oo so, lol us paililion lho limo inloival [a, /[ inlo a laggoo paililion t
, j
whoio lho lags aio oonoloo j
. If lho suLinloivals aio small onough, lhon lho

volocily will Lo noaily conslanl acioss oach suLinloival.
2-0: Iaililion so lhal (t) is noaily conslanl ovoi oach suLinloival
Foi a conslanl volocily ovoi [t
0
, t
l
[ , lho oisplacomonl ^r
l
is lho piooucl of lho
volocily (j
l
) ano lho ouialion ^t
l
= t
l
t
0
. 1hus, lho now posilion r (t
l
) is
appioximaloly lho sum of lho olo posilion r (t
0
) ano lho chango in posilion ^r
l
:
r (t
l
) - r (t
0
) ^r
l
= r (t
0
) (j
l
) ^t
l
Duiing lho noxl limo inloival [t
l
, t
2
[ , lho oLjocl will movo appioximaloly ^r
2
=
(j
2
) ^t
2
, so lhal r (t
2
) is appioximaloly
r (t
2
) - r (t
l
) ^r
2
- r (t
0
) (j
l
) ^t
l
(j
2
) ^t
2
Similaily foi [t
2
, t
3
[ ano so on, unlil onco wo ioach [t
nl
, t
n
[ , wo oLlain
r (t
n
) - r (t
nl
) ^r
n
- r (t
0
) (j
l
) ^t
l
. . . (j
n
) ^t
n
Howovoi, sinco t
0
= a ano t
n
= /, lhis yiolos
r (/) - r (a) (j
l
) ^t
l
. . . (j
n
) ^t
n
so lhal lho oisplacomonl r (/) r (a) is appioximaloo Ly
r (/) r (a) -
n
=l
(j
n
) ^t
n
(4.18)
Moioovoi, lho oisplacomonl may Lo nogalivo (such as if lho oLjocl is falling).
IXAMIII ! An piojoclilo falls fioma hoighl of 64 fool lo lho giouno
ovoi lho limo inloival [0, 2[ wilh volocily (t) = 82t.
2-10: Lall oiops fiom 64 fool lo lho giouno
Uso a miopoinl appioximalion lo oslimalo lho oisplacomonl of lho
piojoclilo ovoi [1., 2[ ovoi lho iogulai paililion
1., 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.0, 2.0
SoIutIon: Locauso (t) is linoai, lho miopoinl appioximalion will Lo
oxacl.
t
l
t
(j
) ^t
(j
) ^t
1 1. 1.6 1. 40.6 0.1 4.06

2 1.6 1.7 1.6 2.8 0.1 .28
8 1.7 1.8 1.7 6.0 0.1 .60
4 1.8 1.0 1.8 0.2 0.1 .02
1.0 2.0 1.0 62.4 0.1 6.24
5
=l
(j
) ^t
- 28
1hus, wo oslimalo lhal lho piojoclilo will fall appioximaloly
r (2) r (1.) -
5
=l
(j
) ^t
= 28 )cct
ouiing ils lasl half socono of lighl.
Jh ..n J&n.n J: rnn| . r (t) = 64 16t
2
. 1& J h J.|n- Chock youi Ioaoing
nn r (2) r (1.) nn: &.h h .nn .n rnn|
TLe TraezoIdaI HuIe
Wo can also appioximalo aioas Ly n:nj.nj lho lofl ano iighl onopoinl molh-
oos. Inoooo, ovoi a iogulai paililion whoso suLinloivals havo a wiolh â, a lofl
onopoinl Iiomann sum is of lho foim
rca - ) (a
0
) â ) (a
l
) â . . . ) (a
nl
) â
- â[) (a
0
) ) (a
l
) . . . ) (a
nl
)[ (4.14)
Likowiso, lho iighl onopoinl Iiomann sum appioximalion is of lho foim
rca - ) (a
l
) â ) (a
2
) â . . . ) (a
n
) â
- â[) (a
l
) . . . ) (a
nl
) ) (a
n
)[ (4.1)
200 lNTLCRATlON
Sinco (4.14) ano (4.1) havo ) (a
l
) . . . ) (a
nl
) in common, lho avoiago is
rca -
â
2
[) (a
0
) 2) (a
l
) . . . 2) (a
nl
) ) (a
n
)[ (4.16)
1ho iosull (4.16) is calloo lho :n..Jn| :&| ano lonos lo Lo as accuialo as
lho miopoinl appioximalion sinco avoiaging also causos unooishools lo cancol
ovoishools. In facl, lho liapozoioal iulo is oxacl whon ) (a) is linoai.
IXAMIII Appioximalo lho aioa of lho iogion unooi j = 2a 8
ovoi [1, [ using lho liapozoioal iulo ano lho paililion
a
0
= 1, a
2
= 2, a
3
= 8, a
d
= 4, a
5
=
SoIutIon: Cloaily, â = 1 ano sinco ) (a) = 2a 8, wo havo
) (1) = , ) (2) = 7, ) (8) = 0, ) (4) = 11, ) () = 18
Moioovoi, ) (a) = 2a 8 is linoai, so lhal (4.16) is oxacl.
rca =
â
2
[) (1) 2) (2) 2) (8) 2) (4) ) ()[
=
1
2
[ 2 7 2 0 2 11 18[
= 86
In many applicalions, howovoi, wo aio givon only moasuiomonls ano oo nol havo a
cooioinalo syslom. In such inslancos, lho liapozoioal iulo can Lo usoo lo pioouco
oslimalos of aioa. Foi oxamplo, supposo lhal John" wanls lo painl lho sioo of a
shoo which has a hip ioof. Ho moasuios hoighls of lho sioo ovoiy 2 fool, so lhal
ho oLlains a paililion of lho shoo`s sioo.
2-11: Sioo of Shoo wilh Hip Ioof
DouLling lho inloiioi moasuiomonls, aooing lho lofl ano iighl ono moasuiomonls
ano mulliplying Ly
.i
2
yiolos lho liapozoioal iulo oslimalo of lho aioa:
rca -
2
2
[0 2 11 2 18 2 14 2 14 2 18 2 11 0[ = 170 )t
2
Lxoicisos:
unerIcaI: n& h 1.nnnn &n n:r.nn.n J: h n:n J h :j.n
&nJ: h j.n &: nnJ : h j.n .n:n| &.nj n.J.n n nj. n-
:& n nh| .n.|n: h &J .n h rnn|. nn: j&: nn&: &.h
h :&| J n n&n:.n| .nj:n.n.
1
1. j = a ovoi [0, 1[ 2. j = 4
l
2
a ovoi [1, 2[
0, 0.2, 0., 0.7, 1 1, 0, 1, 2
8. j = 2a
2
1 ovoi [0, 1[ 4. j = a
2
8a ovoi [0, 4[
1, 2, 8, 4 0, 1, 2, 8, 4
. j = a
2
ovoi [0, 1[ 6. j = a
2
ovoi [0, 1[
0, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 0.0, 1 0, 0., 0.8, 0.0, 1
7. j =
_
1 a
2
ovoi [1, 1[ 8. j =
_
1 a
2
ovoi [1, 1[
1, 0., 0, 0., 1 1, 0., 0, 0., 1
0. j = 2 sin(a) cos(a) ovoi
_
0,
t
2
10. j = sin(2a) ovoi

_
0,
t
2
0,
t
6
,
t
d
,
t
3
,
t
2
0,
t
6
,
t
d
,
t
3
,
t
2
11. j =
1
a
2
1
ovoi [0, 1[ 12. j =
1
1 a
2
16
ovoi [0, 1[
0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 0, 1, 2, 8, 4
18. j = cos (a) ovoi
_
0,
l
2
14. j = sin(a) ovoi [0, 1[

0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.8, 0.4, 0. 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0
unerIcaI: Jh J||&.nj J&n.n n: |.. J h] n.nj .n n :n.jh
|.n. 1 h j.n n:..n nnJ n.J.n n nj n:& n 1.nnnn &n
.nn J h J.|nnn J h h] : h j.n .n:n|.
1. (t) =
}|
soc
ovoi [0, 1.2[ 16. (t) = 0
}|
soc
ovoi [0, 1.2[
0, 0.4, 0.8, 1.2 0, 0.4, 0.8, 1.2
17. (t) = 2
}|
soc
ovoi [0, 1[ 18. (t) = 8
}|
soc
ovoi [0, 1[
0, 0.2, 0., 0.7, 1.0 0, 0.2, 0., 0.7, 1.0
10. (t) = 2t
}|
soc
ovoi [0, 1[ 20. (t) = t 1
}|
soc
ovoi [0, 1[
0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0
21. (t) = sin(t)
}|
soc
ovoi [, 2[ 22. (t) = c
| }|
soc
ovoi [0, 1[
,
dt
3
,
5t
3
, 2 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.7, 1.0
unerIcaI: :r.nn h n:n J h :j.n h|& j = ) (a) nnJ nh [a, /[
J: nh J h J||&.nj &.nj h :n..Jn| :&|. h| j&: &:| &.nj n
n&n:.n| .nj:n.n n|j:.hn n n n|&|n: : n n&:.
28. j = a ovoi [0, 1[ 24. j = 4
l
2
a ovoi [1, 2[
0, 0.2, 0., 0.7, 1 1, 0, 1, 2
2. j = 2a
2
1 ocr [1, 4[ 26. j = a
2
8a ovoi [0, 4[
1, 2, 8, 4 0, 1, 2, 8, 4
unerIcaI: 1n nh j:nh h|&, n n:..n J h j:nh` Jnn.n . .n|.J hj
h |nh|J .n n h a-nr.. 5|h h n.J.n n:r.nn.n nnJ & .
1
In oxoiciso 7, lho paililion is oonoloo Ly lho lisl of numLois
0, 0.2, 0., 0.7, 1
1hal is, a
= 0, a
= 0.2, a
= 0., a
= 0.7, a
= 1. Likowiso, foi simplicily, lho paililions

in oxoicisos 8-24 aio wiillon in lho samo foim.
202 lNTLCRATlON
.nn h n:n &nJ: j = ) (a) : h j:nh` Jnn.n.
27. j = a
3
8a
2
1 28. j = sin(a)
x
4 3 2 1 0
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
x
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
20. j = a 2
i
80. j =
1
1 a
x
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
x
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
5
4
3
2
1
31. unerIcaI: Aiivoi Lounos a lolo, as shown Lolow lofl. Asuivoyoi moasuios
oislancos al iighl anglos lo lho opposilo Lounoaiy of lho lolo, as shown
Lolow iighl.
2-12: Moasuiomonls of a lolo
Uso lho liapozoioal iulo lo oslimalo lho aioa of lho lolo. Whal is lho sizo
of lho lolo in acios (Nolo: 1 acio = 48,60 fool
2
).
32. unerIcaI: Fioo`s looiing is inslalling paiquol lilos in a masloi Looioom
in which ono sioo is iiiogulaily shapoo. Fioo moasuios acioss lho ioom al
lhioo fool inloivals lo pioouco lho oiagiam Lolow iighl.
2-18: Moasuiomonls of a Ioom
Uso lho liapozoioal iulo lo oslimalo lho squaio foolago of lho ioom.
33. unerIcaI: John`s commoicial painling is hiioo lo painl lho sioo of a Luilo-
ing. John moasuios alliluoos al lon fool inloivals lo pioouco lho oiagiam
Lolow:
2-14: Moasuiomonls of lho sioo of a Luiloing
Uso lho liapozoioal iulo lo lno lho aioa in squaio fool of lho sioo of lho
Luiloing. Why is lho iosull oxacl
34. VrIte to Learn: Uso a iuloi lo moasuio lho longlhs of lho voilical linos in
lho lguio shown Lolow. Moasuio ano laLol lho oislanco Lolwoon oach paii
of voilical linos.
2-1: Whal is lho appioximalo aioa of lhis iogion in squaio inchos
Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you iopoil lhoso moasuiomonls ano uso lho
liapozoioal iulo lo oslimalo lho aioa of lho iogion.
35. Supposo lhal - (a) is lho simplo funclion
- (a) =
_
_
1 i) 0 _ a < 2
8 i) 2 _ a < 4
2 i) 4 _ a < 6
i) 6 _ a _ 8
(a) Whal is lho oolnilion of lho simplo funclion 8- (a)
(L) Whal is lho aioa unooi j = - (a) ovoi [1, 8[
(c) Whal is lho aioa unooi j = 8- (a) ovoi [1, 8[ How is iolaloo lo lho
iosull in (L)
36. Supposo lhal - (a) ano j (a) aio lho simplo funclions.
- (a) =
_
_
1 i) 0 _ a < 2
8 i) 2 _ a < 4
2 i) 4 _ a < 6
i) 6 _ a _ 8
j (a) =
_
_
2 i) 0 _ a < 1
1 i) 1 _ a < 8
i) 8 _ a < 7
8 i) 7 _ a _ 8
(a) Whal is lho oolnilion of lho simplo funclion - (a) j (a)
(L) Whal is lho aioa unooi j = - (a) ovoi [1, 8[
(c) Whal is lho aioa unooi j = j (a) ovoi [1, 8[
(o) Whal is lho aioa unooi j = - (a)j (a) ovoi [1, 8[ How is il iolaloo
lo (L) ano (c)
204 lNTLCRATlON
37. VrIte to Learn: Compulo lho aioa of lho liapozoio Lolow lofl Ly summing
lho aioa of lho iighl liianglo wilh lho aioa of lho ioclanglo.
2-16: Aioa of a 1iapozoio
1hon apply lho miopoinl molhoo lo lho liapozoio on lho iighl. In a shoil
ossay, oxplain why all lhioo compulalions pioouco lho samo iosull.
38. VrIte to Learn: Uso a ciiclo lo ooloimino lho oxacl aioa unooi j =
_
4 a
2
ovoi lho inloival [0, 2[ , ano lhon uso a miopoinl appioximalion lo
appioximalo lho aioa ovoi lho paililion
0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0
In a shoil ossay, oxplain why lho appioximalion of lho inlogial is an appiox-
imalion of .
4.3 The DeniLe lnLegral
DehnItIon oI tLe IntegraI
In lho piovious soclion, wo saw lhal Iiomann sums

) (t
) â
can Lo usoo lo
appioximalo aioas ano oisplacomonls. In lhis soclion, wo uso a limil lo oLlain
oxacl valuos fiom Iiomann Sum appioximalions, lhus iosulling in lho impoilanl
now concopl of a J]n. .nj:n|.
1o Login wilh, if ) (a) is conlinuous on [a, /[ , lhon simplo funclion appioxi-
malions Locomo Lolloi ano Lolloi as all of lho wiolhs â
, = 1, . . . , : Locomo
shoiloi ano shoiloi:
8-1: Simplo Funclion Appioximalions
In pailiculai, if â
< / foi all = 1, . . . , : ano if / appioachos 0, lhon all of lho

THL DLFlNlTL lNTLCRAL 20
wiolhs â
lo appioach 0 as woll.
8-2: In an /-lno paililion, oach suLinloival has a wiolh loss lhan /.
Consoquonlly, foi a givon / 0, lol us say lhal a laggoo paililion a
, t
n
=l
of
[a, /[ is /-]n if â
< / foi all = 1, . . . , :. 1hon foi oach / 0, lol us consliucl

a Iiomann sum

) (t
) â
, so lhal if / appioachos 0 ano if ) (a) is conlinuous

ovoi [a, /[ , lhon lho Iiomann sums appioach an oxacl valuo. 1his oxacl valuo is
calloo lho J]n. .nj:n| of ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ ano is oonoloo
_
b
o
) (a) da whoio
_
is an olongaloo S".
DehnItIon 3.1: 1ho J]n. .nj:n| of ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ is oolnoo
_
b
o
) (a) da = lim
|0
[) (t
l
) â
l
) (t
2
) â
2
. . . ) (t
n
) â
n
[
whoio lho limil is ovoi /-lno paililions of [a, /[ , whon lho limil oxisls.
1ho numLois a, / aio calloo lho |.n. J .nj:n.n ano lho funclion ) (a) is calloo
lho .nj:nnJ of lho oolnilo inlogial. If
_
b
o
) (a) da oxisls, lhon wo say lhal ) (a)
is 1.nnnn .nj:nh| ovoi [a, /[ . Foi oxamplo, a conlinuous funclion ovoi [a, /[ is
Iiomann inlogiaLlo on [a, /[.
Somo koy oLsoivalions follow immooialoly fiom lho oolnilion. Fiisl, oolnilion
8.1 can Lo wiillon using sigma nolalion as
_
b
o
) (a) da = lim
|0
n
=l
) (t
) â
Socono, lho oolnilo inlogial

_
b
o
) (a) da is a nunLer, which implios lhal lho
vaiiaLlo usoo in a oolnilo inlogial is a J&nnj n:.nh|il is lhoio only foi con- A oolnilo inlo-
gial is a numLoi.
vonionco. Foi oxamplo, lho oolnilo inlogial
_
l
0
a
9
da is lho samo as
_
l
0
n
9
dn, ano
in facl,
_
l
0
a
9
da =
_
l
0
n
9
dn =
_
l
0
t
9
dt =
_
l
0
-
9
d- =
_
l
0
t
9
dt =
_
l
0
.
9
d.
1hiio, if ) (a) _ 0 ovoi [a, /[ , lhon
_
b
o
) (a) da is lho aioa of lho iogion unooi
j = ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ .
8-8: rca =
_
b
o
) (a) da
206 lNTLCRATlON
IXAMIII 1 Lvalualo
_
2
2
(4 2 [a[) da.
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, lol`s nolico lhal j = 4 2 [a[ ovoi [1, 1[
oolnos an isoscolos liianglo wilh Laso 4 ano hoighl 4.
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
4
3
2
1
0
8-4: j = 4 2 [a[ ovoi [2, 2[
1hus, lho oolnilo inlogial is oqual lo lho aioa of lho liianglo, which is
_
2
2
(4 2 [a[) da =
1
2
/a-c /cip/t = 8
1J
_
l
0
a
9
da = 0.1, hn &hn . h n|& J
_
l
0
A
9
dA Chock youi Ioaoing
LInearIty oI tLe DehnIte IntegraI
Dolnilion 8.1 is usoo lo oovolop lho piopoilios of lho oolnilo inlogial. Foi oxam-
plo, supposo ) ano p aio Iiomann inlogiaLlo on [a, /[ . Foi / 0, lol a
, t
n
=l
Lo an /-lno laggoo paililion of [a, /[. 1hon
_
b
o
[) (a) p (a)[ da = lim
|0
n
=l
[) (t
) p (t
)[ â
= lim
|0
n
=l
) (t
) â
lim
|0
n
=l
p (t
) â
=
_
b
o
) (a) da
_
b
o
p (a) da
1hus, lho inlogial of a sum is lho sum of lho inlogials:
_
b
o
[) (a) p (a)[ da =
_
b
o
) (a) da
_
b
o
p (a) da (4.17)
Likowiso, if / is a conslanl, lhon
_
b
o
/) (a) da = /
_
b
o
) (a) da (4.18)
Finally, oolnilion 8.1 allows a J]n. .nj:n| h njn., ano moio impoi-
lanlly, allows a oolnilo inlogial lo iopiosonl quanlilios olhoi lhan aioa, such as
oisplacomonls oi volumos.
IXAMIII 2 If
_
l
0
) (a) da = 1.4 ano
_
l
0
p (a) da = 2.1, lhon whal is
_
l
0
() (a) 2p (a)) da
SoIutIon: Uso (4.17) ano (4.18), wo oLlain
_
l
0
() (a) 2p (a)) da =
_
l
0
) (a) da2
_
l
0
p (a) da = 1.42 (2.1) = 2.8
Howovoi, il is possiLlo lo uso aioas of familiai iogions lo calculalo oolnilo inlogials.
IXAMIII J Lvalualo
_
2
0
_
2a 1 8
_
4 a
2
_
da
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, (4.17) implios lhal
_
2
0
_
2a 1 8
_
4 a
2
_
da =
_
2
0
(2a 1) da 8
_
2
0
_
4 a
2
da
1ho lisl inlogial is lho aioa of lho iogion Lolow lho lino j = 2a 1.
1ho iogion is a liapozoio, ano lho foimula foi lho aioa of a liapozoio
is
rca =
_
)
l
)
2
2
_
â
1hus, wo havo
_
2
0
(2a 1) =
_
1
2
_
2 = 6
In conliasl, lho iogion unooi j =
_
4 a
2
is a quailoi of a ciiclo wilh
iaoius 2. 1hus, ils aioa is simply , so lhal wo havo
_
2
0
_
2a 1 8
_
4 a
2
_
da = 6 8 = 8.424
G.n hn
_
l
0
a
9
da = 0.1 nnJ
_
l
0
a
d
da = 0.2, &hn . Chock youi Ioaoing
_
l
0
_
a
9
a
d
_
da
IroertIes oI tLe DehnIte IntegraI
Whon ) (a) _ 0 on [a, /[ , lhon oolnilion 8.1 implios lhal
_
b
o
) (a) da is lho oxacl
aioa of lho iogion unooi j = ) (a) ano ovoi [a, /[ . Moioovoi, many piopoilios aio
molivaloo Ly lho inloipiolalion of a oolnilo inlogial as an aioa unooi a cuivo.
208 lNTLCRATlON
Foi oxamplo, whon / 0, lhon
_
b
o
/da is lho aioa of lho ioclanglo wilh hoighl
/ ano wiolh / a . Il follows lhal foi any ioal numLoi / lhal
_
b
o
/da = / (/ a)
8- : Dolnilo inlogial of a conslanl funclion
Anolhoi piopoily of lho inlogial follows fiom lho facl lhal lho iogion unooi lho
giaph of ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ can Lo oiviooo inlo lwo suLiogionslho iogion ovoi lho
suLinloival [a, c[ ano lho iogion ovoi lho suLinloival [c, /[ .
8-6: SuLoivision of a iogion
1hus, lho aioa of lho onliio iogion is oqual lo lho sumof lho aioas of lho suLiogions,
which loaos lo
_
b
o
) (a) da =
_
c
o
) (a) da
_
b
c
) (a) da (4.10)
In aooilion, sinco lho iogion" unooi ) (a) ovoi [a, a[ has a wiolh of zoio, wo
havo
_
o
o
) (a) da = 0 (4.20)
Goomoliy ano lho oiiginal oolnilion of lho inlogial also molivalo lho oolnilion of
_
o
b
) (a) da whon / < a. In pailiculai, wo oolno
_
o
b
) (a) da =
_
b
o
) (a) da (4.21)
in coiiosponoonco wilh lho oolnilion, wilh (4.10), ano wilh (4.20).
IXAMIII ! If
_
2
l
) (a) da = 7 ano
_
l
3
) (a) da = , lhon whal is
_
3
2
) (a) da
SoIutIon: Iiopoily (4.10) implios lhal
_
3
2
) (a) da =
_
l
2
) (a) da
_
3
l
) (a) da
Wo now uso piopoily (4.20) lo iowiilo
_
l
2
) (a) da as
_
2
l
) (a) da:
_
3
2
) (a) da =
_
2
l
) (a) da
_
3
l
) (a) da
= 7
= 2
Wo can also uso aioas lo molivalo inoqualilios involving inlogials. 1o illuslialo
consiooi lhal if 0 _ ) (a) _ p (a) ovoi [a, /[ , lhon lho iogion unooi j = ) (a) ano
ovoi [a, /[ is conlainoo in lho iogion unooi j = p (a) ano ovoi [a, /[ .
1his concopl loaos lo lho following piopoily:
i) ) (a) _ p (a) o: [a, /[ , t/c:
_
b
o
) (a) da _
_
b
o
p (a) da (4.22)
Iiopoily (4.22) in luin implios a voiy usoful inoqualily. Nolico lhal Lolh
) (a) _ [) (a)[ ano ) (a) _ [) (a)[ , so lhal Lolh
_
b
o
) (a) da ano
_
b
o
) (a) da aio
loss lhan oi oqual lo
_
b
o
[) (a)[ da. As a iosull, wo havo lhal
_
b
o
) (a) da
_
_
b
o
[) (a)[ da (4.28)
Iiopoily (4.28) is somolimos calloo lho :.nnj| .nj&n|.j foi inlogials. 1ho liian-
glo inoqualily is usoful Locauso il can Lo usoo lo oLlain koy oslimalos of inlogials
of coilain funclions.
IXAMIII Show lhal foi all / a, wo havo
_
b
o
sin
_
a
2
_
da < / a
SoIutIon: Sinco

sin
_
a
2
_
_ 1 foi all a, lho liianglo inoqualily implios

lhal
_
b
o
sin
_
a
2
_
da
_
_
b
o
sin
_
a
2
_
da _
_
b
o
1da
Howovoi,
_
b
o
1da is lho aioa of a ioclanglo wilh hoighl 1 ano wiolh
/ a. 1hus,
_
b
o
1da = / a ano
_
b
o
sin
_
a
2
_
da _
_
b
o
sin
_
a
2
_
da
_ / a
1J
_
2
l
) (a) da = 4 nnJ
_
3
2
) (a) da = , hn &hn .
_
3
l
) (a) da Chock youi Ioaoing
CaIcuIatIons usIng tLe DehnItIon
Dolnilion 8.1 can also Lo usoo lo compulo
_
b
o
) (a) da oiioclly. Howovoi, lo oo
so oflon ioquiios a clovoi choico of lho lags. Inoooo, if ) (a) is conlinuous, lhon a
piopoi choico of lags makos lho limil in oolnilion 8.1 liivial.
800 lNTLCRATlON
IXAMIII 0 Lvalualo
_
3
2
ada oiioclly fiom oolnilion 8.1 using lho
miopoinls as lho lags.
SoIutIon: If a
, t
is a laggoo paililion of [2, 8[ ano if oach lag t
is
lho miopoinl of lho inloival [a
l
, a
[ , lhon il follows lhal

t
=
1
2
(a
a
l
)
Sinco ) (a) = a implios lhal ) (t
) = t
, wo havo
t
â
=
1
2
(a
a
l
) (a
a
l
) =
1
2
_
a
2
a
2
l
_
Howovoi, oolnilion 8.1 says lhal
_
3
2
ada = lim
|0
n
=l
t
â
= lim
|0
(t
l
â
l
t
2
â
2
. . . t
n
â
n
)
= lim
|0
_
1
2
_
a
2
l
a
2
0
_
1
2
_
a
2
2
a
2
l
_
. . .
1
2
_
a
2
n
a
2
nl
_
_
= lim
|0
1
2
_
a
2
n
a
2
nl
. . . a
2
3
a
2
2
a
2
2
a
2
l
a
2
l
a
2
0
_
All Lul lwo of lho loims insioo lho paionlhosos cancol, lhus yioloing
_
3
2
ada = lim
|0
1
2
_
a
2
n
a
2
0
_
Howovoi, a
n
= 8 ano a
0
= 2, so lhal wo oLlain
_
3
2
ada = lim
|0
1
2
_
8
2
2
2
_
=

2
IXAMIII 7 Uso goomoliic moans as lags lo ovalualo
_
2
l
1
a
2
da
SoIutIon: Supposo a
, t
is a laggoo paililion of [1, 2[ whoio oach

lag t
is lho goomoliic moan of lho onopoinls of [a

l
, a
[ . 1hal is,
t
=
_
a
l
a

1
t
2
=
1
a
l
a
Sinco ) (t
) = 1t
2
, aioas of ioclanglos aio givon Ly

1
t
2
â
=
1
a
l
a
(a
a
l
)
=
a
a
l
a

a
l
a
l
a
=
1
a
l

1
a

Dolnilion 8.1 lhon says lhal
_
2
l
1
a
2
da = lim
|0
n
=l
1
t
2
â
= lim
|0
_
1
t
2
l
â
l

1
t
2
2
â
2

1
t
2
3
â
3
. . .
1
t
2
n
â
n
_
= lim
|0
_
1
a
0

1
a
l

1
a
l

1
a
2

1
a
2

1
a
3
. . .
1
a
nl

1
a
n
_
= lim
|0
_
1
a
0

1
a
n
_
Howovoi, a
0
= 1 ano a
n
= 2, so lhal
_
2
l
1
a
2
da = lim
|0
_
1
1

1
2
_
=
1
2
Lxoicisos:
G.n h J||&.nj J]n. .nj:n|
_
2
0
) (a) da = 2,
_
3
l
) (a) da = 4,
_
3
2
) (a) da = 2.
_
2
0
p (a) da = 4,
_
d
l
p (a) da = ,
_
d
2
p (a) da = 7
n|&n h .nj:n| h|& &.nj h ::. J h .nj:n|. 5n h ::j
: ::. &J .n nh n|&n.n.
1.
_
0
0
) (a) da 2.
_
l
l
p (-) d- 8.
_
3
0
) (a) da
4.
_
d
0
p (a) da .
_
0
2
) (r) dr 6.
_
2
d
p (a) da
7.
_
2
l
) (a) da 8.
_
2
l
p(a)da 0. 2
_
2
0
) (n) dn
10.
_
l
0
) (a) da 11.
_
l
0
p (a) da 12. 8
_
2
0
p (t) dt
18.
_
2
0
[) (a) 2p (a)[ da 14.
_
2
0
[2) (a) 8p (a)[ da
1.
_
l
0
[) (a) p (a)[ da 16.
_
l
0
[) (a) p (a)[ da
1 h ::. J h .nj:n| .n|.Jj n:n &nJ: .:| : |.n, nnJ
802 lNTLCRATlON
hn & jn:j J:n.n h .nj:n|.
17.
_
2
0
8ada 18.
_
3
l
(a) da
10.
_
3
0
(4a 8) da 20.
_
5
2
(2t 12) dt
21.
_
5
0
_
2 t
2
dt 22.
_
_
3
0

_
8 a
2
da
28.
_
l
0
_
a
_
1 a
2
_
da 24.
_
_
3
0
_
a
_
8 a
2
_
da
2.
_
l
l
[a[ da 26.
_
3
2
[a[ da
27.
_
3
l
_
1 (a 2)
2
da 28.
_
2
l
_
4 (n 1)
2
dn
20.
_
l
l
(a [a[) da 80.
_
l
l
(a [a[) da
31. Uso oolnilion 8.1 lo compulo lho inlogial
_
3
0
2da.
32. Uso oolnilion 8.1 wilh lags as lho miopoinls lo compulo
_
2
0
ada.
33. Uso oolnilion 8.1 wilh lags as lho goomoliic moans of lho onopoinls of lho
suLinloival (soo oxamplo 8) lo compulo
_
l
l/2
1
a
2
da
34. In lhis oxoiciso wo ovalualo lho oolnilo inlogial
_
2
l
1
_
a
da
(a) Lol lho lag t
on a givon suLinloival [a
l
, a
[ Lo of lho foim
t
=
__
a
l

_
a
2
_
2
Lxplain why t
is a numLoi in [a
l
, a
[
(L) Uso lho lags in (a) ano oolnilion 8.1 lo compulo lho inlogial.
35. Uso oolnilion 8.1 wilh miopoinls as lho lags lo ooiivo lho foimula
_
b
o
ada =
/
2
2

a
2
2
(4.24)
36. Uso (4.24) lo oo lho following:
(a) Voiify lhal
_
o
o
ada = 0
(L) Show lhal
_
c
o
ada
_
b
c
ada =
_
b
o
ada
37. Uso lho liianglo inoqualily foi inlogials lo show lhal if [) (a)[ _ 1 foi all a
in [a, /[ , lhon
_
b
o
) (a) da _ 1(/ a)
38. Uso lho piopoilios of inlogials lo show lhal if ) (a) is conlinuous on [a, /[ ,
lhon
_
b
o
1
|
(a) da _
_
b
o
) (a) da _
_
b
o
l
|
(a) da
whoio / 0 ano 1
|
(a) ano l
|
(a) aio iospoclivoly lho lowoi ano uppoi
simplo funclion appioximalions of ) (a) on [a, /[ . (Hinl: soo oxoicisos 8-42
in soclion -1 foi lho oolnilion of 1
|
(a) ano l
|
(a))
39. Giaph ) (a) = 2a ano p (a) =
_
4 a
2
ovoi [0, 2[ . Which ono is laigoi Uso
(4.22) lo iolalo
_
2
0
(2 a) da lo
_
2
0
_
4 a
2
da. Chock youi woik Ly ovalu-
aling Lolh numoiically. Uso lho aioa foimula foi liapozoios lo ooiivo lho
foimula
40. Giaph ) (a) = 2 a ano p (a) =
_
4 a
2
ovoi [0, 2[ . Which ono is laigoi
Uso (4.22) lo iolalo
_
2
0
(2 a) da lo
_
2
0
_
4 a
2
da. Chock youi woik Ly oval-
ualing Lolh numoiically.
41. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you uso lho oiagiam
8-7: Lounos foi
_
b
o
) (a) da
lo oxplain why if : _ ) (a) _ `, lhon
:(/ a) _
_
b
o
) (a) da _ ` (/ a) (4.2)
42. In lhis oxoiciso, wo uso (4.2) lo show lhal
8 _
_
2.5
0.5
_
a
3
8a
2

_
da _ 1
(a) Giaph ) (a) = a
3
8a
2
on [0., 2.[, ano lhon ioonlify lho
gioalosl inlogoi : which is Lolow lho giaph of ) (a) ano lho small-
osl inlogoi ` which is aLovo lho giaph of ) (a) .
(L) Uso lho valuos in (a) in (4.2) lo pioouco lho oslimalo aLovo.
43. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you uso lho following oiagiam
lo molivalo anolhoi piopoily of lho inlogial. (Hinl: nolico lhal ) (a) _ 0 in
lho oiagiam).
8-8: Whal piopoily ooos lhis lguio suggosl
804 lNTLCRATlON
44. Doiivo (4.21) fiom (4.10) ano (4.20).
4.4 DerivaLives of lndeniLe lnLegrals
FunctIons Dehned Ly IntegraIs
Dolnilo inlogials can also Lo usoo lo oolno now funclions. In pailiculai, if ) (a)
is conlinuous on [a, /[, lhon wo can oolno a now funclion 1 (a) lo Lo
1 (a) =
_
i
o
) (t) dt (4.26)
whoio a is in [a, /[ . 1ho funclion 1 (a) is known as an .nJ]n. .nj:n| of ) (a) .
Moioovoi, whon ) (a) is posilivo, lhon 1 (a) iopiosonls lho aioa unooi ) (a) ovoi
[a, a[
4-1: 1 (a) is a funclion Locauso lho onopoinl a is vaiiaLlo
1o compulo lho ooiivalivo of 1 (a) wo nolico lhal 1 (a /) 1 (a) is lho aioa
of lho small liapozoioal slivoi" shown Lolow.
4-2: Slivoi has aioa of appioximaloly ) (a) /
If ) (a) is conlinuous on [a, /[ ano / is closo lo 0, lhon ) (a /) - ) (a), so lhal
lho aioa of lho slivoi" is piaclically ) (a) / ano lhus
1 (a /) 1 (a) - ) (a) /
Divioing Ly / yiolos lho oiloionco quolionl
1 (a /) 1 (a)
/
- ) (a)
Applying lho limil as / appioachos 0 lhon yiolos
lim
|0
1 (a /) 1 (a)
/
= ) (a)
1hal is, 1
t
(a) = ) (a). Moioovoi, lhis iosull holos foi all conlinuous ) on [a, /[
ano loaos lo lho following lhooiom:
DLRlVATlVLS OF lNDLFlNlTL lNTLCRALS 80
TLe FundanentaI TLeoren: If ) (a) is conlinuous on a noighLoi-
hooo (j, ) of a, ano if
1 (a) =
_
i
o
) (t) dt
lhon 1
t
(a) = ) (a) foi all a in (j, ) .
1ho funoamonlal lhooiom in opoialoi nolalion lakos lho foim
d
da
_
i
o
) (t) dt = ) (a)
Iigoious pioofs of lho funoamonlal lhooiom aio givon in lho oxoicisos.
IXAMIII 1 Fino 1
t
(a) foi 1 (a) =
_
i
o
cos (t) dt
SoIutIon: 1ho funoamonlal lhooiom lolls us lhal
1
t
(a) =
d
da
_
i
o
cos (t) dt = cos (a)
Whon lho uppoi limil of inlogialion is a funclion, wo oflon apply lho funoamonlal
lhooiom in lho chain iulo foim
d
da
_
inpul
o
) (t) dt = ) (inpul)
d
da
(inpul) (4.27)
IXAMIII 2 Lvalualo ano simplify complololy lho following ooiiv-
alivo:
d
da
_
sIn(i)
0
dt
1 t
2
Sinco lho inpul is sin(a) , wo iocognizo lhal (4.27) is of lho foim
d
da
_
inpul
0
dt
1 t
2
=
1
1 (inpul)
2
d
da
(inpul)
Ioplacing lho inpul Ly sin(a) lhon iosulls in
d
da
_
sIn(i)
0
dt
1 t
2
=
1
1 sin
2
(a)
d
da
(sin(a))
Sinco 1 sin
2
(a) = cos
2
(a) ano sinco
J
Ji
sin(a) = cos (a) , lhis simpli-
los lo
d
da
_
sIn(i)
0
dt
1 t
2
=
1
cos
2
(a)
cos (a) =
1
cos (a)
= soc (a)
806 lNTLCRATlON
1J 1 (a) =
_
i
l
ln(t) dt, hn &hn . 1
t
Curve SketcLIng oI IndehnIte IntegraIs
1ho funoamonlal lhooiom says lhal if 1 (a) =
_
i
o
) (t) dt, lhon 1
t
(a) = ) (a) .
Sinco ) (a) is lho ooiivalivo of 1 (a) , wo say lhal 1 (a) is an nn.J:.n. of
) (a) . 1hal is, nn .nJ]n. .nj:n| of ) (a) is also known as nn nn.J:.n.
of ) (a) . In facl, if 1 (a) = C
_
i
o
) (t) dt, lhon 1
t
(a) = ) (a) foi any conslanl
C, which shows lhal a funclion ) (a) has inlniloly many anliooiivalivos. 1ho
funoamonlal lhooiom allows us lo uso monolonicily, concavily, ano lho facl lhal
1 (a) =
_
o
o
) (t) dt = 0 lo skolch lho giaph of an anliooiivalivo of a givon funclion
) (a) .
IXAMIII J Skolch lho giaph of lho funclion
1 (a) =
_
i
0
t
2
1
t
2
1
dt
SoIutIon: Wo Login Ly nolicing lhal lho ooiivalivo is
1
t
(a) =
a
2
1
a
2
1
1ho ciilical poinls occui whon lho numoialoi is oqual lo 0:
a
2
1 = 0, a = 1
Sinco lho oonominaloi a
2
1 is always posilivo, 1
t
(a) can chango
signs only whon a = 1 oi 1. 1hus, wo nooo lo losl poinls lho in-
loivals (, 1) , (1, 1) ano (1, ), iospoclivoly, lo ooloimino lho
monolonicily of 1 (a):
1
t
(2) =
4 1
4 1
=
8
0 == 1 (a) on (, 1)
1
t
(0) =
0 1
0 1
= 1 < 0 == 1 (a) on (1, 1)
1
t
(2) =
4 1
4 1
=
8
0 == 1 (a) on (1, )
In oiooi lo incoipoialo concavily, wo lisl musl compulo 1
tt
(a):
1
tt
(a) =
d
da
_
a
2
1
a
2
1
_
=
_
a
2
1
_
J
Ji
_
a
2
1
_

_
a
2
1
_
J
Ji
_
a
2
1
_
(a
2
1)
2
=
_
a
2
1
_
(2a)
_
a
2
1
_
(2a)
(a
2
1)
2
=
4a
(a
2
1)
2
Sinco 1
tt
(a) = 0 only whon a = 0, wo nooo only ooloimino lho sign of
1
tt
(a) ovoi (, 0) ano (0, ):
1
tt
(1) =
4
(1 1)
2
= 1 0 == 1 (a) CD on (, 0)
1
tt
(1) =
4
(1 1)
2
= 1 < 0 == 1 (a) CU on (0, )
In aooilion, 1 (0) =
_
0
0
|
l
|
l
da = 0, which loaos lo lho oiagiam
4-8: Monolonicily ano concavily of 1 (a)
Ovoi (, 1) , lho giaph is incioasing ano concavo oown. Ovoi
(1, 0) lho giaph is oocioasing ano concavo oown. Ovoi (0, 1) lho
giaph is oocioasing ano concavo up. Ovoi (1, ) lho giaph is incioas-
ing ano concavo up.
4-4: Giaph of 1 (a)
In aooilion, lho giaph iovoals lhal 1 (a) has an inloclion poinl al
a = 0.
1hn |J & |n n .n n h :.j.n Chock youi Ioaoing
IosItIon and YeIocIty
In lho applicalions following lho skill-Luiloing oxoicisos, wo consiooi a vaiioly of
usos of lho funoamonlal lhooiom. Foi oxamplo, supposo lhal r (t) is lho hoighl
in fool of an oLjocl al limo t in soconos. Sinco lho volocily (t) = r
t
(t) is lho
ooiivalivo of lho hoighl, lho hoighl r (t) is an nn.J:.n. of lho volocily. 1hus,
if wo aio givon lho volocily (t) ano lho hoighl r
0
al limo t = 0, lhon lho posilion
is givon Ly
r (t) = r
0

_
|
0
(t) dt
whoio lho oummy vaiiaLlo t is lho Giook lolloi lau."
IXAMIII ! 1ho almosphoio applios a oiag foico lo an oLjocl wilh
an inilial alliluoo of 100 fool, so lhal ils voilical volocily al limo t is
givon Ly
(t) = 4
_
c
S|S
c
S|S
c
S|S
c
S|S
_
808 lNTLCRATlON
Al whal limo ooos lho oLjocl ioach a maximum alliluoo
SoIutIon: 1ho alliluoo is givon Ly
r (t) = 100
_
|
0
4
_
c
SrS
c
SrS
c
SrS
c
SrS
_
dt
so lhal, as oxpocloo, lho ooiivalivo of lho alliluoo is
r
t
(t) =
d
dt
_
|
0
4
_
c
SrS
c
SrS
c
SrS
c
SrS
_
dt = 4
_
c
S|S
c
S|S
c
S|S
c
S|S
_
1ho ciilical poinls occui whon r
t
(t) = 0, which is whon lho numoialoi
vanishos:
c
S|S
c
S|S
= 0
c
S|S
= c
S|S
_
c
S|S
_
2
= 1
c
l6|l6
= c
0
16t 16 = 0
t = 1
1hus, lho slalionaiy poinl is t = 1. Moioovoi, lho socono ooiivalivo is
r
tt
(t) = 4
d
dt
_
c
S|S
c
S|S
c
S|S
c
S|S
_
=
128
(c
S|S
c
S|S
)
2
which is always nogalivo. 1hus, r (t) is concavo oown ovoiywhoio, so
lhal lho oLjocl ioachos ils maximum alliluoo afloi 1 socono.
Il is also common foi lho j:nh of lho volocily lo Lo known ano usoo lo ooloimino
lho piopoilios of lho posilion of an oLjocl.
IXAMIII Supposo an oLjocl has an inilial hoighl of r (0) = 0
ano a volocily al limo t givon Ly lho giaph in lguio 4-:
4-: Giaph of lho volocily of lho oLjocl
Assuming lho cuivos in lho lguio aio oilhoi sliaighl linos oi aics of
ciiclos, oo lho following:
(a) Doloimino lho hoighl of lho oLjocl al limo t = 1 soconos.
(L) Doloimino lho hoighl of lho oLjocl al limo t = 8 soconos.
(c) Skolch lho giaph of lho oLjocl`s hoighl as a funclion of limo t
ovoi [0, 8[ .
SoIutIon: 1ho hoighl of lho oLjocl is givon Ly
r (t) =
_
|
0
(t) dt
whoio (t) is as shown in lguio 4-. 1hus, r (1) =
_
l
0
(t) dt, which
is lho nogalivo of lho aioa of lho liianglo unooi lho inloival [0, 1[ (1ho
oolnilo inlogial is nogalivo Locauso lho inlogiano is nogalivo). 1hus,
r (1) =
_
l
0
(t) dt =
1
2
/a-c /cip/t =
1
2
Similaily, r (8) =
_
3
0
(t) dt, which wo calculalo Ly wiiling
r (8) =
_
l
0
(t) dt
_
3
l
(t) dt =
1
2

_
3
l
(t) dt
Sinco lho giaph of (t) ovoi [1, 8[ is a somi-ciiclo of iaoius 1, lho aioa
is
l
2
ano lhus
r (8) =
1
2

_
3
l
(t) dt =
1
2

2
= 1.0708
Finally, nolico lhal r
t
(t) is nogalivo ovoi [0, 1[ ano posilivo ovoi [1, 8[ ,
wilh ciilical poinls al 1 ano 8. Also, r
t
(t) is incioasing on [0, 2[ ano
oocioasing ovoi [2, 8[ , so lhal r
tt
(t) is posilivo ovoi [0, 2[ ano nogalivo
ovoi [2, 8[ . 1his loaos us lo lho following giaph:
4-6: Giaph of hoighl r (t) al limo t
1hn J&n.n J & & h n &hn J:..nj nn n&nh.||.j : Chock youi Ioaoing
..n
IndehnIte IntegraIs vItL HorIzontaI Asyntotes
A funclion oolnoo Ly an inoolnilo inlogial may possiLly havo oilhoi ono oi lwo
hoiizonlal asymplolos. If il ooos, lhon monolonicily ano concavily oiclalo how
lho asymplolos iolalo lo lho giaph of lho inoolnilo inlogial.
810 lNTLCRATlON
IXAMIII 0 Skolch lho giaph of lho funclion
1 (a) =
_
i
0
1
t
2
1
dt
givon lhal il has hoiizonlal asymplolos of j =
t
2
ano j =
t
2
.
SoIutIon: Wo Login Ly nolicing lhal lho ooiivalivo is
1
t
(a) =
1
a
2
1
which is posilivo foi all a. 1hus 1 (a) is incioasing foi all a. 1ho socono
ooiivalivo is
1
tt
(a) =
2a
(a
2
1)
2
so lhal 1
tt
(a) 0 on (, 0) ano 1
tt
(a) < 0 on (0, ) . 1his loaos
lo lho following oiagiam
4-7: Monolonicily, Concavily, ano Asymplolos of 1 (a)
Sinco 1 (a) is concavo up on (, 0) , il musl Lo aLovo lho asymplolo
j =
t
2
, ano sinco il is concavo oown on (0, ) , il musl Lo Lolow lho
asymplolo j =
t
2
:
4-8: Giaph of 1 (a)
A spocial caso of Fiosnol oiliaclion in oplics is lo ooloimino lho inlonsily of lighl
al a givon poinl 1 in an h:n.n |nn afloi il has passoo lhiough a ioclangulai
slil in a plano paiallol lo lho oLsoivalion plano.
4-0: Fiosnol inlogials moasuio lux oonsilios noai a poinl 1
Il can Lo shown lhal lho lux oonsily al 1 (lux oonsily is similai lo lho concopl
of inlonsily) is piopoilional lo sums ano piooucls of 1:n| .nj:n|, which aio
inlogials of lho foim
( (a) =
_
i
0
cos
_
2
t
2
_
dt a:d o (a) =
_
i
0
sin
_
2
t
2
_
dt
IXAMIII 7 Skolch lho giaph of ( (a) givon lhal il has hoiizonlal
asymplolos of j =
l
2
.
SoIutIon: Sinco (
t
(a) = cos
_
t
2
a
2
_
, lho ciilical poinls aio whoio
cos
_
t
2
a
2
_
= 0, which is whon
2
a
2
=

2
,
8
2
,

2
, . . . ,
(2: 1)
2
, . . .
whoio : is an inlogoi. Solving foi a lhon loaos lo
a
2
= 1, 8, , . . . , 2: 1, . . .
a = 1,
_
8,
_
, . . . ,
_
2: 1, . . .
If 1 < a < 1, lhon (
t
(a) 0, ano lho sign of (
t
(a) alloinalos
aLoul lho ciilical poinls. Concavily lhon follows fiom lho facl lhal
(
tt
(a) = asin
_
t
2
a
2
_
is oqual lo 0 whon
a = 0,
_
2, 2,
_
6, . . . ,
_
2:, . . .
1his loaos lo lho following oiagiam:
4-10: Monolonicily ano Concavily of ( (a)
Incoipoialing lho hoiizonlal asymplolos lhon loaos lo lho giaph Lolow:
4-11: Giaph of ( (a)
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ 1
t
(a) &.nj h J&nJnnnn| h:n nnJ .n|.Jj n||j.
1. 1 (a) =
_
i
0
8tdt 2. 1 (a) =
_
i
l
8tdt 8. 1 (a) =
_
i
0
_
tdt
4. 1 (a) =
_
i
l
t
2
dt . 1 (a) =
_
i
l
sin
_
0
2
_
d0 6. 1 (a) =
_
i
2
c
|/5
dt
812 lNTLCRATlON
7. 1 (a) =
_
t
l
dt
t
8. G(.) =
_
i
l
dt
t
0. 1 (a) =
_
ian(i)
0
dt
t
2
1
10. 1 (a) =
_
In(i)
l
c
|
dt
11. 1 (a) =
_
sIn(i)
0
dt
_
1 t
2
12. 1 (a) =
_
cos(i)
0
1
_
1 t
2
dt
1 nnn..j nnJ nn.j |h h j:nh J nh J&n.n. 1Jn.Jj n||
r:nn nnJ .n J .n.n.
18. 1 (a) =
_
i
0
(2t 1) dt 14. 1 (a) =
_
i
0
(8 4t) dt
1. 1 (a) =
_
i
2
_
t
2
2t
_
dt 16 1 (a) =
_
i
2
_
t
d
8t
2
_
dt
17. 1 (a) =
_
i
l
ln
_
t
2
2
_
dt 18. 1 (a) =
_
i
l
ln
_
t
2
1
_
dt
10. 1 (a) =
_
i
l
t
t
2
1
dt 20. 1 (a) =
_
i
d
2 t
t
2
1
dt
21. 1 (a) =
_
i
0
cos
_
t
2
_
dt 22. 1 (a) =
_
i
0
sin
_
t
2
_
dt
28. 1 (a) =
_
i
l
sin(t)
2 cos (t)
dt 24.
_
i
l
cos (t)
2 cos (t)
dt
2. 1 (a) =
_
i
l
_
t
2
1
_
c
|
/3
dt 26. 1 (a) =
_
i
l
_
t
2
4
_
c
|
/5
dt
27. 1ho ::: J&n.n is oolnoo Ly
oif (a) =
_
i
0
2
_
c
|
dt
ano has lwo hoiizonlal asymplolos of j = 1. Skolch lho giaph of oif (a) .
28. Skolch lho giaph of lho funclion
_
i
0
t
t
d
8
dt
givon lhal il has a hoiizonlal asymplolo of j =
t
d
.
29. 1ho funclion 1 (a) =
_
i
0

_
tc
|
dt has a hoiizonlal asymplolo of j = 0.8080
lo 4 oocimal placos. Skolch lho giaph of 1 (a) .
30. 1ho funclion 1 (a) =
_
i
0
c
|
sin(t) dt has a hoiizonlal asymplolo of j =
l
2
.
Skolch lho giaph of 1 (a) .
31. An ExonentIaI DIstrILutIon: If lho avoiago wail al a coilain ioslau-
ianl is minulos ano wailing limos aio oxpononlially oisliiLuloo, lhon lho
funclion
1 (a) =
_
i
0
0.2c
0.2|
dt
iopiosonls lho pioLaLilily lhal a cuslomoi solocloo al ianoom will havo lo
wail Lolwoon 0 ano a minulos foi soivico. Moioovoi, lho pioLaLilily of
soivico appioachos 1 as a appioachos , which is lo say lhal
lim
io
1 (a) = 1 (4.28)
Skolch lho giaph of 1 (a) foi a 0 using lho funoamonlal lhooiom.
32. TLe CaucLy DIstrILutIon: Supposo an anglo 0 is choson al ianoom fiom
Lolwoon
t
2
ano
t
2
, ano lhon a lino is oiawn fiom lho poinl (0, 1) lo lho
a-axis.
4-12: 1ho Cauchy DisliiLulion
Foi a 0, lho pioLaLilily lhal lho lino will inloisocl lho a-axis in lho inloival
[0, a[ is givon Ly
1 (a) =
_
i
0
1
(1 t
2
)
dt
ano foi a < 0, lho pioLaLilily lho lino will inloisocl lho a-axis in lho inloival
[a, 0[ is 1 (a) . Sinco lhoio is a pioLaLilily of
l
2
of lho lino falling lo lho
iighl of lho j-axis, wo havo Lolh
lim
io
1 (a) =
1
2
a:d lim
io
1 (a) =
1
2
Skolch lho giaph of 1 (a) .
33. Skolch lho giaph of
o (a) =
_
i
0
sin
_
2
t
2
_
dt
givon lhal il has hoiizonlal asymplolos of j =
l
2
.
34. 1ho .n .nj:n| J&n.n is oolnoo lo Lo
Ci (a) =
_
i
l
cos (t)
t
dt
Il has a hoiizonlal asymplolo of j = 0 ano a voilical asymplolo of a = 0.
Skolch ils giaph foi a 0 using monolonicily ano asymplolos.(You mighl
wanl lo uso lho socono ooiivalivo losl, Lul inloivals of concavily will Lo
oimcull lo ooloimino oiioclly).
35. VrIte to Learn: Il can Lo shown lhal lho .n .nj:n| J&n.n
Si (a) =
_
i
0
sin(t)
t
dt
has hoiizonlal asymplolos of j =
t
2
. Wiilo a shoil ossay oxplaining why
lho limil
lim
i0
sin(a)
a
= 1
implios lhal Si (a) ooos nol havo a ciilical poinl al lho oiigin. 1hon skolch
lho giaph of Si (a) using monolonicily ano hoiizonlal asymplolos. (You
mighl wanl lo uso lho socono ooiivalivo losl, Lul inloivals of concavily will
Lo oimcull lo ooloimino oiioclly).
814 lNTLCRATlON
36. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay which usos lho limil
lim
il
ln(a)
1 a
= 1
lo oxplain why lho funclion
oilog (a) =
_
i
l
ln(t)
1 t
dt
has no asymplolos, no oxlioma ano no inloclion poinls.
37. Lol 1 (a) =
_
i
l
) (t) dt, whoio ) is lho piocowiso linoai funclion whoso giaph
is shown Lolow:
4-18: Lxoiciso 87
(a) Compulo 1 (0) ano 1 (2)
(L) Compulo 1 () 1 (4) . Whal ooos lhis oiloionco iopiosonl
(c) Whal is lho inslanlanoous ialo of chango of 1 wilh iospocl lo a
whon a = 8
(o) Whal aio lho ciilical poinls of 1 (a) ovoi [1, [
(o) Skolch lho giaph of 1 (a).
38. Lol r (t) =
_
|
0
(t) dt, whoio is giaphoo Lolow.
4-14: Lxoiciso 88
Assumo lhal lho aics in lho giaph aio aics of ciiclos.
(a) Compulo r (1) ano r (2)
(L) Compulo r () .
(c) Whal is lho inslanlanoous ialo of chango of r wilh iospocl lo t
whon a = 2.
(o) Whal ooos lho giaph of r (t) look liko ovoi [2, 8[
(o) Skolch lho giaph of r (t).
39. * 1ho Lxliomo Valuo 1hooiom says lhal if ) (t) is conlinuous on [a, a /[ ,
lhon lhoio aio numLois n, in [a, a /[ such lhal
) (n) _ ) (t) _ ) ()
foi all t in [a, a /[. Uso lhis lo piovo lho funoamonlal lhooiom Ly showing
lhal
) (n) _
1
/
_
i|
i
) (t) dt _ ) ()
ano lhon oxplaining why ) (n) ano ) () appioach ) (a) as / appioachos 0.
Lxplain why if 1 (a) =
_
i
o
) (t) dt, lhon 1
t
(a) = ) (a) .
40. * VrIte to Learn: A funclion ) (a) is &n.J:n|j conlinuous on [a, /[ if foi
oach 0, lhoio oxisls an / 0 such lhal if a is in (a, / /) , lhon
[) (t) ) (a)[ <
foi all t in (a, a /) . Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you piovo lho fun-
oamonlal lhooiom foi unifoimly conlinuous funclions in lho following foui
slops:
1. Lol 1 (a) =
_
i
o
) (t) dt foi somo lxoo a, ano lol 0 Lo givon. Supposo
lhal / is choson so lhal a / < / ano such lhal t in (a, a /) implios
lhal [) (t) ) (a)[ < . Uso lho piopoilios of lho inlogial lo show lhal
1 (a /) 1 (a) =
_
i|
i
) (t) dt (4.20)
2. Ly lolling ) (t) = ) (a) ) (t) ) (a) , show lhal
_
i|
i
) (t) dt = /) (a)
_
i|
i
[) (t) ) (a)[ dt
(Hinl: ) (a) is lioaloo as a conslanl sinco t is lho vaiiaLlo of inlogia-
lion).
8. ComLino slops 1 ano 2 lo show lhal
1 (a /) 1 (a)
/
) (a) =
1
/
_
i|
i
[) (t) ) (a)[ dt
4. Finally, uso lho piopoily

_
J
c
p (t) dt
_
_
J
c
[p (t)[ dt lo show lhal
1 (a /) 1 (a)
/
) (a)
_
1
/
_
i|
i
[) (t) ) (a)[ dt <
1
/
_
i|
i
dt
which loaos you lo concluoo lhal
lim
|0
1 (a /) 1 (a)
/
= ) (a)
lhus pioving lho funoamonlal lhooiom.
4.5 AnLiderivaLives
TLe AntIderIvatIve
816 lNTLCRATlON
1ho funoamonlal lhooiom in lho lasl soclion inliooucoo us lo ono of lho mosl
impoilanl concopls in calculus, lhal of lho nn.J:.n.. In lhis soclion, wo
oolno, oxploio, ano inlioouco a now nolalion foi lhis voiy impoilanl concopl.
In lho lasl soclion, wo saw lhal if 1 (a) =
_
i
o
) (t) dt, lhon 1
t
(a) = ) (a) . As
a iosull, wo saio lhal 1 (a) is an nn.J:.n. of ) (a) . Lol`s now slalo lhis as a
oolnilion.
DehnItIon 5.1 A funclion 1 (a) is an nn.J:.n. of ) (a) ovoi lho
inloival (j, ) if 1
t
(a) = ) (a) foi all a in (j, ) .
Foi oxamplo, lho funclion 1 (a) = a
2
is an anliooiivalivo of ) (a) = 2a Locauso
d
da
a
2
= 2a
Moioovoi, lho funclion G(a) = a
2
1 is also an anliooiivalivo of ) (a) = 2a
Locauso
d
da
_
a
2
1
_
= 2a
Inoooo, if 1 (a) ano G(a) aio anliooiivalivos of ) (a) on (j, ) ano if wo oolno
/(a) = 1 (a) G(a) , lhon
/
t
(a) = 1
t
(a) G
t
(a) = ) (a) ) (a) = 0
Ly lhooiom 1.2 in soclion 8.1, lhoio is a numLoi C such lhal /(a) = C foi all a
in (j, ) , lhus implying lhal
1 (a) G(a) = C
1hal is, any lwo anliooiivalivos of ) (a) oiloi Ly a conslanl.
TLeoren 5.2 Lvoiy anliooiivalivo of ) (a) on (j, ) is of lho foim
1 (a) C, whoio C is a conslanl ano 1
t
(a) = ) (a) .
1ho symLol
_
) (a) da is usoo lo iopiosonl lho sol of all possiLlo anliooiivalivos of
a funclion ) (a) . 1hus, if 1 (a) is an anliooiivalivo of ) (a) , lhon
_
) (a) da = 1 (a) C
sinco
_
) (a) da oonolos lho sol of all anliooiivalivos of ) (a) .
Foi oxamplo, lho anliooiivalivos of 2a aio of lho foim a
2
C. 1hus, wo wiilo
_
2ada = a
2
C (4.80)
Likowiso, lho ooiivalivo
J
Ji
a
3
= 8a
2
implios lhal anliooiivalivos of 8a
2
aio
_
8a
2
da = a
3
C (4.81)
Il follows almosl immooialoly lhal anliooiivalivos havo lho following piopoi-
lios: _
[) (a) p (a)[ da =
_
) (a) da
_
p (a) da (4.82)
ANTlDLRlVATlVLS 817
_
[) (a) p (a)[ da =
_
) (a) da
_
p (a) da
_
/) (a) da = /
_
) (a) da (4.88)
whoio / is a conslanl. 1hoso piopoilios aio voiy impoilanl in Lolh applicalions
ano lhooiy aliko..
IXAMIII 1 Lvalualo lho anliooiivalivo
_
_
2a 8a
2
_
da
SoIutIon: 1ho iosulls (4.80) ano (4.81) imply lhal
_
_
2a 8a
2
_
da =
_
2ada
_
8a
2
da = a
2
a
3
C (4.84)
Nolico also lhal only ono conslanl is nocossaiy, ovon lhough lwo anli-
ooiivalivos woio usoo lo oLlain lho iosull.
1hn . h J:.n. J a
2
a
3
C 1& J h. :|n ;.) Chock youi Ioaoing
AntIderIvatIves In CIosed Forn
Oflon wo oosiio lo ovalualo
_
) (a) da in closoo foim, whoio
DehnItIon 5.3: An anliooiivalivo
_
) (a) da is saio lo Lo in |J
J:n if il is oxpiossoo as a lnilo comLinalion of olomonlaiy funclions.
Iulos foi ovalualing anliooiivalivos in closoo foim aio oLlainoo fiom ooiivalivo
compulalions. Inoooo, whon : ,= 1, lho powoi iulo implios lhal
d
da
_
a
nl
: 1
C
_
=
1
: 1
(: 1) a
nll
= a
n
1his, in luin, implios oui lisl iulo foi ovalualing anliooiivalivos:
_
a
n
da =
a
nl
: 1
C, : ,= 1 (4.8)
IXAMIII 2 Lvalualo
_
a
2
da in closoo foim.
SoIutIon: Lolling : = 2 in (4.8) yiolos
_
a
2
da =
a
2l
2 1
C =
a
3
8
C
which can Lo voiiloo Ly applying lho ooiivalivo lo lho iosull
d
da
_
a
3
8
C
_
=
1
8
d
da
a
3
=
1
8
8a
2
= a
2
818 lNTLCRATlON
1ho iulo (4.8) also woiks foi noninlogial valuos of :.
IXAMIII J Lvalualo
_ _
ada
SoIutIon: Wiiling
_
a as a
l/2
allows us lo uso (4.8): Convoil lo
numoiical ox-
pononls whon
compuling anli-
ooiivalivos using
(4.8).
_
_
ada =
_
a
l/2
da =
a
l/2l
12 1
C =
a
3/2
82
C =
2
8
a
3/2
C
IXAMIII ! Lvalualo
_
l
i
da.
SoIutIon: Consiooi lhal 1a
3
is lho samo as a
3
, so lhal
_
1
a
3
da =
_
a
3
da =
a
3l
8 1
C =
a
2
2
C (4.86)
1ho anliooiivalivo of a polynomial is ovalualoo using a comLinalion of (4.82),
(4.88) ano (4.8) aLovo.
IXAMIII Lvalualo
_ _
a
3
2a 1
_
da
SoIutIon: Wo uso (4.82) ano (4.88) lo Lioak lho anliooiivalivo of
a
3
2a 1 inlo lhioo anliooiivalivos,
_
_
a
3
2a 1
_
da =
_
a
3
da 2
_
ada
_
1da
Sinco a is lho samo as a
l
ano sinco 1 is lho samo as a
0
, lho iosull is
_
_
a
3
2a 1
_
da =
_
a
3
da 2
_
a
l
da
_
a
0
da
=
a
3l
8 1
2
a
ll
1 1

a
0l
0 1
C
=
a
d
4
a
2
a C
1o chock oui woik, wo apply lho ooiivalivo opoialoi lo lho iosull: Chock youi woik
Ly applying
J
Ji
lo lho iosull.
d
da
_
a
d
4
a
2
a C
_
=
4a
3
4
2a 1 = a
3
2a 1
1n|&n h nn.J:.n.
_
(a 1) da. Chock youi Ioaoing
LogarItLns, ExonentIaIs, SInes and CosInes
1ho socono iulo foi ovalualing anliooiivalivos is lhal
_
1
a
da = ln[a[ C (4.87)
ANTlDLRlVATlVLS 810
which complomonls lho lisl iulo Ly allowing us lo ovalualo lho anliooiivalivo of
a
n
whon : = 1. 1o voiify (4.87), wo uso lho facl lhal [a[ =
_
a
2
:
d
da
(ln[a[ C) =
d
da
ln
_
a
2
_
l/2
=
1
2
d
da
ln
_
a
2
_
1ho chain iulo implios lhal
d
da
(ln[a[ C) =
1
2
d
da
ln
_
a
2
_
=
1
2
2a
a
2
=
1
a
lhus conliming lhal (4.87) is liuo.
IXAMIII 0 Lvalualo
_
a
2
1
a
da
SoIutIon: Wo sopaialo lho inlogiano inlo lwo fiaclions:
_
a
2
1
a
da =
_ _
a
2
a

1
a
_
da =
_ _
a
1
a
_
da
Wo lhon ovalualo using Lolh lho lisl nnJ lho socono iulos:
_
a
2
1
a
da =
_ _
a
1
a
_
da
=
_
ada
_
1
a
da
=
a
2
2
ln[a[ C
Wo chock oui woik Ly applying lho ooiivalivo lo lho iosull:
d
da
_
a
2
2
ln[a[ C
_
=
1
2
d
da
a
2
d
da
ln[a[ = a
1
a
=
a
2
1
a
Iulos foi ovalualing anliooiivalivos of lho oxpononlial, sino ano cosino funclions
follow fiom lhoii ooiivalivos. Inoooo, if / is a nonzoio conslanl, lhon
_
c
|i
da =
l
|
c
|i
C Locauso
d
da
_
l
|
c
|i
C
_
= c
|i
_
cos (/a) da =
l
|
sin(/a) C Locauso
d
da
_
l
|
sin(/a) C
_
= cos (/a)
_
sin(/a) da =
l
|
cos (/a) C Locauso
d
da
_
l
|
cos (/a) C
_
= sin(/a)
IXAMIII 7 Lvalualo
_
c
2i
da.
SoIutIon: 1ho conslanl is / = 2, so lhal
_
c
2i
da =
1
2
c
2i
C
820 lNTLCRATlON
Moioovoi, wo can chock oui woik wilh lho ooiivalivo:
d
da
_
1
2
c
2i
C
_
=
1
2
c
2i
d
da
2a =
1
2
2c
2i
= c
2i
IXAMIII 8 Lvalualo
_
da
_
c
i
SoIutIon: Sinco
_
c
i
= c
i/2
ano
l
t
= c
i
, wo havo / = 12 ano
_
da
_
c
i
=
_
c
i/2
da =
1
12
c
i/2
C = 2c
i/2
C
1o chock oui woik, wo uso lho ooiivalivo:
d
da
_
2c
i/2
C
_
= 2c
i/2
_
1
2
_
= c
i/2
=
1
_
c
i
IXAMIII 0 Lvalualo
_
sin(2a) da ano
_
cos (a) da
SoIutIon: In lho lisl anliooiivalivo, / = 2 so lhal
_
sin(2a) da =
1
2
cos (2a) C
In lho socono, / = so lhal
_
cos (a) =
1
sin(a) C (4.88)
1:.Jj ;.) hj h&.nj hn h J:.n. J
l
t
sin(a) C . cos (a) . Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe HenaInIng TrIgononetrIc FunctIons
Anliooiivalivo iulos foi lho iomaining liigonomoliic funclions aio givon Lolow:
_
soc
2
(a) da = lan(a) C
_
soc (a) lan(a) da = soc (a) C
_
csc
2
(a) da = col (a) C
_
csc (a) col (a) da = csc (a) C
1hoy can Lo voiiloo Ly oiloionlialion.
IXAMIII 10 Lvalualo
_
(soc a lana)
2
da
SoIutIon: Wo Login Ly oxpanoing lho inlogiano:
_
(soc a lana)
2
da =
_
_
soc
2
(a) 2 soc (a) lan(a) lan
2
(a)
da
Now wo uso lho ioonlily lan
2
(a) = soc
2
(a) 1 lo wiilo lhis as
_
(soc a lana)
2
da =
_
_
soc
2
(a) 2 soc (a) lan(a) soc
2
(a) 1
da
=
_
_
2 soc
2
(a) 2 soc (a) lan(a) 1
da
ANTlDLRlVATlVLS 821
Lioaking lho anliooiivalivo inlo lhioo anliooiivalivos yiolos
_
(soc a lana)
2
da = 2
_
soc
2
(a) da 2
_
soc (a) lan(a) da
_
1da
= 2 lan(a) 2 soc (a) a C
which can Lo voiiloo wilh oiloionlialion.
Lxoicisos:
1n|&n h J||&.nj. 1n 1-.u, h| j&: &:| hj J.]:n.n.nj:
1.
_
a
5
da 2.
_
a
5
da 8.
_
a
2.ld
da
4.
_
a
t
da .
_
c
3i
da 6.
_
c
2i
da
7.
_
sin(8a) da 8.
_
cos
__
2a
_
da
0.
_ _
a
3
2a
2
4a 2
_
da 10.
_ _
a
3
2a 1
_
da
11.
_
(a 2
_
a) da 12.
_
(a
_
a)
2
da
18.
_
da
_
a
14.
_ _
a 1
_
a
da
1.
_
a
2
a 1
a
2
da 16.
_
a
2
1
a 1
da
17.
_ _
1
2
a
_
2
da 18.
_
1
_
a
_
1
2
_
a
_
da
10.
_
cos (t) dt 20
_
cos (t) lan(t) dt
21.
_
(t sin(2t)) dt 22.
_
(c
i
sin(8a)) da
28.
_
(sin(a) cos (a))
2
da 24.
_
(sin(a) cos (a))
2
da
2.
_
soc
2
(.)
1 lan
2
(.)
d. 26.
_
1 lan
2
(a)
1 lan
2
(a)
da
27.
_ _
2 cos
2
(a) 1
_
dt 28.
_ _
1 2 sin
2
(t)
_
dt
20.
_ __
2 cos (a) soc (a)
_
2
da 80.
_
(soc t lant)
2
dt
81.
_
(c
i
1)
2
da 82.
_
(c
i
c
i
)
2
da
88.
_
c
i
c
i
c
i
da 84.
_
c
i
c
i
c
i
da
35. Voiify lho lhiio anliooiivalivo iulo Ly showing lhal
d
da
_
1
/
c
|i
C
_
= c
|i
36. Voiify lho fouilh anliooiivalivo iulo Ly showing lhal
d
da
_
1
/
sin(/a) C
_
= cos (/a)
822 lNTLCRATlON
37. Voiify lho lflh anliooiivalivo iulo Ly showing lhal
d
da
_
1
/
cos (/a) C
_
= sin(/a)
38. Compulo lho ooiivalivo of 1 (a) = col (a) , ano uso il lo juslify
_
csc
2
(a) da = col (a) C
39. Only ono of lho following can Lo ovalualoo in closoo foim. Which ono is il
(a)
_
c
i
(ac
i
1) da
(L)
_
c
i
soc (a) da
(c)
_
c
i
da
40. Only ono of lho following can Lo ovalualoo in closoo foim. Which ono is il
(a)
_ _
1 cos (a) da
(L)
_ _
1 cos (2a) da
(c)
_ _
1 cos (8a) da
41. An aulomoLilo liavols al a conslanl spooo of 60 milos poi houi foi ono houi.
Al lho Loginning of lho houi, lho ooomoloi ioaos 10,84.7 milos.
(a) Lol r (t) Lo lho ooomoloi ioaoing al limo t. Uso simplo logic lo
oolno r (t) oxplicilly as a funclion of t.
(L) Lxplain why r (t) =
_
(t) dt, whoio (t) is lho spooo of lho aulo-
moLilo.
(c) Lvalualo lho anliooiivalivo in (L), ano show lhal il piooucos lho
samo funclion as in (a).
42. An aulomoLilo`s spooo is incioasing Ly milos poi socono. Inilially, ils
spoooomoloi ioaos 0 m.p.h. ano ils ooomoloi ioaos 2,847.8 milos.
(a) Lxplain why lho spoooomoloi ioaoing al limo t is givon Ly
(t) = t
Whal will lho spoooomoloi ioaoing Lo afloi 10 soconos
(L) Lol r (t) oonolo lho spoooomoloi ioaoing al limo t. Lxplain why
r (t) =
_
(t) dt
(c) Lvalualo lho anliooiivalivo in (L). Whal will lho ooomoloi ioaoing
Lo afloi 10 soconos
4.6 The FundamenLal Theorem
EvaIuatIon Forn oI tLe FundanentaI TLeoren
THL FUNDAMLNTAL THLORLM 828
1ho funoamonlal lhooiomwas oiscovoioo inooponoonlly Ly Lolh Gollfiioo LioLniz
ano Sii Isaac Nowlon al lho ono of lho sovonloonlh conluiy. In lhis soclion, wo
soo lhal lho lhooiom lhoy oiscovoioo uniloo whal hao Loon sinco anliquily lwo
sopaialo puisuils in malhomalicslho sluoy of langonl linos ano lho compulalion
of aioas.
Supposo lhal 1 (a) is any anliooiivalivo of a conlinuous funclion ) (a) ovoi
[a, /[ . Sinco 1
t
(a) = ) (a) , lho anliooiivalivo 1 (a) is conlinuous on [a, /[ ano
oiloionliaLlo on (a, /) . 1hus, foi oach / 0, lol us lol a
, c
Lo an /-lno laggoo
paililion of [a, /[ whoio lho lags c
salisfy lho Moan Valuo lhooiom foi 1 (a). 1hal

is, on oach [a
l
, a
[ , wo havo
1 (a
) 1 (a
l
) = 1
t
(c
) (a
a
l
)
Sinco 1
t
(c
) = ) (c
) ano a
a
l
= â
, solving foi 1 (a
) loaos lo
1 (a
) = 1 (a
l
) ) (c
) â
(4.80)
Loginning wilh a
n
= /, lho foimula (4.80) implios lhal
1 (a
n
) = 1 (a
nl
) ) (c
n
) â
n
Sinco 1 (a
nl
) = 1 (a
n2
) ) (c
nl
) â
nl
, lhis in luin implios lhal
1 (a
n
) = 1 (a
n2
) ) (c
nl
) â
nl
) (c
n
) â
n
ano if wo conlinuo lhis piocos foi : slops, wo oLlain
1 (a
n
) = 1 (a
nl
) ) (c
n
) â
n
= 1 (a
n2
) ) (c
nl
) â
nl
) (c
n
) â
n
=
.
.
.
.
.
.
= 1 (a
0
) ) (c
l
) â
l
. . . ) (c
nl
) â
nl
) (c
n
) â
n
Howovoi, 1 (a
n
) = 1 (/) ano 1 (a
0
) = 1 (a) , so lhal wo havo
1 (/) 1 (a) = ) (c
l
) â
l
. . . ) (c
n
) â
n
Applicalion of lho limil as / appioachos 0 lhon yiolos
1 (/) 1 (a) = lim
|0
n
=l
) (c
) â
Sinco lho limil of lho Iiomann sum convoigos lo

_
b
o
) (a) da, lho iosull is lho
n|&n.n foim of lho J&nJnnnn| h:n J n|&|&:
FundanentaI TLeoren: If 1 (a) is nnj anliooiivalivo of a conlinu-
ous funclion ) (a) on [a, /[ , lhon
_
b
o
) (a) da = 1 (/) 1 (a) (4.40)
A moio iigoious pioof is incluooo as an oxoiciso.
824 lNTLCRATlON
IXAMIII 1 Lslimalo
_
l
0
a
2
da wilh lho miopoinl molhoo, ano lhon
compaio lo lho iosull oLlainoo wilh lho Funomonlal lhooiom.
SoIutIon: 1ho miopoinl appioximalion applioo lo
_
l
0
a
2
da is of lho
foim
a
l
a
) (t
) â
) (t
) â
1 0.0 0.2 0.1 (0.1)

2
= 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.2 = 0.002
2 0.2 0.4 0.8 (0.8)
2
= 0.00 0.2 0.00 0.2 = 0.018
8 0.4 0.6 0. (0.)
2
= 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 = 0.00
4 0.6 0.8 0.7 (0.7)
2
= 0.40 0.2 0.40 0.2 = 0.008
0.8 1.0 0.0 (0.0)
2
= 0.81 0.2 0.81 0.2 = 0.162
_
l
0
a
2
da - 0.88
Alloinalivoly, if wo lol 1 (a) =
_
a
2
da, lhon
1 (a) =
_
a
2
da =
a
3
8
C
1hus, ovoi [0, 1[ lho oiloionco 1 (/) 1 (a) is
1 (1) 1 (0) =
_
1
8
C
_
_
0
8
C
_
=
1
8
so lhal lho funoamonlal lhooiom implios an oxacl valuo of
_
l
0
a
2
da = 1 (1) 1 (0) =
1
8
1n|&n
_
2
0
a
2
da. Chock youi Ioaoing
Area and a ev otatIon
1o facililalo lho uso of lho funoamonlal lhooiom (4.40), lol us oolno lho now
nolalion
1 (a)[
b
o
= 1 (/) 1 (a)
As a iosull, lho ovalualion lhooiom (4.40) can Lo wiillon as
_
b
o
) (a) da =
_
) (a) da
b
o
(4.41)
whoio
_
) (a) da is lho familiai anliooiivalivo of ) (a) sluoioo in lho lasl chaploi.
Moioovoi, (4.41) givos us an algoiilhm foi ovalualing oolnilo inlogialsovalualo
lho anliooiivalivo
_
) (a) da ano lhon compulo lho oiloionco implioo Ly [
b
o
.
IXAMIII 2 Lvalualo
_
3
l
a
3
da using lho funoamonlal lhooiom
SoIutIon: Wo uso (4.41) ano lho facl lhal
i
d
is an anliooiivalivo of
a
3
:
_
3
l
a
3
da =
_
a
3
da
3
l
=
a
d
4
3
l
=
8
d
4

1
d
4
= 20
Wo uso lho symLol
_
foi Lolh anliooiivalivos ano oolnilo inlogials Locauso il
allows us lo omil lho anliooiivalivo" slop whon calculaling oolnilo inlogials wilh
lho Lvalualion lhooiom. 1hal is, oxamplo 2 coulo havo ioao
_
3
l
a
3
da =
a
d
4
3
l
=
8
d
4

1
d
4
= 20
Iocall lhal if ) (a) _ 0 foi all a in [a, /[ , lhon lho aioa unooi j = ) (a) ovoi
[a, /[ is
rca =
_
b
o
) (a) da
1hus, if
_
) (a) da can Lo ooloiminoo in closoo foim, lhon lho aioa of lho iogion
unooi j = ) (a) ano ovoi [a, /[ can Lo ooloiminoo oxaclly wilh lho funoamonlal
lhooiom.
IXAMIII J Fino lho aioa of lho iogion unooi lho giaph of ) (a) =
2a ano ovoi [0, 8[ .
SoIutIon: Sinco ) (a) = 2a is non-nogalivo ovoi [0, 8[ , lho iogion
unooi lho giaph of ) (a) = 2a ano ovoi [0, 8[ is
=
_
3
0
2a da
As a iosull, lho funoamonlal lhooiom implios lhal
_
3
0
2a da = a
2
3
0
= 8
2
0
2
= 0
1o conlim lho iosull in oxamplo 8, lol us nolico lhal lho iogion unooi ) (a) = 2a
ovoi lho inloival [0, 8[ is a liianglo wilh hoighl 6 ano wiolh 8,
1hus, il has an aioa of
l
2
(6) (8) = 0.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho aioa of lho iogion unooi j = c
2i
ovoi lho
inloival [0, 1[ .
826 lNTLCRATlON
SoIutIon: Sinco c
2i
0 ovoi [0, 1[ , lho aioa of lho iogion is
rca =
_
l
0
c
2i
da
x
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1o lno lho aioa, wo uso lho Lasic foim
_
c
|i
da =
l
|
c
||
C lo oLlain
rca =
_
l
0
c
2i
da =
1
2
c
2i
l
0
=
1
2
c
2
1
2
c
0
=
1
2
_
c
2
1
_
IXAMIII Fino lho aioa of lho iogion unooi j = soc
2
(a) ovoi
_
0,
t
d
:
SoIutIon: Sinco soc
2
(a) _ 0 on
_
0,
t
d
, lho aioa of lho iogion is

rca =
_
t/d
0
soc
2
(a) da
x
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1o oo so, wo uso lho Lasic foim
_
soc
2
(a) da = lan(a) C:
rca =
_
t/d
0
soc
2
(a) da = lan(a)[
t/d
0
= lan
_
4
_
lan(0) = 1
1hj nn & J: h ' &hn & & h J&nJnnnn| h:n ;1.n: Chock youi Ioaoing
:nJ h nnn J h J&nJnnnn| h:n njn.n)
Even Synnetry and tLe FundanentaI TLeoren
1ho uso of symmoliy can simplify lho compulalion of aioa. In pailiculai, a func-
lion ) (a) is saio lo Lo n if ) (a) = ) (a) . Foi oxamplo, ) (a) = a
2
is ovon
sinco
) (a) = (a)
2
= a
2
= ) (a)
1ho giaph of an ovon funclion is symmoliic aLoul lho j-axis.
6-1: Giaph of an ovon funclion
1hus, if ) (a) is posilivo, lhon lho aioa unooi j = ) (a) ovoi [a, a[ is lwico lho
aioa unooi j = ) (a) ovoi [0, a[ . 1hal is, if ) (a) is ovon, lhon
_
o
o
) (a) da = 2
_
o
0
) (a) da (4.42)
Moioovoi, il can Lo shown lhal (4.42) holos in gonoial (soo lho oxoicisos).
IXAMIII 0 Fino lho aioa of lho iogion unooi lho cuivo j = cos (a)
ovoi lho inloival
_
t
2
,
t
2
.
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo musl ovalualo lho inlogial
rca =
_
t/2
t/2
cos (a) da
x
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Sinco lho iogion is symmoliic aLoul lho j-axislhal is, sinco ) (a) =
cos (a) is an ovon funclionlho aioa of lho onliio iogion is oouLlo lhal
of lho iogion ovoi
_
0,
t
2
:
rca = 2
_
t/2
0
cos (a) da = 2 sin(a)[
t/2
0
= 2 sin
_
2
_
2 sin(0) = 2
IXAMIII 7 Lvalualo lho inlogial
_
2
2
[a[ da
SoIutIon: Nolico lhal wo cannol oiioclly ovalualo lho inlogial
_
2
2
[a[ da
Howovoi, lho inlogiano ) (a) = [a[ is ovon sinco
) (a) = [a[ = [a[ = ) (a)
As a iosull, (4.42) implios lhal
_
2
2
[a[ da = 2
_
2
0
[a[ da
828 lNTLCRATlON
Sinco [a[ = a whon a _ 0, wo lhus havo
_
2
2
[a[ da = 2
_
2
0
ada = 2
_
a
2
2
2
0
_
= 4 (4.48)
1 ) (a) = soc (a) nn n J&n.n Chock youi Ioaoing
DehnIte IntegraIs oI Odd FunctIons
A funclion ) (a) is saio lo Lo JJ if ) (a) = ) (a) foi all a in do:()) . Foi
oxamplo, ) (a) = a
3
is ooo sinco
) (a) = (a)
3
= a
3
= ) (a)
Likowiso, ) (a) = sin(a) is ooo sinco sin(a) = sin(a) .
Supposo now lhal 1 (a) is an anliooiivalivo of a conlinuous ooo funclion ) (a) .
1hon lho ooiivalivo of 1 (a) is
d
da
1 (a) = 1
t
(a)
d
da
(a) = ) (a)
Sinco ) (a) = ) (a) , lhis moans lhal
J
Ji
1 (a) = ) (a) . Howovoi, ) (a) =
J
Ji
1 (a) , so lhal
d
da
1 (a) =
d
da
1 (a)
1hus, lhoio is a conslanl C such lhal 1 (a) = 1 (a) C, Lul Locauso a = 0
implios lhal 1 (0) = 1 (0) C, il follows lhal C = 0.
Consoquonlly, wo havo shown lhal if ) (a) is a conlinuous ooo funclion ano
1 (a) is an anliooiivalivo of ) (a) , lhon
1 (a) = 1 (a)
1hal is, 1 (a) is an n funclion. Consoquonlly,
_
o
o
) (a) da = 1 (a) 1 (a) = 0
sinco 1 (a) = 1 (a) . 1hus, if ) (a) is an ooo funclion, lhon
_
o
o
) (a) da = 0 (4.44)
1ho ioonlily (4.44) is voiy usoful Locauso il holos ovon whon lho anliooiivalivo of
) (a) cannol Lo ovalualoo in closoo foim.
IXAMIII 8 Lvalualo
_
l00
l00
a
3
sin
_
a
2
_
da
3
sin
_
a
2
_
, lhon
) (a) = (a)
3
sin
_
(a)
2
_
= a
3
sin
_
a
2
_
= ) (a)
1hus, ) (a) is an ooo funclion ano (4.44) implios lhal
_
l00
l00
a
3
sin
_
a
2
_
da = 0
ovon lhough
_
a
3
sin
_
a
2
_
da cannol Lo ovalualoo in closoo foim.
Lxoicisos:
1n|&n h J||&.nj J]n. .nj:n|. `& nnj &nn & jnn:j nnJ:
h Jn hn h J]n. .nj:n| . h n:n &nJ: n &: &hn h .nj:nnJ .
...
1.
_
l
0
8a
2
da 2.
_
2
0
4a
3
da
8.
_
3
l
_
2a
3
6a
_
da 4.
_
2
l
a
5
da
.
_
2
0
sin(a)da 6.
_
t
t
cos (8a) da
7.
_
5
l
8
a
2
da 8.
_
5
l
1
a
da
0.
_
l
l
[a[ da 10.
_
9
l
da
_
a
11.
_
In(2)
0
c
3i
da 12.
_
l.5
0.5
c
7i
da
18.
_
l
l
cos
_
a
2
_
da 14.
_
2
2
_
4a
2
cos (a)
_
da
1.
_
l
0
(c
i
c
i
)da 16.
_
l
0
(c
i
c
i
)
2
da
17.
_
l
l
sin
_
a
3
_
da 18.
_
t/d
0
[cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a)[da
10.
_
3
l
a
2
1
a
da 20.
_
d
l
_
a a
3/2
_
a
da
21.
_
t
0
2 sin(a) cos (a) da 22.
_
t/d
t/d
2asoc
2
(a)da
28.
_
t/d
t/d
sin(a) soc
2
(a)da 24.
_
t/d
0
sin
2
(a) soc
2
(a)da
1.nJ h n:n J nh :j.n J:.hJ h|& &.nj h n|&n.n h:n.
2. unooi j = a ovoi [0, 1[ 26. unooi j = a
2
ovoi [0, 2[
27. unooi j = sin(a) ovoi [0, [ 28. unooi j = c
3i
ovoi [0, 1[
20. unooi j = [a[ ovoi [0, 1[ 80. unooi j = [a[ ovoi [1, 1[
On h j:nh J h .nj:nnJ h|& nh .nj:n|, hnJ h n:n ::nJ hj
880 lNTLCRATlON
h J]n. .nj:n|. Jhn ]nJ h n:n J h hnJJ :j.n.
81.
_
3.5
l
_
a
3
8a
2

_
da 82.
_
2.5
0
_
a
1
a
_
da
x
4 3 2 1 0
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
x
3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
88.
_
t
0
(cos (a) 1) da 84.
_
2t
0
sin(a2) da
x
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
x
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
35. In lhis oxoiciso, wo consiooi lho inoolnilo inlogial
1 (a) =
_
i
0
c
|
dt
(a) Whal is 1 (a) in closoo foim
(L) Whal is 1
t
(a) Is lhis whal you oxpocloo
36. In lhis oxoiciso, wo consiooi lho inoolnilo inlogial
1 (a) =
_
_
i
0
tdt
(a) Whal is 1 (a) in closoo foim
(L) Whal is 1
t
(a) Is lhis whal you oxpocloo
37. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxamino lho inlogial
_
l
l
a
3
da
(a) unerIcaI: Complolo lho miopoinl appioximalion Lolow
a
l
a
) (t
) â
) (t
) â
1 -1.0 -0.
2 -0. 0.0
8 0.0 0.
4 0. 1.0
_
l
l
a
3
da -
(L) Lvalualo
_
l
l
a
3
da using lho funoamonlal lhooiom. How closo is
lho aclual valuo lo lho appioximalion in (a)
38. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxamino lho inlogial
_
0.5
0
_
ada
(a) unerIcaI: Complolo lho miopoinl appioximalion Lolow
a
l
a
) (t
) â
) (t
) â
1 0 0.1
2 0.1 0.2
8 0.2 0.8
4 0.8 0.4
0.4 0.
_
0.5
0
_
ada -
(L) Lvalualo
_
0.5
0
_
ada using lho funoamonlal lhooiom. How closo is
lho aclual valuo lo lho appioximalion in (a)
39. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oslimalo lho valuo of lho oolnilo inlogial
_
l
0
c
i
da (4.4)
(a) Giaph ) (a) = 1 a
2
l
2
a
d
ano p (a) = c
i
ovoi lho inloival

[0, 1[ . Which is Liggoi
(L) Lslimalo (4.4) Ly ovalualing lho inlogial
_
l
0
_
1 a
2
l
2
a
d
_
da. Is
lho oslimalo aLovo oi Lolow lho aclual valuo
40. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oslimalo
_
t
0
sin(a)
a
da (4.46)
(a) Giaph j (a) = cos (a2), (a) = 1 a ano
r (a) =
sin(a)
a
ovoi lho inloival [0, [ . Aiiango lhom in asconoing oiooi.
(L) Lvalualo
_
t
0
cos (a2) da ano
_
t
0
(1 a) da lo pioouco a lowoi
ano an uppoi oslimalo of (4.46).
41. VrIte to Learn: 1ho ancionl Giook malhomalician Aichimooos oslimaloo
Ly using insciiLoo ano ciicumsciiLoo polygons lo appioximalo ciiclos ano
lhon compuling lhoii aioas. In a shoil ossay, iovisil Aichimooos` woik Ly
oxplaining why lho aioa of lho iogion unooi j =
_
4 a
2
ano ovoi [0, 2[ is
. 1hon lno lho aioas of lho insciiLoo ano ciicumsciiLoo appioximalions
shown Lolow:
6-2: Appioximalion of lho aioa of a quailoi ciiclo
882 lNTLCRATlON
You will nooo lo uso a piopoily of lho langonl lino lo a ciiclo in lho ciicum-
sciiLoo caso.
42. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay which usos lho following slops lo
piosonl a moio iigoious pioof of lho funoamonlal lhooiom (i.o., ono lhal
allows lags lo Lo choson aiLiliaiily). Supposo lhal ) (a) is conlinuous ovoi
[a, /[ ano lhal 1 (a) is an anliooiivalivo of ) (a). Lol 0 ano supposo lhal
a
, t
is an /-lno paililion of [a, /[ whoio / is small onough lhal

[) (a) ) (t
)[ <

/ a
foi all a in [a
l
, a
[, ano supposo lhis holos foi oach = 1, . . . , :.

(a) Foi oach = 1, . . . , :, lol c
Lo lho poinl in (a
l
, a
) foi which
1 (a
) 1 (a
l
) = ) (c
) (a
a
l
)
Mimic lho ooiivalion al lho Loginning of lho soclion lo show lhal
1 (/) 1 (a) = ) (c
l
) â
l
) (c
2
) â
2
. . . ) (c
n
) â
n
(L) Showlhal 1 (/)1 (a)() (t
l
) â
l
) (t
2
) â
2
. . . ) (t
n
) â
n
)
simplilos lo
[) (c
l
) ) (t
l
)[ â
l
[) (c
2
) ) (t
2
)[ â
2
. . .[) (c
n
) ) (t
n
)[ â
n
ano lhon uso lho liianglo inoqualily lo show lhal
[1 (/) 1 (a) [) (t
l
) â
l
) (t
2
) â
2
. . . ) (t
n
) â
n
[[ <
(c) Uso (L) lo oxplain why
1 (/) 1 (a) = lim
|0
[) (t
l
) â
l
) (t
2
) â
2
. . . ) (t
n
) â
n
[
ano lhon oxplain whal lho limil iopiosonls.
4.1 SubsLiLuLion
SuLstItutIon
Wo cuiionlly havo lho following Lasic foimulas, whoio : ,= 1 ano / ,= 0. Momoiizo lhoso
iulos. Wo will
uso lhom oflon.
1.
_
a
n
da =
a
nl
: 1
C 6.
_
soc
2
(a) da = lan(a) C
2.
_
1
a
da =
_
a
l
da = ln[a[ C 7.
_
soc (a) lan(a) da = soc (a) C
8.
_
c
|i
da =
l
|
c
|i
C 8.
_
csc
2
(a) da = col (a) C
4.
_
cos (/a) da =
l
|
sin(/a) C 0.
_
csc (a) col (a) da = csc (a) C
.
_
sin(/a) da =
l
|
cos (/a) C
In aooilion, wo also oovolop hn.j& J .nj:n.n lo liansfoim a givon anli-
ooiivalivo inlo ono of lhoso nino foims. In lhis soclion, wo inlioouco lho mosl
impoilanl of lhoso lochniquoslho molhoo of suLslilulion.
SUBSTlTUTlON 888
If 1 (a) is an anliooiivalivo of ) (a) ano if p (a) is oiloionliaLlo, lhon
d
da
1 [p (a)[ = 1
t
[p (a)[ p
t
(a) = ) [p (a)[ p
t
(a) (4.47)
1ho nhJ J &h.&.n is lho anliooiivalivo foim of (4.47), which is
_
) (p (a)) p
t
(a) da = 1 (p (a)) C (4.48)
Howovoi, whon wo uso (4.48), wo oo so Ly omploying lho following algoiilhm:
i. Lol n = p (a)
ii. Foim lho oiloionlial dn = p
t
(a) da Ly compuling
Ju
Ji
= p
t
(a)
iii. Ioplaco p (a) Ly n ano ioplaco p
t
(a) da Ly dn
iv. Lvalualo lho anliooiivalivo
_
) (n) dn in lho vaiiaLlo n
v. Ioplaco n Ly p (a) in lho iosull of lho anlioiloionlialion
_
cos
_
a
2
_
2ada (4.40)
SoIutIon: Fiisl, wo lol n = a
2
. Socono, wo oiloionlialo lo oLlain
Ju
Ji
= 2a, which yiolos oui oiloionlial
dn = 2ada
1hiio, wo suLslilulo n = a
2
ano dn = 2ada inlo (4.40).
_
cos
_
a
2
_
2ada =
_
cos (n) dn
1ho iosulling anliooiivalivo is in ono of lho Lasic foims, so fouilhly,
wo ovalualo _
cos (n) dn = sin(n) C
ano lnally, wo ioplaco n Ly a
2
lo oLlain lho lnal iosull:
_
cos
_
a
2
_
2ada = sin
_
a
2
_
C
1o chock oui woik, wo apply lho ooiivalivo:
d
da
_
sin
_
a
2
_
C
_
= cos
_
a
2
_
d
da
a
2
= cos
_
a
2
_
2a
Nolico lhal lho chain iulo was usoo in chocking oui woik. 1his is Locauso suLsli-
lulion is oquivalonl lo iunning lho chain iulo in iovoiso."
1 h &h.&.n n = a
2
n|&n Chock youi Ioaoing
_
c
i
2ada
884 lNTLCRATlON
SuLstItutIons vItL a Constant AuItIIIer
In many pioLloms, wo musl ioplaco a oiloionlial of lho foim p
t
(a) da Ly a oiloi-
onlial of lho foim /dn, whoio / is a conslanl. In ooing so, howovoi, il is impoilanl
lo koop lho a loims wilh lhoii oiloionlial da ano lho n loims wilh dn.
IXAMIII 2 Lvalualo
_
soc
2
_
a
2
_
ada (4.0)
SoIutIon: Wo lol n = a
2
. Sinco lho ooiivalivo of a
2
is 2a, lho oiloi-
onlial is dn = 2ada. Wo lhon oivioo Lolh sioos of lho oiloionlial Ly 2
lo isolalo lho oxpiossion ada:
1
2
dn = ada
Wo ioplaco a
2
Ly n ano ada Ly
l
2
dn so lhal (4.0) Locomos
_
soc
2
_
a
2
_
ada =
_
soc
2
(n)
1
2
dn =
1
2
lan(n) C
Convoiling Lack lo lho oiiginal a vaiiaLlo yiolos lho lnal iosull
_
soc
2
_
a
2
_
ada =
1
2
lan
_
a
2
_
C
Now wo chock oui woik wilh lho ooiivalivo:
d
da
_
1
2
lan
_
a
2
_
C
_
=
1
2
soc
2
_
a
2
_
d
da
a
2
=
1
2
soc
_
a
2
_
2a = soc
2
_
a
2
_
a
Whon ovalualing anliooiivalivos which involvo iaoicals, il is oasy lo Locomo pai-
alyzoo Ly lho nolalion." 1o ovoicomo lhis paialysis, wo oflon convoil iaoicals inlo Changing iools
inlo fiaclional
powois oflon
makos suLsli-
lulion moio
accossiLlo.
numoiical oxpononls.
IXAMIII J Lvalualo
_
sin(
_
a)
_
a
da (4.1)
SoIutIon: Allhough (4.1) may Lo inlimioaling, convoiling lho iools
lo fiaclional powois loaos lo a moio accossiLlo pioLlom:
_
sin(
_
a)
_
a
da =
_
sin
_
a
l/2
_
a
l/2
da
If wo lol n = a
l/2
, lhon dn =
l
2
a
l/2
da, which is lho samo as 2dn =
a
l/2
da. 1hus, (4.1) Locomos
_
sin
_
a
l/2
_
a
l/2
da =
_
sin(n) 2dn = 2 cos (n) C
afloi which ioplacing n Ly a
l/2
yiolos
_
sin(
_
a)
_
a
da = 2 cos
__
a
_
C (4.2)
Applicalion of lho ooiivalivo conlims oui iosull.
SUBSTlTUTlON 88
1h: J.J h njn. .jn .n ;..) n J:n Chock youi Ioaoing
CuIdeIInes Ior cLoosIng n
1ho koy lo lho suLslilulion algoiilhm is lo chooso a n which also allows lho
suLslilulion of dn. Moioovoi, lhoio aio somo guioolinos which may aio in lho
soloclion of a such a suLslilulion. 1o Login wilh, whon an inlogiano conlains a
fiaclion, n is oflon all oi somo pail of lho oonominaloi.
IXAMIII ! Lvalualo
_
da
(a 2)
2
SoIutIon: Oui guioolino molivalos us lo lol n = a2. Sinco dn = da,
wo havo
_
da
(a 2)
2
=
_
dn
n
2
=
_
n
2
dn =
n
l
1
C =
1
a 2
C
which shoulo now Lo chockoo wilh a ooiivalivo.
Inoooo, sinco many applicalions involvo poiconlago ialos of chango, il is nol un-
common foi n lo Lo lho onliio oonominaloi ano lhus foi lho anliooiivalivo lo
involvo logaiilhms.
IXAMIII Lvalualo lho anliooiivalivo
_
sin(a)
2 cos (a)
da (4.8)
SoIutIon: Oui guioolino molivalos us lo n = 2 cos (a) . As a iosull,
dn = sin(a) da ano (4.8) is liansfoimoo inlo
_
sin(a) da
2 cos (a)
=
_
dn
n
= ln[n[ C
= ln[2 cos (a)[ C
In aooilion, lhoio is oflon moio lhan ono choico of n which will simplify lho
anliooiivalivo lo a Lasic foim. Foi oxamplo, lol`s ovalualo
_
lan(a) soc
2
(a) da
using lho suLslilulion n = lan(a) ano also lho suLslilulion n = soc (a) .
IXAMIII 0 Lvalualo
_
lan(a) soc
2
(a) da using n = lan(a) .
SoIutIon: If n = lan(a) , lhon dn = soc
2
(a) da. 1hus
_
lan(a) soc
2
(a) da =
_
ndn =
n
2
2
C
886 lNTLCRATlON
which implios lhal
_
lan(a) soc
2
(a) da =
1
2
lan
2
(a) C (4.4)
IXAMIII 7 Lvalualo
_
lan(a) soc
2
(a) da using n = soc (a) .
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo iowiilo
_
lan(a) soc
2
(a) da in lho foim
_
lan(a) soc
2
(a) da =
_
soc (a) soc (a) lan(a) da
so lhal n = soc (a), dn = soc (a) lan(a) da iosulls in
_
lan(a) soc
2
(a) da =
_
soc (a) soc (a) lan(a) da
=
_
ndn
=
n
2
2
C
l
As a iosull, wo oLlain
_
lan(a) soc
2
(a) da =
1
2
soc
2
(a) C
l
(4.)
1ho iosulls in (4.) ano (4.4) may appoai lo Lo oiloionl, Lul in ioalily, lhoy
aio lho samo Locauso soc
2
(a) ano lan
2
(a) oiloi Ly a conslanl.
1hn :.jnn:. .Jn.j || & hn soc
2
(a) nnJ lan
2
(a) J.]: hj n n- Chock youi Ioaoing
nn
AddItIonaI ConsIderatIons
Oflon wo musl manipulalo Lolh lho inlogiano of lho anliooiivalivo ano n ilsolf in
oiooi lo olocl a suLslilulion. Moioovoi, il is oflon only lhiough liial ano oiioi
lhal somo manipulalion of lho inlogiano loaos lo a anliooiivalivo lhal can Lo
ovalualoo.
Foi oxamplo, lhoio is no oLvious molhoo foi ovalualing
_
soc (a) da. Insloao,
a gioal ooal of liial ano oiioi may Lo nocossaiy Lofoio wo ioalizo lhal wo musl
mulliply insioo lho inlogiano Ly lho ialio of soc (a) lan(a) lo ilsolf:
_
soc (a) da =
_
soc (a) [soc (a) lan(a)[
soc (a) lan(a)
da =
_
soc (a) lan(a) soc
2
(a)
soc (a) lan(a)
da
If n = soc (a) lan(a) , lhon dn =
_
soc alana soc
2
a
_
da, so lhal
_
soc (a) da =
_
soc (a) lan(a) soc
2
(a)
soc (a) lan(a)
da
=
_
dn
n
= ln[n[ C
SUBSTlTUTlON 887
Sinco n = soc (a) lan(a) , lhis loaos lo a ialhoi fioquonlly occuiing iulo:
_
soc (a) da = ln[soc (a) lan(a)[ C (4.6)
1hoio aio also limos whon algoLiaic manipulalions of lho inlogiano aio ioquiioo.
IXAMIII 8 Lvalualo
_
a
3
a
2
4
da
2
4 so lhal
l
2
dn = ada. Wo also wiilo
a
3
= a
2
a ano uso lho facl lhal a
2
= n 4 lo oLlain
_
a
2
ada
a
2
4
=
_
(n 4) dn
n
=
_ _
n
n

4
n
_
dn = n 4 ln[n[ C
_
a
3
a
2
4
da =
_
a
2
4
_
4 ln
a
2
4
C
Howovoi, iogaioloss of how powoiful a molhoo suLslilulion is, lhoio iomain many
anliooiivalivos which cannot Le evaIuated in closoo foim using any molhoo
lhal is, which cannol Lo oxpiossoo as a lnilo comLinalion of olomonlaiy funclions.
Foi oxamplo, lho anliooiivalivo
_
c
i
da is founoalional lo lho sluoy of slalislics,

Lul il cannol Lo ovalualoo in closoo foim. Many anliooiiv-
alivos cannol
Lo ovalualoo in
closoo foim.
IXAMIII 0 Lxplain why
_
c
i
da cannol Lo ovalualoo wilh lho

suLslilulion n = a
2
.
SoIutIon: 1ho suLslilulion n = a
2
cannol Lo usoo Locauso il loaos lo
l
2
dn = ada, ano lhoio is no facloi a lo placo wilh lho da in
_
c
i
da
In facl, il can Lo shown lhal no lochniquo, no compuloi algoLia syslom, no malh-
omalical gonius, noi anylhing olso will ovoi Lo aLlo lo ioouco
_
c
i
da lo a lnilo
comLinalion of olomonlaiy funclions.
Lxoicisos:
1n|&n &.nj h j.n &h.&.n. h| j&: &:| hj J.]:n.n.nj.
1.
_
cos
_
a
3
_
a
2
da 2.
_
sin
_
c
2i
_
c
2i
da 8.
_
c
i
ada 4.
_
sin(c
i
)
c
i
da
n = a
3
n = c
2i
n = a
2
n = c
i
888 lNTLCRATlON
1n|&n nnJ h| j&: &:|. `& nnj nJ & ;.).
.
_
ac
i
da 6.
_
asin
_
a
2
_
da
7.
_
c
sIn(i)
cos (a) da 8.
_
c
ian(i)
soc
2
(a) da
0.
_ _
8a 2da 10.
_

_
2a 8da
11.
_
da
2a 1
12.
_
da
_
2a 1
18.
_
cos
_
c
2i
_
c
2i
da 14.
_
sin(8a 1) da
1.
_
cos (a) sin(a) da 16.
_
cos
2
(a) sin(a) da
17.
_
lan(a) da 18.
_
col (a) da
10.
_
ada
a
2
4
20.
_
a
2
da
a
3
4
21.
_
sin(a) da
2 cos (a)
22.
_
cos (a) da
sin(a) 4
28.
_
soc
2
(a)
lan(a) 1
da 24.
_
soc
2
(a)
_
lan(a) 1
da
2.
_
sin(
_
a) da
_
a
26.
_
da
aln(a)
27.
_
cos (a) da
1 sin
2
(a)
28.
_
csc (a) lan(a) da
20.
_
(soc a 1)
2
da 80.
_
(soc a 1)
2
da
h n nnJ hn :J:n &hn: n|jh:n. nnn.&|n.n n: nn:j
n||& n &h.&.n nnJ n|&n h nn.J:.n..
81.
_
a
3
da
a
2
1
82.
_
a
3
da
_
a
2
1
88.
_
a
3
_
a
2
1da 84.
_ a
_
a
2
1
_
da
a
2
35. Only ono of lho following can Lo ovalualoo in closoo foim. Uso suLslilulion
lo ooloimino which il is.
(a)
_
ln
_
a
2
_
ln(a
2
) 2
da
a
(/)
_
ln
_
a
3
_
ln(a
3
) 8
da
a
2
(c)
_
ln
_
a
d
_
ln(a
d
) 4
da
a
3
36. Only ono of lho following can Lo ovalualoo in closoo foim. Uso suLslilulion
lo ooloimino which il is.
(a)
_
sin
_
a
2
_
a
l
da (/)
_
lan
_
a
2
_
a
l
da (c)
_
ln
_
a
2
_
a
l
da
37. Conuter AIgeLra Systen: Doloimino lho answois lo oxoicisos 8 ano
86 Ly allompling lo ovalualo oach wilh a compuloi algoLia syslom.
38. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxploio lho anliooiivalivo
_
csc
2
(a) col (a) da (4.7)
SUBSTlTUTlON 880
(a) Lvalualo (4.7) using lho suLslilulion n = col (a)
(L) Lvalualo (4.7) Ly wiiling il as
_
csc (a) csc (a) col (a) da
ano using lho suLslilulion n = csc (a) .
(c) Why aio lho iosulls in (a) ano (L) lho samo, ovon lhough lhoy oo
nol look lho samo
39. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxploio lho anliooiivalivos of
_
2 sin(a) cos (a) da (4.8)
(a) Lvalualo (4.8) using lho suLslilulion n = sin(a)
(L) Lvalualo (4.8) using lho suLslilulion n = cos (a)
(c) Lvalualo (4.8) Ly simplifying lo
_
sin(2a) da
ano inlogialing.
(o) Why aio lho iosulls in (a), (L) ano (c) all lho samo, ovon lhough
lhoy oo nol appoai lo Lo lho samo
40. Uso lho suLslilulion n =
_
a lo ovalualo lho anliooiivalivo
_
da
a
_
a
4.8 SubsLiLuLion in DeniLe lnLegrals
SuLstItutIon In DehnIte IntegraIs: AetLod 1
1hoio aio lwo appioachos lo using suLslilulion lo ovalualo oolnilo inlogials. Ono
appioach is lo ovalualo lho anliooiivalivo lisl ano lhon suLslilulo afloiwaios,
whilo lho olhoi appioach is lo chango lho limils whon making lho suLslilulion.
Allhough lho socono appioachos has somo aovanlagos ovoi lho lisl, oilhoi molhoo
can Lo usoo in many applicalions.
1ho lisl appioach will Lo iofoiioo lo as Molhoo 1", in which lho funoamonlal
lhooiom is usoo lo wiilo a oolnilo inlogial in loims of an anliooiivalivo.
_
b
o
) [p (a)[ p
t
(a) da =
_
) [p (a)[ p
t
(a) da
i=b
i=o
1ho suLslilulion n = p (a) , dn = p
t
(a) da is suLsoquonlly applioo lo lho anli-
ooiivalivo, which is lhon ovalualoo. Onco wo ioplaco n wilh p (a) , lho limils aio
lhon suLsliluloo lo complolo lho ovalualion:
_
b
o
) [p (a)[ p
t
(a) da =
_
) (n) dn
i=b
i=o
= 1 (n)[
i=b
i=o
= 1 (p (a))[
i=b
i=o
= 1 (p (/)) 1 (p (a))
840 lNTLCRATlON
Oflon lho suLslilulion is maoo oiioclly inlo lho oolnilo inlogial, which unfoilu-
naloly may loao lo confusion if wo aio nol caioful lo iomomLoi lhal lho limils aio
lo Lo usoo only afloi iooucing lho iosull lo a funclion of a.
IXAMIII 1 Uso suLslilulion lo ovalualo
_
_
t
0
sin
_
a
2
_
2ada
2
so lhal dn = 2ada. As a iosull, wo oLlain
_
_
t
0
sin
_
a
2
_
2ada =
_
sin
_
a
2
_
2ada
i=
_
t
i=0
=
_
sin(n) dn
i=
_
t
i=0
= cos (n)[
i=
_
t
i=0
Wo ioplaco n Ly a
2
ano lhon ovalualo lho oiloionco:
_
_
t
0
sin
_
a
2
_
2ada = cos
_
a
2
_
i=
_
t
i=0
= cos
_
__
_
2
_
cos (0)
= cos () cos (0)
= 1 1
= 2
IXAMIII 2 Lvalualo
_
l
0
ada
_
4 a
2
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, wo lol n = 4 a
2
. 1ho oiloionlial lhon
Locomos
dn = 2ada ==
1
2
dn = ada
SuLslilulion lhus loaos lo
_
l
0
ada
_
4 a
2
=
_
l
2
dn
_
n
i=l
i=0
=
1
2
_
n
l/2
dn
i=l
i=0
=
1
2
n
l/2
12
i=l
i=0
Simplifying ano ioplacing n Ly 4 a
2
complolos lho ovalualion:
_
l
0
ada
_
4 a
2
=
_
n

i=l
i=0
=
_
4 a
2
i=l
i=0
=
_
4 1
_
4 0
=
_
8 2
SUBSTlTUTlON lN DLFlNlTL lNTLCRALS 841
1hj . J& njn. .n rnn| . Chock youi Ioaoing
SuLstItutIon In DehnIte IntegraIs: AetLod 2
1ho socono appioach will Lo iofoiioo lo as Molhoo 2" ano ioquiios lho limils of
inlogialion also Lo changoo whon lho vaiiaLlo is changoo. In pailiculai, if 1 (a)
is an anliooiivalivo of ) (a) , lhon
d
da
1 (p (a)) = ) (p (a)) p
t
(a)
1hus, lho funoamonlal lhooiom says lhal
_
b
o
) [p (a)[ p
t
(a) da = 1 (p (/)) 1 (p (a))
Howovoi, lho funoamonlal lhooiom also says lhal
_
(b)
(o)
) (n) dn = 1 (p (/)) 1 (p (a))
ComLining lho lwo yiolos lho ioonlily
_
b
o
) [p (a)[ p
t
(a) da =
_
(b)
(o)
) (n) dn (4.0)
1hal is, using lho suLslilulion n = p (a) ano n = p
t
(a) da in a oolnilo inlogial
ioquiios lho limils of inlogialion Lo changoo lo p (a) ano p (/), iospoclivoly.
IXAMIII J Uso suLslilulion lo ovalualo
_
_
t
0
sin
_
a
2
_
2ada (4.60)
2
so lhal dn = 2ada. In aooilion, wo uso
n(a) = a
2
lo chango lho limils of inlogialion inlo
n(0) = 0
2
n
__
_
=
__
_
2
=
As a iosull, (4.60) is liansfoimoo inlo Van u|-
ung n a
uanna na-
g:a|, canga
a |n o
nag:aon.
_
_
t
0
sin
_
a
2
_
2ada =
_
t
0
sin(n) dn
1ho iosulling inlogial
_
t
0
sin(n) dn can Lo ovalualoo wilh lho funoa-
monlal lhooiom:
_
t
0
sin(n) dn = cos (n)[
t
0
= cos () cos (0)
= 2
1his in luin implios lhal (4.60) is givon Ly
_
_
t
0
sin
_
a
2
_
2ada = 2
842 lNTLCRATlON
IXAMIII ! Lvalualo
_
l
0
ada
_
4 a
2
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, wo lol n = 4 a
2
. 1ho oiloionlial lhon
Locomos
dn = 2ada ==
1
2
dn = ada
Lofoio suLslilulion, wo chango lho limils of inlogialion:
n(0) = 4 0
2
= 4, n(1) = 4 1
2
= 8
1ho iosull is
_
l
0
ada
_
4 a
2
=
_
3
d
l
2
dn
_
n
=
1
2
_
3
d
n
l/2
dn
Wo can now uso lho piopoily of inlogials
_
o
b
) (a) da =
_
b
o
) (a) da
lo oLlain
1
2
_
3
d
n
l/2
dn =
1
2
_
d
3
n
l/2
dn =
1
2
n
l/2
12
d
3
Nolico lhal wo oo nol go Lack lo lho vaiiaLlo a, Lul insloao simplify
ano ovalualo:
_
l
0
ada
_
4 a
2
=
1
2
_
d
3
n
l/2
dn = n
l/2
d
3
= 2
_
8
IXAMIII Lvalualo
_
t/d
0
lan(a) da
SoIutIon: Wo lisl wiilo lho langonl funclion in loims of sinos ano
cosinos,
_
t/d
0
lan(a) da =
_
t/d
0
sin(a) da
cos (a)
Wo lhon lol n = cos (a) . As a iosull, dn = sin(a) da, which is lho
samo as dn = sin(a) da. 1ho now limils of inlogialion aio
n(0) = cos (0) = 1, n
_
4
_
= cos
_
4
_
=
_
2
2
As a iosull, suLslilulion yiolos
_
t/d
0
sin(a) da
cos (a)
=
_
_
2/2
l
dn
n
=
_
l
_
2/2
dn
n
= ln[n[
l
_
2/2
1ho piopoilios of lho naluial logaiilhm iosull in
_
t/d
0
lan(a) da = ln[1[ ln
_
2
2
=
1
2
ln(2)
1hn :|n h j&.n nn:| .n h n|&|n.n h|& Chock youi Ioaoing
_
_
t
0
cos
_
a
2
_
2ada =
_
???
???
cos (n) dn
SuLstItutIon and AroxInatIon
Lvon whon an inlogial cannol Lo ovalualoo in closoo foim, lho molhoo of suLslilu-
lion can Lo usoo lo :nnJ:n a givon oolnilo inlogial. Oflon lhis loaos lo inlogials
which aio oasioi lo appioximalo numoiically, oi in somo casos, lo inlogials lhal
can Lo ovalualoo using olhoi moans.
IXAMIII 0 Lvalualo
_
t
0
cos
3
(a) sin(a)
cos
2
(a) 1
da
SoIutIon: If wo lol n = cos (a) , lhon dn = sin(a) da,
n(0) = cos (0) = 1, a:d n() = cos () = 1
SuLsliluling inlo lho inlogial yiolos
_
t
0
cos
3
(a) sin(a) da
cos
2
(a) 1
=
_
l
l
n
3
dn
n
2
1
=
_
l
l
n
3
dn
n
2
1
Nolico now lhal ) (n) =
u
l
is an ooo funclion, ano iocall lhal if
) (a) is ooo, lhon
_
o
o
) (a) da = 0. 1hus, wo havo
_
t
0
cos
3
(a) sin(a) da
cos
2
(a) 1
=
_
l
l
n
3
dn
n
2
1
= 0
Locauso of lho iloialivo naluio of mosl lochniquos foi numoiical inlogialion, al-
lompling lo numoiically appioximalo somo inlogials may loao lo incoiiocl iosulls
oi may ovon causo lho calculaloi oi compuloi lo ciash. Foi oxamplo, wo cannol
ovalualo lho oolnilo inlogial VAININC:
Aanpng o
axa|uaa
nag:a| nu-
na:ca||, na,
|aau o aa:
a c:a o: an
nnna |oop.
_
t
0
c
cos
(99i)
sin(00a) da (4.61)
ano lho iapio oscillalion of lho sino ano cosino funclions coiiupls numoiical ap-
pioximalions. ( Do not attent to nunerIcaIIy Integrate {4.61) untII aIter
It Las Leen transIorned!).
As a iosull, suLslilulion is oflon usoo lo liansfoim oolnilo inlogials Lofoio
numoiical molhoos aio applioo. In pailiculai, Ly lolling n Lo lho Lao pail" of
an inlogiano, wo can oflon iomovo unoosiiaLlo foaluios of an inlogial ano lhus
pioouco an inlogial lhal can Lo appioximaloo numoiically.
IXAMIII 7 1iansfoim
_
t
0
c
cos
(99i)
sin(00a) da wilh lho suLslilu-
lion n = cos (00a) , ano n|j hn oslimalo lho iosull numoiically.
844 lNTLCRATlON
SoIutIon: If wo lol n = cos (00a) so lhal
l
99
dn = sin(00a) da, lhon
lho now limils of inlogialion aio
n(0) = cos (0) = 1 n() = cos (00) = 1
As a iosull, (4.61) is liansfoimoo inlo
_
t
0
c
cos
(99i)
sin(00a) da =
1
00
_
l
l
c
u
dn
1ho iosulling inlogial no longoi incluoos iapioly oscillaling loims.
1hus, wo can pioouco a numoiical oslimalo of lho liansfoimoo inlogial,
1
00
_
l
l
c
u
dn = 0.02048
fiom which wo concluoo lhal
_
t
0
c
cos
(99i)
sin(00a) da = 0.02048 lo
sovon oocimal placos of accuiacy.
1hn . h J:j&nj J n = cos (00a) Chock youi Ioaoing
OITIOAL: TLe IuIILack AetLod
1ho convoiso of (4.0) says lhal if wo aio givon an inlogial of lho foim
_
(b)
(o)
) (a) da,
lhon wo can lol a = p (n), so lhal da = p
t
(n) dn ano
_
(b)
(o)
) (a) da =
_
b
o
) (p (n)) p
t
(n) dn
1ho piocoss of lolling a = p (n), compuling da = p
t
(n) dn, changing lho limils,
ano suLsliluling is calloo lho &||hn| nhJ, which is usoful Lolh lhooiolically
ano in applicalions.
IXAMIII 8 Uso lho pullLack a = n
2
lo ovalualo lho oolnilo inlo-
gial
_
d
l
c
_
i
_
a
da
SoIutIon: If a = n
2
, lhon da = 2ndn. Moioovoi, whon a = 1, lhon
n
2
= 1, so lhal n = 1. 1o avoio complicalions, lol us chooso lho
posilivo iool n = 1. Likowiso, whon a = 4, lhon n
2
= 4, ano n = 2.
SuLsliluling inlo lho oolnilo inlogial yiolos
_
d
l
c
_
i
_
a
da =
_
2
l
c
_
u
_
n
2
2ndn =
_
2
l
c
u
n
2ndn = 2
_
2
l
c
u
dn
Lvalualing lho lasl inlogial is sliaighlfoiwaio:
_
d
l
c
_
i
_
a
da = 2
_
2
l
c
u
dn = 2 c
u
[
2
0
= 2
_
c
2
1
_
Whon a choico foi n is nol oLvious, wo can slill omploy lho pullLack molhoo Ly
simply |.nj & h :jh.nj. Wo lhon chango lho limils, solvo foi n as a funclion
of a, compulo da, ano suLslilulo.
2
IXAMIII 0 Lvalualo
_
9
0
_
1
_
ada
SoIutIon: A choico of suLslilulion is nol oLvious, so wo lol n Lo lho
onliio inlogiano:
n =
_
1
_
a
Il lhon follows lhal a = 0 implios lhal n =
_
1
_
0 = 1 ano whon
a = 1, lhon a =
_
1
_
0 =
_
1 8 = 2.
Wo now solvo foi a. 1o Login wilh, n
2
= 1
_
a, so
_
a = n
2
1
ano
a =
_
n
2
1
_
2
= n
d
2n
2
1
As a iosull, da =
_
4n
3
4n
_
dn, so lhal
_
9
0
_
1
_
ada =
_
2
l
n
_
4n
3
4n
_
dn
=
_
2
l
_
4n
d
4n
2
_
dn
=
4n
5

4n
3
8
2
l
=
_
4 (2)
5

4 (2)
3
8
_
_
4

4
8
_
=
282
1
Lxoicisos:
1n|&n h J||&.nj &.nj n &h.&.n: h| j&: &:| n&n:.n||j &.h n
2
Hoio ano in olhoi calculus iolaloo couisos, I oflon iofoi lo lho pullLack molhoo as lho n|&|&
hnnn:, sinco liko a hammoi il can Lo usoo lo pouno away al jusl aLoul any inlogial.
846 lNTLCRATlON
j:nh.nj n|&|n:.
1.
_
3
0
_
a 1da 2.
_
5
0
_
8a 1da
8.
_
l
0
ac
i
da 4.
_
_
t
0
a
2
sin
_
a
3
_
da
.
_
3
0
ada
_
0 a
2
6.
_
l
0
ada
_
4 a
2
7.
_
l
0
c
i
c
i
c
i
c
i
d 8.
_
l
0
c
i
1
c
i
a
da
0.
_
t
t
c
sIn(i)
cos (a) da 10.
_
t
t
c
cos(i)
sin(a) da
11.
_
t/d
0
sin(a)
1 cos (a)
da 12.
_
2
2
a
3
a
2
4
da
18.
_
l
0
asin
_
a
2
_
da 14.
_
l
0
acos
_
a
2
_
da
1.
_
t
0
sin
3
(cos (a)) sin(a) daa 16.
_
t
l/t
sin(sin(lna))
a
da
17.
_
t
l/t
sin
3
(ln[a[)
a
da 18.
_
l
0
.d.
_
2 .
2
10.
_
2
l
ln(a)
a
da 20.
_
2
l
ln(
_
a)
a
da
21.
_
l
0
c
i
_
c
i
1da 22.
_
2
l
a
2i
(ln(a) 1) da
1n|&n h J||&.nj &.nj h j.n &||hn|.
28.
_
l
0
_
_
a 1da, a =
_
n
3
1
_
2
24.
_
l
0
a
_
a 1
da, a = (n 1)
2
2.
_
In(2)
0
c
2i
da
_
1 c
i
, a = ln(n) 26.
_
2
l
_
_
a 1
_
a
da, a =
_
n
2
1
_
2
27. Uso lho &||hn| nhJ wilh n = ccrjt/i:p lo ovalualo
_
l
0
da
_
a 1
28. Uso lho &||hn| nhJ wilh n = ccrjt/i:p lo ovalualo
_
l
0
_
1
_
1
_
ada
29. Foi | 0, supposo lhal ) (2| a) = ) (a). Show lhal
_
2l
0
) (a) da = 2
_
l
0
) (a) da
Whal ooos a giaph of ) (a) look liko Whal is signilcanl aLoul ) (| a) =
) (a) (Hinl: wiilo
_
2l
0
) (a) da =
_
l
0
) (a) da
_
2l
l
) (a) da
30. Supposo lhal a 0 ano lhal ) (a) is a funclion foi which )
_
o
i
_
= ) (a) .
Show lhal
_
o
l
) (a) da =
_
o
l
a) (a)
a
2
da
Ly liansfoiming lho inlogial on lho lofl using a = an.
unerIcaI: 1 n &h.&.n :n h .||n.n J:n h .nj:nnJ
J h J]n. .nj:n| h|&, nnJ hn n:r.nn h :&|.nj .nj:n| &.h
n n|&|n:. 11A1AG: `&: n|&|n: : n&: nnj :nh : n: nn
.n]n. | .J j& nn n:r.nn h &n:nnJ:nJ .nj:n|.
81.
_
t
0
sin(1a) da
_
1 0.1 cos
d
(1a)
82.
_
t/2
0
ln
_
1 sin
2
(1a)
_
cos (1a)
88.
_
t
0
sin(00a)
_
1 cos
3
(00a)da 84.
_
t
0
sin(00a) da
_
1 0. cos
d
(1a)
8.
_
t
0
cos (7a) cos (sin(7a)) da
36. * Figuio 8-1 shows a funclion ) (a) lhal is :.J. wilh a poiioo of T, which
is lo say lhal ) (a T) = ) (a) foi all ioal numLois a.
8-1: Ioiiooic wilh poiioo T
Lxplain why lho lguio suggosls lho ioonlily
_
oT
o
) (a) da =
_
T
0
) (a) da (4.62)
Howovoi, a picluio is nol a pioof. 1ho pioof of (4.62) usos lho ioonlily
_
oT
o
) (a) da =
_
T
o
) (a) da
_
oT
T
) (a) da
ano lho suLslilulion n = a T. Can you piovo (4.62)
848 lNTLCRATlON
4.9 lnLegraLion by ParLs
IntegratIng tLe Iroduct HuIe
In lho noxl chaploi, wo will consiooi sovoial applicalions of lho oolnilo inlogial.
Howovoi, sovoial of lho inlogials which aiiso in lhoso applicalions will ioquiio a
lochniquo of inlogialion known as .nj:n.n hj n:. In lhis soclion, wo shall soo
lhal inlogialion Ly pails, liko suLslilulion, is impoilanl Lolh as a compulalional
ano a lhooiolical lool.
Iocall lhal lho piooucl iulo is of lho foim
d
da
[) (a) p (a)[ = )
t
(a) p (a) ) (a) p
t
(a)
Applying lho anliooiivalivo opoialoi lo Lolh sioos yiolos
_
d
da
[) (a) p (a)[ da =
_
)
t
(a) p (a) da
_
) (a) p
t
(a) da
which simplilos lo
) (a) p (a) =
_
)
t
(a) p (a) da
_
) (a) p
t
(a) da
Solving foi lho socono anliooiivalivo yiolos
_
) (a) p
t
(a) da = ) (a) p (a)
_
p (a) )
t
(a) da (4.68)
Wo convoil (4.68) inlo an algoiilhm Ly lolling n = ) (a) ano d = p
t
(a) da.
Wo lhon oiloionlialo n lo oLlain
dn = )
t
(a) da
ano inlogialo d lo oLlain
=
_
p
t
(a) da = p (a)
As a iosull, (4.68) is of lho foim
_
nd = n
_
dn (4.64)
1his molhoo foi ovalualing anliooiivalivos is calloo .nj:n.n hj n:.
IXAMIII 1 Lvalualo
_
acos (a) da.
SoIutIon: Wo lol n = a ano lol d = cos (a) da. As a iosull, dn = da
ano
=
_
cos (a) da = sin(a)
whoio lho C" is omilloo foi simplicily (soo oxoiciso 81). Applicalion
of (4.64) lhon yiolos
_
n d = n
_
dn
_
a cos (a) da = asin(a)
_
sin(a) da
lNTLCRATlON BY PARTS 840
1ho iomaining anliooiivalivo is ono of lho Lasic foims, so lhal
_
acos (a) da = asin(a)
_
sin(a) da
= asin(a) cos (a) C
1o aio in lho uso of inlogialion Ly pails, wo oiganizo lho n, d infoimalion inlo a
laLlo. Foi oxamplo 1, wo woulo oLlain lho laLlo
n = a d = cos (a) da
dn = da = sin(a)
1ho oxpiossion n is lho piooucl along lho oiagonal in lhis laLlo, ano lho oxpios-
sion dn is lho piooucl along lho Lollom iow.
n = a d = cos (a) da
uu
dn = da
uJu
= sin(a)
Afloi ioaoing n = asin(a) fiom lho oiagonal ano dn = sin(a) da fiom lho
Lollom iow, wo gol
_
n d = n
_
dn
_
a cos (a) da = asin(a)
_
sin(a) da
fiom which wo gol oui lnal answoi
_
acos (a) da = asin(a)
_
sin(a) da
= asin(a) cos (a) C (4.6)
h| h n&n.n .n ;.) hj n|&n.nj h J:.n. Chock youi Ioaoing
d
da
(asin(a) cos (a))
CuIdeIInes Ior IntegratIon Ly Iarts
1hoio aio lwo guioolinos lo iomomLoi whon applying inlogialion Ly pails. Fiisl,
you musl Lo aLlo lo lno lho anliooiivalivo of lho facloi you oosignalo as d.
1ypical choicos foi d incluoo funclions of lho foim a
n
, c
|i
, sin(/a), cos (/a) ano Chooso d so
lhal il can Lo
inlogialoo.
soc
2
(a) .
1ho socono guioolino is lhal if ono of lho faclois is of lho foim a
n
whoio : is a
posilivo inlogoi, lhon wo lol n = a
n
. Howovoi, wo uso lho socono guioolino onIy
II tLe hrst guIdeIIne Is aIready satIshed! In pailiculai, avoId lolling d Lo
a funclion such as ln(a) oi
_
a
2
4, if possiLlo.
IXAMIII 2 Uso inlogialion Ly pails lo ovalualo
_
asoc
2
(a) da
80 lNTLCRATlON
SoIutIon: 1ho lisl guioolino is salisloo Ly lolling d Lo oilhoi a oi
soc
2
(a) . 1ho socono guioolino lhon loaos lo n = a ano lho following
n, d infoimalion:
n = a d = soc
2
(a) da
dn = da = lan(a)
As a iosull, inlogialion Ly pails loaos lo
_
n d = n
_
dn
_
a soc
2
(a) da = alan(a)
_
lan(a) da
Sinco lan(a) =
sIn(i)
cos(i)
, wo lnish wilh lho suLslilulion n = cos (a) , dn =
sin(a) da, which yiolos
_
asoc
2
(a) da = alan(a)
_
sin(a) da
cos (a)
= alan(a)
_
dn
n
= alan(a) ln[n[ C
= alan(a) ln[cos (a)[ C
IXAMIII J Lvalualo
_
a
2
ln(a) da
SoIutIon: 1ho lisl guioolino loaos us lo lol d = a
2
da sinco ln(a) is
nol lho inlogiano of a Lasic foim. 1hus, wo havo
n = ln(a) d = a
2
da
dn =
1
a
da =
a
3
8
so lhal
_
n d = n
_
dn
_
ln(a) a
2
da =
a
3
8
ln(a)
_
a
3
8
1
a
da
=
a
3
8
ln(a)
1
8
_
a
2
da
=
a
3
8
ln(a)
1
8
a
3
8
C
1ho iosull is
_
a
2
ln(a) da =
a
3
8
ln(a)
a
3
0
C
Whon inlogialion Ly pails is applioo lo a oolnilo inlogial, lhon lho limils of
inlogialion aio incluooo in Lolh of lho inlogialion Ly pails oiloionco.
IXAMIII ! Lvalualo
_
t
l
ln(a) da
SoIutIon: 1o ovalualo
_
t
l
ln(a) da, wo lol d = da. Wilh lho n, d Somolimos wo
lol d = da. infoimalion
n = ln(a) d = da
dn =
1
a
da = a
lho inlogialion Ly pails algoiilhm
_
nd = n
_
dn yiolos
_
t
l
ln(a) da = aln(a)[
t
l

_
t
l
a
a
da
= aln(a)[
t
l

_
t
l
1da
= aln(a)[
t
l
a[
t
l
= c ln(c) 1 ln(1) (c 1)
= 1
1hj . h: n n ' .n rnn| Chock youi Ioaoing
Heeated IntegratIon Ly Iarts
Oflon inlogialion Ly pails musl Lo usoo moio lhan onco. Inoooo, anliooiivalivos
of lho foim
_
a
n
c
|i
da,
_
a
n
cos (/a) da, ano
_
a
n
sin(/a) da ioquiio : inlogialion
Ly pails whon : is a posilivo inlogoi.
IXAMIII Lvalualo
_
t
0
a
2
cos (a) da
2
ano d = cos (a) da, so lhal
n = a
2
d = cos (a) da
dn = 2a da = sin(a)
which iosulls in
_
t
0
a
2
cos (a) da = a
2
sin(a)
t
0
2
_
t
0
asin(a) da
=
2
sin() 0
2
sin(0) 2
_
t
0
asin(a) da
= 2
_
t
0
asin(a) da
Nowwo musl apply inlogialion Ly pails lo lho anliooiivalivo
_
t
0
asin(a) da
Ly lolling n = a ano d = sin(a) da. 1ho n, d infoimalion lhus Lo-
comos
n = a d = sin(a) da
dn = da = cos (a)
82 lNTLCRATlON
so lhal
_
t
0
a
2
cos (a) da Locomos
_
t
0
a
2
cos (a) da = 2
_
acos (a)[
t
0

_
t
0
cos (a) da
_
= 2 [ acos (a)[
t
0
sin(a)[
t
0
[
= 2 [ cos () 0 cos (0) sin() sin(0)[
= 2 [ (1) 0 0 0[
= 2
IXAMIII 0 Lvalualo
_
[lna[
2
da.
SoIutIon: Wo lol n = [lna[
2
ano d = da, so lhal
n = [lna[
2
d = da
dn = 2 ln(a)
l
i
da = a
which iosulls in
_
[lna[
2
da = a[lna[
2
_
a
_
2 ln(a)
1
a
_
da
= a[lna[
2
2
_
lnada
Wo now lol n = lna ano d = da, so lhal
n = lna d = da
dn =
l
i
da = a
which iosulls in
_
[lna[
2
da = a[lna[
2
2
_
aln(a)
_
a
1
a
da
_
= a[lna[
2
2aln(a)
_
da
= a[lna[
2
2aln(a) a C
1hj J.J & nJJ h ' .n h |n n|&|n.n Chock youi Ioaoing
TaLuIar IntegratIon
Foilunaloly, wo can slioamlino mulliplo applicalions of inlogialion Ly pails Ly
oxlonoing lho n, d infoimalion inlo a longoi laLlo. In pailiculai, wo consliucl a
laLlo wilh lwo columns, lho lisl Loing a column of ooiivalivos ano lho socono Loing
a column of anliooiivalivos. Wo lhon mulliply along lho oiagonals, alloinaling
signs as wo go:
n d
) (a) p
t
(a)
)
t
(a)
_
p
t
(a) da
)
tt
(a)
__
p
t
(a) dada
.
.
.
___
p
t
(a) dadada
.
.
.
1his molhoo foi succossivo inlogialion Ly pails is calloo nh&|n: .nj:n.n.
IXAMIII 7 Uso laLulai inlogialion lo ovalualo
_
a
2
cos (a) da
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo placo a
2
al lho lop of lho lisl column ano
cos (a) al lho lop of lho socono column. 1ho lisl column is lhon llloo
wilh ooiivalivos of a
2
, ano lho socono column is llloo wilh anliooiiv-
alivos of cos (a):
n d
a
2
cos (a)
2a sin(a)
2 cos (a)
0 sin(a)
Onco 0 appoais in lho lisl column, all succossivo column onliios will
also Lo 0. 1hus, wo can slop onco wo ioach 0. Foiming piooucls along
oiagonals wilh alloinaling signs yiolos
1sl oiag 2no oiag 8io oiag conslanl
_
a
2
cos (a) da = a
2
sin(a) 2acos (a) 2 (sin(a)) C
which givos us lho lnal answoi
_
a
2
cos (a) da = a
2
sin(a) 2acos (a) 2 sin(a) C
Lxoicisos:
1n|&n h J||&.nj &.nj .nj:n.n hj n:. 1.h: nh&|n: .nj:n.n :
:nJ .nj:n.n hj n: nnj h &J .n r:. .1 h:&jh ..
1.
_
ac
i
da 2.
_
ac
i
da 8.
_
l
0
ac
2i
da
4.
_
l
0
ac
ti
da .
_
ln(2a) da 6.
_
ln
_
a
3
_
da
84 lNTLCRATlON
7.
_
asin(2a) da 8.
_
asin(a) cos (a) da
0.
_
acos (a) da 10.
_
acsc
2
(a) da
11.
_
(8 a) c
i
da 12.
_
acos (2a) da
18.
_
2
l
a
2
ln(a) da 14.
_
a
3
ln(a) da
1.
_
a
d
ln(a) da 16.
_
2
l
_
aln(a) da
17.
_
a 1
c
i
da 18.
_
t
0
a
soc (a)
da
10.
_
2
l
(lna)
2
da 20.
_
ln(a)
_
a
da
21.
_
t
2
c
|
dt 22.
_
t
2
c
2|
dt
28.
_
a
2
sin(a) da 24.
_
a
2
sin(2a) da
2.
_
a
3
c
2i
da 26.
_
a
d
c
i
da
27.
_ _
a
2
2a
_
c
i
da 28.
_ _
a
3
a
_
sin(a) da
20.
_
alan(a) soc
2
(a) da 80.
_
2a
_
1 2a
2
_
c
i
da
31. Whon inlogialing d, wo usually noglocl lo incluoo lho C" loim. In lhis
oxoiciso, wo oxamino whal happons if wo aoo a conslanl onlo .
(a) Lvalualo
_
ac
i
da using inlogialion Ly pails wilh
n = a d = c
i
da
dn = da = c
i
C
Whal happons lo lho C" loim
(L) Lvalualo
_
ln(a 1) da using lho n, d infoimalion
n = ln(a 1) d = da
dn =
1
a 1
da = a 1
(c) Lvalualo
_
ln(a 8) da using inlogialion Ly pails wilh = a 8.
32. Uso inlogialion Ly pails lo inlogialo
_
2aln(a 1) da whon = a
2
1.
33. Uso inlogialion Ly pails lo show lhal
_
a
n
c
i
da = a
n
c
i
:
_
a
nl
c
i
da
34. Uso inlogialion Ly pails lo show lhal
_
(lna)
n
da = a(lna)
nl
:
_
(lna)
nl
da
35. Sinco lho anliooiivalivo ano ooiivalivo opoialois cancol oach olhoi, wo havo
_
)
t
(a) da = ) (a) C
Uso lhis lo oo lho following:
(a) Show lhal
) (a) = a)
t
(a)
_
a)
tt
(a) da
Ly applying inlogialion Ly pails lo
_
)
t
(a) da.
(L) Show fuilhoi lhal
) (a) = a)
t
(a)
a
2
2
)
tt
(a)
_
a
2
2
)
tt
(a) da
36. Assumo lhal p (a) is oiloionliaLlo ano simplify lho following oxpiossions unlil
lhoio aio no anliooiivalivo opoialois iomaining.
(a)
_
ap (a) da
1
2
_
a
2
p
t
(a) da
(L)
_
c
i
p (a) da
_
c
i
p
t
(a) da
(c)
_
cos (a) p (a) da
_
sin(a) p
t
(a) da
37. 1ho lisl Fouiioi (Foi-oo-ay) cosino coomcionl of a funclion ) (a) is oolnoo
lo Lo
a
l
=
1
_
t
t
) (a) cos (a) da
Fino lho lisl Fouiioi cosino coomcionls of lho funclions Lolow:
(a) ) (a) = a (L) ) (a) = a
2
(c) ) (a) = sin(a)
38. 1ho socono Fouiioi sino coomcionl of a funclion ) (a) is oolnoo lo Lo
/
2
=
1
_
t
t
) (a) sin(2a) da
Fino lho lisl Fouiioi cosino coomcionls of lho funclions Lolow:
(a) ) (a) = a (L) ) (a) = a
2
(c) ) (a) = sin(a)
1n|&n h J||&.nj hj n|j.nj n &h.&.n nnJ hn hj n|j.nj .nj:n.n
hj n:.
39.
_
2a
3
sin
_
a
2
_
da (Hinl: wiilo il as
_
a
2
sin
_
a
2
_
2ada )
40.
_
c
2i
cos (c
i
) da (Hinl: wiilo il as
_
c
i
cos (c
i
) c
i
da )
41.
_
c
_
i
da (Hinl: wiilo il as
_ _
ac
_
i
da
_
a
)
42.
_
sin(
_
a) da
43.
_
ln(a) sin(ln(a))
da
a
86 lNTLCRATlON
Solf 1osl
n:.j J j&.n n: n|J .n n n:.j J &nj .n h :h|n h|&.
n&: n nnnj J h j&.n h|& n .h| hJ: ||.nj n h nn&:
.n h hn| J h h|.
1. Answoi oach slalomonl as liuo oi falso. If lho slalomonl is falso, lhon slalo
why oi givo a counloioxamplo.
(a) Givon a paililion of lho inloival [a, /[, a = a
0
< a
l
< ... < a
n
= /, lho
lag t
3
is a numLoi in lho suLinloival [a
2
, a
3
[.
(L) A nonconslanl simplo funclion musl Lo conlinuous ovoiywhoio.
(c) If ) (a) _ 0 on [a, /[ , lhon
_
b
o
) (a) da is an aioa.
(o)
_
b
o
) (a) da =
_
b
o
) (t) dt =
_
b
o
) (n) dn =
_
b
o
) (=) d=
(o)
_
b
o
) (a) da =
_
c
o
) (a) da
_
b
c
) (a) da
(f) If 1(a) =
_
i
o
)(t)dt, lhon 1(a) = 0.
(g) If 1 (a) =
_
i
o
) (t) dt, lhon 1
t
(a) = ) (a) .
(h) A conlinuous funclion has oxaclly ono anliooiivalivo.
(i) If 1(a) is an anliooiivalivo of )(a) ano / is a conslanl, lhon /1(a) is
an anliooiivalivo of /)(a).
(j) Whon an anliooiivalivo is founo ono can chock lhoii woik Ly oiloion-
lialing lho iosull.
(k)
_
b
o
) (a) da = ) (/) ) (a)
(l) 1ho molhoo of n-suLslilulion is ooiivoo fiom lho piooucl iulo of oif-
foionlialion..
(m) An anliooiivalivo in closoo foim can Lo founo foi any comLinalion of
olomonlaiy funclions.
In 2-, assumo lhal )(a) ano p(a) aio inlogiaLlo on [1, [ ano lhal
_
5
l
)(a)da = 7,
_
5
3
)(a)da = 4, a:d
_
5
l
()(a) p(a)) da = 2
Lvalualo lho following inlogials
2.
_
5
l
2)(a)da = (a) 2 (L) 7 (c) 12 (o) 14
8.
_
3
l
)(a)da = (a) 1 (L) 2 (c) 8 (o) 4
4.
_
5
l
p(a)da = (a) (L) 1 (c) 1 (o)
.
_
5
l
(8)(a) 2p(a)) da = (a) 11 (L) 12 (c) 18 (o) 1
6. Which of lho simplo funclion appioximalions of ) (a) = c
i
ovoi [0, 1[ is
always Lolow lho giaph of )
(a) lofl onopoinl (L) miopoinl
(c) iighl onopoinl (o) liapozoioal
7. Which of lho following is lho ooiivalivo of 1 (a) =
_
i
0
sin
_
t
2
_
dt
(a) cos
_
a
d
_
(L) sin
_
a
d
_
(c) cos
_
a
d
_
(o) a
2
sin
_
a
d
_
(o) 2acos
_
a
d
_
(f) 2asin
_
a
d
_
(g) 2acos
_
2a
2
_
(h) a
2
sin(2a)
8. If / is a posilivo inlogoi, lhon
_
t
0
cos (/a) da =
(a) (L) 0 (c) 1 (o)
0. If / 0, lhon which of lho following is lho samo as
_
l
0
_
a / da
(a)
_
l|
|
_
n dn (L)
_
l
0
_
n dn (c)
l
|
_
l
0
_
n dn (o)
l
|
_
l|
0
_
n dn
10. Inlogialion Ly pails applioo lo
_
d
l
ln(a) da
woulo ioquiio lho following:
(a) d = ln(a) da (L) d = da (c) n = a (o) n = d
11. Lvalualo
_
(lan(0) soc (0))
2
d0
(a) 2 lan0 2 soc (0) 0 C (L) 2 lan0 2 soc (0) 0 C
(c) 2 lan0 2 soc (0) 0 C (o) 2 lan0 2 soc (0) 0 C
12. Which of lho following is lho iosull of applying inlogialion Ly pails lo
_
asoc
2
(a) da
foi n = a ano d = soc
2
(a) da
(a) alan(a)
_
soc
2
(a) da (L) asoc
2
(a)
_
lan(a) da
(c) alan(a)
_
lan(a) da (o) asoc
2
(a)
_
soc
2
(a) da
18. Consliucl lho iighl onopoinl appioximalion (Iiomann Sum) foi
_
2
0
_
4 a
2
_
da
using lho paililion a
0
= 0, a
l
= 0., a
2
= 1.0, a
3
= 1., a
d
= 2.0
14. Consliucl lho miopoinl appioximalion (Iiomann Sum) lo
_
3
l
_
2a
2
1
_
da
using lho paililion a
0
= 1, a
l
= 1., a
2
= 2.0, a
3
= 2., a
d
= 8.0
1. Lslimalo lho aioa in squaio molois using lho liapozoioal appioximalion.
88 lNTLCRATlON
16. Lvalualo
_
l
0
_
2 a
2
da using Lasic goomoliy ano piopoilios of lho oolnilo
inlogial.
17. Uso monolonicily ano concavily lo skolch lho giaph of
1 (a) =
_
i
0
t
2
4
t
d
0
dt
givon lhal is has a hoiizonlal asymplolo of j = 0.
18. Lvalualo lho following using whichovoi lochniquo oi foimula is nocossaiy.
Chock Ly oiloionlialing youi solulion.
(a)
_
c
l0i
da (L)
_
a
2
1
a
da (c)
_ _
soc
2
a a
3
_
da
(o)
_
sin(a) cos(a)da (o)
_
da
_
a(
_
a 1)
(f)
_
c
Ini
a
da
(g)
_
8a
a 1
da (h)
_
acos (a) da (i)
_
cos
2
(a) sin(a)da
(j)
_
(2a 1) ln(a) da (k)
_
cos
2
(a) sin(a)da (l)
_
a
3
8a
a
2
1
da
10. Whal is lho aioa unooi lho cuivo j = a
2
[a[ ovoi [1, 2[
20. Uso a suLslilulion lo ovalualo lho inlogial
_
In(2)
0
c
i
c
i
1
da
21. VrIte to Learn: In a couplo of sonloncos, oxplain how you woulo uso lho
oolnilion of lho inlogial ano paililions wilh miopoinl appioximalions lo
ovalualo lho inlogial
_
5
0
ada
Jh Ar 5... 1:nn| 1n:|n.n
Why oo wo havo lo iosoil lo simplo funclions ano /-lno paililions lo oolno
oolnilo inlogials Why can`l wo simply say lhal oolnilo inlogials moasuio aioas
Oui noxl slop is lo show lhal aioa unooi a cuivo is a ialhoi sophislicaloo concopl
in ils own iighl, ano in facl, oolning lho concopl of aioa is as involvoo as oolning
a oolnilo inlogial.
1ho koy is lhal oiloionliaLlo funclionslho funclions lhal havo oominaloo
oui sluoy of calculus lo lhis poinlaio nico" funclions Locauso small soclions of
lhoii giaphs aio piaclically lho samo as sliaighl linos.
NS-1: Zooming loaos lo sliaighloi ano sliaighloi lino
Howovoi, lhoio oxisl conlinuous funclions lhal aio nol oiloionliaLlo al any poinl.
1hal is, lhoio aio funclions which havo no Lioaks, no jumps ano no voilical as-
ymplolos, ano no pail of lhoii giaph ovon iosomLlos a sliaighl lino.
Foi oxamplo, lho cuivo shown Lolow is lho giaph of a conlinuous funclion
NS-2: Nol a oiloionliaLlo funclion
Howovoi, zooming ooos nol iosull in lho giaph Locoming moio ano moio liko a
sliaighl lino. 1o illuslialo, lol us zoom inlo lho Lox" shown in lho lguio aLovo:
NS-8: Zoom iosomLlos lho oiiginal
1ho iosull looks a gioal ooal liko whal wo slailoo wilh, a piopoily which is known
as |J-.n.|n:.j. In facl, ovoiy zoom looks liko lho giaph wo slailoo wilh, ano
as a iosull, lho funclion novoi appoais lo Lo piaclically lho samo" as a sliaighl
lino. 1hus, lho funclion is conlinuous foi all a in [0, 2[ , Lul il is nol oiloionliaLlo
foi any a in [0, 2[ .
Locauso lho funclion is conlinuous, howovoi, il musl Lo inlogiaLlo. 1hal is,
wo can compulo lho aioa unooi lho cuivo j = ) (a) iogaioloss of how sliango il
looks, ano in facl, il can Lo shown lhal
_
2
0
) (a) da = 2.
Howovoi, ooaling wilh such complicaloo funclions ioquiios a sophislicaloo oo-
lnilion of lho inlogial. 1ho founoois of calculus may havo only consiooioo oi-
oinaiy" cuivos, Lul looay`s scionlisls woik wilh looay`s funclions. 1hus, lhoy
ioquiio a oolnilion of lho inlogial which can hanolo funclions liko lho ono aLovo
ano many olhois ovon moio oimcull lo compiohono.
VrIte to Learn Lolow is a simplo funclion appioximalion of ) (a) . Appioximalo
_
2
0
) (a) da using lho givon simplo funclion ovoi [0, 2[ .
860 lNTLCRATlON
NS-4: Appioximalo lho aioa of lho iogion unooi lho fiaclal inloipolalion
funclion
In a paiagiaph wilh complolo sonloncos, oxplain why you lhink lho simplo
funclion appioximalion of
_
2
0
) (a) da is so accuialo
VrIte to Learn 1ho funclion aLovo is an oxamplo of a J:nn| .n:|n.n J&n-
.n. Go lo lho liLiaiy oi lo lho inloinol lo iosoaich fiaclals, ano lhon wiilo
a papoi iopoiling lho iosulls of youi iosoaich.
Crou LearnIng: Shown Lolow is lho giaph of a conlinuous funclion p (a):
NS-: Anolhoi Fiaclal Inloipolalion Funclion
Havo oach momLoi of lho gioup consliucl a simplo funclion appioxima-
lion of p (a) ano lhon uso lhoii simplo funclion appioximalion lo oslimalo
_
2.S
0
p (a) da. 1ho gioup shoulo lhon mool lo compaio iosulls ano agioo on a
lnal oslimalo of
_
2.S
0
p (a) da. MomLois shoulo iopoil lhoii own inoivioual
iosulls whon piosonling lho oslimalo.
JnnJ nr
No oouLl, lhoio musl havo Loon somo cuiiosily piquoo whon il was monlionoo
lhal
_
2
0
) (a) da = 2.. Wo concluoo wilh a skolch of how lho inlogial of lho J:nn|
.n:|n.n J&n.n ) (a) is calculaloo. 1ho koy is lhal in spilo of ils iuggoo
appoaianco, lho funclion ) (a) aclually has a gioal ooal of symmoliy.
Foi oxamplo, oach half" of ) (a) is aclually ) (a) ilsolf io-scaloo, shifloo ano
liansfoimoo lo ll in lho ioo paiallologiams shown Lolow.
NS-6: Lounoing Loxos of Fiaclal
In pailiculai, wo can uso lho ioo Loxos ano iooas fioma couiso calloo |.nn: n|jh:n
lo show lhal
_
2
0
) (a) da =
1
2
_
2
0
_
1
2
a
8
) (a)
_
da
1
2
_
2
0
_
1
2
a
8
) (a) 1
_
da (4.66)
Simplifying (4.66) loaos lo
_
2
0
) (a) da =
8
_
2
0
) (a) da
1
2
_
2
0
da
so lhal
2
_
2
0
) (a) da = 1
ano lnally
_
2
0
) (a) da =

2
= 2.
1ho oxoicisos Lolow illuslialo how (4.66) is ooiivoo.
1. * Hoio wo oxamino lho liansfoimalion
n =
1
2
a, =
1
2
a
8
j
which maps lho poinl (a, j) lo lho poinl (n, ) .
(a) Show lhal if (a, j) is any poinl in lho ioclanglo wilh voilicos (0, 0) ,
(2, 0) , (2, 1) ano (0, 1), lhon (n, ) is in lho ioo paiallologiam wilh
a voilox al (0, 0) . (Hinl: show lhal voilicos of lho ioclanglo map
lo voilicos of lho paiallologiam)
(L) Show lhal if j = ) (a), lhon wo musl havo
= n
8
) (2n)
(c) Il follows lhal
_
l
0
) (a) da =
_
l
0
dn =
_
l
0
_
n
8
) (2n)
_
dn
Now show lhal lho suLslilulion n =
l
2
a, dn =
l
2
da, n(0) = 0,
n(2) = 1 liansfoims
1
2
_
2
0
_
1
2
a
8
) (a)
_
da
inlo lho inlogial
_
l
0
dn.
2. * Hoio wo oxamino lho liansfoimalion
j =
1
2
a 1, =
1
2
a
8
j 1
which maps lho poinl (a, j) lo lho poinl (j, )
(a) Show lhal if (a, j) is any poinl in lho ioclanglo wilh voilicos (0, 0) ,
(2, 0) , (2, 1) ano (0, 1), lhon (j, ) is in lho ioo paiallologiam wilh
a voilox al (2, 0) . (Hinl: show lhal voilicos of lho ioclanglo map
lo voilicos of lho paiallologiam)
(L) Show lhal if j = ) (a), lhon wo musl havo
=
1
2
(2j 2)
8
) (2j 2)
862 lNTLCRATlON
(c) Il follows lhal
_
2
l
) (a) da =
_
2
l
dj =
_
2
l
_
1
2
(2j 2)
8
) (2j 2) 1
_
dj
Now show lhal lho suLslilulion j =
l
2
a 1, dj =
l
2
da, j (0) = 1,
j (2) = 2 liansfoims
1
2
_
2
0
_
1
2
a
8
) (a) 1
_
da
inlo lho inlogial
_
l
0
dj.
3. Divioo
_
2
0
) (a) da inlo lwo inlogials, ano lhon uso lho iosulls fiom lho lasl
lwo oxoicisos lo show lhal (4.66) is liuo.
864 lNTLCRATlON
5. APPLlCATlONS OF THL lNTL-
CRAL
Dolnilo inlogials aio nol usoo sololy lo sluoy aioas. 1hoy aio usoo lhioughoul
malhomalics ano lho scioncos wilh a hosl of oiloionl inloipiolalions. Inoooo,
such inloipiolalions iango fiom lho conciolo sluoy of goomoliic quanlilios lo lho
iolalivoly aLsliacl sluoy of inlogial liansfoims.
In lhis chaploi, wo oxploio sovoial applicalions of lho inlogial, many of which
aio connocloo lo lho sluoy of goomoliy. Wo Login Ly fuilhoi oxploiing lho concopl
of aioa, ano lhon wo movo on lo lho concopls of volumo, conlioio, ano aiclonglh.
In oach of lhoso applicalions, lho oolnilion of lho inlogial plays a koy iolo in
ooiiving lho foimulas lhal aio mosl impoilanl lo oui sluoy.
Howovoi, oui ullimalo goal is ono of lho mosl impoilanl applicalions in moooin
scionco ano malhomalicslho uso of calculus in lho sluoy of :hnh.|.j. 1o ioach
lhis goal, wo havo lo inlioouco lwo aooilional concopls iolaloo lo lho inlogial
lho concopl of an .n:: .nj:n| ano lho lochniquo of inlogialion known as
.nj:n.n hj n:.
Ly lho ono of lho chaploi, wo fool lhal lhoio will Lo lilllo oouLl as lo lho
impoilanco of Lolh lho inlogial ano lho oolnilion of lho inlogial. Inoooo, lho
applicalions oloioo hoio aio Lul a sampling fiom a vasl aiona lho inlogial`s usos.
Wo only hopo lhal lhis chaploi aloios a glimpso inlo how lho inlogial can Lo ano
is usoo lhioughoul scionco, onginooiing, malhomalics, ano lochnology.
5.1 Area BeLween Two Curves
If ) (a) is inlogiaLlo ovoi [a, /[, lhon ils oolnilo inlogial ovoi [a, /[ is oolnoo
_
b
o
) (a) da = lim
|0
n
=l
) (t
) â
(.1)
whoio lho limil is ovoi /-lno paililions of [a, /[ . In lhis soclion, wo uso (.1) lo
oxlono lho inlogial lo a lool foi lnoing aioas of iogions Louno Lolwoon lwo cuivos.
Area oI a Tye I HegIon
1o Login wilh, a j 1 :j.n is a iogion wilh Lounoaiios of lho foim a = a, a = /,
j = ) (a) ano j = p (a), whoio ) (a) _ p (a) foi all a in [a, /[ ano whoio ) (a) ano
APPLlCATlONS OF THL lNTLCRAL 86
p (a) aio conlinuous on [a, /[ .
1-1: A 1ypo I Iogion
1o lno lho aioa of a lypo I iogion, lol / 0 ano lol a
, t
n
=l
Lo an /-lno
paililion of [a, /[ . 1hon lho simplo funclions
-
|
(a) =
_
_
) (t
l
) i) a
0
_ a < a
l
) (t
2
) i) a
l
_ a < a
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
) (t
n
) i) a
nl
_ a < a
n
, r
|
(a) =
_
_
p (t
l
) i) a
0
_ a < a
l
p (t
2
) i) a
l
_ a < a
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
p (t
n
) i) a
nl
_ a < a
n
convoigo lo ) ano p, iospoclivoly, as / appioachos 0. 1hus, lho aioa of lho iogion
Lolwoon lho simplo funclions appioximalos lho aioa of lho iogion Lolwoon j =
) (a) ano j = p (a) iospoclivoly.
1-2: Simplo funclion appioximalion of ) ano p
Moioovoi, lho iogion Lolwoon -
|
(a) ano r
|
(a) is a colloclion of ioclanglos wilh
wiolhs â
ano hoighls ) (t
) p (t
). 1ho lolal aioa of lho ioclanglos is

arca = [) (t
l
) p (t
l
)[ â
l
. . . [) (t
n
) p (t
n
)[ â
n
ano if wo lol / appioach 0, lho aioa of lho ioclanglos convoigos lo lho aioa Lolwoon
lho cuivos:
arca = lim
|0
n
=l
[) (t
) p (t
)[ â
Ly oolnilion, lhis lasl limil convoigos lo

_
b
o
() (a) p (a)) da.
TLeoren 1.1. If ) (a) ano p (a) aio inlogiaLlo on [a, /[ wilh ) (a) _
p (a) foi all a in [a, /[ , lhon lho iogion Lolwoon j = ) (a) ano j = p (a)
ovoi [a, /[ has an aioa of
=
_
b
o
() (a) p (a)) da (.2)
866 APPLlCATlONS OF THL lNTLCRAL
1hal is, (.2) is lho foimula foi lho aioa of a lypo I iogion.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho aioa of lho iogion Lolwoon ) (a) = a
2
8 ano
p (a) = a
2
ovoi [0, 2[ .
SoIutIon: Sinco a
2
8 _ a
2
ovoi [0, 2[ , lho iogion Louno Ly a = 0,
a = 2, j = a
2
, ano j = a
2
8 is a lypo I iogion:
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1-8: Iogion Lolwoon j = a
2
ano j = a
2
8 ovoi [0, 2[
1hus, lhooiom 1.1 implios lhal lho aioa of lho iogion is
=
_
2
0
_
a
2
8 a
2
_
da =
_
2
0
8da = 6
1hn . h n:n J h :j.n h&n j = a 2 nnJ j = a : [0, 2[ Chock youi Ioaoing
IdentIIyIng EndoInts and SuLdIvIsIons oI HegIons
Whon an inloival [a, /[ is nol givon, lho giaphs of lho funclions musl inloisocl in
al loasl lwo poinls in oiooi lo Louno a lypo I iogion.
1-4: Limils of inlogialion may Lo a-cooioinalos of in-
loisoclions
1o ooloimino lho inloival [a, /[ , wo musl sol ) (a) = p (a) ano solvo foi a.
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho aioa of lho iogion Lolwoon lho cuivos j = a
ano j = 4a.
ARLA BLTWLLN TWO CURVLS 867
SoIutIon: Wo Login Ly giaphing lho lwo cuivos lo ooloimino if lhoy
inloisocl.
x
5 4 3 2 1 0
5
4
3
2
1
0
1-: Iogion Lolwoon j = a ano j = 4a
1ho lwo giaphs inloisocl whon a = 4a. Mulliplying Lolh sioos Ly
a yiolos
a( a) = a
_
4
a
_
== a a
2
= 4
1ho iosull can Lo liansfoimoo inlo a
2
a4 = 0, which faclois inlo
(a 1) (a 4) = 0
ano which in luin has solulions of a = 1 ano a = 4. 1ho giaph iovoals
lhal a _ 4a whon a is in [1, 4[ , so lhal lho aioa of lho iogion
onclosoo Ly j = a ano j = 4a is
arca =
_
d
l
_
a
4
a
_
da = a
a
2
2
4 ln(a)
d
l
=
1
2
8 ln2
If j = ) (a) ano j = p (a) inloisocl moio lhan lwico, lhon wo lno lho aioa of lho
iogion Lolwoon j = ) (a) ano j = p (a) ovoi oach inloival implioo Ly lho poinls
of inloisoclion. 1hal is, lho aioa of lho iogion Lolwoon j = ) (a) ano j = p (a) is
lho sum of lho aioas of lho inoivioual suLiogions.
IXAMIII J Fino lho aioa of lho iogion Lolwoon lho cuivos j = a
5
ano j = a.
SoIutIon: Sinco a
5
= a has solulions a = 1, 0, 1, lho lolal iogion is
lho union of lho iogions ovoi [1, 0[ ano ovoi [0, 1[ , iospoclivoly.
x
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
1-6: Iogion Lolwoon j = a ano j = a
5
Nolico lhal a
5
_ a whon a is in [1, 0[ , Lul lhal a _ a
5
whon a is in
[0, 1[ . As a iosull, lho aioa Lolwoon lho lwo cuivos is
arca =
_
0
l
_
a
5
a
_
da
_
l
0
_
a a
5
_
da
=
1
8

1
8
=
2
8
IXAMIII ! Fino lho aioa of lho iogion Louno Lolwoon j = sin(a)
ano j = cos (a) ovoi [0, [ .
SoIutIon: 1ho giaph Lolow iovoals lhal sin(a) = cos (a) foi somo a
in [0, [ .
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
1-7: Iogion Lolwoon j = sin(a) ano j = cos (a) ovoi [0, [
1o ooloimino lho poinl of inloisoclion, wo solvo lho following:
sin(a) = cos (a)
lan(a) = 1
a =

4
Sinco cos (a) _ sin(a) whon a is in
_
0,
t
d
ano sin(a) _ cos (a) whon

a is in
_
t
d
,
, lho aioa of lho iogion onclosoo Ly lho lwo funclions is

arca =
_
t/d
0
(cos (a) sin(a)) da
_
t
t/d
(sin(a) cos (a)) da
=
_
2 1
_
2 1
= 2
_
2
1hj nn` & n& h n:n h&n j = a
5
nnJ j = a &.h h .nj:n| Chock youi Ioaoing
_
l
l
_
a
5
a
_
da
Tye II HegIons
A j 11 :j.n is a iogion wilh Lounoaiios of lho foim j = c, j = d, a = ) (j) ano
a = p (j), whoio ) (j) _ p (j) foi all a in [c, d[ ano whoio ) ano p aio conlinuous
on [c, d[ .
1-8: A lypo II iogion
Il follows lhal lho aioa of a lypo II iogion is
=
_
J
c
[) (j) p (j)[ dj
1hal is, if a is consiooioo a funclion of j, wo simply inloichango lho iolos of lho
lwo vaiiaLlos.
IXAMIII Fino lho aioa of lho lypo II iogion Lolwoon a = j
2
1
ano a = [j[ ovoi [1, 2[ .
SoIutIon: 1ho giaphs of ) (j) = j
2
1 ano p (j) = [j[ iovoal lhal
) (j) _ p (j) ovoi [1, 2[ .
1-0: Iogion Lolwoon a = j
2
1 ano a = [j[ ovoi [1, 2[ .
1ho oolnilion of lho aLsolulo valuo funclion says lhal
[j[ =
_
j i) j _ 0
j i) j < 0
1hus, lho aioa is compuloo using inlogials ovoi [1, 0[ ano [0, 2[ , io-
spoclivoly.
arca =
_
0
l
_
j
2
1 [j[
_
dj
_
2
0
_
j
2
1 [j[
_
dj
=
_
0
l
_
j
2
1 j
_
dj
_
2
0
_
j
2
1 j
_
dj
=

6

8
8
=
7
2
1h: J.J & & h J]n..n J [j[ .n h n&n.n nh Chock youi Ioaoing
CreatIng a CoordInate Systen Ior a CIven HegIon
Whon a iogion is givon wilhoul Lonoll of a cooioinalo syslom, wo musl oolno
oui own cooioinalo syslom ano lhon lno iopiosonlalions foi lho cuivos in lhal
cooioinalo syslom. In pailiculai, lol us consiooi iogions Lounooo Ly paiaLolas
using lho facl lhal a paiaLola wilh nonzoio iools r
l
, r
2
ano wilh a j-inloicopl of
/ has an oqualion of
j =
/
r
l
r
2
(a r
l
) (a r
2
) (.8)
IXAMIII 0 Fino lho aioa of lho iogion shown Lolow:
1-10: IaiaLola foi oxamplo 6
SoIutIon: Wo chooso lho a-axis lo Lo concuiionl wilhi.o., on lop
oflho sliaighl sogmonl of longlh 6, ano wo chooso lho j-axis lo iun
lhiough lho voilox poiponoiculai lo lho a-axis.
1-11: IaiaLola placoo in aj-cooioinalo syslom
Oiionling lho a ano j axos as is cuslomaiy yiolos lho oiagiam on
lho iighl aLovo. 1ho longlh of lho Laso" of lho iogion is 6, which
coiiosponos lo 8 unils lo oilhoi sioo of lho j-axis. 1hus, wo havo a
paiaLola wilh a j-inloicopl of 8 ano lwo a-inloicopls of 8 ano 8. Ils
oqualion is
j =
8
(8) (8)
(a 8) (a 8)
=
1
8
(a 8) (a 8)
=
1
8
_
a
2
0
_
l
3
_
0 a
2
_
. As a iosull, lho aioa of lho iogion
is
=
1
8
_
3
3
_
0 a
2
_
da = 12
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h n:n J h :j.n h&n h & j.n &:. 5n J h &.|| h
&J njn.n .n .n -..
1. j = a, j = a
2
2. j = 2a 8, j = a
2
8. j = 4 a
2
, j = 8a 4. j = 2a
2
a
3
, j = a
. j = 2 a
2
, j = a
2
6. j = 2a
2
, j = a
2
1
7. j = a, j = a
d
8. j = a
d
1, j = 2a
2
0. j = a
3
, j = a 10. j = a
3
, j = a
11. j = a
3
, j = a
2
2a 12. j = a
d
, j = a
2
4
18. j = [a[ , j = a
2
14. j = [a[ , j = 2 a
2
1. a = j, a = j
2
16. a = 2j 8, a = j
2
17. a = 4 j
2
, a = 8j 18. a = 2j
2
j
3
, a = j
10. a = 2 [j[ , a = j 8 20. a = j [j[ , a = j 1
21. j = sin(a), j = sin(2a) , ovoi [0, [ 22. j = cos
2
(a) , j = sin
2
(a) , ovoi [0, [
28. j = cos (a) , j = 0 ovoi [0, 1[ 24. j = sin(a) , j = 1 ovoi [0, 1[
2. j = soc
2
(a), j = lan
2
(a) , ovoi
_
0,
t
d
26. j = 2 cos
2
(a) , j = 1, ovoi [0, [
27. j = asin
_
a
2
_
, j = a, ovoi [0, 1[ 28. j = 2 ln(a) ano j = ln(a 2)
20. j = c
2i
, j = c
i
4 80. j = c
i
4c
i
, j =
81. j = c
i
, j = c
2i
, ovoi [0, ln(2)[ 82. j = a
3
, j = a
2
, ovoi [1, )
33. Lol`s lno lho aioa of lho iogion shown in lho lguio Lolow.
1-12: Lxoiciso 88
(a) 1o Login wilh, oolno a cooioinalo syslomin which j can Lo wiillon
as a funclion of a.
(L) Fino lho oqualion of lho paiaLola in lhis cooioinalo syslom using
(.8).
(c) Fino lho aioa using a oolnilo inlogial.
34. Whal is lho aioa of lho iogion Lolwoon lho lino j = a ano lho paiaLola
a
2
2aj j
2
a j = 2
1ho giaph of lho iogion is shown Lolow:
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
2
1
0
-1
-2
1-18: Lxoiciso 84
35. A coilain aichway is lo Lo llloo wilh a slool-ioinfoicoo conciolo slaL which
is lo Lo
l
2
fool lhick.
1-14: Lxoiciso 8
Lol`s ooloimino how many cuLic fool of conciolo will Lo nocossaiy foi lho
joL assuming lho aic is a paiaLola
(a) Uso lho cooioinalo syslom shown on lho iighl ano (.8) lo oolno
a funclion whoso giaph is lho aic shown in lho picluio.
(L) Fino lho aioa Lolwoon lho lwo cuivos.
(c) Lslimalo lho amounl of conciolo nocossaiy foi lho joL.
36. Iopoal oxoiciso 8 assuming lho aic lho aic of a ciiclo. Which aichway
ioquiios moio conciolo
37. John Luys an iiiogulaily shapoo lol Lounooo on ono sioo Ly a ciook.
1-1: Lxoiciso 87
Ho moasuios oislancos al 10 fool inloivals acioss lho lol.
(a) If lho Lounoaiy noai lho slioam is lho giaph of ) (a) ano lho oiag-
onal Lounoaiy opposilo lho slioam is lho giaph of p (a) , wiilo an
oxpiossion foi lho aioa of lho lol assuming lhal a = 0 coiiosponos
lo lho lofl voilical Lounoaiy in lho plol aLovo.
(L) Uso lho liapozoioal iulo lo oslimalo lho aioa inlogial in (a). Whal
is lho appioximalo aioa of lho lol in acios (Nolo: 1 acio is oqual
lo 48,60 squaio fool)
38. Lolow aio lho oimonsions of an iiiogulaily shapoo ioom.
1-16: Lxoiciso 88
(a) DosciiLo lho aioa of lho ioom as a oolnilo inlogial of lho oiloionco
of lwo funclions.
(L) Uso lho liapozoioal iulo lo compulo lho inlogial in (a). Lxplain
why lhis yiolos lho oxacl aioa of lho ioom.
39. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay which oxplains why lho aioa of lho
iogion
1-17: Lxoiciso 80
is givon Ly rca =
_
J
c
[) (j) p (j)[ dj. (Hinl: mimic lho simplo funclion
aigumonl loaoing up lo lhooiom 1.1).
5.2 CenLroids
TLe a coordInate oI tLe CentroId oI a HegIon
In lhis soclion, wo uso oolnilo inlogials lo oolno lho conloi oi n:.J of a iogion
in lho aj-plano. Wo oo so Ly oxlonoing a simplo nolion conloi of mass lo a moio
gonoial nolion of n:.J of a iogion.
1o Login wilh, lho piinciplo of lho lovoi says lhal a mass of :
2
can Lalanco a
laigoi mass :
l
if lho laigoi mass is closoi lo lho fulcium:
2-1: Smalloi mass Lalancing lho laigoi
Inoooo, supposo lho mass :
l
is localoo al a poinl t
l
, lho mass :
2
is localoo al
t
2
, ano lho fulcium is localoo al a. 1hon lho lovoi Lalancos if lho piooucls of lho
mass ano lho oislanco fiom lho fulcium aio lho samo foi Lolh massos:
1
:
l
( a t
l
) = :
2
(t
2
a) (.4)
If wo now solvo foi a, lho iosull is lho n: J nn of lho lwo massos:
a =
:
l
t
l
:
2
t
2
:
l
:
2
(.)
In gonoial, if : massos :
l
, . . . , :
n
aio localoo al poinls t
l
, . . . t
n
on lho ioal lino,
2-2: Syslom of massos Lalancing oach olhoi
lhon lho n: J nn of lho colloclion of mass-poinls is
a =
:
l
t
l
:
2
t
2
. . . :
2
t
2
:
l
:
2
. . . :
n
(.6)
Lol`s uso (.6) lo oolno lho conloi of mass of a |nn.nn of a lypo I iogion in A laminalo is
a unifoim solio
which iopiosonls
a iogion in lho
plano.
lho plano, whoio a |nn.nn of a iogion is a solio in lho shapo of lho iogion wilh
a unifoim lhicknoss ano a unifoim mass-oonsily. Moioovoi, lho n:.J of lho
iogion is oolnoo lo Lo lho poinl ( a, j) coiiosponoing lo lho conloi of mass of lho
laminalo.
2-8: A iogion ano ils laminalo
1o Login wilh, wo appioximalo Lolh ) ano p Ly simplo funclions ovoi /-lno
paililions foi oach / closo lo 0.
2-4: Simplo Funclion Appioximalion
Moioovoi, supposo lhal lho lags t
aio lho miopoinls of lho inloivals. 1hon

lho iosull is a colloclion of : ioclanglos, whoio lho
||
ioclanglo is conloioo al
1
Moio spocilcally, lho lovoi Lalancos if lho inoivioual loiquos aio oqual, whoio lho loiquo on
mass n
is lho piooucl of lho giavilalional foico n
g ano lho oislanco fiom lho fulcium.

CLNTROlDS 87
_
t
,
}(|)(|)
2
_
:
2-: Ioclangulai lamina appioximalion
1hoii laminalos foim a syslom of massos :
l
, . . . , :
n
. If j is lho mass of lho
laminalo poi unil aioa of lho iogion, lhon :
= j
, whoio
is lho aioa of lho
||
ioclanglo. Sinco
= [) (t
) p (t
)[ â
, wo havo
:
= j [-
:
(t
) r
:
(t
)[ â
1hus, if a oonolos lho a-cooioinalo of lho conlioio of lho |nn.nn, lhon (.6) implios
lhal
a -
jt
l
[) (t
l
) p (t
l
)[ â
l
. . . jt
n
[) (t
n
) p (t
n
)[ â
n
j [) (t
l
) p (t
l
)[ â
l
. . . j[) (t
n
) p (t
n
)[ â
n
Wo now lol / appioach 0:
a =
lim
|0
n
=l
jt
[) (t
) p (t
)[ â
lim
|0
n
=l
j [) (t
) p (t
)[ â
1ho oonominaloi is lho aioa of lho iogion. 1hus,

a =
1
_
b
o
a[) (a) p (a)[ da (.7)
whoio =
_
b
o
[) (a) p (a)[ da is lho aioa of lho iogion.
5| J: a .n ;.). Jh :&| h&|J h ;.). Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe j coordInate oI tLe CentroId
1o lno j, wo nooo only compulo lho piooucls of lho j-cooioinalo of lho conlois
of lho ioclanglos ano lho massos of lho laminalos of lho ioclanglos:
_
) (t
) p (t
)
2
_
=
1
2
() (t
) p (t
)) () (t
) p (t
)) â
=
1
2
_
)
2
(t
) p
2
(t
â
Sinco :
= j
, (.6) implios lhal

j =
j
_
)
2
(t
l
) p
2
(t
l
)
â
l
. . . j
_
)
2
(t
n
) p
2
(t
n
)
â
n
j [) (t
l
) p (t
l
)[ â
l
. . . j[) (t
n
) p (t
n
)[ â
n
so lhal in lho limil as / appioachos 0 wo havo
j =
1
2
_
b
o
_
[) (a)[
2
[p (a)[
2
_
da (.8)
Lol us slalo lhoso iosulls as a oolnilion.
DehnItIon 3.1: If ) (a) _ p (a) ovoi [a, /[, lhon lho conlioio of lho
iogion Lolwoon j = ) (a) ano j = p (a) ovoi [a, /[ is oolnoo lo Lo
a =
1
_
b
o
a[) (a) p (a)[ da, j =
1
2
_
b
o
_
[) (a)[
2
[p (a)[
2
_
da
whoio oonolos lho aioa of lho iogion.
In pailiculai, ( a, j) is lho conloi of mass of a laminalo of lho iogion.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho conlioio of lho iogion Lolwoon j = 2 a ano
j = 0 ovoi [0, 2[.
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, lho aioa of lho iogion is
=
_
2
0
[(2 a) 0[ da =
_
2
0
(2 a) da =
_
2a
a
2
2
_
2
0
= 2
As a iosull, lho foimulas in oolnilion 1.1 Locomo
a =
1
2
_
2
0
a[(2 a) 0[ da =
1
2
_
2
0
_
2a a
2
_
da =
2
8
j =
1
2 2
_
2
0
_
(2 a)
2
0
2
_
da =
1
4
_
2
0
_
4 4a a
2
_
da =
2
8
Sinco lho iogion is aclually a liianglo, wo havo shown lhal ils conlioio
is
_
2
3
,
2
3
_
.
x
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2-6: Symmoliy aLoul j = a
h| h n&n.n nh hj n|&n.nj
l
2
_
2
0
_
2a a
2
_
da Chock youi Ioaoing
\sIng Synnetry to SInIIIy CaIcuIatIon oI tLe CentroId
In oxamplo 1, symmoliy aLoul lho lino j = a implios lhal j = a, so lhal wo aclu-
ally nooooo lo compulo only ono of lho inlogials in oxamplo 1. Inoooo, symmoliy
oflon iooucos lho amounl of compulalion ioquiioo in lnoing ( a, j) .
CLNTROlDS 877
IXAMIII 2 Fino ( a, j) foi lho iogion Lolwoon j = [a[ ano j = a
d
.
x
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2-7: Symmoliy aLoul a = 0
SoIutIon: Ly symmoliy, wo can concluoo lhal a = 0 so lhal wo nooo If lho iogion is
symmoliic wilh
iospocl lo lho j-
axis, lhon a = 0.
only lno j. 1o oo so, wo nolico lhal a
d
= [a[ whon a = 1, 0, 1. 1hus,
lho aioa of lho iogion is
=
_
0
l
_
[a[ a
d
_
da
_
l
0
_
[a[ a
d
_
da
=
_
0
l
_
a a
d
_
da
_
l
0
_
a a
d
_
da
=
8
10

8
10
1his iooucos lo =
3
5
, so lhal j is
j =
1
2
3
5
_
l
l
_
([a[)
2
_
a
d
_
2
_
da =

6
_
l
l
_
a
2
a
S
_
da =
10
27
1hus, lho conlioio of lho iogion is
_
0,
l0
27
_
, which is aclually oulsioo of 1ho conlioio of a
iogion nooo nol
Lo in lho iogion.
lho iogion.
IXAMIII J Fino lho conlioio of lho iogion Lolwoon j = cos
2
(a)
ano j = sin
2
(a) ovoi
_
0,
t
d
.
x
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2-8: Symmoliy aLoul j = 0.
SoIutIon: Symmoliy aLoul lho lino j = 0. implios lhal j = 0..
1hus, wo nooo only lno a. 1ho aioa of lho iogion is
=
_
t/d
0
_
cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a)
_
da
Howovoi, cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a) = cos (2a) , so lhal
=
_
t/d
0
cos (2a) da =
1
2
sin(2a)[
t/d
0
=
1
2
sin
_
2
4
_
1
2
sin(0) =
1
2
1hus, lho a-cooioinalo of lho conlioio is
a =
1
_
t/d
0
a
_
cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a)
da =
1
12
_
t/d
0
acos (2a) da
1aLulai inlogialion wilh n = a ano d = cos (2a) da lhus yiolos
n d
a cos (2a)
1
l
2
sin(2a)
0
l
d
cos (2a)
2
_
t/d
0
acos (2a) da = 2
_
1
2
asin(2a)
1
4
cos (2a)
_
t/d
0
As a iosull, lho a-cooioinalo of lho conlioio is
a = 2
_
1
2
asin(2a)
1
4
cos (2a)
t/d
0
_
= 2
_
1
2

4
1
1
4
0
_
2
_
0
1
4
1
_
=

4

1
2
`n:| h n:.J J h :j.n .n ]j&: -1. Chock youi Ioaoing
unerIcaI IntegratIon and CentroIds
Finally, lho foimulas foi a ano j can loao lo inlogials which cannol Lo ovalualoo
in closoo foim ano lhus musl Lo oslimaloo numoiically.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho conlioio of lho iogion unooi j = c
i
ovoi
lho inloival [2, 2[ .
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2-0: Conlioio on j-axis
SoIutIon: 1ho aioa of lho iogion is oslimaloo numoiically lo Lo
=
_
2
2
c
i
da = 1. 76416
lo oocimal placos. Sinco lho iogion is symmoliic aLoul lho j-axis,
wo musl havo a = 0. 1hus, wo nooo only lno j, which is
j =
1
2
_
2
2
_
_
c
i
_
2
(0)
2
_
da
CLNTROlDS 870
=
1
2 (1. 76416)
_
2
2
c
2i
da
= 0.810
lo lvo oocimal placos. 1hus, lho conlioio is (0, 0.810)
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h n:.J J h :j.n J:.hJ h|&. 1hn: .h|, & jnn:j
:J& h nn&n J n|&|n.n. `& J&nJ h n:n J h :j.n .n 1-1. .n
.n -1.
1. j = a, j = a
2
2. j = 2a 8, j = a
2
8. j = 4 a
2
, j = 8a 4. j = 2a
2
a
3
, j = a
. j = 2 a
2
, j = a
2
6. j = 2a
2
, j = a
2
1
7. j = a, j = a
d
8. j = a
d
1, j = 2a
2
0. j = a
3
, j = a 10. j = a
3
, j = a
11. j = a
3
, j = a
2
2a 12. j = a
d
, j = a
2
4
18. j = [a[ , j = a
2
14. j = [a[ , j = 2 a
2
1. j = cos
2
(a) , j = sin
2
(a) 16. j = soc
2
(a) , j = lan
2
(a)
ovoi
_
t
d
,
t
d
ovoi
_
t
d
,
t
d
17. j = cos (a) 1, j = sin(a) 18. j = c

i
c
i
, j = 2
ovoi [0, [ ovoi [ln(2) , ln(2)[
10. j = c
2i
, j = 8c
i
2 20. j = c
2i
, j = c
i
4
ovoi [2, 2[
21. j =
_
4 a
2
, j = 0 22. j =
_
2 a
2
, j = 0
28. j =
_
2 a
2
, j = [a[ 24. j =
_
2a a
2
1.nn h n:.J J h :j.n hj .nn.nj h .nj:n| .n ;.7) nnJ ;.).
2. j = cos
_
a
2
_
26. j = sin
_
a
2
_
ovoi
_
0,
_
2
_
ovoi [0,
_
[
27. j =
_
1 a
2
28. j =
_
1 a
2
ovoi [0, 1[ ovoi [1, 1[
20. j = ln(8a 2) , j = 2 ln(a) 80. j = c
i
, j = c
5id
31. In lhis oxoiciso, wo ooloimino lho conlioio of a quailoi ciiclo of iaoius 1.
2-10: Lxoiciso 81
(a) Fino lho aioa of lho quailoi ciiclo wilhoul using inlogials.
(L) Fino a as a funclion of 1.
(c) Fino j as a funclion of 1.
(o) Why woulo you oxpocl lhal j = a
32. In lhis oxamplo, wo consiooi lho conlioio of lho iogion Lolwoon ) (a) = 2a
2
ano p (a) = a
2
ovoi lho inloival [1, 1[ .
(a) Fino lho aioa of lho iogion.
(L) Fino lho conlioio ( a, j) of lho iogion.
(c) Giaph ) (a) = 2a
2
ano p (a) = a
2
ovoi lho inloival [1, 1[ . Whal
poinl woulo you laLol as lho conlioio
33. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you oiscuss lho conlioio
concopl ano lhon lno lho conlioio of lho liianglo wilh cooioinalos (0, /)
ano (/, 0) .
2-11: Lxoiciso 88
34. *VrIte to Learn: In a shoil ossay, oolno lho liianglo wilh cooioinalos
(a
l
, j
l
) , (a
2
, j
2
) ano (a
3
, j
3
) lo Lo lho iogion Lolwoon lwo cuivos. 1hon show
lhal lho conlioio of lho liianglo is givon Ly lho avoiago of lho cooioinalos.
35. Il can Lo shown lhal lho liianglo unooi lho giaph of
) (a) =
_
_
_
/
|
o
a i) a _ a < 0
/
|
b
a i) a _ 0 _ /
ano ovoi [a, /[ has a conlioio of
_
ob
3
,
|
3
_
. Uso lhis lo answoi lho following:
(a) Fino lho oqualion of lho lino Lolwoon lho poinls (a, 0) ano lho
miopoinl
_
b
2
,
|
2
_
of lho sioo opposilo (a, 0) . Show lhal lho conlioio
( a, j) is on lhis lino.
(L) Fino lho oqualion of lho lino Lolwoon lho poinls (/, 0) ano lho
miopoinl
_
o
2
,
|
2
_
, ano lho oqualion of lho lino Lolwoon (0, /) ano
lho miopoinl
_
ob
2
, 0
_
. Whoio oo lhoso lwo linos inloisocl
36. Try It out! Maik ol a ioclangulai giio on a soclion of caioLoaio. Localo
lhioo non-collinoai poinls on lho giio ano cul oul lho implioo liianglo. Fino
lho avoiago of lho cooioinalos ano localo lho conlioio on lho liianglo culoul.
Show lhal lho liianglo culoul Lalancos whon suppoiloo Ly a poncil oiasoi
Lonoalh ils conlioio. 1hon oxamino lho miopoinl iolalionships oiscussoo in
oxoiciso 81.
37. Lol 1
l
Lo lho iogion Lolwoon j = ) (a) ano j = p (a) ovoi [a, c[, ano lol 1
2
Lo lho iogion Lolwoon j = ) (a) ano j = p (a) ovoi [c, /[ .
CLNTROlDS 881
Show lhal if 1
l
has conlioio ( a
l
, j
l
) ano aioa
l
ano lhal if 1
2
has conlioio
( a
2
, j
2
) ano aioa
2
, lhon lho conlioio ( a, j) of lho comLinoo iogion 1
l
'1
2
is
a =
a
l
l
a
2
l

2
, j =
j
l
l
j
2
l

2
38. Diaw a ioclanglo wilh ono of ils sioos on lho a-axis. Show lhal ( a, j) is al
lho conloi of lho ioclanglo.
5.3 Volumes of Solids of RevoluLion
HevoIutIon oI a HegIon aLout tLe a-axIs
1ho oolnilo inlogial can also Lo usoo lo ooloimino lho volumo of a solio oLlainoo
Ly iovolving lho iogion Lolwoon j = ) (a) ano j = p (a) ovoi [a, /[ aiouno a lxoo
axis. Such a solio is calloo a |.J J :|&.n.
Wo Login Ly lnoing lho volumo \ of lho solio gonoialoo Ly iovolving lho
iogion unooi a lho giaph of a conlinuous funclion ) (a) ovoi lho inloival [a, /[ .
8-1: A Solio of Iovolulion
Lol a
, t
n
=l
Lo an /-lno laggoo paililion of [a, /[ ano lol
- (a) =
_
_
) (t
l
) i) a
0
_ a < a
l
) (t
2
) i) a
l
_ a < a
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
) (t
n
) i) a
nl
_ a < a
n
Lo a simplo funclion appioximalion of ) (a). 1ho solio oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho
iogion Lolow lho giaph of ) (a) aLoul lho a-axis is appioximaloly lho samo as lho
solio oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho iogion Lolow lho giaph of - (a) aLoul lho a-axis.
8-2: Simplo funclion appioximalion
Sinco lho volumo of a ciiculai oisk of iaoius r ano wiolh â is
\ o|n:c = r
2
â
lho volumo of lho solio of iovolulion is appioximaloly
\ - [) (t
l
)[
2
â
l
[) (t
2
)[
2
â
2
. . . [) (t
n
)[
2
â
n
If wo now lol / appioach 0, lhon
\ = lim
|0
n
=l
[) (t
)[
2
â
so lhal lho volumo \ of lho solio oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho iogion unooi ) (a)
ovoi [a, /[ aiouno lho a-axis is
\ =
_
b
o
[) (a)[
2
da (.0)
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho volumo of lho solio which iosulls fiom iovolv-
ing lho iogion unooi j = a 1 ano ovoi [1, 8[ aLoul lho a-axis.
8-8: Solulion of iovolulion of iogion unooi j = a 1 ovoi [1, 8[
SoIutIon: Accoioing lo (.10), lho volumo of lho iosulling solio of
iovolulion is
\ =
_
3
l
(a 1)
2
da (.10)
=
_
3
l
_
a
2
2a 1
_
da
=
_
a
3
8
a
2
a
_
3
l
=
6
8
1r|n.n &hj \ = r
2
â . h J:n&|n J: h |&n J n .:&|n: J.|. Chock youi Ioaoing
YoIune oI a SoIId oI HevoIutIon oI a Tye I HegIon
1ho foimula (.0) can Lo oxlonooo lo a foimula foi lho volumo of lho solio of
iovolulion of a lypo I iogion. In pailiculai, supposo lhal ) (a) _ p (a) ovoi an
inloival [a, /[ . 1o lno lho volumo of lho solio oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho iogion
VOLUMLS OF SOLlDS OF RLVOLUTlON 888
Lolwoon ) (a) ano p (a) aiouno lho a-axis,
8-4: Solio of iovolulion aLoul a-axis of 1ypo I iogion
wo lisl nolico lhal lho solio can also Lo consliucloo Ly iomoving lho solio oLlainoo
Ly iovolving lho iogion unooi p (a) fiom lho solio oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho iogion
unooi ) (a).
8-: Oiiginal is laigoi solio wilh smalloi solio iomovoo
1hus, lho volumo of lho solio oLlainoo fiom iovolving lho iogion Lolwoon lho
giaphs of ) (a) ano p (a) ovoi lho inloival [a, /[ is
\ =
_
b
o
[) (a)[
2
da
_
b
o
[p (a)[
2
da
which simplilos lo yiolo lho following lhooiom:
TLeoren 3.1: 1ho volumo of lho solio of iovolulion of a lypo I
iogion aLoul lho a-axis is givon Ly
\ =
_
b
o
_
[) (a)[
2
[p (a)[
2
_
da (.11)
Nolico lhal if p (a) = 0 in (.11), lhon lhooiom 8.1 iooucos lo (.0).
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho volumo of lho solio oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho
iogion Lolwoon j =
_
a ano j = a aiouno lho a-axis.
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo lisl lno lhal lho lwo cuivos inloisocl whon
a = 0 ano a = 1. 1hus, (.11) Locomos
\ =
_
l
0
_
__
a
_
2
(a)
2
_
da
=
_
l
0
_
a a
2
_
da
=

6
1hooiom 8.1 can Lo usoo lo oLlain many of lho volumo foimulas of classical
goomoliy, incluoing volumos of conos, fiuslums, sphoios ano ollipsoios.
IXAMIII J Lol`s oovolop a foimula foi lho volumo of a cono wilh
a hoighl of / ano wilh a Laso of iaoius 1.
SoIutIon: Fiisl, wo placo lho cono in a cooioinalo syslom so lhal il is
lho solio oLlainoo fiom iovolving lho iogion unooi lho lino / ano ovoi
[0, /[ .
8-6: Volumo of a iighl ciiculai cono
Sinco / has a slopo of
1
|
ano passos lhiough lho oiigin, il is lho giaph
of
1(a) =
1
/
a
As a iosull, lho cono is lho solio of iovolulion aLoul lho a-axis gonoi-
aloo Ly lho iogion ovoi [0, /[ which is Lolwoon j = 1(a) ano j = 0.
1hus, (.11) yiolos a volumo foi lho cono of
\ =
_
|
0
_
_
1
/
a
_
2
0
2
_
da
Lvalualing lho inlogial yiolos lho foimula
\ =
1
2
/
2
_
|
0
a
2
da =
1
2
/
2
_
a
3
8
|
0
_
=
1
2
/
2
/
3
8
1hus, lho volumo of a cono wilh a hoighl of / ano wilh a Laso of iaoius
1 is
\ =
1
8
1
2
/
1hn . h |&n J n n J &.h h.jh / = 0 .nh nnJ &.h n hn J Chock youi Ioaoing
:nJ.& 1 = 4 .nh
A TLeoren oI Iaus
1ho inlogial in (.11) shoulo Lo familiai fiom lho lasl soclion. Inoooo, if wo
mulliply ano oivioo Ly 2, whoio is lho aioa of lho iogion, lhon (.11) Locomos
\ = 2
1
2
_
b
o
_
[) (a)[
2
[p (a)[
2
_
da
which simplilos lo \ = 2 j, whoio j is lho j-cooioinalo of lho conlioio of lho
iogion. Moioovoi, 2 j is lho .:&nJ:n of lho palh liacoo oul Ly j as lho
iogion is iovolvoo aLoul lho a-axis:
8-7: Conlioio liacos oul a ciiclo of iaoius j
1hus, wo havo piovon a lhooiom which was lisl slaloo in aLoul 820 A.D. Ly
Iappus of Aloxanoiia:
Iaus` TLeoren: If a iogion wilh aioa is iovolvoo aiouno a lino
| ano if r is lho oislanco fiom lho lino | lo lho conlioio of lho iogion,
lhon lho volumo of lho solio of iovolulion is
\ = .:&nJ:n :n = 2r
8-8: 1hooiom of Iappus
1ho lhooiom of Iappus can oflon Lo usoo lo lno volumos of solios wilhoul having
lo iosoil lo inlogials.
IXAMIII ! Doiivo lho foimula foi lho volumo of lho loius oLlainoo
Ly iovolving a ciiclo of iaoius r conloioo al (0, 1) aLoul lho a-axis,
whoio 0 < r < 1.
8-0: A 1oius is a Ciiclo iovolvoo aLoul lho a-axis
SoIutIon: Ly symmoliy, lho conlioio of lho ciiclo is also ils conloi,
which is (0, 1) . Moioovoi, lho ciicumfoionco of lho palh of lho conlioio
is 21. Sinco lho aioa of lho ciiclo is r
2
, lho lhooiomof Iappus implios
lhal lho Volumo of lho loius is
\ = 21 r
2
= 2
2
r
2
1
1hn . h |&n J n :& &.h .nn: :nJ.& r = 2 .nh nnJ &: :nJ.& Chock youi Ioaoing
1 = .nh
HevoIutIon aLout tLe j-axIs
An immooialo applicalion of Iappus` lhooiom is lhal if a iogion is iolaloo aLoul
lho j-axis, lhon ils volumo is \ = 2 a, which can Lo wiillon
\ = 2
1
_
b
o
a[) (a) p (a)[ da
1hus, lho volumo of lho solio oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho iogion Lolwoon j = ) (a)
ano j = p (a) ovoi [a, /[ aLoul lho j-axis is
\ = 2
_
b
o
a[) (a) p (a)[ da (.12)
IXAMIII Fino lho volumo of lho solio of iovolulion oLlainoo Ly
iovolving lho iogion in lho lisl quaoianl Lolwoon j = a
2
ano j = 1
aLoul lho j-axis.
8-10: Iovolulion aLoul lho j-axis
SoIutIon: 1ho foimula (.12) lolls us lhal lho volumo of lhis coioal
Lowl" lypo solio is
\ = 2
_
l
0
a
_
1 a
2
da
= 2
_
l
0
_
a a
3
_
da
= 2
_
a
2
2

a
d
4
_
l
0
=

2
Lxoicisos:
5|h h j.n |.J J :|&.n, nnJ hn ]nJ . |&n.
1. unooi ) (a) = a ovoi [0, 8[ 2. unooi ) (a) = 8a 2 ovoi [0, 1[
iovolvoo aLoul lho a-axis iovolvoo aLoul lho a-axis
8. unooi ) (a) =
_
a ovoi [0, 1[ 4. unooi ) (a) =
_
a 1 ovoi [0, 8[
. unooi ) (a) = c
i
ovoi [0, ln2[ 6. unooi ) (a) =
_
sin(a) ovoi [0, [
7. Lolwoon j = a ano j = a
2
8. Lolwoon j =
_
a ano j = a
2
0. Lolwoon j = [a[ ano j = a
d
10. Lolwoon j = c
2i
1 ano j = 2c
i
11. Lolwoon j = cos (a) ano j = sin(a) 12. Lolwoon j =
_
2 cos (a) ano j = 1
ovoi
_
0,
t
d
, aLoul lho a-axis ovoi

_
0,
t
d
, aLoul lho a-axis

18. Lolwoon j = soc (a) ano j = lan(a) 14. Lolwoon j = csc (a) ano j = col (a)
ovoi
_
0,
t
d
, aLoul lho a-axis ovoi

_
t
d
,
t
2
, aLoul lho a-axis

1. Lolwoon j = a ano j = 1 ovoi [0, 1[ 16. unooi j =
_
1 a
2
ano ovoi [0, 1[
iovolvoo aLoul lho j-axis iovolvoo aLoul lho j-axis
17. Lolwoon j = cos (a) ano j = sin(a) 18. Lolwoon j = cos
2
(a) ano j = sin
2
(a)
ovoi
_
0,
t
d
, aLoul lho j-axis ovoi

_
0,
t
d
, aLoul lho j-axis

1]n n :J.nn jn .n &h.h h j.n |.J . n |.J J :|&.n, nnJ
hn & ;.:) : ;.11) J:n.n . |&n.
10. 20.
21. 22.
28. 24.
25. A coilain oiinking cup fiom a fasl fooo ioslauianl is in lho shapo of lho
J:&&n of a iighl ciiculai cono.
8-11: Diinking cup in oxoiciso 2
If lho iaoius of lho Lollom is 1.", lho iaoius of lho lop is 2" ano lho hoighl
of lho cup is 6.", whal is lho volumo of lho cup in cuLic inchos How many
luio ouncos is lhal ( 1 cuLic inch = 0. 4 luio ouncos)
26. How many luio ouncos aio in lho cup in oxoiciso 2 whon il is llloo lo half
ils hoighl
27. 1ho suifaco of iovolulion oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho giaph of j = c
i
c
i
aLoul lho a-axis is calloo a nn.J.
8-12: Calonoio in oxoiciso 27
Whal is lho volumo of lho calonoio oLlainoo Ly iovolving j = c
i
c
i
ovoi
[ln2, ln2[ aLoul lho a-axis
28. A loius can Lo gonoialoo Ly iovolving a ciiclo of iaoius r conloioo al (0, 1)
aLoul lho a-axis, whoio r < 1.
8-18: 1oius as solio of iovolulion aLoul a-axis
(a) 1ho oqualion of lho ciiclo is
a
2
(j 1)
2
= r
2
Solvo foi j lo oLlain a iopiosonlalion of lho ciiclo as lho iogion
Lolwoon lho giaph of lwo funclions.
(L) Uso (.11) lo lno lho volumo of a loius wilh innoi iaoius r ano
ouloi iaoius 1.
29. Acoilain sofl oiink Lolllo is appioximaloo Ly lho solio gonoialoo Ly iovolving
lho iogion ovoi [0, 0.7"[ ano unooi lho giaph of
c (a) =
_
_
0.a 1 i) 0.0 _ a < 0.
1.2 i) 0. _ a < .0
2. 187 0. 187a i) .0 _ a < 0.0
0. i) 0.0 _ a _ 0.7
(a) Giaph c (a) ovoi lho inloival [0, 0.7[ ano lhon uso lho giaph lo
skolch lho Lolllo ilsolf. (Nolo: lo gol an accuialo iopiosonlalion,
you will nooo oqual scaling on Lolh axos).
(L) Uso (.0) lo lno lho volumo of lho sofl oiink Lolllo in cuLic inchos.
How many cuLic ouncos is lhal ( 1 cuLic inch = 0. 4 luio
ouncos)
30. A coilain small mixing Lowl is lho samo as lho solio gonoialoo Ly iovolving
lho iogion Lolwoon j = 8.7
tt
ano
j = 0.000877 a
S.7
ovoi [0, 2.0[ aiouno lho j-axis. Uso (.12) lo ooloimino lho volumo of lho
mixing Lowl. How many luio ouncos will lho mixing Lowl holo ( 1 cuLic
inch = 0. 4 luio ouncos)
31. Acoilain sofl oiink Lolllo is appioximaloo Ly lho solio gonoialoo Ly iovolving
lho iogion ovoi [0, 7.4[ ano unooi lho giaph of
c (a) =
_
_
0.71 0.76a 0.78a
2
0.82a
3
0.08a
d
0.008a
5
i) 0.0 _ a < 7.0
100. 84 80. 6a 2. 12a
2
i) 7.0 _ a < 7.4
(a) Giaph c (a) ovoi lho inloival [0, 7.4[ ano lhon uso lho giaph lo
skolch lho Lolllo ilsolf. (Nolo: lo gol an accuialo iopiosonlalion,
you will nooo oqual scaling on Lolh axos).
(L) Uso (.0) lo lno lho volumo of lho sofl oiink Lolllo in cuLic inchos.
How many cuLic ouncos is lhal ( 1 cuLic inch = 0. 4 luio
ouncos)
32. Try It out! Fino a conlainoi lhal is a solio of iovolulion ano piojocl ils
silhouollo onlo a pioco of papoi. Uso lho silhouollo lo ooloimino a iogion
which can Lo iovolvoo aiouno lho a-axis lo oLlain lho solio iopiosonloo Ly
lho conlainoi. 1hon lno ils volumo ano compaio lo lho aclual volumo of
lho conlainoi.
33. A solio can Lo oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho iogion Lolwoon lho cuivos a = ) (j)
ano a = p (j) ovoi [c, d[ aiouno lho j-axis. Uso lho oolnilion of lho inlogial
lo oxplain why ils volumo is
\ =
_
J
c
_
[) (j)[
2
[p (j)[
2
_
dj
(.18)
34. In lhis oxoiciso, lho volumo of lho solio oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho iogion
Lolwoon j = ln(a) ano j = 1 ovoi [1, c[ is ooloiminoo in lwo oiloionl ways.
(a) Uso (.11) lo lno lho volumo of lho solio oiioclly.
(L) DosciiLo lho iogion Lolwoon j = ln(a) ano j = 1 ovoi [1, c[ as lho
iogion is oosciiLoo in (.18).
(c) Fino lho volumo of lho solio oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho iogion in
(L) aLoul lho j-axis using lho foimula in (.18).
1 ;.1) ]nJ h |&n J h |.J hn.nJ hj :|.nj h j.n Jj 11
:j.n n:&nJ h j-nr..
8. a = j, a = 0, ovoi [0, 1[ 86. a = j
2
, a = 0, ovoi [0, 1[
87. a = 2 j, a = j, ovoi [0, 1[ 88. a = c
, a = 1, ovoi [0, 1[
80. a = j, a = j
2
40. a = 2 j, a =
_
4 j
2
5.4 ArclengLh
DerIvatIon oI tLe ArcIengtL IntegraI
In lhis soclion, wo soo lhal inlogials aio also usoo lo oolno lho longlh of lho giaph
of a funclion ovoi a givon inloival. In pailiculai, if ) (a) is piocowiso oiloionliaLlo
ovoi [a, /[ , lhon lho n:|njh of lho giaph of ) (a) is lho oislanco - fiom ono ono
of lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ lo lho olhoi ono.
4-1: - is lho longlh of lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi [a, /[
Lol`s oovolop a molhoo foi moasuiing lho aiclonglh of a funclion ovoi a givon
inloival.
1o Login wilh, foi oach / 0, lol a
, t
Lo an /-lno laggoo paililion of [a, /[,

ano lol j
= ) (a
) . Lol us lhon lol o (a) Lo lho piocowiso linoai funclion whoso

ARCLLNCTH 801
giaph connocls lho poinl (a
l
, j
l
) lo lho poinl (a
, j
) . Wo say lhal o (a) is a

|jjnn| n:r.nn.n of ) (a) .
4-2: o (a) is a polygonal appioximalion of ) (a)
Also, lol us lol ^-
l
, . . . , ^-
n
oonolo lho longlhs of lho inoivioual soclions of lho
giaph of o (a) ,
4-8: Longlh of a sogmonl in a polygonal appioximalion
Sinco a iun of longlh â
iosulls in a iiso of oislanco ^j
= ) (a
) ) (a
l
) ,
lho Iylhagoioan lhooiom implios lhal
^-
=
_
â
2
^j
2
1hus, if -
o
oonolos lho longlh of lho giaph of lho polygonal appioximalion
j = o (a) , lhon -
o
=
n
=l
^-
, which in luin implios lhal

-
o
=
n
=l
_
â
2
^j
2
(.14)
Howovoi, lho `nn 1n|& h:n says lhal wo can chooso lho lags t
such lhal
^j
= )
t
(t
) â
. As a iosull, (.14) implios lhal

-
o
=
n
=l
_
â
2
[)
t
(t
) â
[
2
=
n
=l
_
1 [)
t
(t
)[
2
â
1ho iosull is a Iiomann sum. 1hus, in lho limil as / appioachos 0, wo havo

- = lim
|0
-
o
= lim
|0
n
=l
_
1 [)
t
(t
)[
2
â
whoio lho limil is ovoi /-lno paililions of [a, /[ . 1his loaos us lo lho following
oolnilion:
DehnItIon 4.1: If ) (a) is conlinuous on [a, /[ ano oiloionliaLlo on
(a, /) , lhon lho longlh of lho cuivo j = ) (a) ovoi lho inloival [a, /[ is
givon Ly
- =
_
b
o
_
1 [)
t
(a)[
2
da (.1)
Il shoulo Lo noloo lhal lhoio aio cuivos whoso longlhs cannol Lo oolnoo (such as
lho fiaclal inloipolalion funclion monlionoo in soclion 2.4 ano again in lho Ar
5 al lho ono of lho lasl chaploi). Inoooo, oui molivalion foi oolnilion 4.1
ooponooo hoavily on oui uso of lho Moan Valuo lhooiom.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho aiclonglh of cuivo j =
3
d
a ovoi lho inloival
[0, 4[ .
SoIutIon: If ) (a) =
3
d
a, lhon )
t
(a) =
3
d
. 1hus, lho aiclonglh is
- =
_
d
0
_
1
_
8
4
_
2
da
Sinco lho inlogiano is conslanl, lho funoamonlal lhooiom implios lhal
- = 4
_
1
_
8
4
_
2
= 4
_
1
0
16
= 4
_
2
16
=
1& . h j:nh J ) (a) =
3
d
a : [0, 4[ :|nJ n -- :.nnj| Chock youi Ioaoing
SuLstItutIon and IdentItIes
Whon lho aiclonglh inlogial (.1) can Lo ovalualoo wilh lho funoamonlal lhoo-
iom, il oflon ioquiios oilhoi a suLslilulion, an ioonlily oi Lolh.
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho aiclonglh of j = a
3/2
ovoi [0, 4[ .
SoIutIon: Sinco j
t
=
3
2
a
l/2
, lho aiclonglh is
- =
_
d
0
_
1
_
8
2
a
l/2
_
2
da =
_
d
0
_
1
0
4
a da
Lol`s lol n = 1
9
d
a, dn =
9
d
da, n(0) = 1, ano n(4) = 10. 1hon
- =
4
0
_
l0
l
_
ndn
=
4
0
_
l0
l
n
l/2
dn
=
4
0
n
3/2
82
l0
l
=
2
8
_
(10)
3/2
1
_
ARCLLNCTH 808
Inoooo, ioonlilios such as
1 lan
2
(a) = soc
2
(a)
aio oflon usoo lo oliminalo lho squaio iool in (.1). Moioovoi, aiclonglh foimulas
may involvo lho anliooiivalivo iulo
_
soc (a) da = ln[soc a lana[ C (.16)
which was ooiivoo on pago 887.
Inoooo, Moicaloi usoo ossonlially lho samo foimula (.16) in 160lfly yoais
Lofoio Napioi invonloo logaiilhms ano a conluiy Lofoio Nowlon ano LoiLniz ois-
covoioo lho Calculusin consliucling his map of lho woilo now known as a Moi-
caloi piojoclion.
IXAMIII J Fino lho longlh of lho cuivo j = ln[soc (a)[ ovoi
_
0,
t
d
.
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo lisl compulo lho ooiivalivo,
)
t
(a) =
d
da
ln[soc (a)[ =
J
Ji
soc (a)
soc (a)
=
soc (a) lan(a)
soc (a)
= lan(a)
afloi which wo suLslilulo inlo (.1):
- =
_
t/d
0
_
1 (lana)
2
da
1ho ioonlily soc
2
(a) = 1lan
2
(a) lhus allows us lo wiilo lho aiclonglh
as
- =
_
t/d
0
_
soc
2
(a)da =
_
t/d
0
soc (a) da
1hus, lho funoamonlal lhooiom implios lhal
- = ln[soc a lana[[
t/d
0
= ln
soc
_
4
_
lan
_
4
_
ln[soc (0) lan(0)[

= ln
_
2 1
ln[1 0[
= ln
_
_
2 1
_
1hn hnnJ ln[1 0[ .n h nr |n |.n .n rnn| Chock youi Ioaoing
IerIect Squares
In oxamplo 8, lho quanlily 1[)
t
(a)[
2
iooucoo lo a poifocl squaio, lhus oliminaling
lho squaio iool. In many of lho oxoicisos, simplifying 1 [)
t
(a)[
2
lo a poifocl
squaio is a koy slop in ovalualing lho inlogial.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho aiclonglh of j = c
i/2
c
i/2
ovoi [0, 1[ .
SoIutIon: If ) (a) = c
i/2
c
i/2
, lhon )
t
(a) =
l
2
c
i/2
l
2
c
i/2
, so
lhal
1 [)
t
(a)[
2
= 1
_
1
2
c
i/2
1
2
c
i/2
_
2
= 1
_
1
2
c
i/2
_
2
2
1
2
c
i/2
1
2
c
i/2
_
1
2
c
i/2
_
2
= 1
_
1
2
c
i/2
_
2
1
2

_
1
2
c
i/2
_
2
sinco c
i/2
c
i/2
= 1. 1his can lhon Lo simpliloo lo
1 [)
t
(a)[
2
=
_
1
2
c
i/2
_
2
1
2

_
1
2
c
i/2
_
2
Sinco
_
l
2
c
i/2
l
2
c
i/2
2
=
_
l
2
c
i/2
_
2
l
2

_
l
2
c
i/2
_
2
, il follows lhal
1 [)
t
(a)[
2
=
_
1
2
c
i/2
_
2
1
2

_
1
2
c
i/2
_
2
=
_
1
2
c
i/2
1
2
c
i/2
_
2
1hus, lho longlh of lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi [0, 1[ is
- =
_
l
0
_
_
1
2
c
i/2

1
2
c
i/2
_
2
da
=
_
l
0
_
1
2
c
i/2
1
2
c
i/2
_
da
= c
i/2
c
i/2
l
0
= c
l/2
c
l/2
IXAMIII Fino lho aiclonglh of j = a
3
l
l2i
ovoi [1, 2[
3
l
l2i
, lhon )
t
(a) = 8a
2
l
l2i
, so lhal
1 [)
t
(a)[
2
= 1
_
8a
2
1
12a
2
_
2
= 1 0a
d
1
2

1
144a
d
= 0a
d
1
2

1
144a
d
If
_
8a
2
l
l2i
_
2
= 0a
d
l
2

l
lddi
, lhon similaily
_
8a
2
l
l2i
_
2
=
0a
d
l
2

l
lddi

1 [)
t
(a)[
2
=
_
8a
2
1
12a
2
_
2
ARCLLNCTH 80
1hus, lho longlh of lho cuivo ovoi [1, 2[ is
- =
_
2
l
_
_
8a
2

1
12a
2
_
2
da
=
_
2
l
_
8a
2
1
12a
2
_
da
= a
3
1
12a
2
l
= 7
1
24
1hj &n . .n:nn hn.n :J j&n: .n rnn| nnJ Chock youi Ioaoing
unerIcaI AroxInatIon oI ArcIengtL
In spilo of lho oloil wo oxpono in ovalualing aiclonglh inlogials in closoo foim,
il is nol uncommon in applicalions lo oLlain aiclonglh inlogials lhal cannol Lo
ovalualoo in closoo foim. Such inlogials oflon musl insloao Lo oslimaloo numoii-
cally.
IXAMIII 0 Lslimalo numoiically lho longlh of lho giaph of ) (a) =
a
2
ovoi [0, 1[ .
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = 2a, wo havo
1 [)
t
(a)[
2
= 1 4a
2
As a iosull, lho aiclonglh inlogial is
- =
_
l
0
_
1 4a
2
da
Allhough lhoio aio lochniquos foi ovalualing lhis inlogial, nono of lho
lochniquos wo havo acquiioo lhus fai will woik. 1hus, wo uso a calcu-
laloi oi compuloi lo oslimalo lho aiclonglh inlogial numoiically, which
iosulls in
- =
_
l
0
_
1 4a
2
da = 1.4708
In many applicalions, lho funclion oolning lho cuivo is oolnoo only Ly a sol of
oala. In such casos, lho polygonal appioximalion ilsolf can Lo usoo lo oslimalo
lho longlh of lho cuivo.
IXAMIII 7 Supposo a ioao is lo Lo Luill lo lho lop of a iiogo. A
piollo of lho iiogo is placoo on a giio whoio voilical olovalions in fool
aLovo soa lovol aio moasuioo al iogulai hoiizonlal oisplacomonls.
4-8: Ioao lo lho lop of a iiogo
How long is lho ioao
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, lho olovalions al hoiizonlal oislancos aio
moasuioo:
a = /ori.o:ta| 0 00 1000 100 2000 200 8000 800 4000
j = c|catio: 400 40 2 600 67 72 77 82 87
A polygonal appioximalion lo lho cuivo is consliucloo using lho oala
sol aLovo.
Lol`s now uso (.14) lo compulo lho longlh of lhis polygonal appioxi-
malion.
In pailiculai, lol`s uso a laLlo in which wo consliucl â
, ^j
,
ano ^-
.
â
^j
^-
=
_
â
2
^j
2
1 00 0
_
00
2
0
2
= 02.40
2 00 7
_
00
2
7
2
= 0.0
8 00 7
_
00
2
7
2
= 0.0
4 00 7
_
00
2
7
2
= 0.0
00 0
_
00
2
0
2
= 02.40
6 00 0
_
00
2
0
2
= 02.40
7 00 0
_
00
2
0
2
= 02.40
8 00 0
_
00
2
0
2
= 02.40
S
=l
^-
= 4020.22
1ho sum in lho lasl column lhus givos us a gooo appioximalion of lho
aiclonglh
-
o
=
S
=l
^-
= 4020.22 )cct
1his is aLoul - - 4020.22880 = 0.7 milos.
ARCLLNCTH 807
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h |njh J h j:nh J h J&n.n : h j.n .n:n|. 1| J:
:&n.. & .Jn.., &h.&.n : n|.nj h j&n:.
1. ) (a) = 2a 1 ovoi [0, 1[ 2. ) (a) = 8a 2 ovoi [0, 1[
8. ) (a) = ovoi [2, 8[ 4. ) (a) = 2 ovoi [8, 4[
. ) (a) = [a[ ovoi [1, 1[ 6. ) (a) = a [a[ ovoi [1, 1[
7. ) (a) = ln[cos a[ ovoi
_
0,
t
d
8. ) (a) = ln[csc (a)[ ovoi

_
0,
t
2
0. ) (a) =
2
3
a
3/2
ovoi [0, 1[ 10. ) (a) =
3
2
a
2/3
ovoi [0, 1[
11. ) (a) =
2
3
(a 1)
3/2
ovoi [1, 2[ 12. ) (a) =
2
3
(a 1)
3/2
ovoi [1, 0[
18. ) (a) =
l
d
a
2
l
2
ln(a) ovoi [1, 2[ 14. ) (a) =
l
3
a
3/2
a
l/2
ovoi [0, 1[
1. ) (a) = c
i
l
_
2
c
i
ovoi [0, ln(2)[ 16. ) (a) =
l
d
c
di
l
l6
c
di
ovoi [0, 1[
17. ) (t) = ln
_
c
|
1
c
|
1
_
ovoi [0, 1[ 18. ) (t) =
l
2
ln[sin(2a)[ ovoi
_
t
6
,
t
3
5 & h n:|njh .nj:n| J: nh J h J||&.nj nnJ hn n:r.nn &.nj

n&n:.n| .nj:n.n.
10. ) (a) =
l
2
a
2
ovoi [0, 1[ 20. ) (a) =
l
3
a
3
ovoi [0, 1[
21. ) (a) = c
i
ovoi [0, 1[ 22. ) (a) = ln(a) ovoi [1, c[
28. ) (a) = sin(a) ovoi [0, [ 24. ) (a) = cos (a) ovoi [0, [
2. ) (a) = lan(a) ovoi
_
0,
t
d
26. ) (a) = soc (a) ovoi

_
0,
t
d
27. If a cannonLall is lioo fiom a hoighl / wilh an inilial volocily of

0
fool poi
socono,
4-0: 1iajocloiy of a CannonLall
lhon lho liajocloiy of lho cannonLall is along lho cuivo
j = /
16
2
0
a
2
Sol up lho aiclonglh inlogial foi lho oislanco liavoloo Ly lho cannonLall
ouiing lho lisl socono of lighl (i.o., ovoi [0,
0
[ . ) Lslimalo lho longlh of
lho liajocloiy whon
0
= 100 fool poi socono ano / = 6 fool.
28. A piojoclilo lioo fiom a hoighl of 100 fool wilh a volocily of 400 fool poi
socono follows lho palh lhal is lho giaph of
j = 100
a
2
10000
= 0
Show lhal lho piojoclilo sliikos lho giouno afloi liavoling 1000 fool hoii-
zonlally. 1hon lho longlh of lho giaph of j ovoi [0, 1000[ lo ooloimino lho
longlh, in fool, of lho liajocloiy of lho piojoclilo.
29. Foi oach a, lho nnj| J .n|.nn.n of j = ) (a) is an anglo 0
}
(a) foi which
dj
da
= lan(0)
Show lhal lho longlh of a cuivo j = ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ is givon Ly
- =
_
b
o
soc [0
}
(a)[ da (.17)
30. Show lhal if j = ln[cos (a)[ , lhon lho anglo of inclinalion salislos 0 (a) = a
(soo oxoiciso 81). 1hon uso (.17) lo lno lho longlh of j = ln[cos (a)[ ovoi
_
0,
t
d
.
31. A iivoi Lounos a lolo, as shown Lolow lofl. A suivoyoi moasuios oislancos
al iighl anglos lo lho opposilo Lounoaiy of lho lolo, as shown Lolow iighl.
4-11: Moasuiomonls of a lolo
Uso a polygonal appioximalion lo oslimalo lho longlh of lho Lounoaiy Lo-
lwoon lho lolo ano lho iivoi.
32. Uso lho following alloinalivo giio lo oslimalo lho longlh of lho ioao in ox-
amplo 7:
Why shoulo wo oxpocl lhal oui appioximalions aio inooponoonl of lho un-
ooilying giio
33. Foi a 0, consiooi lho family of cuivos
j =
1
a
c
i
a
4
c
i
Fino lho aiclonglh of lhoso cuivos ovoi [1, 1[ as a funclion of a. Whal valuo
of a loaos lo lho shoilosl cuivo
ARCLLNCTH 800
34. Consiooi lho family of cuivos
j =
a
ol
2a 2

a
ol
2a 2
foi a 1. Fino lho aiclonglh of lhoso cuivos ovoi [1, c[ as a funclion of a.
Doos lho aiclonglh incioaso oi oocioaso as a incioasos
35. VrIte to Learn: Consiooi poinls (a, ) ano (/, ) which aio on lho samo
hoiizonlal lino.
4-18: Shoilosl oislanco Lolwoon lwo poinls
Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you oxplain why
_
b
o
1da _
_
b
o
_
1 [)
t
(a)[
2
da
foi ovoiy funclion ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ wilh ) (a) = ) (/) = . 1hon uso lho
inoqualily lo piovo lhal lho shoilosl oislanco Lolwoon lho lwo poinls is a
sliaighl lino.
36. VrIte to Learn: Supposo lhal )
t
(a) 0 ovoi [a, /[ is so laigo lhal
1 [)
t
(a)[
2
- [)
t
(a)[
2
In a shoil ossay, oxplain why lho longlh of lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ is
piaclically lho samo as ) (/) ) (a) .
5.5 AddiLional ApplicaLions
TLe Aean YaIue TLeoren Ior IntegraIs
1ho oolnilion of lho oolnilo inlogial is ono of lho mosl fioquonlly occuiing con-
copls in malhomalics ano ils applicalions. In lhis soclion, wo piosonl lhioo aooi-
lional applicalions choson so as lo Lo moools foi sluoonls lo mimic whon oovol-
oping slill moio applicalions of lho inlogial in lho oxoicisos.
Foi oxamplo, lol`s ooiivo lho Moan Valuo lhooiom foi inlogials. Foi oach / 0,
lol`s supposo lhal a
, t
is an /-lno :j&|n: paililion of an inloival [a, /[ . 1hal

is, oach suLinloival has a wiolh of
â =
/ a
:
(.18)
whoio : is lho numLoi of suLinloivals. 1ho n:nj valuo of a funclion ) (a) ovoi
lho paililion a
, t
is a numLoi )
|
which salislos
)
|
=
) (t
l
) ) (t
2
) . . . ) (t
n
)
:
If wo now mulliply lho numoialoi ano oonominaloi Ly / a, lhon (.18) implios
lhal
)
|
=
) (t
l
) ) (t
2
) . . . ) (t
n
)
/ a
_
/ a
:
_
=
[) (t
l
) ) (t
2
) . . . ) (t
n
)[ â
/ a
=
) (t
l
) â ) (t
2
) â . . . ) (t
n
) â
/ a
1ho avoiago valuo )
out
of ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ is lhon oolnoo lo Lo lho limil as /
appioachos 0 of lho avoiagos )
|
ovoi lho /-lno paililions, which implios lhal
)
out
= lim
|0
)
|
=
1
/ a
lim
|0
n
=l
) (t
) â
If wo fuilhoi assumo lhal ) (a) is conlinuous on [a, /[ , lhon lho limil convoigos lo
_
b
o
) (a) da. 1hus, wo oolno lho n:nj n|& of ) (a) on [a, /[ lo Lo
)
out
=
1
/ a
_
b
o
) (a) da (.10)
Howovoi, lho funoamonlal lhooiom implios lhal foi any anliooiivalivo 1 (a) of
) (a) ovoi [a, /[ , wo musl havo
)
out
=
1 (/) 1 (a)
/ a
Sinco 1
t
(a) = ) (a) is conlinuous on [a, /[, lho Moan Valuo lhooiom foi 1 (a)
implios lhal lhoio is a numLoi c in (a, /) such lhal
)
out
=
1 (/) 1 (a)
/ a
= 1
t
(c) = ) (c)
1his loaos us lo lho following:
Aean YaIue TLeoren Ior IntegraIs: If ) (a) is conlinuous on [a, /[ ,
lhon lhoio is a numLoi c in (a, /) such lhal
) (c) = )
out
whoio )
out
is lho avoiago valuo of ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ .
Goomoliically, if ) (a) _ 0 on [a, /[ , lhon )
out
is lho hoighl of lho ioclanglo whoso
aioa ovoi [a, /[ is lho samo as lho aioa unooi j = ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ .
-1:
_
b
o
) (a) da = Aioa unooi Cuivo = )
out
(/ a)
ADDlTlONAL APPLlCATlONS 401
1ho Moan Valuo 1hooiom foi inlogials simply says lhal lhoio is somo numLoi c
such lhal lho hoighl of lho ioclanglo is oqual lo lho funclion ovalualoo al c.
-2: Moan Valuo 1hooiom foi Inlogials
IXAMIII 1 Fino )
out
ano lho numLoi c in [0, 8[ foi which ) (c) =
)
out
whon ) (a) = a
2
.
SoIutIon: 1ho avoiago valuo of lho funclion is
)
out
=
1
8 0
_
3
0
a
2
da =
0
8
= 8
1ho oqualion ) (c) = )
out
implios lhal c
2
= 8, which yiolos c =
_
8.
1o voiify lho calculalion, nolico lhal
)
out
(/ a) = 8 (8 0) = 0
which is lho samo as lho aioa unooi lho cuivo.
x
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
8
6
4
2
0
-8: 1ho aioa unooi j = a
2
ovoi [0, 8[ is lho samo as lho aioa of lho ioclanglo.
1hn . h n:nj n|& J n nnn J&n.n Chock youi Ioaoing
SurIace Area oI SoIIds oI HevoIutIon
An applicalion similai lo lho ooiivalion of lho aiclonglh is lhal of ooloimining
lho aioa o of lho Lounoaiy suifaco of lho solio oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho giaph of
) (a) ovoi [a, /[ aiouno lho a-axis. 1o oo so, wo uso lho facl lhal lho suifaco aioa
of lho fiuslum of a cono is
o = 211
whoio 1 is lho iaoius of lho cioss-soclion lhal Lisocls lho axis of lho fiuslum ano
1 is lho slanl oislanco.
1o Login wilh, foi oach / 0, lol a
, t
Lo a laggoo paililion of [a, /[ whoio

lho lag t
in lho
||
suLinloival [a
l
, a
[ is lho poinl whoio ) (a) salislos lho

`nn 1n|& h:n:
) (a
) ) (a
l
) = )
t
(t
) (a
a
l
)
Lol us also lol o (a) Lo lho piocowiso linoai funclion whoso giaph connocls lho poinl
(a
l
, j
l
) lo lho poinl (a
, j
) . Wo say lhal o (a) is a |jjnn| n:r.nn.n

of ) (a) .
-4: Iolygonal Appioximalions
As in lho ooiivalion of lho aiclonglh foimula, iocall lhal lho longlh |
of lho
||
soclion of j = o (a) is givon Ly
|
=
_
1 [)
t
(t
)[â
Lol us now iovolvo Lolh j = o (a) ano j = ) (a) aLoul lho a-axis. 1ho suifaco
gonoialoo Ly j = o (a) is an appioximalion lo lho suifaco gonoialoo Ly j = ) (a).
-: Iolygonal Appioximalion of Suifaco Aioa
In aooilion, oach soclion of lho suifaco gonoialoo Ly iovolving j = o (a) aLoul
lho a-axis is lho fiuslum of a cono.
1ho iaoius of lho
||
fiuslum is ) (t
) ano lho slanl longlh is |
. 1hus, lho
suifaco aioa of lho
||
soclion is
onr)acc rca o)
||
-cctio: = 211 = ) (t
) |
Sinco |
=
_
1 [)
t
(t
)[
2
â
foi oach = 1, . . . , :, lho lolal suifaco aioa o of

lho solio of iovolulion is appioximaloly
o - 2) (t
l
)
_
1 [)
t
(t
l
)[â
l
. . . 2) (t
n
)
_
1 [)
t
(t
n
)[â
n
In lho limil as / appioachos 0, lho Iiomann sum appioximalion convoigos lo lho
suifaco aioa, so lhal
o = 2
_
b
o
) (a)
_
1 [)
t
(a)[
2
da
is lho suifaco aioa of lho solio of iovolulion oLlainoo Ly iovolving j = ) (a) ovoi
[a, /[ aLoul lho a-axis.
IXAMIII 2 Whal is lho suifaco aioa of lho unil sphoio
SoIutIon: 1ho unil sphoio can Lo oLlain Ly iovolving lho cuivo j =
_
1 a
2
ovoi [1, 1[ aLoul lho a-axis.
-: Suifaco aioa of lho unil sphoio
Howovoi, if ) (a) =
_
1 a
2
, lhon )
t
(a) = a
_
1 a
2
ano
) (a)
_
1 [)
t
(a)[
2
=
_
_
1 a
2
_
_
1
_
a
_
1 a
2
_
2
=
_
(1 a
2
)
_
1
a
2
1 a
2
_
=
_
1 a
2
a
2
= 1
1hus, lho suifaco aioa of lho unil sphoio is
- = 2
_
l
l
) (a)
_
1 [)
t
(a)[
2
da = 2
_
l
l
1da = 4
1& . a
2
j
2
= 1 :|nJ j =
_
1 a
2
Chock youi Ioaoing
YoIunes Ly SIIcIng
If a solio is placoo in a cooioinalo syslom, lhon lho |. al a poinl j of lho solio
is a cioss-soclion of lho solio poiponoiculai lo lho a-axis al lho givon valuo of j.
-6: Slico al a = j poiponoiculai lo a-axis.
Lol us also lol (j) oonolo lho aioa of lho slico al j. Oui immooialo goal is
lo oovolop an inlogial foimula foi using lho aioas of lho slicos lo ooloimino lho
volumo \ of lho solio.
Foi / 0, lol us lol a
, t
n
=l
Lo an /-lno laggoo paililion of [a, /[ ano lol
us lol
- (a) =
_
_
(t
l
) i) a
0
_ a < a
l
(t
2
) i) a
l
_ a < a
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
(t
n
) i) a
nl
_ a < a
n
Lo lho coiiosponoing simplo funclion appioximalion of lho aioa funclion (a).
1hon - (a) is lho aioa funclion of a solio which is a colloclion of oisks," whoio
oach oisk is a lamina of lho iogion in lho slico.
Il follows lhal lho
||
oisk has an volumo of (t
) â
, ano as a iosull, lho

volumo \ of lho oiiginal solio is appioximaloo Ly lho sum of lho volumos of lho
oisks" in lho simplo funclion appioximalion:
\ - (t
l
) â
l
(t
2
) â
2
. . . (t
n
) â
n
In lho limil as / appioachos 0, lho Iiomann sum appioximalion foi \ convoigos
lo a oolnilo inlogial. 1hus,
\ =
_
b
o
(a) da (.20)
whoio (a) is lho aioa of lho slico al a.
IXAMIII J Whal is lho volumo of lho following solio if oach slico
is an isoscolos iighl liianglo wilh sioos moasuioo in fool
-7: Lach slico is an iscoscolos iighl liianglo
SoIutIon: 1ho Laso ano hoighl of a liiangulai slico aio Lolh c
i
. 1hus,
lho aioa of lho slico al a in [0, 1[ is
(a) =
1
2
c
i
c
i
=
1
2
c
2i
1ho volumo Ly slicing foimula (.20) implios lhal
\ =
_
l
0
(a) da
=
_
l
0
1
2
c
2i
da
=
1
4
c
2
1
4
1hus, lho volumo of lho solio is
\ =
1
4
c
2
1
4
= 1.07 )t
3
1hn n: h &n. J: (a) .n rnn| Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe Creat IyranId In Egyt
1hoio aio many solios which aio nol solios of iovolulion Lul lhal aio nonolholoss
impoilanl in applicalions. Moioovoi, lhoio is oflon nol a piofoiioo cooioinalo
syslom foi lhoso solios, which moans lhal wo musl oolno lho cooioinalo sysloms.
In ooing so, wo will wanl lo mako suio wo oiionl lho solio in oui cooioinalo syslom
so lhal lho aioas of lho slicos can Lo oasily calculaloo.
IXAMIII ! Whal is lho volumo of lho G:n 1j:nn.J, which is a
squaio pyiamio lhal is 481 fool high ano 76 fool wioo al ils Laso
-8: 1ho Gioal Iyiamio
SoIutIon: If wo luin lho pyiamio on ils sioo" ano iun an a-axis
lhiough ils conloi, lhon oach slico is a squaio wilh aioa = 4n
2
,
whoio n is half lho longlh of a sioo.
-0: Oiionling lho Gioal Iyiamio in an aj-cooioinalo syslom
Howovoi, lho sioo of lho pyiamio now coiiosponos lo a linoai funclion
which passos lhiough (0, 0) ano also lhiough lho poinl (481, 878) . 1hal
is, n = 1(a) whoio
1(a) =
878
481
a
so lhal lho aioa of oach slico is
(a) = 4n
2
= 4
_
878
481
a
_
2
= 2.47082 a
2
1hus, (.20) implios lhal lho volumo of lho gioal pyiamio of Lgypl is
\ =
_
dSl
0
(a) da =
_
dSl
0
2.47082a
2
da = 0.164 10
7
)t
3
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h n:nj n|& )
out
J h J&n.n : h j.n .n:n|, nnJ n| ]nJ
h n&nh: c .n hn .n:n| J: &h.h ) (c) = )
out
..
1. ) (a) = a
2
ovoi [0, 8[ 2. ) (a) = 8a 2 ovoi [0, 1[
8. ) (a) = ovoi [2, 8[ 4. ) (a) = 2 ovoi [8, 4[
. ) (a) = [a[ ovoi [1, 1[ 6. ) (a) = a [a[ ovoi [1, 1[
7. ) (a) = c
i
ovoi [0, ln(2)[ 8. ) (a) = ln(a) ovoi [1, c[
1.nJ h n:n J h &:Jn hn.nJ hj :|.nj h j:nh J h j.n J&n.n
: h j.n .n:n| nh& h a-nr..
0. ) (a) = 1 ovoi [0, 8[ 10. ) (a) = 8a 2 ovoi [0, 1[
11. ) (a) = a
3
ovoi [0, 1[ 12. ) (a) = 2a
3
ovoi [8, 4[
18. ) (a) = 2
_
a ovoi [0, 8[ 14. ) (a) = a [a[ ovoi [1, 1[
1. ) (a) =
l
d
a
2
l
2
ln(a) ovoi [1, 2[ 16. ) (a) =
l
3
a
3/2
a
l/2
ovoi [0, 1[
1:n.n h n:n J n |. J h J||&.nj |.J, nnJ hn & hn ]nJ h
|&n J h |.J.
17. Slicos aio isoscolos iighl liianglos 18. Slicos aio isoscolos iighl liianglos
10. Slicos aio squaios 20. Slicos aio squaios
21. Slicos aio quailoi ciiclos 22. Slicos aio somi-ciiculai
23. Oiionl lho solio in lguio -11 in a cooioinalo syslom ano lhon lno ils volumo
using lho volumos Ly slicing foimula.
-11: Lxoiciso 28 -12: Lxoiciso 24
24. Oiionl lho solio in lguio -12 in a cooioinalo syslom ano lhon lno ils volumo
using lho volumos Ly slicing foimula.
25. A salollilo oish is a paiaLoloio lhal iolocls signals lo a focus 1.
-18: Salollilo oish is a solio of iovolulion
A paiaLoloio wilh focus al (j, 0) is consliucloo Ly iovolving j = 2
_
ja aLoul
lho a-axis.
-14: IaiaLoloio as a suifaco of iovolulion.
Whal is lho suifaco aioa of a salollilo oish ovoi [0, /[ , whoio / is lho ooplh
of lho oish
26. Uso symmoliy lo oxplain why lho conlioio of a solio of iovolulion musl Lo on
lho a-axis. Whal is lho only non-zoio cooioinalo of lho conlioio ano why
27. Wiilo a shoil ossay oxplaining how lho foimula (.20) foi volumos-Ly-slicing
iooucos lo a foimula foi lho volumo of a solio of iovolulion whon oach slico
is a ciiclo conloioo on lho a-axis whoso iaoius al a is givon Ly ) (a) .
-1: Slicing a Solio of Iovolulion
28. Wiilo a shoil ossay ooiivo lho foimula foi lho volumo of a solio gonoialoo Ly
lho iogion Lolwoon j = ) (a) ano j = p (a) ovoi [a, /[ if lho cioss-soclion is
always a squaio wilh sioos of longlh 2) (a):
-16: Lach cioss-soclion is a squaio
VrIte to Learn: In oxoicisos 20-86, you shoulo wiilo a shoil ossay in which
you uso lho oolnilion of lho inlogial lo oovolop an inlogial foimula foi lho givon
applicalion.
29. Foi oach / 0, lol`s supposo lhal a
, t
is an /-lno :j&|n: paililion of an

inloival [a, /[ , so lhal oach suLinloival has a wiolh of
â =
/ a
:
whoio : is lho numLoi of suLinloivals. 1ho 1
l
noim of a funclion ) (a) ovoi
lho paililion a
, t
is a numLoi )
|
which salislos
)
|
=
[) (t
l
)[ [) (t
2
)[ . . . [) (t
n
)[
:
Uso lhis oxpiossion foi )
|
lo oolno lho 1
l
noim of a funclion ) (a) ovoi an
inloival [a, /[ .
30. Foi oach / 0, lol`s supposo lhal a
, t
is an /-lno :j&|n: paililion of an

inloival [a, /[ , so lhal oach suLinloival has a wiolh of
â =
/ a
:
whoio : is lho numLoi of suLinloivals. 1ho :-nnn-j&n: valuo of a
funclion ) (a) ovoi lho paililion a
, t
is a numLoi )
|
which salislos
()
|
)
2
=
[) (t
l
)[
2
[) (t
2
)[
2
. . . [) (t
n
)[
2
:
Uso lhis oxpiossion foi ()
|
)
2
lo oolno lho :-nnn-j&n: valuo of a func-
lion ) (a) ovoi an inloival [a, /[ .
31. Iocall fiomphysics lhal if an oLjocl is movoo a givon oislanco along a sliaighl
lino Ly a conslanl foico, lhon lho amounl of woik oono is
\or/ = 1orcc 1.nn (.21)
(a) Givon a nonconslanl foico 1 (a) , oolno lho simplo funclion
-
:
(a) =
_
_
1 (t
l
) i) a _ a < a
l
1 (t
2
) i) a
l
_ a < a
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 (t
n
) i) a
nl
_ a < /
(L) Lol \
Lo lho woik oono ovoi lho

||
inloival of lho paililion. Uso
(.21) lo iolalo \
lo lho
||
suLinloival of lho paililion.
(c) Lxpioss lho lolal woik \
l
. . . \
n
as lho inlogial of a simplo
funclion.
(o) Whal is lho foimula foi lho woik oono Ly a nonconslanl foico 1 (a)
in moving an oLjocl acioss lho inloival [a, /[ .
32. J:j& is lho lonooncy of a foico lo causo an oLjocl lo iolalo aLoul a givon
axis. In pailiculai, if lho foico is giavily, lhon
Tornc = 1ccr Graitj
whoio 1ccr is lho longlh of lho lovoi aimwhon lho iolalion is clockwiso ano
is lho nogalivo of lho longlh of lho lovoi aim whon lho iolalion is counloi-
clockwiso. In lhis oxoiciso, wo ooiivo a inlogial iopiosonlalion of lho loiquo
ouo lo giavily aLoul a = j on a laminalo of lho iogion Lolwoon j = ) (a)
ano j = p (a) ovoi [a, /[.
-17: 1oiquo
(a) If -
:
(a) ano r
:
(a) aio lho miopoinl appioximalions, of ) (a) ano
p (a) iospoclivoly,
-18: Simplo funclion appioximalion
1hon oxplain why lho mass of lho laminalo of lho
||
ioclanglo is
:
= j[-
:
(t
) r
:
(t
)[ â
whoio j is lho mass poi unil aioa of lho Lai.

(L) Wiilo a foimula foi lho loiquo t
on lho laminalo of lho

||
ioc-
langlo givon lhal t
is lho piooucl of lho longlh of lho lovoi aim,

t
j, ano lho mass :
of lho soclion.
(c) Wiilo lho lolal loiquo t
l
. . . t
n
as lho oolnilo inlogial of a
simplo funclion.
(o) Whal is lho inlogial iopiosonlalion of lho loiquo t aLoul lho axis
a = j foi lho iogion Lolwoon j = ) (a) ano j = p (a) ovoi [a, /[
33. Lol 1 (t) Lo lho ialo of Llooo lowing lhiough lho aoila ouiing lho limo in-
loival [0, T[ . Supposo also lhal a oyo has Loon injocloo inlo lho Lloooslioam
ano lhal ils conconlialion in lho aoila is c (t) al limo t.
(a) Lol a
, t
n
=l
Lo a laggoo paililion of [0, T[ . If
is lho amounl
of oyo in lho aoila ouiing lho suLinloival [a
l
, a
[ . Lxplain why
= c (t
) 1 (t
) â
(Hinl: 1 (t
) is in unils of volumo poi unil limo. c (t
) is in unils
of oyo poi unil volumo. â
is in unils of limo).
(L) Wiilo lho lolal amounl of oyo ouiing [0, T[ as lho oolnilo inlogial
of a simplo funclion. (Hinl: lho lolal is
l
. . .
n
).
(c) Whal is lho inlogial iopiosonlalion of lho amounl of oyo in lho
aoila ouiing limo [0, T[ givon a ialo of Llooo low 1 (t) ano a oyo
conconlialion al limo t of c (t)
34. Givon a colloclion of : ioclanglos wilh aioas
l
, . . . ,
n
ano conlioios al
(a
l
, j
l
) , . . . , (a
n
, j
n
)
lho conlioio ( a, j) of lho onliio colloclion of ioclanglos is oolnoo lo Lo
a =

l
a
l
. . .
n
a
n
l
. . .
n
, j =

l
j
l
. . .
n
j
n
l
. . .
n
(.22)
Uso (.22) lo ooiivo lho conlioio foimulas in soclion 2.
35. * Can you ooiivo a suifaco aioa Ly slicing foimula
36. * Can you uso volumo Ly slicing ano lho oolnilion of lho inlogial lo ooiivo
Iappus lhooiom on pago 886.
5.6 lmproper lnLegrals
Integrands not Dehned at a IoInt
1ho inlogials lhal occui in somo applicalions may involvo oilhoi inlogianos lhal
aio nol oolnoo al a poinl oi limils of inlogialion lhal Locomo inlnilo. Such
inlogials aio calloo .n:: .nj:n|. Wo musl pauso lo consiooi lhom Lofoio wo
movo on lo lhoso applicalions whoio lhoy may occui.
An inlogial in which lho inlogiano is nol oolnoo al ono oi moio poinls is saio
lo Lo .n::. Likowiso, a oolnilo inlogial wilh an inlnilo limil of inlogialion is
also calloo impiopoi. In lhis soclion, wo oovolop molhoos foi ovalualing impiopoi
inlogials of Lolh lypos.
lMPROPLR lNTLCRALS 411
1o Login wilh, if a funclion ) (a) is nol oolnoo al a = a, lhon lho .n::
.nj:n| of ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ is oolnoo
_
b
o
) (a) da = lim
:o
_
b
:
) (a) da (.28)
whon lho limil oxisls. Likowiso, if ) (a) is nol oolnoo al a = /, lhon lho .n::
.nj:n| of ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ is oolnoo
_
b
o
) (a) da = lim
:b
_
:
o
) (a) da
IXAMIII 1 Lvalualo, if possiLlo, lho inlogial
_
l
0
da
_
a
SoIutIon: Sinco
l
_
i
is nol oolnoo al 0, lho inlogial
_
l
0
da
_
a
is impiopoi. 1hus, (.28) implios lhal
_
l
0
da
_
a
= lim
:0
_
l
:
a
l/2
da = lim
:0
a
l/2
12
l
:
= lim
:0
_
2 2
l/2
_
Sinco lho squaio iool funclion is conlinuous fiom lho iighl al a = 0,
wo havo
_
l
0
da
_
a
= 2
IXAMIII 2 Lvalualo, if possiLlo, lho inlogial
_
l
0
ln(a) da
SoIutIon: Sinco ln(a) is nol oolnoo al a = 0, lho inlogial
_
l
0
ln(a) da
is impiopoi. 1hus, (.28) implios lhal
_
l
0
ln(a) da = lim
:0
_
l
:
ln(a) da
Inlogialion Ly pails can Lo usoo lo show lhal
_
ln(a) da = aln(a)
a C, so lhal
_
l
0
ln(a) da = lim
:0
(alna a)[
l
:
= lim
:0
(1 ln(1) 1 ln() )
_
l
0
ln(a) da = 0 1 lim
:0
ln()
Using L`Hopilal`s iulo, lho limil can Lo shown lo convoigo lo 0. 1hus,
_
l
0
ln(a) da = 1
If ) (a) is nol oolnoo al a poinl c in [a, /[ , lhon lho impiopoi inlogial of ) (a) ovoi
[a, /[ is oolnoo
_
b
o
) (a) da = lim
:c
_
:
o
) (a) da lim
:c
_
b
:
) (a) da (.24)
whon Lolh limils oxisl. Moioovoi, il is impoilanl lo nolo lhal
_
b
o
) (a) da may nol
oxisl ovon lhough 1 (/) 1 (a) ooos oxisl foi somo anliooiivalivo 1 (a) of ) (a) .
IXAMIII J Lvalualo, if possiLlo, lho inlogial
_
l
l
1
a
da
SoIutIon: Sinco 1a is nol oolnoo al a = 0, lho inlogial
_
l
l
1
a
da
is impiopoi. 1hus, (.24) Locomos
lim
:0
_
:
l
1
a
da lim
:0
_
l
:
1
a
da = lim
:0
(ln[[ ln[1[) lim

:0
(ln[1[ ln[[)
=
Sinco is unoolnoo, lho impiopoi inlogial
_
l
l
l
i
da ooos nol
oxisl.
1hn . h :h|n &.h h J||&.nj n&n.n Chock youi Ioaoing
_
l
l
1
a
da
?
= ln[a[[
l
l
?
= ln[1[ ln[1[
?
= 0
Inroer IntegraIs over InhnIte IntervaIs
Inlogials of lho foim
_
o
o
) (a) da aio also impiopoi ano aio oolnoo
_
o
o
) (a) da = lim
1o
_
1
o
) (a) da (.2)
whon lho limil oxisls. Whon lho limil in (.2) oxisls, lhon wo say lhal lho
inlogial n:j, ano whon lho limil ooos nol oxisl, lhon wo say lhal lho inlogial
J.:j.
IXAMIII ! Lvalualo, if possiLlo, lho inlogial
_
o
l
da
a
2
SoIutIon: Wo lisl ovalualo lho inoolnilo inlogial
_
1
l
da
a
2
=
_
1
l
a
2
da =
a
l
1
1
l
= 1
1
1
Wo lhon apply lho limil as 1 appioachos :
_
o
l
da
a
2
= lim
1o
_
1
l
da
a
2
= lim
1o
_
1
1
1
_
= 1
1hus, lho inlogial n:j lo 1, which is lo say lhal
_
o
l
da
a
2
= 1
IXAMIII Lvalualo, if possiLlo, lho inlogial
_
o
0
2a
a
2
1
da
SoIutIon: Wo Login wilh lho inlogial
_
1
0
2a
a
2
1
da
which wo ovalualo using lho suLslilulion n = a
2
1, dn = 2ada ano
lho now limils of inlogialion
n(0) = 0
2
1 = 1 n(1) = 1
2
1
_
1
0
2a
a
2
1
da =
_
1
l
l
dn
n
= ln[n[[
1
l
l
which can Lo simpliloo lo
_
1
0
2a
a
2
1
da = ln
1
2
1
ln[1[ = ln
1
2
1
Applying lho limil as 1 appioachos lhus yiolos

_
o
0
2a
a
2
1
da = lim
1o
_
1
0
2a
a
2
1
da = lim
1o
ln
1
2
1
=
sinco ln(a) ooos nol havo a hoiizonlal asymplolo. 1hus, lho inlogial
_
o
0
2a
a
2
1
da
J.:j. Lquivalonlly, wo mighl say lhal lho inlogial ooos nol oxisl.
Inlogials of lho foim
_
o
o
) (a) da aio oolnoo Ly
_
o
o
) (a) da = lim
So
_
o
S
) (a) da
whon lho limil oxisls. Inlogials of lho foim
_
o
o
) (a) da aio lhon oolnoo lo Lo
& n:n |.n.
_
o
o
) (a) da = lim
So
_
o
S
) (a) da lim
1o
_
1
o
) (a) da
foi any valuo of a.
IXAMIII 0 Lvalualo
_
o
o
2a
(a
2
1)
2
da
SoIutIon: If wo lol a = 0, lhon wo oLlain
_
o
o
2a
(a
2
1)
2
da = lim
So
_
0
S
2a
(a
2
1)
2
da lim
1o
_
1
0
2a
(a
2
1)
2
da
If wo lol n = a
2
1, lhon dn = 2ada, n(0) = 1, ano n(o) = o
2
1.
Likowiso, n(1) = 1
2
1 ano wo oLlain
_
o
o
2a
(a
2
1)
2
da = lim
So
_
l
S
l
dn
n
2
lim
1o
_
1
l
l
dn
n
2
= lim
So
_
n
l
1
l
S
l
_
lim
1o
_
n
l
1
l
l
_
= lim
So
_
1
o
2
1
1
_
lim
1o
_
1
1
1
2
1
_
= 0 1 1 0
= 0
1
_
o
l
a
2
da n:j : J.:j Chock youi Ioaoing
Area oI HegIons over InhnIte IntervaIs
If ) (a) is posilivo, lhon lho inlogial
_
o
o
) (a) da
iopiosonls lho aioa unooi lho cuivo j = ) (a) ovoi lho inloival [a, ).
6-1: Aioa unooi a cuivo ovoi [a, )
Moioovoi, wo oflon uso a iosull fiom in an oxoiciso in chaploi lhioo which says
lhal if j (1) is a polynomial ano - 0, lhon
lim
1o
j (1) c
~1
= 0 (.26)
IXAMIII 7 Fino lho aioa unooi lho giaph of ) (a) = ac
i
ovoi
lho inloival [2, ).
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo musl ovalualo lho inlogial
_
o
2
ac
i
da
Wo Login wilh lho inlogial
_
1
2
ac
i
da
which wo ovalualo using laLulai inlogialion:
n d
a c
i
1 c
i
0 c
i
_
1
2
ac
i
da =
_
ac
i
c
i
_
1
2
1o lnish lho ovalualion, wo suLslilulo ano apply lho limil
_
o
2
ac
i
da = lim
1o
_
1c
1
c
1
_
_
2c
2
c
2
_
Applying (.26) lo lho limils as 1 appioachos lhon loaos lo
_
o
2
ac
i
da = 0 0
_
2c
2
c
2
_
= 8c
2
IXAMIII 8 Fino lho aioa of lho iogion ovoi [1, ) ano unooi lho
giaph of
) (a) =
1
a
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo musl ovalualo
_
o
l
l
i
da, which loaos lo
_
o
l
da
a
= lim
1o
_
1
l
da
a
= lim
1o
ln[a[[
1
l
= lim
1o
(ln(1) ln(1))
Sinco ln(1) appioachos as 1 appioachos , lho impiopoi inlogial
J.:j. 1hal is, lhoio is an inlnilo amounl of aioa unooi lho giaph
of ) (a) = 1a ovoi lho inloival [1, ).
1& n&h n:n . &nJ: j = a
2
: [1, ) Chock youi Ioaoing
A ConarIson Test Ior IntegraIs
In many applicalions, il is as impoilanl lo know .J an inlogial convoigos as il is
lo know whal il convoigos lo. 1hus, wo concluoo wilh a lhooiom foi ooloimining
if an inlogial convoigos wilhoul aclually compuling lho inlogial.
Givon ) (a) oolnoo on an inloival [a, ), lol us oolno
)
(a) =
_
) (a) i) ) (a) _ 0
0 i) ) (a) < 0
a:d )
(a) =
_
) (a) i) ) (a) _ 0
0 i) ) (a) 0
Il lhon follows lhal ) (a) = )
(a) )
(a) ,
6-2: ) (a) is lho oiloionco Lolwoon ils posilivo ano nogalivo pails
ano il also follows lhal [) (a)[ = )
(a) )
(a) .
6-8: [) (a)[ is lho sum of posilivo ano nogalivo pails
Cloaily, 0 _ )
(a) _ [) (a)[ ano also 0 _ )
(a) _ [) (a)[ on [a, ), which moans

lhal lho iogion unooi lho giaph of j = )
(a) is conlainoo in lho iogion unooi

lho giaph of j = [) (a)[ . Moioovoi, if p (a) is a funclion foi which [) (a)[ _ p (a)
on [a, ) , lhon lho iogion unooi j = [) (a)[ is conlainoo in lho iogion unooi
j = p (a) .
6-4: Aioa unooi nogalivo pail is Lounooo Ly aioa unooi j = p (a)
As a iosull, if
_
o
o
p (a) da convoigos, lhon lhal implios lhal lhoio is only a lnilo
amounl of aioa unooi j = p (a) ovoi [a, ), lhus implying only a lnilo amounl of
aioa unooi j = [) (a)[ ovoi [a, ) , ano fuilhoi implying lhal lhoio is only a lnilo
amounl of aioa unooi Lolh j = )
(a) ano j = )
(a) ovoi [a, ) . 1his oiscussion

molivalos lho following lhooiom.
TLeoren 7.1: If [) (a)[ _ p (a) foi all a in somo inloival [a, ) , ano
if
_
o
o
p (a) da convoigos, lhon Lolh
_
o
o
[) (a)[ da a:d
_
o
o
) (a) da
also convoigo.
1his allows us lo ooloimino if an impiopoi inlogial convoigos wilhoul having lo
aclually compulo lho inlogial.
IXAMIII 0 Uso lhooiom 7.2 lo ooloimino if
_
o
l
sin(a)
a
d
1
da
convoigos oi oivoigos.
SoIutIon: Wo Login Ly sluoying
_
o
l
[sin(a)[ da
a
d
1
Howovoi, [sin(a)[ _ 1 foi all a, ano similaily, a
d
1 _ a
d
. 1hus, wo
havo
1
a
d
1
_
1
a
d
which implios lhal
[sin(a)[
a
d
1
_
1
a
d
Il lhon follows lhal
_
o
l
[sin(a)[
a
d
1
da _
_
o
l
1
a
d
da =
1
8
Sinco
_
o
l
l
i
da convoigos, lhooiom 7.2 implios lhal

_
o
l
sin(a)
a
d
1
da a:d
_
o
l
[sin(a)[
a
d
1
da
Lolh convoigo as woll.
Lxoicisos:
1n|&n h J||&.nj, .J hj r.. 1J hj J n r., r|n.n &hj n.
1.
_
d
0
da
_
a
2.
_
2
0
da
a
8.
_
l
0
da
a
2
4.
_
l
0
da
_
a
da .
_
3
2
da
a
6.
_
l
l
da
a
2
7.
_
l
l
da
a
2/5
8.
_
l
l
da
a
7/5
0.
_
l
l
da
a
t
10.
_
l
0
a
a
2
1
da 11.
_
l
0
a
_
a
2
1
da 12.
_
l
0
cos (lna)
a
da
1:n.n .J nh J h .nj:n| h|& n:j : J.:j. 1J . n:j,
n& . n|&. 1J . J.:j, &:. J.:j' n h :&|.
18.
_
o
l
c
i
da 14.
_
o
0
ac
i
da
1.
_
o
l
1
a
3/2
da 16.
_
o
l
1
a
2
da
17.
_
o
0
c
i
c
i
1
da 18.
_
o
0
c
i
c
i
1
da
10.
_
o
0
ac
i
da 20.
_
o
o
ac
2i
da
21.
_
o
o
a
2
c
]i]
da 22.
_
o
0
a
3
c
2i
da
28.
_
o
0
a
3
c
i
da 24.
_
o
0
a
5
c
i
da
25. Fino lho aioa unooi lho giaph of
) (a) =
a
2
1 a
l
ovoi lho inloival [1, ).
26. Fino lho aioa unooi lho giaph of
) (a) = c
i
c
2i
ovoi lho inloival [1, ).
1n r:. .7-u, & h Jn hn h j 11 .n:: .nj:n|
/()) =
_
o
0
) (t) c
~|
dt (.27)
. n||J h 1uIucc 3ruus]orn J h J&n.n ) (t) .
27. Fino lho Laplaco liansfoim of ) (t) = t. (soo (.27) )
28. Fino lho Laplaco liansfoim of ) (t) = t
2
. (soo (.27) )
29. Fino lho Laplaco liansfoim of ) (t) = c
|
. (soo (.27) )
30. Uso inlogialion Ly pails lo show lhal if ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo, lhon
/()
t
) = -/()) ) (0)
31. Foi a 1, lho Gnnnn 1&n.n is oolnoo
I(a) =
_
o
0
t
il
c
|
dt
(a) Whal is I(1)
(L) Whal is I(2)
(c) Whal is I(8)
32. 1ho gamma funclion in oxoiciso 88 is impoilanl in many applicalions Locauso
il has lho lwo piopoilios
I(1) = 1
I(a 1) = aI(a) (.28)
Uso lho oolnilion aLovo ano impiopoi inlogials lo show lhal (.28) is liuo.
33. 1ho following impiopoi inlogial convoigos foi all . 1
_
o
l
_
1
t

1
t .
_
dt
Can you ovalualo il
34. *1ho following impiopoi inlogial convoigos foi all t 0:
_
o
0
c
i
c
i|
a
da
Can you ovalualo il
35. 1hoio aio occasions whon a suLslilulion liansfoims an inlogial which ooos
nol oxisl inlo an inlogial which ooos oxisl, lhus foicing us lo Lo caioful whon
using suLslilulion wilh impiopoi inlogials. Foi oxamplo, lol us consiooi
_
t
t
sin(a) da
1 cos (a)
(.20)
(a) Uso a suLslilulion lo show lhal
_
sin(a) da
1 cos (a)
= ln[1 cos (a)[ C
(L) Lxplain why ln[1 cos (a)[ C is nol conlinuous ovoi [, [ , ano
lhus why (.20) ooos nol oxisl.
(c) Show lhal n = 1 cos (a) liansfoims (.20) inlo
_
2
2
dn
n
Doos lhis inlogial oxisl If so, whal is ils valuo
36. Il is also impoilanl lhal inlogials of lho foim
_
o
o
) (a) da Lo oolnoo as 2
limils ano nol jusl ono. Foi oxamplo, lol us consiooi
_
o
o
4a
3
da
(a) Show lhal
_
0
o
4a
3
da ano
_
o
0
4a
3
da Lolh oivoigo.
(L) Show lhal foi any numLoi 1, wo havo
_
1
1
4a
3
da = 0
(c) Uso (a) ano (L) lo oxplain why
_
o
o
) (a) da shoulo nol Lo oolnoo
Ly
lim
1o
_
1
1
) (a) da
37. Uso lhooiom 7.1 lo oomonslialo lho convoigonco of
_
o
0
sin(a) da
c
i
1
38. Uso lhooiom 7.1 lo oomonslialo lho convoigonco of
_
o
l
ln(a) da
a
d
1
39. VrIte to Learn: Lxplain why if 0 _ p (a) _ [) (a)[ foi all a in [a, ) ano
if
_
o
o
p (a) da oivoigos, lhon so also ooos
_
o
o
[) (a)[ da.
40. *VrIte to Learn: {TLe HIrtL oI Quantun AecLanIcs) In lho lalo
1800`s, Max Ilanck was inloiosloo in lho lolal olocliomagnolic onoigy poi
unil volumo iaoialoo Ly a LlackLooy al a conslanl aLsolulo lompoialuio T.
In pailiculai, ho know lhal lho lolal onoigy poi unil volumo is an impiopoi
inlogial of lho foim
1
t:\
=
_
o
0
j (.) d.
whoio j (.) is lho :n| n:jj Jn.j al a fioquoncy of . ano is oolnoo
so lhal
j(.) d. = 1:crpj ocr )rcnc:cic- /ctncc: . a:d . d.
Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you consiooi lho following iooas:
(a) TLe \ItravIoIet CatastroLe: Classical mochanics using hai-
monic oscillalois implios lhal
j(.) =
8/T
c
3
.
2
whoio c is lho spooo of lighl ano / = 1.88 10
23
Jon|c-
1.
Lxplain why classical mochanics implios lhal 1
t:\
is inlnilo ouo
lo a oivoigonl impiopoi inlogial.
(L) Ilanck assumoo lhal onoigy is iaoialoo in small packols so lhal
ho coulo moool lho omission of onoigy wilh populalion moools ano
pioLaLilily lhooiy. 1his loo him lo pioposo lhal lho liuo foim of
lho spoclial onoigy oonsily is
j (.) =
8/
c
3
.
3
c
|./|T
1
(.80)
whoio / is 1|nn|` nnn. Uso linoaiizalion of c
|./|T
al . = 0
lo show lhal
c
|./|T
- 1
/.
/T
whon . is closo lo 0. Show lhal Ilanck`s law (.80) malchos lho
classical piooiclion foi fioquoncios . lhal aio nol loo laigo.
(c) Wo can uso L`hopilal`s iulo lo show lhal
lim
.o
.
5
c
|./|T
1
= 0 (.81)
Lxplain why (.81) moans lhal wo can chooso 1 such lhal if . 1,
lhon
c
|./||
1 .
5
(.82)
Ilanck`s j(.) is conlinuous ano Lounooo on (0, 1) , so lho inlogial
_
1
0
j (.) d. oxisls. Uso (.82) ano lhooiom 7.1 lo oxplain why
_
o
1
j(.) d. co:crpc-
ano lhus why Ilanck`s foim of j (.) avoios lho ulliaviolol calaslio-
pho.
5.1 CeomeLric ProbabiliLy
IroLaLIIIty DensIty FunctIons
1ho sluoy of pioLaLilily Logins wilh lho concopl of a :nnJn n:.nh|, which is
a vaiiaLlo A whoso valuos aio possiLlo oulcomos of a ianoom piocoss. An n
is a suLsol 1 of lho possiLlo oulcomos of a ianoom piocoss, ano lho :hnh.|.j of
an ovonl is a moasuio of lho likolihooo lhal lho valuo of A is in lho ovonl suLsol
1.
Foi oxamplo, supposo a poison is solocloo al ianoom fiom a givon populalion
ano lhal lho ianoom vaiiaLlo A is lhal poison`s hoighl in fool. An n 1 woulo
Lo a colloclion of possiLlo hoighls foi lhal poison. 1o illuslialo, lho ovonl 1 = [, 6[
is lho ovonl of lho poison`s hoighl Loing Lolwoon ano 6 fool. 1ho pioLaLilily
of 1 is lhon oonoloo Ly Ii (1) ano is lho likolihooo lhal lho ianoomly solocloo
poison`s hoighl is ono of lho valuos in lho ovonl 1. 1hus, Ii ([, 6[) iopiosonls lho
pioLaLilily of lho ianoomly solocloo poison`s hoighl Loing Lolwoon ano 6 fool.
If lho ovonl 1 is an inloival, such as 1 = [a, /[ , lhon lho pioLaLilily 1 (1)
may also Lo oonoloo Ly
Ii (A i: [a, /[) , Ii (a _ A _ /) , or 1 (A i: 1)
Finally, wo moasuio pioLaLililios wilh inlogials. In pailiculai, if A oonolos a
conlinuous ianoom vaiiaLlo, lhon lho pioLaLilily of lho valuo of A Loing in [a, /[
is oolnoo lo Lo
1 (a _ A _ /) =
_
b
o
j (a) da (.88)
whoio j (a) is a funclion known as a :hnh.|.j Jn.j oi .J.J. of lho conlinuous
ianoom vaiiaLlo A. 1hal is, 1 ([a, /[) is lho aioa of lho iogion unooi lho oonsily
cuivo j = j (a) ano ovoi [a, /[ .
7-1: IioLaLilily as an Aioa of a iogion unooi a cuivo
Sinco lhoio is a 100/ chanco lhal lho valuo of A is in (, ), wo havo
_
o
o
j (a) da = 1 (.84)
Finally, pioLaLililios musl Lo posilivo, which implios lhal j (a) _ 0 foi all a.
IXAMIII 1 Show lhal j (a) is a pioLaLilily oonsily funclion:
j (a) =
_
0 i) a < 0
0.2c
0.2i
i) a _ 0
(.8)
SoIutIon: Sinco j (a) _ 0 Ly oolnilion, wo nooo only show lhal j (a)
salislos (.84). Sinco j (a) = 0 if a < 0, wo havo
_
o
o
j (a) da = lim
1o
_
1
0
0.2c
0.2i
da
= lim
1o
0.2
_
1
0.2
c
0.2i
1
0
_
= lim
1o
_
c
0.21
c
0
_
= 1
In slalislics, wo oflon sluoy familios of pioLaLilily oonsilios. Foi oxamplo, supposo
lhal al a coilain oslaLlishmonl, lho ianoom vaiiaLlo T is lho limo lhal olapsos
Lolwoon ono cuslomoi Loing soivoo ano lho noxl Loing soivoo. If r is lho avoiago
limo lhal olapsos Lolwoon cuslomois, lhon T is rnn.n||j J.:.h&J wilh p.o.f.
j (t) =
_
0 i) t < 0
l
:
c
|/:
i) t _ 0
(.86)
as is shown iigoiously in lho Ar 5 al lho ono of lhis chaploi.
IXAMIII 2 Al a coilain ioslauianl, a laLlo Locomos availaLlo
aLoul onco ovoiy minulos, on avoiago. If a laLlo opons up al 6:00
p.m., whal is lho pioLaLilily of lho noxl laLlo Locoming availaLlo Lo-
lwoon 6:0 ano 6:10 p.m.
SoIutIon: Sinco r = minulos, (.86) foi lhis ioslauianl is
j (t) =
_
0 i) t < 0
l
5
c
|/5
i) t _ 0
=
_
0 i) t < 0
0.2c
0.2|
i) t _ 0
Sinco 1 ( _ T _ 10) is lho pioLaLilily of lho noxl laLlo Locoming
availaLlo Lolwoon 6:0 ano 6:10, oolnilion (.88) implios lhal
1 ( _ T _ 10) =
_
l0
5
j (t) dt
CLOMLTRlC PROBABlLlTY 428
Sinco j (t) = 0.2c
0.2|
if t 0, wo havo
1 ( _ T _ 10) =
_
l0
5
0.2c
0.2|
dt =
0.2
0.2
c
0.2|
l0
5
= 0.28244
1hus, lhoio is a 28/ chanco lho noxl laLlo Locomos availaLlo Lolwoon
6:0 ano 6:10 p.m.
1hn J h .nj:n|
_
7
2
0.2c
0.2|
dt ::n .n rnn| . Chock youi Ioaoing
Exected YaIue and Standard DevIatIon
Lol`s supposo lhal ` is a laigo posilivo inlogoi, ano supposo lhal ` valuos of a
ianoom vaiiaLlo aio piooucoo Ly a ianoom piocoss. Lol [o, 1[ oonolo an inloival
conlaining all ` oulcomos, ano lol a
, t
Lo a /-lno paililion of [o, 1[ lhal is

so lno lhal lho lags t
can Lo choson voiy closo lo lho ` oulcomos.

7-2: Simplo funclion appioximalion
Sinco j (t
) â
is lho appioximalo aioa unooi j = j (a) ovoi [a

l
, a
[ , lho quan-
lily j (t
) â
is lho appioximalo pioLaLilily lhal ono of lho ` oulcomos is oqual

lo t
.
7-8: IioLaLilily of [a
l
, a
[
Coiiosponoingly, j (t
) â
is lho appioximalo :nnj of lho ` oulcomos

lhal aio oqual lo t
, which is lo say lhal t
occuis ` j (t
) â
. Foi oxamplo,
if j (t
) â
is 0.0 ano ` = 100, 000, lhon appioximaloly / of lho 100,000

oulcomos is oqual lo t
, which is lo say lhal t
occuis , 000 limos.

1ho avoiago foi lho ` oulcomos is
acrapc =
1(|
).i
|Int~
..
t
l
. . . t
l

1(|
).i
|Int~
..
t
2
. . . t
2
. . .
1(|
r
).i
r
|Int~
..
t
n
. . . t
n
` tota| ontco:c-
=
t
l
`j (t
l
) â
l
t
2
`j (t
2
) â
2
. . . t
n
`j (t
n
) â
n
`
= t
l
j (t
l
) â
l
t
2
j (t
2
) â
2
. . . t
n
j (t
n
) â
n
As ` gols laigoi ano laigoi, lwo lhings musl occui. Fiisl, lho paililions musl
Locomo lnoi ano lnoi, lhus loaoing lo
acrapc = lim
|0
n
=l
t
j (t
) â
=
_
1
S
aj (a) da
Socono, lho inloivals [o, 1[ conlaining lho oulcomos mighl havo lo Locomo aiLi-
liaiily laigo, which is lo say lhal o appioachos ano 1 appioachos .
acrapc = lim
So
lim
1o
_
1
S
aj (a) da =
_
o
o
aj (a) da
1ho iosull is also calloo lho moan oi rJ n|& of lho ianoom vaiiaLlo ano is
oonoloo Ly j, which is lho Giook lolloi mu." 1hal is, lho oxpocloo valuo of lho
ianoom vaiiaLlo wilh p.o.f. j (a) is givon Ly
j =
_
o
o
aj (a) da (.87)
whon lho impiopoi inlogial oxisls.
IXAMIII J Show lhal if r is conslanl, lhon r is lho oxpocloo valuo
of a ianoom vaiiaLlo wilh p.o.f.
j (t) =
_
0 i) t < 0
l
:
c
|/:
i) t _ 0
SoIutIon: Sinco j (t) = 0 if t < 0, lho foimula (.87) implios lhal
j =
_
o
0
t
1
r
c
|/:
dt =
1
r
lim
1o
_
_
1
0
tc
0.2|
dt
_
Inlogialion Ly pails in lho foim of laLulai inlogialion yiolos
n d
t c
|/:
1 rc
|/:
0 r
2
c
|/:
j =
1
r
lim
1o
_
rtc
0.2|
r
2
c
0.2|
_
1
0
fiom which wo gol
j =
1
r
lim
1o
_
r1 c
0.21
r
2
c
0.21
r
2
_
=
1
r
_
0 0 r
2
_
= r
If j is lho oxpocloo valuo of A, lhon lho ianoom vaiiaLlo (A j)
2
is lho piooicloo
oiioi" in oxpocling A lo havo a valuo of j. 1ho oxpocloo valuo of (A j)
2
is
calloo lho n:.nn : &n:n.nj in A, ano is givon Ly
o
2
=
_
o
o
(a j)
2
j (a) da
whoio o is calloo lho nnJn:J J.n.n in lho ianoom vaiiaLlo A.
IXAMIII ! Fino o foi lho j.d.). givon in oxamplo 2.
SoIutIon: Inlogialion Ly pails can Lo usoo lo show lhal lho slanoaio
oovialion foi lho p.o.f. j (t) in oxamplo 2 is
o
2
=
_
o
0
(t )
2
0.2c
0.2|
dt = 2, o =
_
2 =
1hal is, T has an oxpocloo valuo of j = , givo oi lako an oslimaloo
o = minulos.
5h&|J h &n: r &n. |nj: hnn 1u n.n& Chock youi Ioaoing
CaussIan DIstrILutIons
A ianoom vaiiaLlo A is saio lo Lo n:nn||j J.:.h&J wilh moan j ano slanoaio
oovialion o has a p.o.f of lho foim
j (a) =
1
o
_
2
c
(i)
/c
(.88)
1ho oonsily (.88) is calloo a Gn&.nn Jn.j J&n.n, ano ils giaph is calloo a
h|| &:. 1hal is, j (a) has a maximum al j ano inloclion poinls al j o ano
j o.
7-4: Gaussian Donsily
1ho mulliplioi 1
_
o
_
2
_
is incluooo so lhal (.88) salislos (.84).
IXAMIII Hoighls of inoivioual coinslalks in a lolo of coin aio
known lo Lo noimally oisliiLuloo wilh an avoiago of 4 fool ano a
slanoaio oovialion of 8 inchos (= 0.2 fool). Whal is lho pioLaLilily
lhal a coin planl choson al ianoom is Lolwoon 4 ano fool lall
SoIutIon: 1ho pioLaLilily oonsily of lho coin planls is
j (a) =
1
0.2
_
2
c
(id)
/(0.25)
x
5 4.5 4 3.5 3
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
A numoiical inlogialoi yiolos
1 (4 _ A _ ) =
_
5
d
1
0.2
_
2
c
(id)
/(0.25)
da = 0.40007
1hal is, aLoul half lho planls aio Lolwoon 4 ano fool lall.
Noimal oisliiLulions occui naluially in lho sluoy of nn| nnn, whoio a samplo
moan is lho avoiago ovoi : samplo oulcomos of a ianoom vaiiaLlo. Spocilcally,
lho n:n| |.n. h:n says lhal if A is a ianoom vaiiaLlo wilh moan j ano a
lnilo slanoaio oovialion o, lhon lho p.o.f. of lho samplo moan foi a samplo of
sizo : is appioximaloly Gaussian wilh moan j ano slanoaio oovialion o
_
:.
IXAMIII 0 If lho valuo of a ianoomvaiiaLlo A is choson al ianoom
fiom [1, 1[ , lhon A is saio lo Lo &n.J:n|j J.:.h&J wilh a p.o.f.
of
j (a) =
_
0. i) 1 _ a _ 1
0 ot/crni-c
x
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
(a) Whal is lho moan ano slanoaio oovialion of A
(L) Appioximalo lho p.o.f. of lho valuos of lho samplo moan wilh a
Gaussian oonsily.
(c) Whal is lho pioLaLilily lhal lho avoiago of 10 numLois choson
unifoimly ianoomly fiom [1, 1[ will Lo Lolwoon 0. ano 0.
SoIutIon: (a) 1ho oxpocloo valuo of a unifoimly oisliiLuloo A is
j =
_
o
o
aj (a) da =
_
l
l
a(0.) da = 0
A moan of j = 0 iolocls an oqual pioLaLilily of choosing oilhoi a
posilivo oi a nogalivo numLoi. Moioovoi, lho slanoaio oovialion foi
A is
o
2
=
_
l
l
0.a
2
da =
1
8
, o =
1
_
8
(L) Sinco : = 10, lho slanoaio oovialion foi lho samplo moans is
o
_
10
= 0.1826
1hus, lho samplo moan of 10 samplos choson unifoimly is appioximaloo
Ly lho Gaussian oonsily
j (a) =
1
(0.1826)
_
2
c
/(0.lS26)
(c) 1ho pioLaLilily lhal lho avoiago of 10 samplos is in [0., 0.[ is

1 (0. _ acrapc _ 0.) =
_
0.5
0.5
1
(0.1826)
_
2
c
/(0.lS26)
da
= 0.0088
whoio lho inlogial is appioximaloo
n&: jn:n 1uuu nn| nnn J 1u n&nh: hn &n.J:n|j J:n Chock youi Ioaoing
[1, 1[ . h& h& nnnj J h nn| nnn . h&n 0. nnJ 0.
FanIIIes oI DensItIes
1ho sluoy of slalislics ano pioLaLilily is in many ways lho sluoy of inoivio-
ual familios of pioLaLilily oonsilios. Wo havo alioaoy oncounloioo lwo of lhoso
familiosoxpononlially oisliiLuloo ianoom vaiiaLlos wilh moan r (.86)ano noi-
mally oisliiLuloo ianoom vaiiaLlos wilh moan j ano slanoaio oovialion o (.88).
Now familios of oonsilios aio Loing oovolopoo all lho limo foi uso in now appli-
calions of pioLaLilily ano slalislics. Liko lho lwo wo havo alioaoy oncounloioo,
lhoso familios lono lo Lo paiamoliizoo Ly a moan j, a slanoaio oovialion o, oi
olhoi iolovanl paiamolois.
IXAMIII 7 1ho WoiLull oisliiLulion is usoo in ioliaLilily lhooiy
lo sluoy lho failuio ialo of oovicos such as lighl LulLs ano Lalloiios.
Il has a pioLaLilily oonsily of
j (a) =
_
:a
n
a
nl
c
(i/o)
r
if a _ 0
0 if a < 0
whoio : ano a aio posilivo conslanls. Show lhal j (a) is a pioLaLilily
oonsily funclion.
SoIutIon: Cloaily, j (a) _ 0 if a _ 0 ano j (a) = 0 if a < 0. 1hus,
_
o
o
j (a) da =
_
o
0
:a
n
a
nl
c
(i/o)
r
da = lim
1o
_
1
0
c
(i/o)
r
:a
n
a
nl
da
If wo lol n = (aa)
n
, lhon dn = :a
n
a
nl
, n(0) = 0, ano n(1) =
(1a)
n
:
_
o
o
j (a) da = lim
1o
_
(1/o)
r
0
c
u
dn
= lim
1o
_
c
u
(1/o)
r
0
_
= lim
1o
_
1 c
(1/o)
r
_
= 1 0
= 1
Lxoicisos:
1 :hnh.|.j Jn.. |.J .n h .n nh n& h J||&.nj :h-
nh.|... 5n J h :j&.: n&n:.n| .nj:n.n.
1. 1ho pioLaLilily lhal a numLoi choson al ianoom fiom [1, 1[ will Lo in lho
inloival [0.2, 0.7[ . (soo oxamplo 6)
2. 1ho pioLaLilily of lho noxl" laLlo Locoming availaLlo Lolwoon 6:00 p.m. ano
6:0 p.m. (soo oxamplo 2)
3. 1ho pioLaLilily of lho noxl" laLlo Locoming availaLlo Lolwoon 6:00 p.m. ano
6:10 p.m. . (soo oxamplo 2)
4. 1ho pioLaLilily lhal a slalk of coin is Lolwoon 8 ano 4 fool lall. (soo oxamplo
)
5. 1ho pioLaLilily lhal a slalk of coin is Lolwoon 8. ano 4. fool lall. (soo
oxamplo )
6. 1ho pioLaLilily lhal a slalk of coin is Lolwoon 80 ano 40 fool lall. (soo oxamplo
)
5h& hn h j.n J&n.n j (a) . n :hnh.|.j Jn.j. Jhn ]nJ . rJ
n|&.
7. j (a) =
_
1 i) 0 _ a _ 1
0 ot/crni-c
8. j (a) =
_
l
6
i) 0 _ a _ 6
0 ot/crni-c
0. j (a) =
_
0 i) a < 0
0.7c
0.7i
i) a _ 0
10. j (a) =
_
0 i) a < 0
c
ti
i) a _ 0
11. j (a) =
_
0 i) a < 0
ac
i
i) a _ 0
12. j (a) =
_
0 i) a < 0
l
2
a
2
c
i
i) a _ 0
18. j (a) =
_
1 [a[ i) 1 _ a _ 1
0 ot/crni-c
14. j (a) =
_
1 a
2
i) 1 _ a _ 1
0 ot/crni-c
1. j (a) =
l
2
c
]i]
16. j (a) = c
2]i]
1.nJ h nnJn:J J.n.n J nh J h J||&.nj:
17. j (a) =
_
1 i) 0 _ a _ 1
0 ot/crni-c
18. j (a) =
_
l
6
i) 0 _ a _ 6
0 ot/crni-c
10. j (a) =
_
0 i) a < 0
0.7c
0.7i
i) a _ 0
20. j (a) =
_
0 i) a < 0
c
ti
i) a _ 0
21. j (a) =
_
3
d

3
d
a
2
i) 1 _ a _ 1
0 ot/crni-c
22. j (a) =
l
2
c
]i]
23. Inlolligonco quolionl (IQ) scoios aio noimally oisliiLuloo wilh a moan of
j = 100 ano a slanoaio oovialion of o = 1. Uso numoiical inlogialion lo
ooloimino lho poiconlago of lho populalion which has an IQ scoio Lolwoon
8 ano 11.
24. 1ho hoighls of aoull malos in lho Uniloo Slalos aio noimally oisliiLuloo wilh
a moan of 60 inchos ano a slanoaio oovialion of 2.8 inchos. Uso numoiical
inlogialion lo oslimalo lho poiconlago of lho aoull malo populalion which
is Lolwoon lvo fool ano six fool lall.
25. In 1000, SA1 I VoiLal losl scoios woio noimally oisliiLuloo wilh a moan of
0 ano a slanoaio oovialion of 111. Whal is lho pioLaLilily of a sluoonl
scoiing Lolwoon 600 ano 700 on lho SA1 voiLal losl
26. In 1000, SA1 I Malh losl scoios woio noimally oisliiLuloo wilh a moan of
11 ano a slanoaio oovialion of 114. Whal is lho pioLaLilily of a sluoonl
scoiing Lolwoon 400 ano 600 on lho SA1 malh losl
27. 1ho woighl of a poach fiom a coilain oichaio is noimally oisliiLuloo wilh
moan 8 ouncos ano slanoaio oovialion of 1 ounco. Whal is lho pioLaLilily
of a poach fiomlhal oichaio having a woighl Lolwoon ouncos ano 6 ouncos
28. 1ho anlonnao longlhs of a samplo of 82 wooolico woio moasuioo ano founo
lo havo a moan of 4 mm ano slanoaio oovialion of 2.87 mm. Assuming
lho anlonnao longlhs aio noimally oisliiLuloo, whal is lho pioLaLilily of a
wooolico anlonnao Loing Lolwoon 8 mm ano mm in longlh.
29. Shown Lolow aio 100 samplo moans, whoio oach samplo moan is lho avoiago
of 8 numLois choson al ianoom fiom lho inloival [0, 1[ .
0.80, 0.0, 0.60, 0.46, 0.2, 0., 0.4, 0.27, 0.47, 0.0, 0.66, 0.40, 0.76, 0.80, 0.,
0.64, 0.48, 0.61, 0.40, 0.80, 0.44, 0.40, 0.0, 0.44, 0.8, 0.86, 0.20, 0.62, 0.68, 0.27,
0.40, 0.48, 0.48, 0.42, 0.8, 0.46, 0.68, 0.62, 0.40, 0.60, 0.4, 0.80, 0.46, 0.4, 0.80,
0.87, 0.4, 0.46, 0.42, 0.68, 0.61, 0.68, 0.60, 0.1, 0.0, 0.84, 0.2, 0.60, 0.2, 0.20,
0.48, 0.47, 0.46, 0.67, 0.60, 0.4, 0.27, 0.78, 0.0, 0.8, 0.41, 0.4, 0.86, 0.80, 0.1,
0.68, 0.62, 0.82, 0.42, 0.40, 0.4, 0.81, 0.4, 0.88, 0.78, 0.2, 0.84, 0.0, 0.47, 0.88,
0.67, 0.66, 0.44, 0.47, 0.4, 0.64, 0.68, 0.4, 0.68, 0.67
Lol`s appioximalo lho oisliiLulion of lho samplo moans wilh a Gaussian
oisliiLulion.
(a) 1ho pioLaLilily oonsily foi choosing a numLoi A al ianoom fiom
[0, 12[ is
j (a) =
_
1 if 0 _ a _ 1
0 if a < 0 or a 1
Whal is lho moan ano slanoaio oovialion of A
(L) 1ho 100 samplo moans aLovo woio placoo inlo a h.j:nn, which
is a Lai giaph showing lho numLoi of samplo moan oala poinls
which occui in oach of lho inloivals
[0, 0.0) , [0.0, 0.1) , [0.1, 0.2) , [0.2, 0.8) , [0.8, 0.4) , [0.4, 0.) ,
[0., 0.6) , [0.6, 0.7) , [0.7, 0.8) , [0.8, 0.0) , [0.0, 1[
1ho iosull is shown in lho imago Lolow:
7-: Hislogiam appioximalion of Gaussian
1ho oqualion of lho Loll cuivo in lho imago is
j (a) = 87.c
(i)
/(2c
)
Whal aio j ano o
30. VrIte to Learn: Try It out!: Uso a spioaoshool oi wiilo a piogiam
lhal choosos 8 numLois al ianoom fiom [0, 1[ ano lhon compulos lhoii avoi-
ago. Gonoialo 100 such samplo moans ano counl lho numLoi in oach of lho
suLinloivals in oxoiciso 20(L). How closo is lho hislogiam lo lho Loll cuivo
in 20(L)
31. 1ho lifolimo of a lighlLulL is oxpononlially oisliiLuloo wilh an avoiago lifo-
limo of 1000 houis. Whal is lho pioLaLilily lhal a lighlLulL will lasl moio
lhan 2000 houis
32. DisliiLulion of incomos aio ofoln moooloo wilh lho 1n: 1.:.h&.n, which
has a oonsily of
j (a) =
_
:/
n
a
nl
if a _ /
0 if a < /
whoio / ano : aio posilivo conslanls.
(a) Show lhal j (a) is a pioLaLilily oonsily. Whal is lho moan ano
slanoaio oovialion of a paiolo-oisliiLuloo ianoom vaiiaLlo
(L) Uso (a) lo answoi lho following: Lol`s supposo lhal in a coilain
populalion, lho lowosl possiLlo oainoo incomo is / = $18, 000 ano
lho avoiago incomo is / = $27, 000. Whal shoulo : Lo Whal is lho
pioLaLilily of an incomo of moio lhan $100,000, assuming a paiolo
oisliiLulion
33. In lho 1h: nJ| of lho Hyoiogon alom an oloclion oiLils a singlo piolon
in a ciiculai oiLil wilh iaoius r
1
= .20 10
ll
molois.
2
A oiloionl moool
of lho hyoiogon alom, calloo lho &n nJ|, assumos lho oloclion is in a
clouo ano ils iaoius can vaiy. 1ho pioLaLilily oonsily foi lho oislanco r of
lho oloclion fiom lho conloi of lho alom is
j(r) =
4
r
3
1
r
2
c
r
r
1
1hal is, j(r) (r
2
r
l
) is lho appioximalo pioLaLilily of lnoing lho oloclion
oiLiling wilh a iaoius Lolwoon r
l
ano r
2
whon r
l
ano r
2
aio closo logolhoi.
(a) Giaph j (r) foi r in lho oomain
_
0, 2.116 10
l0
, ano lhon show

lhal j(r) is maximizoo al lho Lohi iaoius r
1
(lhal is, lho Lohi
iaoius has lho highosl pioLaLilily poi unil longlh of Loing lho ois-
lanco fiom lho piolon lo lho oloclion in lho hyoiogon alom.)
(L) Assuming lhal j (r) = 0 if r < 0 (nogalivo iaoii aio impossiLlo),
whal is lho oxpocloo valuo of lho ianoom vaiiaLlo r wilh pioLa-
Lilily oonsily j (r) Why ooos lho oxpocloo valuo nol occui al lho
maximum of lho oonsily
(c) Whal is lho slanoaio oovialion of r
34. Lol A Lo lho a-inloicopl of a lino lhiough (0, 1) whoso anglo 0 wilh lho j-axis
is choson al ianoom fiom Lolwoon
t
2
ano
t
2
.
7-6: 0 is solocloo al ianoom
2
v
is lho iaoius al which lho conliifugal foico of lho ciiculai oiLil (givon Ly Nowlon`s law)
is olsol Ly lho oloclioslalic alliaclion Lolwoon lho oloclion ano lho piolon (givon Ly CoulomL`s
law).
1ho pioLaLilily oonsily foi A is lho n&hj Jn.j
j (a) =
1
(1 a
2
)
Doos A havo a moan Doos A havo a slanoaio oovialion Lxplain.
35. In lhis oxoiciso, wo show lhal a ianoom vaiiaLlo wilh lho Gaussian oonsily
j (a) =
1
o
_
2
c
(i)
/c
has an oxpocloo valuo of j.

(a) Lxplain lho following:
_
o
o
aj (a) da =
_
o
o
(a j) j (a) da j
_
o
o
j (a) da
(L) Lvalualo
_
o
o
(a j) j (a) da using a suLslilulion.
(c) ComLino (a) ano (L). Whal is lho oxpocloo valuo of lho ianoom
vaiiaLlo wilh oonsily j (a)
36. In lhis oxoiciso, wo show lhal a ianoom vaiiaLlo wilh lho Gaussian oonsily
j (a) =
1
o
_
2
c
(i)
/c
has a slanoaio oovialion of o.

(a) Uso inlogialion Ly pails wilh n = aj ano d = (a j) c
(i)
/c
da
lo ovalualo
1
o
_
2
_
o
o
(a j)
2
c
(i)
/c
dA
(L) Uso lho facl lhal j (a) is a pioLaLilily oonsily lo simplify lho iosull
in (a).
37. *If lho lompoialuio of a colloclion of moloculos iomains conslanl, lhon lho
spooos of lho moloculos havo a `nr&|| J.:.h&.n, which has a oonsily of
j (a) =
_
2
a
2
-
3
c
i
/(2~
)
Uso lho piopoilios of lho Gaussian oisliiLulion lo show lhal j (a) is a pioL-
aLilily oonsily ano lhon lo ooloimino ils moan ano slanoaio oovialion.
38. Fishoi`s 1-oisliiLulion is usoo in analysis of vaiianco, populalion gonolics,
ano mosl anywhoio olso whoio ialios of sums of squaios of ianoom vaiiaLlos
aio consiooioo. 1ho oonsily of lho 1-oisliiLulion is
j (a) = C
n,n
a
(n2)/2
_
1
n
n
a
_
(nn)/2
i) a _ 0
whoio :, :, ano C
n,n
aio posilivo conslanls (ano j (a) = 0 if a < 0). Whal
shoulo lho conslanl C
n,n
Lo whon : = 2
39. VrIte to Learn: 1ho nJ.nn of a pioLaLilily oonsily is lho numLoi ` foi
which
_
1
o
j (a) da = 0.
1hal is, lho mooian is lho u
||
:n.| foi lho oisliiLulion. Fino lho
mooian foi lho Gaussian ano oxpononlial oisliiLulions, ano lhon oiscuss
in a shoil ossay how lho shapo of lho pioLaLilily oonsily is iolaloo lo lho
iolalivo posilions of lho mooian ano moan.
40. 1ho Jn.|&: :n, which is also known as lho hn.n:J :n, foi a ianoomvaiiaLlo
A wilh p.o.f. j (a) is givon Ly
/(t) =
j (a)
_
o
i
j (a) da
Show lhal lho failuio ialo foi an oxpononlially oisliiLuloo ianoom vaiiaLlo
is conslanl, ano lhal lho failuio ialo foi a WoiLull oisliiLulion is conslanl
only whon il iooucos lo an oxpononlial.
Solf 1osl
J h h|.
(a) Foi any lwo inlogiaLlo funclions ) ano p on [a, /[, lho aioa Lolwoon lho
giaphs of )(a) ano p(a) ovoi [a, /[ is
_
b
o
()(a) p(a))da.
(L) If an inlogiaLlo funclion )(a) _ 0 foi all a in [a, /[, lhon lho aioa
Lolwoon lho giaph of )(a) ano lho aaxis ovoi [a, /[ is
_
o
b
)(a)da.
(c) A solio of iovolulion always has ciiculai cioss-soclions whon lakon poi-
ponoiculai lo lho axis of iovolulion.
(o)
_
3
0
_
1 0a
d
da is lho aiclonglh of lho giaph of lho quaoialic funclion
)(a) = 8a
2
fiom a = 0 lo a = 8.
(o) 1ho a-cooioinalo foi lho conlioio of a 80
o
-60
o
-00
o
liianglo wilh hy-
polonuso of longlh 2 ano aojaconl sioo of longlh
_
8 is al a =
2
_
3
along
lho aojaconl sioo.
(f) 1ho conloi of giavily of an olliplical laminalo occuis al ono of lho foci
of lho ollipso.
(g) 1o gonoialo a iighl ciiculai cono wilh hoighl lwico ils Laso oiamoloi
wo can iovolvo a lino wilh slopo 2 aLoul lho a aai-.
(h) 1ho moan valuo lhooiom foi inlogials is usoo lo compulo lho aioa of a
suifaco of iovolulion.
(i)
_
o
l
sIn(i)
i
da is an impiopoi inlogial.
(j)
_
l
l
Ji
i2
is an impiopoi inlogial.
(k)
_
l
0
ln(a)da is an impiopoi inlogial.
(l) 1ho oxpocloo valuo of a ianoom vaiiaLlo is oqual lo lho avoiago valuo
of ils pioLaLilily oonsily.
(m) If j (a) is a pioLaLilily oonsily lhal vanishos (i.o., is oqual lo 0 ) oulsioo
of lho inloival [0, 2[ , lhon ils avoiago valuo ovoi [0, 2[ is
l
2
.
2. 1ho aioa Lounooo Ly j = a
2
ano j = a 2 is oosciiLoo Ly lho following
inlogial:
(a)
_
2
l
_
a 2 a
2
_
da
(L)
_
2
l
_
a 1 a
2
_
da
(c)
_
2
l
_
a 2 a
2
_
da
(o)
_
2
l
_
a
2
a 2
_
da
8. Fino lho volumo whon lho iogion Lolwoon j = a
2
8a ano lho a-axis is
iolaloo aLoul lho a-axis.
(a) 4. (L) 6.7 (c) 8.1 (o) 18.
4. Which of lho following is liuo of lho conlioio of lho iogion Lolwoon j =
4a a
2
ano lho a-axis.
(a) a = 2 (L) j = 0 (c) a = 0 (o) j = 4
. Which of lho following oolnilo inlogials iopiosonls lho aioa of lho suifaco
gonoialoo Ly iovolving lho cuivo j = a
3
, 0 _ a _ 4 aLoul lho a-axis
(a) 2
_
d
0
a
3
_
1 8a
2
da (L)
_
d
0
a
3
_
1 0a
d
da
(c) 2
_
d
0
a
3
_
1 0a
d
da (o)
_
d
0
a
6
da
6. Which of lho inlogials Lolow iopiosonls lho volumo of lho solio oLlainoo Ly
iovolving lho iogion Lounooo Ly a = 0, a = 4, j = 0 ano j =
_
a
2
4 aLoul
lho j-axis ovoi lho inloival [0, 4[
(a)
_
d
0
_
a
2
4da (L)
_
d
0
_
a
2
4da
(c)
_
d
0
_
a
2
4
_
da (o) 2
_
d
0
a
_
a
2
4 da
7. Fino lho volumo of lho solio oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho iogion Lolwoon j = [a[
ano j =
_
2 a
2
aLoul lho a-axis.
(a) 4 (L)
8
8
(c)
14
8
(o) 22
8. If 1 (a) =
_
i
l
_
t
2
1 dt, lhon whal is lho longlh of lho giaph of 1 (a) ovoi
[1, 8[
(a) 1 (L) 2 (c) 8 (o) 4 (o) (f) 6 (g) 7
0. Which of lho following is not a pioLaLilily oonsily on lho ioal lino
(a) j (a) = c
i
/2
(L) j (a) = 1 (c) j (a) =
l
t(i
l)
(o) j (a) = c
]i]
10. Fino lho volumo of lho solio of iovolulion foimoo Ly iovolving lho aioa
Lolwoon )(a) = ca ano p(a) = c
i
aLoul lho aaxis.
11. Fino lho longlh of lho cuivo j = a
3/2
fiom a = 0 lo a = .
12. Fino lho conlioio of lho somiciiculai aioa Lolwoon lho a-axis ano j =
_
4 a
2
.
18. Fino lho avoiago valuo of ) (a) =
_
a
2
_
ovoi [0, 2[ whoio a| is lho :
J&n.n ano is lho laigosl inlogoi loss lhan oi oqual lo a. (Foi oxamplo,
2.8| = 2, | = , ano 1.8| = 2 ).
14. Lvalualo lho impiopoi inlogial, if il oxisls.
_
l
0
a
2
ln(a) da
1. Lvalualo lho impiopoi inlogial, if il oxisls.
_
o
l
_
1
a

1
a 1
_
da
16. Compulo lho following foi lho Lack panol of a guilai as shown in lho lguio.
(a) Fino a numoiical appioximalion of lho aioa of lho panol
(L) Fino a numoiical appioximalion of lho poiimoloi of lho panol.
(c) Fino a numoiical appioximalion of lho conlioio of lho panol.
17. Foi whal valuo of / is lho funclion
j (a) = a
2
c
bi
a pioLaLilily oonsily ovoi [0, ). Whal is ils oxpocloo valuo
18. VrIte to Learn: Fino a posilivo funclion on [0, 2[ whoso giaph has inlnilo
longlh" Lul lhal onclosos a iogion wilh an aioa of 2. In a shoil ossay, piosonl
youi funclion ano lhon oxplain why lho volumo of lho solio oLlainoo Ly
iolaling lho iogion aLoul lho a-axis musl Lo inlnilo. Can you connocl il lo
a lhooiom of Iappus Lxplain.
Jh Ar 5... nJ..nn| 1:hnh.|.j
Why aio Loll cuivos Gaussian Why aio wailing limos oxpononlially oisliiL-
uloo 1hal is, in gonoial, whoio oo pioLaLilily oonsilios como fiom Oui noxl slop
is lo oomonslialo how pioLaLilily moools can Lo oovolopoo fiom lisl piinciplos
using lho concopl of nJ..nn| :hnh.|.j.
Supposo lhal A is a ianoom vaiiaLlo ano supposo lhal il is known alioaoy
lhal all valuos of A musl occui in a suLsol 1. 1hon givon any olhoi suLsol , wo
oolno
Ii ( [ 1) = pioLaLilily lhal A has a valuo in givon
lhal lho valuo of A is known lo Lo in 1
Wo say lhal Ii ( [ 1) is lho nJ..nn| :hnh.|.j of givon lhal 1 musl occui.
Lol`s ooiivo a foimula foi Ii ( [ 1) givon lhal Ii (1) ,= 0.
1o Login wilh, Ii (1 [ 1) is lho pioLaLilily lhal A has a valuo in 1 givon lhal
A musl havo a valuo in 1, which moans lhal
Ii (1 [ 1) = 1
Similaily, Ii ( [ 1) shoulo oopono only on lhoso valuos in lhal aio also in
1, which moans lhal Ii ( [ 1) shoulo oopono only on 1. 1hoso ano olhoi
consiooialions loao us lo oolno conoilional pioLaLilily as follows:
Ii ( [ 1) =
Ii ( 1)
Ii (1)
(.80)
Now lhal wo havo inliooucoo lho concopl of conoilional pioLaLilily, lol`s look
al an oxamplo of how il ano oqualion (.80) aio usoo lo consliucl :hnh.|.j nJ|
of ioal woilo piocossos. In pailiculai, lol`s uso conoilional pioLaLilily lo oxploio
why wailing limos aio oxpononlially oisliiLuloo (lhal is, why j (t) =
l
:
c
|/:
foi
t _ 0 is lho pioLaLilily oonsily foi wailing limos).
Supposo a laigo numLoi of piinl joLs havo Loon sonl lo a piinloi whoio ono of
lho piinl joLs has jusl slailoo, ano supposo lhal lho ianoom vaiiaLlo T oonolo lho
amounl of limo lhal olapsos Lofoio lho noxl piinl joL Logins. Cloaily, lho amounl
of limo lhal olapsos Lofoio lho noxl piinl joL Logins ooos not oopono on how long
a piinl joL has Loon wailing, Lul insloao ooponos on how quickly, on avoiago, lho
piinloi can piocoss piinl joLs.
In pailiculai, supposo oach piinl joL ioquiios r soconos, on avoiago. If t
soconos havo passoo alioaoy wilhoul a now piinl joL Loginning, lhon lhoio is
aLoul an
|
:
chanco of lho noxl piinl joL Loginning in lho inloival [t, t /[ whon
/ is closo lo 0. Foi oxamplo, if r = 10 soconos ano t = soconos havo passoo
alioaoy, lhon lhoio is only a 1 oul of 10 chanco lhal lho noxl piinl joL will Login
Lofoio 6 soconos havo olapsoo.
1ho koy hoio is lhal inluilivo slalomonls liko lho ono aLovo aio voiy oflon
conoilional pioLaLililios wailing lo Lo iovoaloo. In lho piocooing paiagiaph, wo
aio saying lhal if wo knov aIready lhal T t, lhon lho pioLaLilily lhal T is in
[t, t /[ is appioximaloly
|
:
. As a conoilional pioLaLilily, wo woulo wiilo lhal
Ii (T i: [t, t /[ [ T t) -
/
r
(.40)
Howovoi, oqualion (.80) implios lhal
Ii (T i: [t, t /[ [ T t) =
Ii (T i: [t, t /[ [t, ))
Ii (T t)
Sinco [t, t /[ [t, ) = [t, t /[ , ano sinco Ii (T t) = 1Ii (T _ t) , lhis
implios lhal
Ii (T i: [t, t /[ [ T t) =
Ii (T i: [t, t /[)
1 Ii (T _ t)
(.41)
ComLining (.40) ano (.41) loaos lo
Ii (T i: [t, t /[)
1 Ii (T _ t)
-
/
r
In loims of inlogials, Ii (T _ t) =
_
r
0
j (t) dt ano Ii (T i: [t, t /[) =
_
r|
r
j (t) dt,
which loaos lo
_
r|
r
j (t) dt
1
_
r
0
j (t) dt
-
/
r
==
_
r|
r
j (t) dt -
/
r
_
1
_
r
0
j (t) dt
_
Oui goal is lo ooloimino whal j (t) aclually is, so wo oivioo Ly /.
1
/
_
r|
r
j (t) dt -
1
r
_
1
_
r
0
j (t) dt
_
Sinco
_
r|
r
j (t) dt =
_
r|
0
j (t) dt
_
r
0
j (t) dt, wo oLlain
_
r|
0
j (t) dt
_
r
0
j (t) dt
/
-
1
r
_
1
_
r
0
j (t) dt
_
As / appioachos 0, lho appioximalion Locomos oxacl, which is lo say lhal
lim
|0
_
r|
0
j (t) dt
_
r
0
j (t) dt
/
=
1
r
_
1
_
r
0
j (t) dt
_
(.42)
Howovoi, lho limil in (.42) aLovo is cloaily a ooiivalivo, so lhal wo oLlain
d
dt
_
r
0
j (t) dt =
1
r
_
1
_
r
0
j (t) dt
_
j (t) =
1
r
_
1
_
r
0
j (t) dt
_
Diloionlialion wilh iospocl lo t again lhon yiolos
j
t
(t) =
1
r
j (t)
ano lho only solulion lo lho oiloionlial oqualion j
t
=
l
:
j is lho oxpononlial
funclion
j (t) = Cc
|/:
whoio C is a conslanl. 1ho facl lhal
_
o
0
j (t) dt = 1 can lhon Lo usoo lo show
lhal C =
l
:
, so lhal lho pioLaLilily oonsily foi piinl joLs wailing in a quo is
j (t) =
1
r
c
|/:
)or t _ 0
Howovoi, lho mosl impoilanl oLsoivalion in lhis oxamplo may Lo lhal lho moool
ilsolf was ooiivoo using conoilional pioLaLilily.
VrIte to Learn In a shoil ossay, ooiivo lho momoiyloss" piopoily of lho oxpo-
nonlial oonsily, which says lhal foi any a 0, wo havo
Ii (T - t [ T t) = Ii (T -)
Can you uso lho concopl of conoilional pioLaLilily lo oxplain whal lho mom-
oiyloss piopoily moans Also, Lo suio lo ooiivo lho oquivalonl piopoily
Ii (T - t) = Ii (T -) Ii (T t)
VrIte to Learn A ianoom vaiiaLlo T is saio lo havo a 1.h&|| J.:.h&.n if
givon lhal T t, lho pioLaLilily lhal T is in [t, t /[ is appioximaloly
`ct
ol
/ whon / is small, whoio ` ano a aio posilivo conslanls. Mimic lho
ooiivalion of lho oxpononlial oonsily aLovo lo oLlain lho p.o.f. of a WoiLully
oisliiLuloo ianoom vaiiaLlo.
VrIte to Learn If A is a ianoom vaiiaLlo wilh p.o.f. of j (a) ano if il is known
lhal A is in a suLsol 1 of (, ) whoio Ii (1) 0, lhon lho nJ..nn|
Jn.j of A givon 1 is
j
1
(a) =
j (a)
Ii (1)
Show lhal j
1
(a) foi a iosliicloo lo lho sol 1 is a pioLaLilily oonsily func-
lion, ano lhon oxplain why if is a sol of possiLlo oulcomos foi A, lhon
Ii ( 1
t
) = 0
whoio 1
t
= a i: (, ) -nc/ t/at a i- :ot i: 1 . Finally, uso lhoso
piopoilios ano lho concopl of a conoilional oonsily lo oxplain why
1 ( [ 1) =
Ii ( 1)
Ii (1)
VrIte to Learn Go lo lho liLiaiy anooi soaich lho inloinol lo loain moio aLoul
conoilional pioLaLilily ano ils uso in moooling ioal-woilo piocossos. Wiilo
a shoil iopoil oocumonling whal you oiscovoi in lhal iosoaich.
Crou LearnIng 1ho hn.n:J :n J&n.n r (t) of a ianoomvaiiaLlo T is oolnoo
Ly
r (t) = lim
|0
Ii (t _ T _ t / [ T t)
/
Il is ospocially impoilanl in ooloimining pioLaLililios such as lho pioLaLilily
lhal a machino will fail in a givon limo inloival, lho pioLaLilily lhal an
omployoo will ioliio Lofoio a coilain ago, ano so on. In lhis piojocl, oach
momLoi of lho gioup shoulo piovo a piopoily of lho hazaio ialo funclion
ano lho iosulls shoulo Lo piosonloo as a piosonlalion oi as a gioup iopoil.
(a) Show lhal lho hazaio ialo of an oxpononlially-oisliiLuloo ianoom
vaiiaLlo is conslanl.
(L) Show lhal if o (t) = Ii (T t) , lhon
r (t) =
d
dt
ln(o (t))
(c) Uso lho iosull in (L) lo show lhal
o (t) = c
_
t
:(u)Ju
(o) Show lhal if a ianoom vaiiaLlo T has a hazaio ialo of r (t) , lhon
lho p.o.f. foi T is
j (t) = r (t) c
_
t
:(u)Ju
(o) If T is a posilivo ianoom vaiiaLlo, lhon ils moan j is givon Ly
j =
_
o
0
t) (t) dt
Uso inlogialion Ly pails wilh n = t ano d = ) (t) dt lo show lhal
j =
_
o
0
o (t) dt
ano lhus, comLinoo wilh (c), wo musl havo
j =
_
o
0
c
_
t
:(u)Ju
dt
JnnJ nr:
Allhough wo havo Loon using inlogials only lo iopiosonl pioLaLililios, wo can also
go lho olhoi way ano uso pioLaLilily lo oslimalo oolnilo inlogials. Molhoos which
uso pioLaLilily lo oslimalo oolnilo inlogials ano olhoi malhomalical quanlilios
aio oflon calloo `n n:| molhoos Locauso lhoy aio oflon Lasoo on ianoomly
gonoialoo numLois.
In lho pioLloms Lolow, oui focus will Lo piimaiily on oslimalion molhoos lhal
uso &n.J:n|j J.:.h&J :nnJn n:.nh|, whoio a ianoom vaiiaLlo A is saio lo
Lo &n.J:n|j J.:.h&J acioss an inloival [a, /[ if lhoio is an oqual pioLaLilily of
A Loing in any lwo suLinloivals of [a, /[ wilh lho samo longlh. If A is unifoimly
ianoomly oisliiLuloo acioss [a, /[ , lhon lho p.o.f. foi A is
j (a) =
_
l
bo
i) a i- i: [a, /[
0 ot/crni-c
Foi oxamplo, if A is unifoimly ianoomly oisliiLuloo acioss [0, 1[ , lhon ils p.o.f. if
j (a) =
_
1 i) a i- i: [0, 1[
0 ot/crni-c
Wo conconlialo on unifoimly oisliiLuloo ianoomvaiiaLlos Locauso mosl compuloi
algoLia syslom ianoom numLoi gonoialois will gonoialo unifoimly oisliiLuloo
ianoom numLois.
1. * Supposo lhal ) (a) _ 0 on [a, /[ ano lhal lhoio is a numLoi ` such lhal
) (a) _ ` foi all a in [a, /[ . Show lhal if A is unifoimly oisliiLuloo acioss
[a, /[ ano 1 is unifoimly oisliiLuloo acioss [0, `[ , lhon
Ii (1 _ ) (A)) =
1
` (/ a)
_
b
o
) (a) da
(You mighl wanl lo oiaw a picluio lisl)
2. * Uso lho iosull in oxoiciso 1 lo gonoialo an appioximalion of
_
l
0
sin
_
a
2
_
da
In pailiculai, oxplain ano implomonl lho following psouoo-cooo:
i. lol counl = 0
ii. Foi i fiom 1 lo 1000 oo
A. chooso A unifoimly fiom [0, 1[
L. chooso 1 unifoimly fiom [0, 1[
C. if 1 _ sin
_
A
2
_
lhon counl = counl 1
iii. ono oo
iv. oslimalo of inlogial = counl 1000.
8. * As an alloinalivo, uso an aigumonl similai lo lho lasl soclion lo show lhal
givon a ianoom vaiiaLlo A wilh j.d.). j (a)ano a funclion ), lho rJ
n|& (i.o., lho avoiago valuo) of ) (A) is
) (A) =
_
o
o
) (a) j (a) da
Also, oxplain why if A is unifoimly ianoomly oisliiLuloo ovoi [a, /[ , lhon
lhis iooucos lo
) (A) =
1
/ a
_
b
o
) (a) da
If I woio lo gonoialo 1000 unifoimly oisliiLuloo ianoomnumLois A
l
, . . . , A
l000
fiom [a, /[ , lhon whal is lho appioximalo valuo of
) (A
l
) ) (A
2
) . . . ) (A
l000
)
1000
6. HYPLRBOLlC AND lNVLRSL
FUNCTlONS
Calculus is nol only a moans of sluoying funclions, Lul il is also a lool foi :n.nj
J&n.n. 1his iooa will Lo an impoilanl lhomo in lho noxl foui chaplois. In facl,
lhis iooa is ono of lho mosl impoilanl aspocls of calculus, Locauso il allows us lo
oosign funclions spocilcally foi lho applicalion al hano.
Foi oxamplo, lhoio aio piocossos which aio Losl moooloo Ly aiilhmolic com-
Linalions of oxpononlial funclions. Such comLinalions aio calloo lho hj:h|.
J&n.n Locauso lhoy aio closoly iolaloo lo hypoiLolas (much liko liigonomoliic
funclions aio iolaloo lo ciiclo ano aio lhus somolimos iofoiioo lo as lho ciiculai
funclions).
Moioovoi, somo of lho mosl impoilanl funclions in malhomalics ano scionco
aio .n: J&n.n, whoio a funclion p (a) is lho invoiso of a funclion ) (a) if
) ano p cancol unooi composilion ovoi somo iango of inpuls. Foi oxamplo,
_
a is
lho invoiso of a
2
on (0, ) sinco
_
a
2
= a )or a 0 a:d
__
a
_
2
= a )or a 0
Likowiso, lho oxpononlial ano naluial logaiilhm funclions aio invoisos of oach
olhoi on (0, ) Locauso
c
In(i)
= ln(c
i
) = a )or a|| a 0
All of lhoso now" funclions (i.o., lhoy aio now lo us) havo lhoii own uniquo sols
of piopoilios, ioonlilios, ooiivalivo foimulas, ano inlogial foims. In lhis chaploi,
wo oxploio somo of lhoso now funclions Lolh in lho iolo lhal lhoy play in calculus
ano in lho iolo lhal calculus plays in sluoying lhom. SuLsoquonl chaplois will
lhon conlinuo lhis iooa of calculus as a funclion-cioalion" lool.
6.1 The Hyperbolic FuncLions
DehnItIon oI tLe HyerLoIIc FunctIons
Wo Login lhis chaploi Ly inliooucing an impoilanl now class of funclions known as
lho hj:h|. J&n.n. 1ho hypoiLolic funclions aio iolaloo lo lho liigonomoliic
funclions ano occui fioquonlly in applicalions.
1o Login wilh, lho hj:h|. .n ano hj:h|. .n, which aio calloo lho
cosh" ano lho sinch" funclions, iospoclivoly, aio oolnoo
cosh(a) =
c
i
c
i
2
, sinh(a) =
c
i
c
i
2
(6.1)
In aooilion, lho hj:h|. nnjn, hj:h|. nnjn, hj:h|. nn nnJ
hj:h|. nn aio oolnoo iospoclivoly
lanh(a) =
sinh(a)
cosh(a)
, colh(a) =
cosh(a)
sinh(a)
,
HYPLRBOLlC AND lNVLRSL FUNCTlONS 441
soch(a) =
1
cosh(a)
, csch(a) =
1
sinh(a)
1ho ooiivalivos of lho hypoiLolic funclions follow fiom lhoii oolnilions. In-
oooo, lho oolnilion of cosh(a) implios lhal
d
da
cosh(a) =
d
da
c
i
c
i
2
=
c
i
c
i
2
= sinh(a)
Likowiso, lho oolnilions of lho hypoiLolic funclions imply lho following:
d
da
sinh(a) = cosh(a) ,
d
da
cosh(a) = sinh(a)
d
da
lanh(a) = soch
2
(a) ,
d
da
colh(a) = csch
2
(a)
d
da
soch(a) = soch(a) lanh(a) ,
d
da
csch(a) = csch(a) colh(a)
Soo oxoiciso 81 foi oolails.
IXAMIII 1 Fino )
t
(a) if ) (a) = lanh(lna) .
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo uso lho chain iulo lo oLlain
)
t
(a) =
d
da
lanh(inpul) = soch
2
(inpul)
d
da
inpul
whoio lho inpul is lho funclion ln(a) . As a iosull, wo havo
)
t
(a) = soch
2
(lna)
d
da
lna =
1
a
soch
2
(lna)
IXAMIII 2 Lvalualo
J
Ji
_
c
3i
cosh(2a)

d
da
_
c
3i
cosh(2a)
=
_
d
da
c
3i
_
cosh(2a) c
3i
d
da
cosh(2a)
= c
3i
_
d
da
8a
_
cosh(2a) c
3i
sinh(2a)
_
d
da
2a
_
= 8c
3i
cosh(2a) 2c
3i
sinh(2a)
1& &n h hn.n :&| &.|..J .n rnn| . Chock youi Ioaoing
IroertIes oI tLe HyerLoIIc FunctIons
Moioovoi, nolico lhal (6.1) implios lhal
cosh
2
(a) sinh
2
(a) =
_
c
i
c
i
2
_
2
_
c
i
c
i
2
_
2
=
c
2i
2c
i
c
i
c
2i
4

c
2i
2c
i
c
i
c
2i
4
=
c
2i
2 c
2i
c
2i
2 c
2i
4
442 HYPLRBOLlC AND lNVLRSL FUNCTlONS
sinco c
i
c
i
= 1. Sinco lho lasl oxpiossion iooucos lo
d
d
= 1, lhis loaos lo
cosh
2
(a) sinh
2
(a) = 1 (6.2)
(aooilional pioofs in lho oxoicisos). Division lhioughoul Ly cosh
2
(a) lhon loaos
lo lho ioonlily
1 lanh
2
(a) = soc h
2
(a)
1ho hypoiLolic funclions havo many olhoi piopoilios similai lo lhal of lho
ciiculai liigonomoliic funclions, incluoing lho following:
sinh(a) = sinh(a) cosh(a) = cosh(a) (6.8)
sinh(a j) = sinh(a) cosh(j) cosh(a) sinh(j) (6.4)
cosh(a j) = cosh(a) cosh(j) sinh(a) sinh(j) (6.)
Aooilional piopoilios will Lo ooiivoo in lho oxoicisos ano oxamplos.
IXAMIII J Show lhal sin(2a) = 2 sinh(a) cosh(a) .
SoIutIon: If wo lol a = j in (6.4), lhon
sinh(2a) = sinh(a a)
= sinh(a) cosh(a) sinh(a) cosh(a)
= 2 sinh(a) cosh(a)
Giaphically, lho ioonlily cosh
2
(t)sinh
2
(t) = 1 implios lhal lho poinl (cosht, sinht)
is on lho hj:h|n
a
2
j
2
= 1
which is analogous lo lho facl lhal (cos 0, sin0) is a poinl on lho unil ciiclo.
1-1: HypoiLolic funclions oolnoo Ly a hypoiLola
As a iosull, cosh(a) ano sinh(a) Lolh appioach as a Locomos aiLiliaiily laigo.
Sinco lanh(a) is lho ialio of lwo funclions sinh(a) ano cosh(a) lhal aio appioach-
ing al lho samo ialo, lanh(a) appioachos 1 as a appioachos .
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
j = cosh(a)
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
j = sinh(a)
x
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
2
1
0
-1
-2
j = lanh(a)
1-2: Giaphs of lhioo hypoiLolic funclions
THL HYPLRBOLlC FUNCTlONS 448
1ho giaph of cosh(a) shoulo Lo familiai, sinco a hanging caLlo such as powoi lino
is moooloo Ly lho giaph of a hypoiLolic cosino, as wo will oxploio al lho ono of
lhis soclion ano in laloi soclions of lho loxl.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = lanh(a)
whon a = 0.
SoIutIon: Sinco j
t
= soch
2
(a) , lho slopo of lho langonl lino al a = 0
is
j
t
(0) = soc h
2
(0) =
1
cosh
2
(0)
= 1
Sinco ) (0) = lanh(0) = 0, lho langonl lino has a slopo of 1 ano passos
lhiough (0, 0):
j = 0 1 (a 0) = a
1hus, j = a is lho langonl lino lo j = lanh(a) al (0, 0) .
x
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
1-8: 1ho lino j = a is langonl lo j = lanh(a) al (0, 0) .
1hn . h | J h nnjn |.n j = cosh(a) n a = 0 Chock youi Ioaoing
AntIderIvatIves oI tLe HyerLoIIc FunctIons
Anliooiivalivos of hypoiLolic funclions follow fiom lho ooiivalivo foimulas aLovo.
In pailiculai, wo havo lho following:
_
cosh(a) da = sinh(a) C
_
sinh(a) da = cosh(a) C
_
soch
2
(a) da = lanh(a) C
_
csch
2
(a) da = colh(a) C
_
soch(a) lanh(a) da = soch(a) C,
_
csch(a) colh(a) da = csch(a) C
Also, lho oolnilion of lho hypoiLolic funclions may Lo usoo in ovalualing anli-
ooiivalivos involving hypoiLolic funclions.
_
acosh(a) da
SoIutIon: 1aLulai inlogialion wilh n = a ano d = cosh(a) loaos lo
n d
a cosh(a)
1 sinh(a)
0 cosh(a)
_
acosh(a) da = asinh(a) cosh(a) C
IXAMIII 0 Lvalualo
_
lanh(a) da
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, wo uso lho oolnilion of lho hypoiLolic lan-
gonl lo oLlain
_
lanh(a) da =
_
sinh(a) da
cosh(a)
1hus, if n = cosh(a) , lhon dn = sinh(a) da ano
_
lanh(a) da =
_
sinh(a) da
cosh(a)
=
_
dn
n
= ln[n[ C
As a iosull, lho anliooiivalivo is
_
lanh(a) da = ln[cosh(a)[ C
In aooilion, lho ioonlilios
cosh
2
(a) = 1 sinh
2
(a) a:d soch
2
(a) = 1 lanh
2
(a)
aio also usoo lo simplify anliooiivalivos.
IXAMIII 7 Lvalualo
_
cosh
3
(a) da
SoIutIon: Wiiling cosh
3
(a) = cosh
2
(a) cosh(a) allows us lo uso an
ioonlily:
_
cosh
3
(a) da =
_
cosh
2
(a) cosh(a) da
=
_
_
1 sinh
2
(a)
_
cosh(a) da
If n = sinh(a) , lhon dn = cosh(a) da ano
_
cosh
3
(a) da =
_
_
1 sinh
2
(a)
_
cosh(a) da
=
_
1 n
2
dn
= n
n
3
8
C
= sinh(a)
1
8
sinh
3
(a) C
1hn . soch
2
(a) lanh
2
ArcIengtL oI a Catenary
A hanging powoi lino is an oxamplo of a cuivo calloo a nnn:j, whoio a calonaiy
is all oi pail of lho cuivo j =
l
o
cosh(aa) foi a conslanl a 0.
1-4: Iowoi linos imply cuivos of lho foim j =
l
o
cosh(aa) .
Aiclonglhs of calonaiios can Lo compuloo using lho ioonlily
cosh
2
() = 1 sinh
2
()
lo simplify unooi lho squaio iool.
IXAMIII 8 Whal is lho aiclonglh of lho calonaiy j =
l
2
cosh(2a)
ovoi [1, 1[
SoIutIon: Sinco j
t
=
l
2
sinh(2a)
_
J
Ji
2a
_
=
l
2
sinh(2a) 2 = sinh(2a) ,
wo havo
1 [j
t
[
2
= 1 sinh
2
(2a) = cosh
2
(2a)
- =
_
l
l
_
cosh
2
(2a)da = 2
_
l
0
cosh(2a) da
sinco cosh(2a) is ovon. Inlogialion lhon loaos lo
- = sinh(2a)[
l
0
= sinh(2)
In pailiculai, supposo a caLlo is susponooo Lolwoon lwo polos a oislanco d apail,
ano supposo lhal lho mioolo of lho caLlo sags lo a hoighl / whon il is connocloo
al oqual hoighls c lo lho lwo polos:
1-: Iaiamolois foi Calonaiy
Al lho ono of chaploi 7 wo show lhal lho caLlo implios lho cuivo
j = /
1
a
(cosh(aa) 1)
whoio a is lho solulion lo lho oqualion cosh
_
l
2
ad
_
= 1 a (c /) .
1-6: Calonaiy wilh oqualion j = /
l
o
[cosh(aa) 1[
IXAMIII 0 A caLlo hanging Lolwoon lwo polos lhal aio 84 fool
apail sags lo a hoighl of 1 fool in ils mioolo. If il is connocloo lo oach
polo al a hoighl of 21 fool, lhon ils shapo is givon Ly
j = 1 2 (cosh(0.04a) 1)
How long is lho caLlo
20 10 0 -10 -20
20
15
10
5
0
1-7: Calonaiy in oxamplo 8
SoIutIon: Sinco j
t
= sinh(0.04a) , wo havo
1 [j
t
[
2
= 1 sinh
2
(0.04a) = cosh
2
(0.04a)
- =
_
l7
l7
_
cosh
2
(0.04a)da = 2
_
l7
0
cosh(0.04a) da
sinco cosh(0.04a) is ovon. Inlogialion lhon loaos lo
- =
2
0.04
sinh(0.04a)
l7
0
= 0 sinh(0.68) = 86.68 )cct
1hus, if lho caLlo was 84 fool long whon susponooo, lhon il sliolchoo
aLoul 2 fool, 8 inchos ouo lo sagging.
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ )
t
(a) J: nh J h J||&.nj: .
1. ) (a) = cosh(8a) 2. ) (a) = asinh(a)
8. ) (a) = cosh
_
a
2
_
4. ) (a) = c
i
soch(a)
. ) (a) = sinh(2a) 6. ) (a) = sin(a) sinh(a)
7. ) (a) = sinh
_
a
3
_
8. ) (a) = cosh
2
(a)
0. ) (a) = ln(cosh(a)) 10. ) (a) = sinh
2
_
a
3
_
1n|&n h J||&.nj.
11.
_
cosh(8a) da 12.
_
sinh(a) da
18.
_
asoch
_
a
2
_
lanh
_
a
2
_
da 14.
_
acsch
2
_
a
2
_
da
1.
_
asoch
2
(a) da 16.
_
cosh(8a) da
17.
_
cosh(lna) da 18.
_
lanh(lna) da
1 h J]n..n .n ;.1) : h J||&.nj:
10. cosh(a) = cosh(a) 20. sinh(a) = sinh(a)
21. 2 sinh(a) cosh(a) = sinh(2a) 22. cosh
2
(a) sinh
2
(a) = cosh(2a)
28. lanh(a) =
c
i
c
i
c
i
c
i
24. lanh(a) =
c
2i
1
c
2i
1
2.
J
Ji
sinh(a) = cosh(a) 26. soch
2
(a) = 1 lanh
2
(a)
27. Whal is lho longlh ovoi [ln(2) , ln(2)[ of lho calonaiy cuivo j = cosh(a).
28. Whal is lho longlh ovoi [10, 10[ of lho calonaiy cuivo
j = 10 20 cosh
_
a
20
_
29. A chain hangs Lolwoon lwo polos lhal aio 82 ln(2) - 22.18 fool apail sags lo
a hoighl of 10 fool in ils mioolo. If oilhoi ono is al a hoighl of 14 fool, lhon
oo lho following:
(a) Uso lguio 1-6 lo show lhal lho oqualion of lho calonaiy foimoo Ly
lho chain is
) (a) = 10 16
_
cosh
_
a
16
_
1
_
(L) Fino lho longlh of lho chain using lho iosull in (a).
30. Try It Out! Fino a caLlo connocloo al oqual hoighls c Lolwoon lwo polos
lhal aio a oislanco d apail. Moasuio lho hoighl / of lho caLlo in lho mioolo.
Doloimino oilhoi giaphically oi numoiically lho appioximalo valuo of a whoio
lho funclion
1(a) = cosh
_
1
2
ad
_
1 a (c /)
is oqual lo 0. SuLslilulo lhis valuo of a inlo lho oqualion of lho calonaiy
j = /
1
a
(cosh(aa) 1)
ano lhon compulo ils longlh ovoi [d2, d2[ .
31. Lol`s oslaLlish lho ooiivalivo foimulas foi lho hypoiLolic funclions.
(a) Uso lho facl lhal sinh(a) =
t
2
ano cosh(a) =
t
2
lo show
lhal
d
da
sinh(a) = cosh(a)
(L) Uso lho oolnilions of lho hypoiLolic funclions, lho quolionl iulo,
ano lho ooiivalivos
d
da
sinh(a) = cosh(a) ,
d
da
cosh(a) = sinh(a)
lo show lhal
d
da
lanh(a) = soch
2
(a) , a:d
d
da
colh(a) = csch
2
(a)
(c) Uso lho oolnilions of lho hypoiLolic funclions, lho quolionl iulo,
ano lho ooiivalivos
d
da
sinh(a) = cosh(a) ,
d
da
cosh(a) = sinh(a)
lo show lhal
d
da
soch(a) = soch(a) lanh(a) , a:d
d
da
csch(a) = csch(a) colh(a)
32. 1his oxoiciso oxploios somo olhoi ioonlilios foi lho hypoiLolic sino ano cosino
funclions:
(a) Uso lho oolnilions in (6.1) lo show lhal
c
i
= cosh(a) sinh(a)
(L) Uso lho oolnilions in (6.1) lo show lhal
c
i
= cosh(a) sinh(a)
(c) Uso lho oolnilions in (6.1) lo show lhal
cosh(a j) = cosh(a) cosh(j) sinh(a) sinh(j)
(o) Uso lho oolnilions in (6.1) lo show lhal
sinh(a j) = sinh(a) cosh(j) cosh(a) sinh(j)
(o) OLlain (6.2) Ly lolling j = a in lho ioonlily in (c).
33. 1ho following oxoiciso oxploios lho giaph of soch(a) using
soch(a) =
2
c
i
c
i
(a) Show lhal soch(a) has a maximum whon a = 0.
(L) Show lhal
lim
io
soch(a) = 0
(c) Lxplain why soch(a) is always posilivo.
(o) Uso lho infoimalion in (a)-(c) lo skolch lho giaph of soch(a) . Com-
paio lo a giaph wilh a giaphing calculaloi.
34. 1ho following oxoiciso oxploios lho giaph of csch(a) using
csch(a) =
2
c
i
c
i
(a) Lxplain why csch(a) has no oxlioma. Whoio is lho voilical asymp-
lolo of csch(a)
(L) Show lhal
lim
io
csch(a) = 0
(c) Whoio is csch(a) posilivo, ano whoio is il nogalivo
(o) Whoio is csch(a) concavo up, ano whoio is il concavo oown
(o) Uso lho iosulls in (a)-(o) lo skolch lho giaph of csch(a) . Compaio
lo a giaph of csch(a) on a giaphing calculaloi.
35. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay pioving (6.2) Ly showing lhal
d
da
cosh
2
(a) =
d
da
sinh
2
(a)
ano lhon showing lhal cosh
2
(a) oilois fiom sinh
2
(a) Ly lho conslanl 1.
(Hinl: consiooi a = 0).
36. Uso lho oolnilion of lanh(a) lo show lhal
lim
io
lanh(a) = 1 ano lim
io
lanh(a) = 1
37. Lol j (t) = cosh(it) , whoio i is lho imaginaiy unil (i.o., i
2
= 1). Show lhal
j (t) is lho solulion lo lho haimonic oscillaloi
j
tt
j = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0 (6.6)
Lxplain why (6.6) implios lhal j (t) = cos (t) ano lhus lhal
cosh(it) = cos (t)
38. Show lhal n(t) = sinh(it) ano (t) = i sin(t) aio Lolh solulions lo
j
tt
j = 0, j (0) = 0, j
t
(0) = i
(whoio i
2
= 1). 1hon oxplain why lhis implios lhal
sinh(it) = i sin(t)
39. 1ho Gn&nj :h in Sainl Louis is an invoiloo nnn:j wilh oqualion
j = 608.807 68.7672 cosh(0.0100888a) (6.7)
whoio j is lho hoighl in fool of lho conloi of lho aich al a fool fiom lho poinl
immooialoly Lolow ils conloi.
x
300 200 100 0 -100 -200 -300
600
400
200
0
-200
1-8: 1ho Galoway Aich in Sainl Louis is a HypoiLolic Cosino
(a) How high is lho aich al ils highosl poinl
(L) Many pooplo lhink lho Galoway aich is a n:nh|n. Howovoi, a
paiaLolic shapo ooos nol havo lho sliucluial slaLilily lhal a calo-
naiy has. Giaph Lolh lho calonaiy (6.7) ano lho paiaLola
j = 62. 002
_
1
a
2
200.2261
2
_
ovoi lho inloival [800, 800[ . How oiloionl aio lho lwo cuivos
(c) How long is lho Galoway aich in Sainl Louis
40. 1ho suifaco of iovolulion oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho giaph of j = cosh(a)
aLoul lho a-axis is calloo a nn.J.
1-0: Calonoio in oxamplo 40
Il is a lypo of suifaco known as a n.n.nn| &:Jn, in lhal of all lho suifacos
connocling lho lwo ciiclos on oilhoi ono, il is lho ono wilh lho loasl suifaco
aioa. Domonslialo lhis iooa Ly lnoing lho suifaco aioa of lho calonoio
oLlainoo Ly iovolving j = cosh(a) ovoi [ln2, ln2[ aLoul lho a-axis, ano
lhon show lhal il is loss lhan lho suifaco aioa of lho cylinooi wilh iaoius
cosh(ln2) ano hoighl 2 ln(2) (which also connocls lho lwo ciiclos in lho
lguio aLovo).
1r:. 1- r|: h Jn hn .J n :n|.nj &n n h n nn hn n
&n|njh J ` ;:n&nJ |nnhJn') nnJ .J h nn hn n Jh d hnnh
h &:Jn &h: h &n . :njn.nj, hn h |.j J h &n .
=
_
p`
2
lanh
_
2d
`
_
&h: p . h n|:n.n J& j:n.j.
1-10: Ocoan wavo wilh volocily , wavolonglh `, ano ovoi ocoan wilh ooplh d
41. Supposo lhal a wavo wilh wavolonglh of 800 fool is liavoling acioss a soclion
of lho ocoan wilh a ooplh of 100 fool. How fasl is lho wavo liavoling (uso
p = 82 foolsoc
2
) How fasl is lhal in milos poi houi (1 milo = 280 fool).
42. A 1sunami (i.o., a lioal wavo) is consiooioo lo havo an aiLiliaiily long
wavolonglh ` as il liavols acioss opon ocoan, which has an avoiago ooplh of
18, 000 fool. Chooso a ioally Lig numLoi foi ` (o.g., ` = 18, 000, 000 )cct),
uso p = 82 foolsoc
2
, ano lhon oslimalo how fasl a 1sunami liavols acioss
opon ocoan. How fasl is lhal in milos poi houi (1 milo = 280 fool)
43. SLaIIov-vater Vaves: If d` < 0.0, lhon a wavo fools" lho Lollom of
lho ocoan. In lhis caso, wo usually ioplaco lanh
_
2tJ
X
_
Ly ils linoaiizalion al
0 (as a funclion of d). Wiilo a shoil ossay which usos lho linoaiizalion lo
oxplain why lho volocily of shallow-waloi wavos ooponos piimaiily on lho
ooplh of lho waloi ano is iolalivoly inooponoonl of lho wavolonglh of lho
wavo.
44. Dee-Vater Vaves: 1ho J &n: |.n. is lho oqualion givon Ly
=
_
p`
2
In a shoil ossay, oxplain why wo can ioplaco lanh
_
2tJ
X
_
Ly 1 whon
J
X
is
sumcionlly laigo, ano lhon show lhal lho iosull is lho ooop waloi limil.
1
6.2 lnverse FuncLions
InvertILIe FunctIons
Anolhoi impoilanl class of funclions aio lho .n: of lho funclions wo havo
pioviously oncounloioo. Foi oxamplo, wo havo alioaoy soon lhal lho naluial log-
aiilhm is lho .n: of lho oxpononlial. In lhis soclion, wo oxploio lho invoiso
funclion concopl moio closoly.
A funclion ) (a) is saio lo Lo n--n on an inloival (a, /) if lho inpuls
ano lho oulpuls aio in a n--n coiiosponoonco. Malhomalically, wo oonolo
n--n Ly 1-1, ano wo oolno il lo moan lhal
) (j) = ) () == j =
foi all j, in (a, /) .
Giaphically, lho h:..nn| |.n says lhal a funclion ) (a) is 1-1 on an
inloival (a, /) if any hoiizonlal lino inloisocls lho cuivo j = ) (a) al mosl onco.
2-1: ) is 1-1 if il has only ono inpul foi oach oulpul
Foi oxamplo, if a conlinuous funclion is incioasing on (a, /) , lhon il musl Lo
1
In mosl applicalions, sumcionlly laigo" is assumoo lo coiiosono lo a ialio of

0..
1-1. Likowiso, if a conlinuous funclion is oocioasing on (a, /) , lhon il is 1-1.
2-2: Monolono Funclions aio 1-1
1hus, a oiloionliaLlo funclion ) (a) is 1-1 on (a, /) only if il is monolono on (a, /) .
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho inloivals on which ) (a) = a
d
2a
2
1 is 1-1
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = 4a
3
4a = 4a
_
a
2
1
_
, wo havo )
t
(a) < 0
if a is in (, 1) oi if a is in (0, 1) , Lul )
t
(a) 0 on Lolh (1, 0)
ano (1, ) . 1hus, ) (a) = a
d
2a
2
1 is monolono ano lhus 1-1 on
oach of lho inloivals (, 1) , (1, 0) , (0, 1) ano (1, ) .
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
4
3
2
1
0
2-8: Lach soclion is lho giaph of a 1-1 funclion
If ) (a) is 1-1 on (a, /) ano has a iango (c, d) , lhon lho &: a = ) (j) implicilly
oolnos a funclion )
l
wilh a oomain of (c, d) ano a iango of (a, /) .
2-4: Domain of ) is iango of )
l
. Iango of ) is oomain of )
l
.
1ho funclion )
l
is pionouncoo ol invoiso" ano is calloo lho .n: of ) (a). 1his is OT a
quanlily iaisoo
lo a powoi.
1hal is, if ) (a) is 1-1 on (a, /) , lhon
j = )
l
(a) is lho samo as ) (j) = a
If il is possiLlo lo solvo foi j in a = ) (j) , lhon lho iosull is an oxplicil iopioson-
lalion of j = )
l
(a) .
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho invoiso oxplicilly of ) (a) = a
d
2a
2
1 ovoi
(1, )
lNVLRSL FUNCTlONS 48
SoIutIon: 1ho invoiso is oolnoo implicilly Ly a = ) (j), which is
a = j
d
2j
2
1 )or j i: (1, )
Facloiing yiolos a =
_
j
2
1
_
2
. 1hus, j 1 implios lhal
j
2
1 =
_
a
j
2
= 1
_
a
j =
_
1
_
a
Sinco j = )
l
(a) , wo lhus havo )
l
(a) =
_
1
_
a.
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
4
3
2
1
0
2-a: Giaph of ) ovoi (1, )
x
4 3 2 1 0
2
1
0
-1
-2
2-L: Giaph of )
l
(a) =
_
1
_
a
1hn J h 1 .n h nn.n )
l
.nJ.n Chock youi Ioaoing
Inverse FunctIons
Sinco j = )
l
(a) implios a = ) (j) , il follows lhal )
_
)
l
(a)
_
= ) (j) = a. 1hal
is, ) ano )
l
nn| &nJ: n..n. Inoooo, if ) (a) is 1-1 wilh a oomain (a, /)
ano a iango (c, d) , lhon foi oach a in (a, /) ano oach j in (c, d) wo havo
)
l
() (a)) = a a:d )
_
)
l
(j)
_
= j
Il is foi lhis ioason, wo say lhal )
l
(a) is lho .n: of ) (a) .
IXAMIII J Show lhal ) (a) = (1 c
i
)
2
is 1-1 foi all a ano lno ils
invoiso oxplicilly. 1hon compulo )
l
() (a)) .
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = 2 (1 c
i
) c
i
0 foi all a, ) is 1-1 foi all a.
1ho invoiso funclion is implicilly oolnoo Ly a = ) (j) , which is
a = (1 c
)
2
1o lno )
l
oxplicilly, wo solvo foi j:
_
a = 1 c
_
a 1 = c
j = ln
__
a 1
_
1hus, )
l
(a) = ln(
_
a 1) , ano consoquonlly,
)
l
() (a)) = )
l
_
(1 c
i
)
2
_
= ln
__
(1 c
i
)
2
1
_
= ln(1 c
i
1)
= ln(c
i
)
= a
1hal is, )
l
() (a)) = a.
Sinco j = )
l
(a) is lho samo as a = ) (j) , lho j:nh of )
l
(a) is lho ioloclion
of lho giaph of ) (a) acioss lho lino j = a. 1hal is, if poinls (j, ) aio mappoo lo
lho poinls (, j) , lhon lho giaph of ) (a) will Lo mappoo lo lho giaph of )
l
(a) .
2-6: Giaph of )
l
is giaph of ) iolocloo aLoul j = a
IXAMIII ! Whal is lho invoiso of ) (a) = c
i
SoIutIon: In chaploi 2, wo showoo lhal a = c
implicilly oolnos lho

nn&:n| |jn:.hn, ln(a) . Inoooo, ono of lho funoamonlal piopoilios of
ln(a) is lhal
ln(c
i
) = a a:d c
In(i)
= a
1hus, )
l
(a) = ln(a) is lho invoiso of ) (a) = c
i
. Moioovoi, lho giaph
of j = ln(a) is lho giaph of j = c
i
iolocloo aLoul lho lino j = a, as
is shown in lguio
x
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
2-7: Giaphs of j = c
i
ano j = ln(a)
lNVLRSL FUNCTlONS 4
IXAMIII Show lhal ) (a) = 0.7a
5
0.2a 0. is 1-1 ovoiy-
whoio, ano lhon skolch lho giaph of ils invoiso ovoi [1, 1.[.
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = 8.7a
d
0.2 0 foi all a, lho funclion ) (a)
is incioasing ano 1-1 foi all a. 1ho giaph of ) (a) = 0.7a
5
0.2a0.
ovoi [1, 1.[ can Lo piooucoo Ly a giaphing calculaloi. 1ho giaph of
)
l
(a) is lho ioloclion of lho giaph of ) (a) aLoul lho lino j = a.
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
2-8: Giaph of ) (a) is aLovo j = a; giaph of )
l
(a) is Lolow j = a.
1n rnn| , &hj n .n|j | J: j .n Chock youi Ioaoing
a = 0.7j
5
0.2j 0.
DerIvatIves oI Inverse FunctIons
If j = )
l
(a) is oiloionliaLlo on somo inloival (a, /) , lhon il is implicilly oolnoo
Ly ) (j) = a on lhal inloival. If ) is also oiloionliaLlo, lhon wo can uso .n|..
J.]:n.n.n lo lno j
t
:
d
da
) (j) =
d
da
a == )
t
(j)
d
da
j = 1
Division Ly )
t
(j) loaos lo an n&nn& n:nh| J.]:n.n| j&n.n:
dj
da
=
1
)
t
(j)
(6.8)
1hal is, lho ooiivalivo of )
l
(a) is implicilly oolnoo Ly a oiloionlial oqualion.
IXAMIII 0 Whal is lho ooiivalivo of lho invoiso of lho funclion
) (a) = 0.7a
5
0.2a 0.
SoIutIon: In oxamplo , wo saw lhal ) (a) has an invoiso foi all a.
1hus, a = ) (j) implios lhal
0.7j
5
0.2j 0. = a
Implicil oiloionlialion lhon loaos lo
d
da
_
0.7j
5
0.2j 0.
_
=
d
da
a
8.7j
d
j
t
0.2j
t
= 1
_
8.7j
d
0.2
_
j
t
= 1
1hus, lho invoiso funclion j = )
l
(a) is a solulion lo lho aulonomous
sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion
j
t
=
1
8.7j
d
0.2
Sinco j = )
l
(a) , wo can iowiilo (6.8) in lho foim
d)
l
(a)
da
=
1
)
t
[)
l
(a)[
(6.0)
Doiivalivos of invoiso funclions aio oflon compuloo using (6.0).
IXAMIII 7 Fino sinh
l
(a) , which is lho invoiso of ) (a) = sinh(a) .
Whal is ils ooiivalivo
SoIutIon: Sinco sinh
l
(a) is implicilly oolnoo Ly a = sinh(j) , wo
musl solvo foi j in
a =
c
2
1his simplilos lo 2a = c
, which upon mulliplying Ly c
yiolos
2ac
= (c
)
2
c
0 = (c
)
2
2ac
1
1ho iosull is a quaoialic in c
, so wo uso lho quaoialic foimula:

c
=
2a
_
4a
2
4
2
= a
_
a
2
1
Sinco c
0 foi all j, wo chooso lho posilivo iool ano oLlain

c
= a
_
a
2
1 == j = ln
_
a
_
a
2
1
_
Sinco j = sinh
l
(a) , applicalion of lho logaiilhm yiolos
sinh
l
(a) = ln
_
a
_
a
2
1
_
Howovoi, wo oo nol compulo
J
Ji
sinh
l
(a) using lhis iosull, Lul
wo insloao uso (6.0). If )
l
(a) = sinh
l
(a) , lhon ) (a) = sinh(a) ,
)
t
(a) = cosh(a) , ano
d)
l
(a)
da
=
1
)
t
[)
l
(a)[
==
d sinh
l
(a)
da
=
1
cosh
_
sinh
l
(a)
_
Sinco cosh
2
() sinh
2
() = 1, wo havo cosh() =
_
1 sinh
2
(),
so lhal if = sinh
l
(a) , lhon
d sinh
l
(a)
da
=
1
_
1 sinh
2
_
sinh
l
(a)
_
Ly oolnilion, lhough, sinh
2
_
sinh
l
(a)
_
=
_
sinh
_
sinh
l
(a)
__
2
= (a)
2
,
so lhal
d
da
sinh
l
(a) =
1
_
1 a
2
1hj J.J & & h .. : J: cosh() =
_
1 sinh
2
() Chock youi Ioaoing
SIoes oI Tangent LInes to Inverse FunctIons
1ho slopo of lho langonl lino lo j = ) (a) al a poinl (j, ) is )
t
(j) , which implios
lhal a iun of 1 loaos lo a iiso of )
t
(j) .
2-0: 1ho slopo of lho ioloclion of a lino is lho iocipiocal
of lho oiiginal slopo.
Ioloclion aLoul lho lino j = a iosulls in a lino langonl lo j = )
l
(a) al lho
poinl (, j) , ano sincos iisos ovoi iuns aio iolocloo lo iuns ovoi iisos, lho slopo of
lho lino al (, j) is 1)
t
(j) . Howovoi, sinco j = )
l
() ano sinco
_
)
l
_
t
() is lho
slopo of lho langonl lino lo j = )
l
(a) al (, j) , wo havo
_
)
l
_
t
() =
1
)
t
[)
l
()[
Whon )
l
(a) cannol Lo oolnoo oxplicilly, lhis molhoo piovioos a moans of oo-
loimining lho slopo ano oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = )
l
(a) al lho poinl
(, j) .
IXAMIII 8 Fino lho oqualion ano langonl lino lo j = )
l
(a) al
(1., 1) if ) (a) = 0.7a
5
0.2a 0..
SoIutIon: Sinco (1., 1) is on lho cuivo j = )
l
(a) , wo havo )
l
(1.) =
1 ano
_
)
l
_
t
(1.) =
1
)
t
[)
l
(1.)[
=
1
)
t
(1)
Moioovoi, )
t
(a) = 8.7a
d
0.2, so lhal
_
)
l
_
t
(1.) =
1
8.7 (1)
d
0.2
=
1
4
1hus, lho langonl lino is lho lino lhiough (1., 1) wilh slopo : =
l
d
,
which is
j = 1
1
4
(a 1.) = 0.62 0.2a
as is shown in lho lguio Lolow:
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
2-10: Giaph of ) (a) is aLovo j = a; giaph of )
l
(a) is Lolow j = a.
Lxoicisos:
1:n.n n &h.h .n:n| h J||&.nj J&n.n n: nnn nnJ hn 1-1.
1. ) (a) = a
d
2a
2
2. ) (a) = 8a
5
a
3
8. ) (a) = sin(a) 4. ) (a) = soc (a)
. ) (a) = c
i
a 6. ) (a) = ln
_
a
2
1
_
1.nJ nn .n:n| n &h.h ) (a) . 1-1, nnJ hn ]nJ . .n: r|..|j hj |.nj
J: j .n :n J a .n nn j&n.n J h J:n ) (j) = a.
7. ) (a) = 8a 1 8. ) (a) = 1 a
0. ) (a) = a
2
10. ) (a) = a
3
11. ) (a) =
l
i
12. ) (a) = a
2
8a
18. ) (a) =
_
1
i
9
_
9
14. ) (a) =
_
1
i
99
_
99
1. ) (a) = ln
_
a
2
1
_
16. ) (a) = ln(c
i
1)
17. ) (a) = cosh(a) 18. ) (a) = soch(a)
10. ) (a) = lanh(a) 20. ) (a) = c
2i
c
i
5h& hn nh J h J||&.nj J&n.n . 1-1, nnJ hn ]nJ h J.]:n.n|
j&n.n hn .n|..|j J]n h J:.n. J h .n:.
21. ) (a) = a
5
8a 22. ) (a) = a
7
8a
28. ) (a) = 2a sin(a) 24. ) (a) = 4a cos (2a)
1.nJ h J:.n. J )
l
J: nh J h J||&.nj J&n.n hj n|j.nj h
:&| ;.:). 1 n|jh:n nnJ .Jn.. .n|.Jj h :&|.
2. ) (a) = c
i
26. ) (a) = c
i
1
27. ) (a) = cosh(a) 28. ) (a) = lanh(a)
20. ) (a) =
_
a 1 80. ) (a) = ln(a)
31. Fino lho slopo ano oqualion of lho langonl lino al (, 0) lo j = )
l
(a) whon
) (a) = a
3
8a . Skolch lho giaph of j = )
l
(a) ovoi [1, 0[ Ly iolocling
lho giaph of j = ) (a) ovoi [1, 1[ .
32. Fino lho slopo ano oqualion of lho langonl lino al (2c, 1) lo j = )
l
(a)
whon ) (a) = c
i
ca. Skolch lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi [1, 1[, ano uso il lo
skolch lho giaph of j = )
l
(a) whon lho iango is [1, 1[ .
33. If a lompoialuio a is givon in

C, lhon ils oquivalonl lompoialuio ) in

1 is
a funclion of a givon Ly
) (a) = 82
0
a
Fino lho invoiso of ) (a). Whal ooos lho invoiso of ) (a) oo
34. A wailing limo ianoom vaiiaLlo T is oflon oxpononlially oisliiLuloo. 1ho
J.:.h&.n J&n.n foi lho oxpononlial pioLaLilily oonsily funclion is givon
Ly
1 (T) =
_
T
0
c
|/:
dt
whoio r is a conslanl iopiosonling lho nnn &n..nj .n. Show lhal 1 is
1-1, ano lhon compulo ils invoiso. Whal is iopiosonloo Ly 1
l
(j) if j is a
pioLaLilily in [0, 1[ .
35. TLe Hanner AetLod: Show lhal if ) (a) is 1-1 ano oiloionliaLlo, lhon
lho suLslilulion n = ) (a) loaos lo
_
) (a) da =
_
ndn
)
t
()
l
(n))
36. Uso lho hammoi molhoo in oxoiciso 8 lo ovalualo lho anliooiivalivo
_

_
1
_
ada
37. A J&n.n j:& is a sol G of funclions wilh lho following piopoilios:
i. 1ho .Jn.j J&n.n 1 (a) = a is in G.
ii. If ), p aio in G, lhon lhoii composilion ) p is also in G.
iii. If ) is in G, lhon )
l
is also in G.
Show lhal lho following six funclions foim a funclion gioup.
2
G =
_
1 (a) = a, ) (a) =
1
a
, p (a) = 1 a, /(a) =
a 1
a
, j (a) =
1
1 a
, (a) =
a
a 1
_
38. Show lhal lho funclions ) (a) =
l
i
, p (a) = 1 a, (a) =
i
il
ano 1 (a) = a
havo lho uniquo piopoily lhal lhoy aio lhoii own invoiso. Can you lno
anolhoi funclion lhal is ils own invoiso
39. VrIte to Learn: If j (a) is a pioLaLilily oonsily funclion foi a ianoom
vaiiaLlo A, lhon lho pioLaLilily lhal A is in lho inloival (, a) is givon
Ly lho J.:.h&.n J&n.n, 1 (a) , which is oolnoo
1 (a) =
_
i
o
j (t) dt
In a shoil ossay, oxplain why a oisliiLulion funclion is 1-1, why ils invoiso
1
l
has a oomain of [0, 1[, ano whal 1
l
(j) iopiosonls foi a givon j in
[0, 1[ .
2
1his funclion gioup is known as lho nnhn:nn. j:& ano is usoo in lho sluoy of cioss
ialios of linoai fiaclional liansfoimalions.
Lxoicisos 40-48 oxploio lho facl lhal lho naluial logaiilhm can Lo oolnoo Ly
ln(a) =
_
i
l
dt
t
(6.10)
40. Lol`s piovo lhal (6.10) is liuo Ly showing lhal lho inoolnilo inlogial is lho
invoiso of lho oxpononlial.
(a) Lvalualo lho ooiivalivo
d
da
_
t
l
dt
t
(L) Lxplain why lho iosull in (a) implios lhal
_
t
l
dt
t
= a C
(c) Lol a = 0 in (L). Whal is C
(o) Lxplain why (L) wilh lho valuo of C in (c) implios (6.10).
41. Lxplain why (6.10) implios lhal ln(1) = 0. 1hon show lhal (6.10) implios
lhal ln(a) ano ln(aa) havo lho samo ooiivalivo ano lhus lhal
ln(aa) = ln(a) C
whoio C = ln(a) .
42. Show lhal (6.10) implios lhal lho ooiivalivo of ln(a
:
) is r ln(a) . Uso lhis lo
show lhal
ln(a
:
) = r ln(a)
43. Lvalualo (6.10) using lho funoamonlal lhooiom. Whal is lho ooiivalivo of
(6.10)
6.3 lnverse TrigonomeLric FuncLions
TLe Inverse Tangent FunctIon
As an immooialo applicalion of lho iooas in lho piovious soclion, nolico lhal lho
oqualion a = lan(j) is nol lho giaph of a funclion:
8-1: Giaph of a = lan(j)
lNVLRSL TRlCONOMLTRlC FUNCTlONS 461
Howovoi, if wo iosliicl j lo lho inloival
_
t
2
,
t
2
_
, lhon a = lan(j) implicilly
oolnos lho .n: nnjn funclion j = lan
l
(a) . 1hal is, j = lan
l
(a) is lho lan
l
(a) is lho
invoiso langonl
funclion.
samo as a = lan(j) foi j in lho inloival
_
t
2
,
t
2
_
.
8-2: Giaph of j = lan
l
(a)
Il follows lhal j = lan
l
(a) is an incioasing ooo funclion wilh hoiizonlal
asymplolos
lim
io
lan
l
(a) =

2
a:d lim
io
lan
l
(a) =

2
Il also follows lhal whon whon a is in
_
t
2
,
t
2
_
, lhon wo havo
lan
l
(lan(a)) = a (6.11)
In aooilion, lan
_
lan
l
(a)
_
= a foi all a.
Moioovoi, lho ooiivalivo of j = lan
l
(a) can Lo ovalualoo Ly implicilly oif-
foionlialing lan(j) = a.
d
da
lan(j) =
d
da
a
soc
2
(j)
d
da
j = 1
d
da
j =
1
soc
2
(j)
1ho ioonlily soc
2
(j) = lan
2
(j) 1 lhon implios lhal
d
da
j =
1
lan
2
(j) 1
Finally, lan(j) = a implios lhal lan
2
(j) = a
2
. Sinco j = lan
l
(a) , wo havo
d
da
lan
l
(a) =
1
a
2
1
(6.12)
IXAMIII 1 Lvalualo
d
da
lan
l
_
1
a
_
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo musl compulo lho ooiivalivo of lan
l
(inpul)
whon lho inpul is a
l
. Fiom (6.12), wo havo
d
da
lan
l
(inpul) =
1
(inpul)
2
1
d
da
(inpul)
SuLsliluling a
l
foi lho inpul yiolos
d
da
lan
l
_
a
l
_
=
1
(a
l
)
2
1
d
da
_
a
l
_
=
1
a
2
1
_
a
2
_
which simplilos lo
d
da
lan
l
_
a
l
_
=
1
(a
2
1) a
2
=
1
1 a
2
IXAMIII 2 Lvalualo lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) = c
i
lan
l
(a) .
d
da
_
c
i
lan
l
(a)
_
=
_
d
da
c
i
_
lan
l
(a) c
i
_
d
da
lan
l
(a)
_
1ho ooiivalivo iulo (6.12) lhon implios lhal
d
da
_
c
i
lan
l
(a)
_
= c
i
lan
l
(a)
c
i
a
2
1
1hn . h J:.n. J j = lan
l
DehnItIon oI tLe Inverse SIne FunctIon
Similaily, lho cuivo a = sin(j) is nol lho giaph of j as a funclion of a. Lul lho
sectIon of a = sin(j) whoio j is in
_
t
2
,
t
2
is a funclion.
88: Giaph of a = sin(j)
1hus, wo oolno lho .n: .n J&n.n
8
oi sin
l
(a) lo Lo lho funclion oolnoo
implicilly Ly a = sin(j) whon j is in
_
t
2
,
t
2
. Il follows lhal
sin
l
(sin(a)) = a only if

2
_ a _

2
Moioovoi, lho oomain of lho invoiso sino funclion is [1, 1[ , which implios lhal
sin
_
sin
l
(a)
_
= a only if 1 _ a _ 1
1o oLlain lho ooiivalivo of lho invoiso sino funclion, wo iocall lhal j = sin
l
(a)
is lho samo as sin(j) = a. Implicil oiloionlialion implios lhal
d
da
sin(j) =
d
da
a
cos (j) j
t
= 1
j
t
=
1
cos (j)
8
1ho invoiso sino is also wiillon al limos as nicsin(a) oi asin(a) ano is also calloo lho aicsino
funclion. Likowiso, fnn
(a) is also calloo lho aic langonl funclion ano is also somolimos wiillon
alan(a) oi nicfnn(a) .
Howovoi, sinco cos (j) =
_
1 sin
2
(j) ano sinco sin(j) = a, lhis simplilos lo
j
t
=
1
_
1 sin
2
(j)
=
1
_
1 a
2
1hal is, lho ooiivalivo of sin
l
(a) is
d
da
sin
l
(a) =
1
_
1 a
2
(6.18)
IXAMIII J Lvalualo
J
Ji
sin
l
(c
i
)
SoIutIon: Wo iowiilo lho pioLlom as
d
da
sin
l
(c
i
) =
d
da
sin
l
(inpul)
whoio lho inpul is c
i
. 1ho chain iulo ano (6.18) imply lhal
d
da
sin
l
(inpul) =
1
_
1 (inpul)
2
d
da
(inpul)
SuLsliluling c
i
foi lho inpul yiolos
d
da
sin
l
(c
i
) =
1
_
1 (c
i
)
2
d
da
(c
i
) =
c
i
_
1 c
2i
IXAMIII ! Lvalualo
J
Ji
_
c
i
sin
l
(c
i
)

SoIutIon: Wo Login wilh lho piooucl iulo:
d
da
_
c
i
sin
l
(c
i
)

=
_
d
da
c
i
_
sin
l
(c
i
) c
i
_
d
da
sin
l
(c
i
)
_
1ho chain iulo is lhon applioo lo lho lasl loim, which yiolos
d
da
c
i
sin
l
(c
i
) = c
i
sin
l
(c
i
) c
i
1
_
1 (c
i
)
2
d
da
c
i
= c
i
sin
l
(c
i
) c
i
c
i
_
1 c
2i
= c
i
sin
l
(c
i
)
1
_
1 c
2i
1hn . sin
l
(sin(1)) Chock youi Ioaoing
AntIderIvatIves and IntegraIs
1ho ooiivalivo iulo (6.12) implios lho anliooiivalivo iulo
_
da
1 a
2
= lan
l
(a) C
Moioovoi, lho funoamonlal lhooiom says lhal lan
l
(a) can Lo oolnoo r|..|j
Ly an inoolnilo inlogial, in lhal
lan
l
(a) =
_
i
0
dt
t
2
1
Numoiical molhoos foi oslimaling inlogials can lhus Lo usoo lo compulo lan
l
(a)
foi givon valuo of a.
Howovoi, in applicalions, wo oflon uso lho moio gonoial foim of lho anliooiiv-
alivo givon Ly
_
da
a
2
a
2
=
1
a
lan
l
_
a
a
_
C (6.14)
whoio a is a conslanl.
IXAMIII Lvalualo
_
da
a
2
4
SoIutIon: Compaiison wilh (6.14) implios lhal a
2
= 4, so lhal a = 2.
1hus, (6.14) yiolos
_
da
a
2
4
=
1
2
lan
l
_
a
2
_
C (6.1)
IXAMIII 0 Lvalualo
_
lan
l
(a) da
SoIutIon: Lolling n = lan
l
(a) ano d = da iosulls in
n = lan
l
(a) d = da
dn =
l
i
l
da = a
so lhal applicalion of inlogialion Ly pails yiolos
_
lan
l
(a) da = alan
l
(a)
_
a
a
2
1
da
1o ovalualo lho lasl inlogial, wo uso lho suLslilulion n = a
2
1,
dn =
l
2
ada which yiolos
_
lan
l
(a) da = alan
l
(a)
1
2
_
dn
n
= alan
l
(a)
1
2
ln[n[ C
= alan
l
(a)
1
2
ln
a
2
1
C
Similaly, lho invoiso sino funclion salislos
_
da
_
1 a
2
= sin
l
(a) C
ano lho funoamonlal lhooiom implios lhal sin
l
(a) is oxpliclly oolnoo as
sin
l
(a) =
_
i
0
dt
_
1 t
2
Howovoi, wo moio oflon uso lho moio gonoial foim of lho anliooiivalivo givon Ly
_
da
_
a
2
a
2
= sin
l
_
a
a
_
C (6.16)
whoio a is a conslanl.
IXAMIII 7 Lvalualo
_
c
i
da
_
0 c
2i
SoIutIon: Wo lol n = c
i
, dn = c
i
da. SuLslilulion ano (6.16) wilh
a = 8 yiolos
_
c
i
da
_
0 c
2i
=
_
dn
_
0 n
2
= sin
l
_
n
8
_
C = sin
l
_
c
i
8
_
C
IXAMIII 8 Lvalualo
_
sin
l
(a)
_
1 a
2
da
SoIutIon: Nolico lhal if n = sin
l
(a), lhon dn =
l
_
li
da ano
_
sin
l
(a)
_
1 a
2
da =
_
sin
l
(a)
1
_
1 a
2
da =
_
ndn
Sinco
_
ndn =
u
2
C ano n = sin
l
(a) , wo havo lhal
_
sin
l
(a)
_
1 a
2
da =
1
2
_
sin
l
(a)
2
C
1h: J.J h
l
2
n J:n .n rnn| Chock youi Ioaoing
HIgLt TrIangIes and Inverse TrIgononetrIc FunctIons
In many applicalions, lho invoiso langonl funclion is wiillon in lho foim 1ho invoiso
langonl funclion
maps numLois
lo anglos.
0 = lan
l
(a) (6.17)
whoio 0 is an anglo. Wo inloipiol (6.17) lo moan lhal lho .n: nnjn J&n.n
nn n&nh: a nnj| 0. Moioovoi, wo oflon uso iighl liianglos lo simplify
oxpiossions involving lan
l
(a) .
IXAMIII 0 Simplify sin
_
lan
l
(2a)
_
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo lol 0 = lan
l
(2a). As a iosull, lan(0) = 2a,
which implios lhal
lan(0) =
2a
1
=
ojj
ad
1ho Iylhagoioan lhooiom implios lhal lho hypolonuso has a longlh of
_
4a
2
1. 1hus, simplifying sin
_
lan
l
(2a)
_
is lho samo as compuling
sin(0). 1hal is,
sin
_
lan
l
(2a)
_
= sin(0) =
ojj
/jj
=
2a
_
4a
2
1
Wo also uso iighl liianglos lo simplify oxpiossions involving sin
l
(a) . Foi oxamplo,
lo simplify
lan
_
sin
l
_
a
2
__
wo lisl lol 0 = sin
l
_
i
2
_
so lhal
sin(0) =
a
2
=
ojj
/jj
Sinco lho lowoi sioo is
_
4 a
2
Ly lho Iylhagoioan lhooiom, wo havo
lan
_
sin
l
_
a
2
__
= lan(0) =
a
_
4 a
2
Moioovoi, somolimos wo musl uso an ioonlily whon simplifying wilh a iighl lii-
anglo.
IXAMIII 10 Simplify sin
_
2 sin
l
(a)
_
SoIutIon: Wo lol 0 = sin
l
(a) , which yiolos
sin0 =
a
1
=
ojj
/jj
1ho Iylhagoioan lhooiom implios lhal lho lowoi sioo has a longlh of
_
1 a
2
. Howovoi, simplifying sin
_
2 sin
l
(a)
_
ioquiios lho ioonlily
sin(20) = 2 sin(0) cos (0). 1hal is,
sin
_
2 sin
l
(a)
_
= sin(20) = 2 sin(0) cos (0) = 2
a
1
_
1 a
2
1
= 2a
_
1 a
2
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ )
t
(a) J: nh J h J||&.nj nnJ .n|.Jj n||j:
1. ) (a) = sin
l
(2a) 2. ) (a) = lan
l
(8a)
8. ) (a) = lan
l
_
a
3
_
4. ) (a) = sin
l
(c
i
)
. ) (a) = lan
l
(sinh(a)) 6. ) (a) = sin
l
(lanh(a))
7. ) (a) =
_
1 a
2
_
l/2
sin
l
(a) 8. ) (a) = lan
l
__
a
2
1
_
0. ) (a) = soc
_
lan
l
(a)
_
10. ) (a) = soc
_
sin
l
(a)
_
11. ) (a) =
_
sIn
(i)
0
cos (t) dt 12. ) (a) =
_
ian
(i)
0
lan(t) dt
1n|&n h J||&.nj:
18.
_
da
a
2
16
14.
_
da
_
4 a
2
1.
_
sin(a) da
_
0 cos
2
(a)
16.
_
sin(a) da
cos
2
(a) 1
17.
_
l
0
c
i
da
c
2i
1
18.
_
l
0
ada
_
8 a
d
10.
_
alan
l
(a) da 20.
_
asin
l
(a) da
21.
_
sin
l
(a) da 22.
_
cos (a) da
_
cos (2a)
5.n|.Jj h J||&.nj r:.n.
28. cos
_
sin
l
(a)
_
24. sin
_
cos
l
(2a)
_
2. cos
_
lan
l
(2a)
_
26. lan
_
sin
l
(
_
a)
_
27. col
_
lan
l
_
1
a
__
28. cos
_
2 sin
l
(a)
_
20. soc
_
sin
l
_
a
2
4
__
80. csc
_
lan
l
(a 1)
_
81. sin
_
2 sin
l
(c
i
)
_
82. lan
_
2 lan
l
(a)
_
33. Uso monolonicily ano concavily lo skolch lho giaph of ) (a) = a lan
l
(a)
34. Uso monolonicily ano concavily lo skolch lho giaph of ) (a) = sin
l
_
l
2
sin(a)
_
35. Lslimalo lho valuo of lho inlogial
_
l
0
4 dt
t
2
1
using a miopoinl appioximalion ovoi lho paililion
0 < 0.2 < 0.4 < 0.6 < 0.8 < 1.0
Whal is lho oxacl valuo of lho inlogial ano how closo is lho oslimalo lo lhal
valuo
36. Lslimalo lho valuo of lho inlogial
6
_
0.5
0
dt
_
1 t
2
using a miopoinl appioximalion ovoi lho paililion
0 < 0.1 < 0.2 < 0.8 < 0.4 < 0.
Whal is lho oxacl valuo of lho inlogial ano how closo is lho oslimalo lo lhal
valuo
37. Show lhal lho longlh - of lho aic of a ciiclo of iaoius r is
- = r0
Ly lnoing lho aiclonglh of lho giaph of ) (a) =
_
r
2
a
2
ovoi [0, r sin(0)[ .
8-4: Show lhal - = r0
38. 1ho anglo 0 foimoo Ly lho langonl lino lo ) (a) al an inpul of a ano lho
a-axis is calloo lho nnj| J .n|.nn.n of lho giaph of j = ) (a) .
8-: Anglo of inclinalion
Show lhal lho anglo of inclinalion is 0 = lan
l
[)
t
(a)[ .
39. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxplicilly oolno lho invoiso cosino funclion col
l
(a) as
lho inoolnilo inlogial of an olomonlaiy funclion.
(a) Lol j = cos
l
(a), ano lhon implicilly oiloionlialo cos (j) = a.
(L) Uso lho ioonlily sin
2
(a) = 1cos
2
(a) ano lho facl lhal cos (j) = a
lo piovo lhal
d
da
cos
l
(a) =
1
_
1 a
2
(c) Uso lho funoamonlal lhooiom of calculus lo show lhal
cos
l
(a) =
_
l
i
dt
_
1 t
2
40. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxplicilly oolno lho invoiso colangonl funclion col
l
(a)
as lho inoolnilo inlogial of an olomonlaiy funclion.
(a) Lol j = col
l
(a), ano lhon implicilly oiloionlialo col (j) = a.
(L) Uso lho ioonlily csc
2
(j) = col
2
(j)1 ano lho facl lhal col (j) = a
lo piovo lhal
d
da
col
l
(a) =
1
a
2
1
(c) Uso lho funoamonlal lhooiom lo ovalualo
_
i
0
dt
t
2
1
using lho iosull in (L).
41. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxplicilly oolno lho invoiso socanl funclion soc
l
(a) as
lho inoolnilo inlogial of an olomonlaiy funclion.
(a) Lol j = soc
l
(a), ano lhon implicilly oiloionlialo soc (j) = a.
(L) Uso lho ioonlily lan(j) =
_
soc
2
(j) 1 ano lho facl lhal soc (j) =
a lo piovo lhal
d
da
soc
l
(a) =
1
a
_
a
2
1
_
i
0
dt
t
_
t
2
1
42. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxplicilly oolno lho invoiso cosocanl funclion csc
l
(a)
as lho inoolnilo inlogial of an olomonlaiy funclion.
(a) Lol j = csc
l
(a), ano lhon implicilly oiloionlialo csc (j) = a.
(L) Uso lho ioonlily col (j) =
_
csc
2
(j) 1 ano lho facl lhal csc (j) =
a lo piovo lhal
d
da
csc
l
(a) =
1
a
_
a
2
1
_
i
0
dt
t
_
t
2
1
using lho iosull in (L).
43. Lvon lhough sin
l
(1) =
t
2
, il loaos lo an impiopoi inlogial. Inoooo, oiiocl
oslimalion of lho inlogial
sin
l
(1) =
_
l
0
da
_
1 a
2
is &nnh|, in lhal numLois closo lo 1 oo nol nocossaiily loao lo accuialo
appioximalions of lho inlogial. 1o illuslialo, oslimalo lho lhioo inlogials
Lolow numoiically:
(a)
0.9
_
0
da
_
1 a
2
(/)
_
0.99
0
da
_
1 a
2
(c)
_
0.999
0
da
_
1 a
2
How closo aio lho iosulls lo
t
2

44. Conuter AIgeLra Systens: In spilo of lho powoiful algoiilhms om-
ployoo Ly compuloi algoLia sysloms, inlogials involving invoiso liig func-
lions oflon cannol Lo ovalualoo mochanically. Ano somolimos, lhoy aio aLlo
lo pioouco a iosull, Lul lhal iosull is noaily uninlolligiLlo. Foi oxamplo, uso
a compuloi algoLia syslom lo symLolically ovalualo
_
cos (a) da
_
cos (2a)
45. In lhis oxoiciso, wo ooiivo lho ioonlily
lan
l
_
1
a
_
=

2
lan
l
(a)
(a) Lvalualo ano simplify
d
da
lan
l
_
1
a
_
(L) Lxplain why
lan
l
_
1
a
_
= lan
l
(a) C
whoio C is a conslanl.
(c) Lol a = 1 in (L) ano lhon solvo foi C.
46. 1ho n&hj :hnh.|.j Jn.j J&n.n is oolnoo lo Lo
j (a) =
1
r
a
2
r
2
whoio r is conslanl.
(a) Show lhal j (a) is a pioLaLilily funclion Ly ovalualing
_
o
o
j (a) da
(L) Fino a closoo foim oxpiossion foi lho pioLaLilily of lho valuo of
a ianoom vaiiaLlo assuming a valuo in [a, /[ if il has a Cauchy
pioLaLilily oonsily.
Jh r:. h|& n: n :.& J h :.jnn:j J h .n: nnjn nnJ
.n: .n J&n.n, &h: h .n: .n sin
l
(a) n.]
sin
l
(sin(a)) = a only if

2
_ a _

2
sin
_
sin
l
(a)
_
= a only if 1 _ a _ 1
47. LaLol oach of lho following as oilhoi liuo oi falso: If falso, oxplain why oi
piovioo a counloi-oxamplo.
;n) lan
_
lan
l
(1)
_
= 1 ;h) lan
_
lan
l
(10)
_
= 10
;) lan
l
(lan(1)) = 1 ;J) lan
l
(lan(2)) = 2
;) sin
_
sin
l
__
2
__
=
_
2 ;J ) sin
_
sin
l
__
8
__
=
_
8
;j) sin
_
2 sin
l
(0.)
_
=
_
8 (h) sin
_
8 sin
l
(0.)
_
= 1
48. Lvalualo lho following in closoo foim using iaoian moasuio.
;n) lan
l
(1) ;h) lan
l
(1) ;) sin
l
_
l
2
_
;J) sin
l
_
_
2
2
_
;) sin
l
(1) ;J ) lan
l
_
1
_
8
_
6.4 Trig SubsLiLuLions
IntegraIs InvoIvIng an ExressIon oI tLe Forn r
2
a
2
SuLslilulions of lho foim a = r sin0 ano a = r lan(0) aio known as :.j &h-
.&.n ano aio impoilanl Locauso lhoy allow us lo uso lho piopoilios of lho
liigonomoliic funclions lo simplify inlogials. Moioovoi, such suLslilulions oflon
involvo lho uso of lho invoiso liigonomoliic funclions.
1o Login wilh, lol us oovolop a molhoo foi ovalualing
_
b
o
) (a) da whon lho
inlogiano ) (a) conlains an oxpiossion of lho foim r
2
a
2
. If wo lol a = r sin(0), I r
2
a
2
n
a nag:anu,
|a a = r sin(0)
lhon solving foi 0 iosulls in 0 = sin
l
(ar) . 1his loaos lo lho suLslilulion
a = r sin(0) 0 (a) = sin
l
(ar)
da = r cos (0) d0 0 (/) = sin
l
(/r)
which in luin loaos lo a now inlogial as is illuslialoo Lolow:
_
b
o
) (a) da =
_
0(b)
0(o)
) (r sin0) r cos (0) d0
Mosl impoilanlly, howovoi, lho oxpiossion r
2
a
2
Locomos
r
2
a
2
= r
2
r
2
sin
2
(0) = r
2
_
1 sin
2
(0)
_
= r
2
cos
2
(0)
Hopofully, iooucing lho oiloionco of lwo squaios r
2
a
2
lo a singlo squaioo ox-
piossion r
2
cos
2
(0) will simplify lho inlogial.
IXAMIII 1 Uso a liig suLslilulion lo ovalualo
_
l
0
ada
_
4 a
2
SoIutIon: 1ho oonominaloi is lho squaio iool of 4 a
2
. 1hus, wo lol
a = 2 sin(0) , which in luin implios lhal 0 = sin
l
(a2) . 1his loaos
lo lho suLslilulion
a = 2 sin(0) 0 (0) = sin
l
(02) = 0
da = 2 cos (0) d0 0 (1) = sin
l
(12) = 6
1ho suLslilulion in luin loaos lo a now inlogial: Lo suio lo
chango lho
limils of inlogia-
lion whon you
suLslilulo.
_
l
0
a
_
4 a
2
da =
_
t/6
0
2 sin0
_
4 4 sin
2
0
2 cos 0 d0
1ho oxpiossion 4 4 sin
2
0 faclois inlo 4
_
1 sin
2
0
_
, lhus loaoing lo
_
l
0
a
_
4 a
2
da =
_
t/6
0
2 sin0
_
4
_
1 sin
2
0
_
2 cos 0 d0
1ho oonominaloi is lhon simpliloo using lho ioonlily 1 sin
2
0 =
cos
2
(0):
_
l
0
a
_
4 a
2
da = 4
_
t/6
0
sin0
_
4 cos
2
0
cos 0 d0 =
4
2
_
t/6
0
sin0
cos 0
cos 0 d0
Cancollalion of lho cosino loims lhus iosulls in
_
l
0
a
_
4 a
2
da = 2
_
t/6
0
sin0 d0
= 2 cos 0[
t/6
0
= 2 cos
_
6
_
2 cos (0)
= 2
_
8
IXAMIII 2 Lvalualo
_
2
_
3
0
da
a
2
_
16 a
2
SoIutIon: 1ho oonominaloi conlains lho oxpiossion 16a
2
. 1hus, wo
lol a = 4 sin(0) , so lhal da = 4 cos (0) d0 ano 0 = sin
l
(a4) . 1his
loaos lo lho suLslilulion
a = 4 sin(0) 0 (0) = sin
l
(24) = sin
l
(12) = 6
da = 4 cos (0) d0 0 (1) = sin
l
_
2
_
84
_
= sin
l
__
82
_
= 8
which lhon yiolos
_
2
_
3
2
da
a
2
_
16 a
2
=
_
t/3
t/6
4 cos (0) d0
16 sin
2
(0)
_
16 16 sin
2
(0)
=
1
4
_
t/3
t/6
cos (0) d0
sin
2
(0)
_
16 cos
2
(0)
Sinco
_
cos
2
(0) = cos (0) foi 0 in [6, 8[ , wo havo
_
2
_
3
2
da
a
2
_
16 a
2
=
1
4
_
t/3
t/6
cos (0) d0
sin
2
(0) 4 cos (0)
=
1
16
_
t/3
t/6
csc
2
(0) d0
As a iosull, lho funoamonlal lhooiom implios lhal
_
2
_
3
2
da
a
2
_
16 a
2
=
1
16
col (0)
t/3
t/6
=
1
16
col
_
8
_
1
16
col
_
6
_
(6.18)
1hn . h ]nn| :&| .n rnn| . ;..., .n|.Jj ;.1) ) Chock youi Ioaoing
IntegraIs InvoIvIng an ExressIon oI tLe Forn r
2
a
2
If lho inlogiano of an inlogial conlains an oxpiossion of lho foim r
2
a
2
, lhon wo I r
2
a
2
n
a nag:anu,
|a a = r lan(0)
lol a = r lan(0), oi oquivalonlly, 0 = lan
l
(ar) . 1his loaos lo lho suLslilulion
a = r lan(0) 0 (a) = lan
l
(ar)
da = r soc
2
(0) d0 0 (/) = lan
l
(/r)
which in luin loaos lo a now inlogial as is illuslialoo Lolow:
_
b
o
) (a) da =
_
0(b)
0(o)
) (r lan0) r soc
2
(0) d0
TRlC SUBSTlTUTlONS 478
Mosl impoilanlly, howovoi, lho oxpiossion r
2
a
2
Locomos
r
2
a
2
= r
2
r
2
lan
2
(0) = r
2
_
1 lan
2
(0)
_
= r
2
soc
2
(0)
Hopofully, iooucing lho oiloionco of lwo squaios r
2
a
2
lo a singlo squaioo ox-
piossion r
2
soc
2
(0) will simplify lho inlogial.
IXAMIII J Lvalualo
_
3
0
ada
_
0 a
2
(6.10)
SoIutIon: Sinco r = 8 foi 0 a
2
, wo lol a = 8 lan(0) , which yiolos
da = 8 soc
2
(0) d0 ano 0 = lan
l
(a8) . 1his loaos lo lho suLslilulion
a = 8 lan(0) 0 (0) = lan
l
(08) = 0
da = 8 soc
2
(0) d0 0 (1) = lan
l
(88) = 4
1ho suLslilulion in luin loaos lo a n& inlogial:
_
3
0
a
_
0 a
2
da =
_
t/d
0
8 lan(0)
_
0 0 lan
2
(0)
8 soc
2
(0) d0
1ho oxpiossion 0 0 lan
2
(0) faclois inlo 0
_
1 lan
2
0
_
, lhus loaoing
lo
_
3
0
a
_
0 a
2
da =
_
t/d
0
8 lan(0)
_
0
_
1 lan
2
0
_
8 soc
2
(0) d0
1ho oonominaloi is lhon simpliloo using lho ioonlily 1 lan
2
(0) =
soc
2
(0):
_
3
0
a
_
0 a
2
da = 8
_
t/d
0
lan(0)
_
soc
2
(0)
soc
2
(0) d0 = 8
_
t/d
0
lan(0)
soc (0)
soc
2
(0) d0
Cancollalion ano lho funoamonlal lhooiom lhon yiolo
_
3
0
a
_
0 a
2
da = 8
_
t/d
0
soc (0) lan(0) d0
= 8 soc (0)[
t/d
0
= 8 soc
_
4
_
8 soc (0)
= 8
_
2 8
1:.Jj h :&| hj .nn.nj ;.1:) &.nj n&n:.n| .nj:n.n. Chock youi Ioaoing
AntIderIvatIves and TrIg SuLstItutIons
1ho following anliooiivalivo foims oflon occui in liig suLslilulions.
_
soc (0) d0 = ln[soc 0 lan0[ C (6.20)
_
cos
2
(0) d0 =
1
2
0
1
2
sin(0) cos (0) C (6.21)
_
sin
2
(0) d0 =
1
2
0
1
2
sin(0) cos (0) C (6.22)
Also, whon liig suLslilulions aio usoo lo ovalualo anliooiivalivos in closoo foim,
wo fioquonlly musl simplify lho iosull using iighl liianglo liigonomoliy.
IXAMIII ! Uso a liig suLslilulion lo ovalualo lho anliooiivalivo
_
_
1 a
2
da
SoIutIon: If wo lol a = sin(0) , lhon da = cos (0) d0 ano 0 = sin
l
(a),
lhus loaoing lo
_
_
1 a
2
da =
_ _
1 sin
2
(0) cos (0) d0
1his in luin simplilos lo
_
_
1 a
2
da =
_
_
cos
2
(0) cos (0) d0 =
_
cos
2
(0) d0
As a iosull, (6.22) loaos lo
_
_
1 a
2
da =
1
2
0
1
2
sin(0) cos (0) C
which afloi suLsliluling 0 = sin
l
(a) Locomos
_
_
1 a
2
da =
1
2
sin
l
(a)
1
2
sin
_
sin
l
(a)
_
cos
_
sin
l
(a)
_
C
Sinco sin
_
sin
l
(a)
_
= a, wo nooo only simplify lho oxpiossion
sin
_
cos
l
(a)
_
. Howovoi, a = sin(0) implios lhal
sin(0) =
a
1
=
ojj
/jj
As a iosull, cos
_
sin
l
(a)
_
= cos (0) =
_
1 a
2
, so lhal
_
_
1 a
2
da =
1
2
sin
l
(a)
1
2
a
_
1 a
2
C
IXAMIII Uso a liig suLslilulion lo ovalualo
_
da
_
0 a
2
SoIutIon: 1ho oonominaloi is lho squaio iool of 0a
2
, so wo lol a =
8 lan(0) , which in luin yiolos da = 8 soc
2
(0) d0 ano 0 = lan
l
(a8).
As a iosull,
_
da
_
0 a
2
=
_
8 soc
2
(0) d0
_
0 0 lan
2
(0)
=
_
8 soc
2
(0) d0
_
0 soc
2
(0)
=
_
8 soc
2
(0) d0
8 soc (0)
Simplifying ano applying (6.20) lhon yiolos
_
da
_
0 a
2
=
_
soc (0) d0 = ln[soc (0) lan(0)[ C
ano sinco 0 = lan
l
(a8) , lhis in luin Locomos
_
da
_
0 a
2
= ln
soc
_
lan
l
_
a
8
__
lan
_
lan
l
_
a
8
__
C
= ln
soc
_
lan
l
_
a
8
__
a
8
C
1o simplify soc
_
lan
l
(a8)
_
, wo nolico lhal
lan(0) =
a
8
As a iosull, soc
_
lan
l
(a8)
_
= soc (0) =
__
0 a
2
_
8. 1hus,
_
da
_
0 a
2
= ln
_
0 a
2
8

a
8
C (6.28)
1r|n.n &hj ::. J h |jn:.hn n||& & &:. ;..) n Chock youi Ioaoing
_
da
_
0 a
2
= ln
a
_
0 a
2
C
l
&h: C
l
= C ln(8) .
TransIornIng EIIItIc IntegraIs
1ho uso of liig suLslilulions may havo Loon inspiioo Ly lho sluoy of ||..
.nj:n|, which aio a class of impiopoi inlogials lhal can Lo liansfoimoo inlo
piopoi inlogials using liigonomoliic suLslilulions.
IXAMIII 0 1ho following impiopoi inlogial is calloo a n|
||.. .nj:n| J h ]: |.nJ:
_
l
0
da
_
(1 a
2
) (1 /
2
a
2
)
, [/[ < 1, (6.24)
1iansfoim il inlo a piopoi inlogial using lho suLslilulion a = sin(0) .
SoIutIon: Sinco a = sin(0), wo havo da = cos (0) d0 ano also 0 =
sin
l
(a) . 1hus, lho now limils of inlogialion aio 0 = sin
l
(0) = 0
ano 0 = sin
l
(1) = 2. As a iosull, wo havo
_
l
0
da
_
(1 a
2
) (1 /
2
a
2
)
=
_
t/2
0
cos (0) d0
_
_
1 sin
2
(0)
_ _
1 /
2
sin
2
(0)
_
1ho ioonlily 1 sin
2
(0) = cos
2
(0) lhon yiolos
_
l
0
da
_
(1 a
2
) (1 /
2
a
2
)
=
_
t/2
0
cos (0) d0
_
(cos
2
(0))
_
1 /
2
sin
2
(0)
_
Simplifying ano cancoling lhus yiolos
_
l
0
da
_
(1 a
2
) (1 /
2
a
2
)
=
_
t/2
0
cos (0) d0
cos (0)
_
1 /
2
sin
2
(0)
=
_
t/2
0
d0
_
1 /
2
sin
2
(0)
As a iosull, lho impiopoi inlogial (6.24) is liansfoimoo inlo lho piopoi
inlogial
_
t/2
0
d0
_
1 /
2
sin
2
(0)
Llliplic inlogials occui in a suipiising numLoi of applicalions ianging fiom lho
swinging of a ponoulum lo lho molion of a planol.
IXAMIII 7 If a ponoulum wilh a longlh | is inilially al iosl al
an anglo 0
0
, lhon lho amounl of limo ioquiioo foi lho ponoulum lo
complolo ono swing is
T = 4
_
|
p
_
l
0
da
_
(1 /
2
a
2
) (1 a
2
)
(6.2)
whoio / =
_
l
2
(1 cos (0
0
)) ano whoio p = 82 fool poi soc
2
. Foi | = 4
fool ano 0
0
=
t
3
, liansfoim lho inlogial lo a piopoi inlogial ano lhon
uso numoiical inlogialion lo oslimalo T.
SoIutIon: Wo lol a = sin(0) , da = cos (0) d0. 1hus, 0 = sin
l
(a) so
lhal
0 (0) = sin
l
(0) = 0 a:d 0 (1) = sin
l
(1) =

2
SuLsliluling inlo (6.2) yiolos
T = 4
_
|
p
_
t/2
0
cos (0) d0
_
_
1 /
2
sin
2
(0)
_ _
1 sin
2
(0)
_
= 4
_
|
p
_
t/2
0
cos (0) d0
cos (0)
_
1 /
2
sin
2
(0)
= 4
_
|
p
_
t/2
0
d0
_
1 /
2
sin
2
(0)
1ho iosulling inlogial is piopoi ano is lhus suilaLlo foi numoiical ap-
pioximalion. Sinco | = 4 ano 0 =
t
3
, il follows lhal / =
l
2
ano lhal
numoiical oslimalion of lho inlogial loaos lo
T = 4
_
4
82
_
t/2
0
d0
_
1
_
l
d
_
2
sin
2
(0)
= 2.26 soc
Lxoicisos:
1n|&n h J||&.nj J]n. .nj:n| &.h n :.j &h.&.n:
1.
_
l/2
0
a
_
1 a
2
da 2.
_
l.5
0
a
0 a
2
da
8.
_
l
0
a
_
a
2
8
da 4.
_
2
_
3
0
a
2
_
16 a
2
da
.
_
3
0
da
a
3
0a
6.
_
_
3
0
da
a
_
a
2
8
da
7.
_
l
l
a
3
_
1 a
2
da 8.
_
l
l
_
1 a
2
da
0.
_
l
0
da
(2 a
2
)
3/2
10.
_
_
l5
0
da
(a
2
)
3/2
11.
_
da
_
a
2
4
12.
_
da
1.44 a
2
18.
_
da
a
2
_
4 a
2
14.
_
da
a
2
_
4 a
2
1.
_
da
(a
2
2)
3/2
16.
_
da
(2 a
2
)
3/2
17.
_
_
4 a
2
a
2
da 18.
_
1 2a
2
_
1 a
2
da
n: h J||&.nj .n :: .nj:n| nnJ hn & n&n:.n| .nj:n.n
.nn h :&|.
10.
_
l
0
c
i
_
1 a
2
da 20.
_
l
0
_
ada
_
1 a
2
21.
_
l
0
sin
_
a
2
_
_
1 a
2
da 22.
_
3
0
_
16 a
2
0 a
2
da
28.
_
2
0
da
_
16 a
d
24.
_
3
0
da
_
0a a
3
25. Fino lho aioa of lho iogion Lolwoon lho uppoi ano lowoi Lianchos of
j
2
a
2
= 1
ovoi lho inloival [1, 1[ .
26. In lhis oxoiciso, wo uso lwo molhoos lo ovalualo
_
l
0
_
4 a
2
da
(a) Lvalualo lho inlogial using a liigonomoliic suLslilulion.
(L) Uso lho facl lhal lho aioa of a socloi of a ciiclo is =
l
2
r
2
0 lo lno
lho aioa of lho socloi in lho shaooo iogion aLovo.
(c) Fino lho aioa of lho liianglo in lho shaooo iogion aoo il lo lho
iosull in (L). Is il lho samo as lho iosull in (a)
27. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you ovalualo
_
i
0
_
1
2
t
2
dt
wilh a liig suLslilulion. 1hon iolalo lho liig suLslilulion lo lho oiagiams
Lolow Ly lnoing lho sum of lho aioa of lho liianglo ano lho aioa of lho
socloi. (Hinl: lho socloi wilh anglo 0 of a ciiclo wilh iaoius r has an aioa
of =
l
2
r
2
0)
28. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay lhal piovos lhal lho aioa of a socloi
is
=
1
2
r
2
0
Ly lnoing lho aioa of lho shaooo iogion Lolow:
29. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you uso lho giaph of 0 =
lan
l
(a) lo oxplain why a = coiiosponos lo 0 = 2 ano why a =
coiiosponos lo 0 = 2. 1hon uso lho suLslilulion
a = / lan(0) 0 () =

2
da = / soc
2
(0) d0 0 () =

2
lo liansfoim lho following impiopoi inlogial
4
_
o
o
c
i
a
2
/
2
da (6.26)
30. Uso lho liansfoimalion a = lan(0) , da = soc
2
(0) d0 lo show lhal
_
o
o
c
i
a
2
1
da =
_
t/2
t/2
c
ian
(0)
d0 (6.27)
(soo oxoiciso 81). Allhough lho iosulling inlogial is also impiopoi, lho func-
lion c
ian
(0)
convoigos quickly lo 0 al Lolh 2 ano 2.
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Uso numoiical inlogialion lo oslimalo lho inlogials in (6.27)
31. A n| ||.. .nj:n| J h nJ |.nJ is an inlogial of lho foim
_
o
0
_
a
2
2
a
2
a
2
a
2
da
whoio a 0 ano 0 _ < 1. Uso a liig suLslilulion lo liansfoim il inlo a
piopoi inlogial.
32. Whal ooos lho inlogial in 81 ioouco lo whon = 0
32. A n| ||.. .nj:n| J h h.:J |.nJ is an inlogial of lho foim
_
l
0
da
(1 :a
2
)
_
(1 a
2
) (1 /
2
a
2
)
whoio : < 1. Uso a liig suLslilulion lo liansfoim il inlo a piopoi inlogial.
34. Many mochanical pioLloms (o.g., piocossion of a spinning lop, poiioo of an
oiLil in coilain mulli-Looy pioLloms) involvo olliplic inlogials of lho foim
_
l
0
da
_
(1 a
2
) (c aa a
2
)
Convoil lhis olliplic inlogial lo a piopoi inlogial.
35. Accoioing lo gonoial iolalivily (in pailiculai, lho Schwailzchilo moliic),
lho Lonoing anglo" c of a Loam of lighl whon il is clososl lo lho sun is
appioximaloly
c -
2G:
c
2
r
_
l
0
_
1
3
_
d
(1
2
)
3/2
(6.28)
4
1his inlogial appoais in lho sluoy of lho 1.jh 1:]|, which is usoo in lho oosign of lasois.
whoio r is lho shoilosl oislanco fiom lho Loam lo lho conloi of lho sun,
: = 2 10
33
pra:- is lho mass of lho sun, c = 8 10
l0 cn
soc
is lho spooo of
lighl in a vacuum, ano G = 6.67 10
S cn
soc
is lho univoisal giavilalional

conslanl.
Uso a liigonomoliic suLslilulion lo ovalualo lho impiopoi inlogial in (6.28).
Whal is c (in iaoians) whon r = 7 10
l0
c: (i.o., lho lighl Laioly giazos"
lho suifaco of lho sun) (Hinl: afloi suLsliluling, uso inlogialion Ly pails
wilh n = 1 sin
3
(0) ano d = soc
2
(0) d0 ).
36. 1iig suLslilulions aio oflon usoo in cioalivo ways lo sluoy olliplic inlogials.
Foi oxamplo, liansfoim lho complolo olliplic inlogial of lho lisl kino
_
l
0
da
_
(1 a
2
) (1 /
2
a
2
)
using lho suLslilulion a =
l
|
sin(0) .
37. Whal is lho poiioo of a ponoulum wilh a longlh of | = 4 fool whon 0
0
=
t
2
38. Whal is lho poiioo of a ponoulum wilh a longlh of | = 4 fool whon 0

0
= 80
39. Try It out! Consliucl a ponoulum wilh a longlh of 4 fool, ano lhon ioloaso
il fiom an inilial anglo of 0
0
=
t
6
(oi somo olhoi iolalivoly small inilial an-
glo). Moasuio lho amounl of limo ioquiioo foi lho ponoulum lo swing Lack
ano foilh 10 limos, ano lhon oivioo Ly 10 lo oLlain an oslimalo of T. Com-
paio youi iosull lo lho valuo of T oLlain fiom (6.2) wilh lho appiopiialo
paiamolois.
40. Try It out! A ponoulum can Lo usoo lo oslimalo lho accoloialion ouo lo
giavily al youi localion. In pailiculai, consliucl a ponoulum wilh a longlh
of 4 fool, ano lhon ioloaso il fiom an inilial anglo of 0
0
=
t
6
(oi somo olhoi
iolalivoly small inilial anglo). Moasuio lho amounl of limo ioquiioo foi lho
ponoulum lo swing Lack ano foilh 10 limos, ano lhon oivioo Ly 10 lo oLlain
an oslimalo of T. SuLslilulo foi T, |, ano / in (6.2), liansfoim ano oslimalo
lho inlogial, ano lhon solvo foi p.
6.5 AddiLional AnLiderivaLives
IntegratIon \sIng TrIgononetrIc IdentItIes
Allhough suLslilulion ano inlogialion Ly pails may Lo lho mosl impoilanl loch-
niquos of inlogialion, lhoio aio looay liloially hunoioos of lochniquos of inlogialion
ano lhousanos of Lasic anliooiivalivo foimulas. In lhis soclion, wo oxploio a fow
aooilional lochniquos ano foimulas lhal aio iopiosonlalivo of lho moio common
appioachos lo ovalualing anliooiivalivos.
ADDlTlONAL ANTlDLRlVATlVLS 481
Foi oxamplo, lho anliooiivalivo of a squaio of a sino oi a cosino is ovalualoo
using ono of lho ioonlilios
cos
2
() =
1
2

1
2
cos (2) (6.20)
sin
2
() =
1
2

1
2
cos (2) (6.80)
which follow immooialoly fiom lho ioonlilios foi cos (2) (soo lho oxoicisos).
IXAMIII 1 Lvalualo
_
sin
2
(8a) da
SoIutIon: 1ho ioonlily sin
2
(8a) =
1
2

1
2
cos (6a) liansfoims lho
anliooiivalivo inlo
_
sin
2
(8a) da =
_ _
1
2

1
2
cos (6a)
_
da
=
1
2
a
1
12
sin(6a) C
Analogously, anliooiivalivos of piooucls of sinos ano cosinos aio oflon ovalualoo
wilh ono of lho ioonlilios
sin() sin(1) =
1
2
cos (1)
1
2
cos (1) (6.81)
cos () cos (1) =
1
2
cos (1)
1
2
cos (1) (6.82)
sin() cos (1) =
1
2
sin(1)
1
2
sin(1) (6.88)
IXAMIII 2 Lvalualo
_
cos (8a) cos (a) da
SoIutIon: Wo uso (6.82) wilh = 8a ano 1 = a ano lho facl lhal
cos (2a) = cos (2a):
cos (8a) cos (a) =
1
2
cos (8a a)
1
2
cos (8a a)
=
1
2
cos (2a)
1
2
cos (8a)
_
cos (8a) cos (a) da =
1
2
_
cos (2a) da
1
2
_
cos (8a) da
=
1
4
sin(2a)
1
16
sin(8a) C
Aooilionally, il may Lo appiopiialo lo ulilizo a 1jhnj:nn .Jn.j:
sin
2
(a) = 1 cos
2
(a) , soc
2
(a) = 1 lan
2
(a)
cos
2
(a) = 1 sin
2
(a) , csc
2
(a) = 1 col
2
(a)
IXAMIII J Lvalualo
_
cos
3
(a) da
SoIutIon: Wo wiilo cos
3
(a) = cos
2
(a) cos (a) ano uso lho ioonlily
cos
2
(a) = 1 sin
2
(a):
_
cos
2
(a) cos (a) da =
_
_
1 sin
2
(a)
_
cos (a) da
As a iosull, wo can lol n = sin(a) , dn = cos (a) da lo oLlain
_
_
1 sin
2
(a)
_
cos (a) da =
_
_
1 n
2
_
dn
= n
n
3
8
C
Ioplacing n Ly sin(a) lhus yiolos
_
cos
3
(a) = sin(a)
sin
3
(a)
8
C
IXAMIII ! Lvalualo
_
sin
2
(a) cos
3
(a) da
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo wiilo cos
3
(a) = cos
2
(a) cos (a) ano uso
cos
2
(a) = 1 sin
2
(a):
_
sin
2
(a) cos
3
(a) da =
_
sin
2
(a)
_
1 sin
2
(a)
_
cos (a) da
Lolling n = sin(a) , dn = cos (a) da lhon yiolos
_
sin
2
(a) cos
3
(a) da =
_
n
2
_
1 n
2
_
dn
=
_
_
n
2
n
d
_
dn
=
n
3
8

n
5
C
=
sin
3
(a)
8

sin
5
(a)
C
1h.h .Jn.j h&|J h n|.J
_
sin(2a) sin(7a) da Chock youi Ioaoing
AddItIonaI Inverse FunctIon FornuIas
1ho invoiso hypoiLolic funclions also iosull in somo impoilanl anliooiivalivo foi-
mulas. Foi oxamplo, in soclion 2 wo usoo implicil oiloionlialion lo show lhal
d
da
sinh
l
(a) =
1
_
1 a
2
Il follows lhal
_
Ji
_
li
= sinh
l
(a) C, oi moio gonoially,
_
da
_
a
2
a
2
= sinh
l
_
a
a
_
C (6.84)
foi a posilivo numLoi a. Whon comLinoo wilh lho facl lhal
sinh
l
(a) = ln
_
a
_
a
2
1
_
lhis anliooiivalivo foimula somolimos occuis in lho foim
_
da
_
a
2
a
2
= ln
_
a
_
a
2
a
2
_
C
_
da
_
a
2
4
SoIutIon: 1ho ioonlily (6.84) implios lhal
_
da
_
a
2
4
= sinh
l
_
a
2
_
C
oi oquivalonlly, in logaiilhmic foim wo havo
_
da
_
a
2
4
= ln
_
a
_
a
2
4
_
C
1ho invoiso funclions of cosh(a) ano lanh(a) also pioouco commonly usoo an-
liooiivalivo foimulas. Foi oxamplo, implicil oiloionlialion can Lo usoo lo show
lhal
d
da
cosh
l
(a) =
1
_
a
2
1
a:d
d
da
lanh
l
(a) =
1
1 a
2
As a iosull, wo oLlain lho anliooiivalivo foimulas
_
da
_
a
2
1
= cosh
l
(a) C a:d
_
da
1 a
2
= lanh
l
(a) C
oi moio gonoially, foi a conslanl a 0, lho foimulas
_
da
_
a
2
a
2
= cosh
l
_
a
a
_
C a:d
_
da
a
2
a
2
=
1
a
lanh
l
_
a
a
_
C
_
cos (a) da
1 sin
2
(a)
SoIutIon: If wo lol n = sin(a) , lhon dn = cos (a) da ano
_
cos (a) da
1 sin
2
(a)
=
_
dn
1 n
2
= lanh
l
(n) C
SuLsliluling foi n using n = sin(a) lhus iosulls in
_
cos (a) da
1 sin
2
(a)
= lanh
l
(sin(a)) C
Nolico in oxamplo 6 lhal wo can simplify lo
_
cos (a) da
1 sin
2
(a)
=
_
cos (a) da
cos
2
(a)
=
_
1
cos (a)
da =
_
soc (a) da
1hus, oxamplo 6 yiolos anolhoi foim foi lho anliooiivalivo of lho socanl funclion,
namoly
_
soc (a) da = lanh
l
(sin(a)) C
Howovoi, il can Lo shown lhal lho iosull in oxamplo 6 simplilos lo lho usual
anliooiivalivo of soc (a) , namoly
_
soc (a) da = ln[soc (a) lan(a)[ C
1h.h J:n&|n &&|J & & n|&n Chock youi Ioaoing
_
c
i
_
c
2i
1
da
IntegraIs InvoIvIng ExressIons oI tLe Forn a
2
a
2
Invoiso hypoiLolic funclions ano lho ioonlily (6.2) allow us lo liansfoim a oolnilo
inlogial whoso inlogiano conlains an oxpiossion of lho foim a
2
a
2
. In pailiculai,
wo lol a = a cosh(t) ano lhon uso (6.2) in lho foim
cosh
2
(t) 1 = sinh
2
(t) (6.8)
so lhal lo liansfoim a oolnilo inlogial whoso inlogiano conlains an oxpiossion of
lho foim a
2
a
2
, wo uso lho suLslilulion a = a cosh(t). 1hal is, wo lol
a = acosh(t)
da = asinh(t) dt
1ho oxpiossion a
2
a
2
lhon Locomos Jo np|, an
nag:a| nxo|x-
ng a
2
a
2
, |a
a = a cosh(t) .
a
2
a
2
= a
2
cosh
2
(t) a
2
= a
2
_
cosh
2
(t) 1
_
= a
2
sinh
2
(t)
ano in lho lnal iosull, wo can ioluin lo lho t vaiiaLlo using lho facl lhal t =
cosh
l
(aa) .
_
da
a
2
_
a
2
4
1o oo so, wo lol a = 2 cosh(t) , so lhal da = 2 sinh(t) dt ano
_
da
a
2
_
a
2
4
=
_
2 sinh(t) dt
4 cosh
2
(t)
_
4 cosh
2
(t) 4
=
_
sinh(t) dt
4 cosh
2
(t)
_
cosh
2
(t) 1
Simplifying wilh (6.8) lhon loaos lo
_
da
a
2
_
a
2
4
=
_
sinh(t) dt
4 cosh
2
(t) sinh(t)
=
1
4
_
soch
2
(t) dt
sinco 1 cosh
2
(t) = soch
2
(t) . Howovoi,
J
J|
lanh(t) = soch
2
(t) implios
lhal
_
da
a
2
_
a
2
4
=
1
4
_
soch
2
(t) dt =
1
4
lanh(t) C
Finally, a = 2 cosh(t) implios lhal t = cosh
l
(a2) . 1hus,
_
da
a
2
_
a
2
4
=
1
4
lanh
_
cosh
l
_
a
2
__
C
Lol`s concluoo Ly showing lhal hypoiLolic oxpiossions can Lo simpliloo in much
lho samo way lhal liigonomoliic oxpiossions aio simpliloo using iighl liianglos.
In pailiculai, nolico lhal 1 lanh
2
(a) = soch
2
(a) implios lhal
lanh(a) =
_
1 soc h
2
(a) =
_
1
1
[cosh(a)[
2
1
4
lanh
_
cosh
l
_
a
2
__
=
1
4
_
1
1
_
cosh
_
cosh
l
(a2)
_
2
Sinco cosh
_
cosh
l
(a2)
_
= a2, wo lhus havo
1
4
lanh
_
cosh
l
_
a
2
__
=
1
4
_
1
1
(a2)
2
=
1
4
_
a
2
4 1
a
2
4
=
_
4 (a
2
4 1)
4a
=
_
a
2
4
4a
As a iosull, lho iosull in oxamplo 7 can also Lo oxpiossoo as
_
da
a
2
_
a
2
4
=
_
a
2
4
4a
C
1h.h J:n&|n &&|J & & n|&n Chock youi Ioaoing
_
c
i
_
c
2i
1
da
Conuter AIgeLra Systens
A laigo numLoi of lho iomaining hunoioos of lochniquos ano lhousanos of foimulas
havo Loon incoipoialoo inlo soflwaio lools known as n&: n|jh:n jn, so
lhal lhoso who uso compuloi algoLia sysloms can ovalualo many of lho myiiao
anliooiivalivos which aiiso in applicalions.
IXAMIII 8 Uso a compuloi algoLia syslomlo ovalualo
_
sin
d
(a) da
SoIutIon: 1ho compuloi algoLia syslom `n| piooucos lho iosull
_
sin
d
(a) da =
8
8
a
1
4
sin
3
acos a
8
8
cos asina C
IXAMIII 0 Uso a compuloi algoLia syslom lo ovalualo
_
sin(a) sin(2a) cos (8a) da
SoIutIon: 1ho compuloi algoLia syslom `n| piooucos lho iosull
_
sin(a) sin(2a) cos (8a) da =
1
8
sin2a
1
16
sin4a
1
24
sin6a
1
4
aC
1hoio aio, howovoi, lwo oangois in using a compuloi algoLia syslomlo ovalualo an
anliooiivalivo. Fiisl, lhoio aio many anliooiivalivos lhal ovon lho mosl powoiful
soflwaio lools cannol ovalualo. Foi oxamplo,
_
c
i
da,
_
da
a
5
a 1
, a:d
_
ln(c
i
1) da
cannol Lo ovalualoo in closoo foim Ly any machino, lochniquo, oi poison.
Socono, lho iosull may nol Lo in lho foim wo mighl havo oxpocloo. Foi oxam-
plo, consiooi lho anliooiivalivo
_
soc
d
(a) da (6.86)
Wo can wiilo soc
d
(a) = soc
2
(a) soc
2
(a) ano uso lho ioonlily soc
2
(a) = 1lan
2
(a):
_
soc
d
(a) da =
_
_
1 lan
2
(a)
_
soc
2
(a) da
Wo lhon lol n = lan(a) , dn = soc
2
(a) da lo oLlain
_
soc
d
(a) da =
_
_
1 n
2
_
dn
= n
n
3
8
C
= lan(a)
lan
3
(a)
8
C (6.87)
Howovoi, if wo ovalualo (6.86) wilh `n|, wo oLlain
_
soc
d
(a) da =
sin(a)
8 cos
3
a

2 sina
8 cos a
C
l
(6.88)
Allhough (6.86) ano (6.88) iopiosonl lho samo family of anliooiivalivos, lhoy aio
iaoically oiloionl in appoaianco.
Lxoicisos:
1n|&n h J||&.nj hj ]: .n|.Jj.nj &.h :.jnn:. .Jn.. : hj &.nj
nn .n: hj:h|. J:n.
1.
_
cos
2
(a) da 2.
_
cos
2
(2a) da
8.
_
sin
2
(a) da 4.
_
sin
2
__
2 a
_
da
.
_
cos (8a) sin(2a) da 6.
_
cos (2a) cos (4a) da
7.
_
sin(2a) sin(a) da 8.
_
cos (a) sin(ca) da
0.
_
sin
3
(a) da 10.
_
cos
2
(a) da
11.
_
sin
3
(a) cos
3
(a) da 12.
_
cos
5
(a) da
18.
_
c
i
da
_
c
2i
1
14.
_
sin(a) da
_
1 cos
2
(a)
1.
_
da
_
a
_
a 1
16.
_
sin(a) da
_
cos (2a)
1n|&n &.nj n &h.&.n J h J:n a = a cosh(t) .
17.
_
da
_
a
2
0
18.
_
da
a
2
16
10.
_
ada
_
a
2
0
20.
_
ada
_
a
2
1.44
21.
_
_
a
2
0
a
2
da 22.
_
a
2
da
_
a
2
1
1n|&n &.h n n&: n|jh:n jn.
28.
_
sin
2
(8a) sin
2
(11a) da 24.
_
sin
2
(8a) cos
2
(2a) da
2.
_
cos
d
(a) da 26.
_
sin
6
(a) da
27.
_
lan
d
(a) da 28.
_
col
d
(a) da
20.
_
c
i
sin(2a) da 80.
_
c
3i
sin(2a) da
31. 1iy ovalualing lho following anliooiivalivo wilh a compuloi algoLia syslom:
_
_
cos
2
(a) cos
d
(a)da
1hon ovalualo il Ly hano using lho facl lhal
cos
2
(a) cos
d
(a) = cos
2
(a)
_
1 cos
2
(a)
_
= cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a)
_ _
sin
2
(a) sin
d
(a)da
1hon ovalualo il Ly hano using lho facl lhal
sin
2
(a) sin
d
(a) = cos
2
(a) sin
2
(a)
_ _
cos (2a) sin
d
(a) da
1hon ovalualo il Ly hano using lho facl lhal .
cos (2a) sin
d
(a) = cos
d
(a)
_
a
l/ In(i)
da
1hon ovalualo il Ly hano using lho facl lhal a
l/ In(i)
= c.
35. In lhis oxoiciso, wo ovalualo lho anliooiivalivo
2
_
cos (a) cos (a) da (6.80)
(a) Lvalualo (6.80) using lho ioonlily (6.20).
(L) Lvalualo (6.80) using lho ioonlily (6.82).
36. In lhis oxoiciso, wo ovalualo lho anliooiivalivo
2
_
sin(a) cos (a) da (6.40)
(a) Lvalualo (6.40) using lho ioonlily 2 sin(a) cos (a) = sin(2a) .
(L) Lvalualo (6.40) using lho ioonlily (6.88).
37. Lvalualo
_
sin
3
(a) da using lho ioonlily
sin
3
(a) =
8
4
sina
1
4
sin8a
38. Lvalualo
_ _
cos
d
(a) sin
d
(a)
da using lho ioonlily

cos
d
(a) sin
d
(a) =
1
4
cos 4a
8
4
39. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a locluio lhal you woulo givo lo a liigonomoliy
class in which you ooiivo (6.81) Ly applying sum-of-lho-anglos ioonlilios lo
1
2
cos (1)
1
2
cos (1)
ano in similai fashion you apply (6.82) ano (6.88) iospoclivoly lo
1
2
cos (1)
1
2
cos (1) ano
1
2
sin(1)
1
2
sin(1)
40. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a locluio lhal you woulo givo lo a liigonomoliy
class in which you ooiivo (6.20) ano (6.80) fiom (6.81), (6.82), ano (6.88).
41. Uso implicil oiloionlialion lo show lhal
d
da
cosh
l
(a) =
1
_
a
2
1
Whal anliooiivalivo foimula is implioo Ly lhis iosull
42. Uso implicil oiloionlialion lo show lhal
d
da
lanh
l
(a) =
1
1 a
2
Whal anliooiivalivo foimula is implioo Ly lhis iosull
Solf 1osl
J h h|.
(a) cosha is lho samo as cos (/a)
(L) 1ho hypoiLolic langonl funclion has inlniloly many voilical asymplolos
(c) sinh(a 2) = sinh(a)
(o) 1ho ooiivalivo of cosh(a) is sinh(a)
(o) If ) (a) is incioasing on (a, /) , lhon )
l
(a) oxisls on () (a) , ) (/)) .
(f) sin
l
(sin()) =
(g) If a is in
_
0,
t
d
, lhon
sin
l
_
lan
l
(lan(sin(a)))
_
= lan
_
sin
_
sin
l
_
lan
l
(a)
___
(h) 1ho invoiso sino is oolnoo foi all a.
(i) 1ho invoiso langonl is oolnoo foi all a.
(j) 1ho invoiso hypoiLolic cosino is oolnoo foi all a.
(k) 1ho ooiivalivo of sin
l
(a) is cos
l
(a) .
(l) Lvalualing
_
cos
2
(a) da ioquiios a liigonomoliic ioonlily.
2. Which of lho following is not a ciilical poinl of ) (a) = cosh(cos (a))
(a) 0 (L)
t
3
(c)
t
2
(o)
8. Lvalualo
_
asinh(a) da
(a) asinh(a) cosh(a) C (L) asinh(a) cosh(a) C
(c) acosh(a) sinh(a) C (o) acosh(a) sinh(a) C
4. If ) (a) = a
l
, lhon )
l
(a) =
(a) a (L) a
l
(c) a
2
(o)
_
a
l
_
l
. Which of lho following has lho samo ooiivalivo as
lan
l
_
1
a
_
(a) lan
l
(a) (L) lan
l
(a) (c) sin
l
(a) (o) sin
_
cos
l
(a)
_
6. Which of lho following suLslilulions woulo not oliminalo lho squaio iool in
lho inlogiano of
_
_
a
2
1da
(a) a = sin(0) (L) a = lan(0) (c) a = sinh(t) (o) a = col (0)
7. If a = lan(0) , lhon
_
da
a
2
_
a
2
1
simplilos lo
(a)
_
d0
lan(0) soc (0)
(L)
_
d0
lan
2
(0) soc (0)
(c)
_
soc
2
(0) d0
lan
2
(0) [lan(0) 1[
(o)
_
soc (0) d0
lan
2
(0)
8. Simplify lho oxpiossion sin(lan
l
(
l
i
))
0. Lvalualo lho anliooiivalivo
_
alan
l
(a)da
_
da
2a
2

_
da
_
4 a
2
_
1
a
_
1 a
2
da
18. Whal is lho aioa of lho iogion Lounooo Ly lho hypoiLola a
2
j
2
= 1 ano
lho lino a = 2
14. Whal is lho aioa of lho iogion Lounooo Ly lho hypoiLola j
2
a
2
= 1 ano
lho lino j = 2
1. In an oailioi solf-losl, you woio askoo lo ovalualo lho oolnilo inlogial
_
l
0
_
2 a
2
da
using goomoliy. Now ovalualo lhis inlogial using a liigonomoliic suLslilu-
lion.
16. Whal is lho aiclonglh of lho calonaiy j = 2 cosh(a2) ovoi [ln2, ln2[
17. VrIte to Learn: In a shoil ossay, oxplain why lho suLslilulion a =
r sinh(t) , da = r cosh(t) dt can also Lo usoo lo liansfoim inlogianos lhal
conlain oxpiossions of lho foim a
2
r
2
. Compaio lhis suLslilulion lo lho
a = r lan(0) , da = r soc
2
(0) d0 molhoo Ly applying Lolh lo
_
da
a
2
_
a
2
4
18. Conuter AIgeLra Systen: Show lhal
_ _
1

_
1 ada =
6
7
__
1

_
1 a
_
7
12
__
1

_
1 a
_
5
2
__
1

_
1 a
_
3
C
Ly oiloionlialing lho iighl sioo ano simplifying (piofoiaLly wilh a compuloi
algoLia syslom). Can youi compuloi algoLia syslom ovalualo
_ _
1

_
1 ada
Jh Ar 5... :|njh J nn 1||.
1iigonomoliic suLslilulions aio fioquonlly omployoo in lho sluoy of olliplic
inlogials. Lul whal is an olliplic inlogial Ano why aio lhoy so impoilanl Oui
noxl slop is lo show lhal olliplic inlogials occui naluially, lhus making liigono-
moliic suLslilulions an impoilanl lool in lho sluoy of inlogials.
In analylic goomoliy, il is shown lhal lho oqualion of an ollipso conloioo al
lho oiigin is givon Ly
a
2
a
2

j
2
/
2
= 1
whoio a is lho longlh of lho somi-majoi axis ano / is lho longlh of lho somi-minoi
axis. As wo will now show, lnoing lho aiclonglh of lho ollipso ioquiios us lo woik
wilh an olliplic inlogial.
1o Login wilh, nolico lhal Ly symmoliy wo nooo only lno lho longlh of lho
soclion of lho ollipso in lho lisl quaoianl ano lhon mulliply lho iosull Ly 4. 1hal
is, lho oislanco aiouno lho ollipso is 41, whoio
1 =
_
o
0
_
1 (j
t
)
2
da
1o lno j
t
, wo solvo foi j
2
lo oLlain
j
2
= /
2
/
2
a
2
a
2
(6.41)
Implicil oiloionlialion lhon yiolos
2j j
t
= 2
/
2
a
2
a, j
t
=
/
2
a
2
a
j
As a iosull, lho quanlily 1 (j
t
)
2
Locomos
1 (j
t
)
2
= 1
/
d
a
d
a
2
j
2
Wo can now uso (6.41) lo ioplaco j
2
, which yiolos
1 (j
t
)
2
= 1
/
d
a
d
a
2
_
/
2
a
2
_
Finoing a common oonominaloi ano simplifying yiolos
1 (j
t
)
2
=
a
2
_
1 /
2
a
2
_
a
2
a
2
a
2
If wo now oolno lho n:..j of lho ollipso lo Lo
2
= 1
/
2
a
2
(6.42)
lhon lho quanlily 1 (j
t
)
2
iooucos lo
1 (j
t
)
2
=
a
2
2
a
2
a
2
a
2
Consoquonlly, lho oislanco aiouno an ollipso is
41 = 4
_
o
0
_
1 (j
t
)
2
da = 4
_
o
0
_
a
2

2
a
2
a
2
a
2
da (6.48)
1ho inlogial in (6.48) is a n| ||.. .nj:n| J h nJ |.nJ. Il is im-
piopoi ano cannol Lo ovalualoo in closoo foim oxcopl foi spocial choicos of lho
occonliicily . 1hus, oslimaling lho oislanco aiouno an ollipso ioquiios us lo uso a
liig suLslilulion lo liansfoim (6.48) inlo a piopoi inlogial ano lhon oslimalo lho
iosulling inlogial numoiically.
VrIte to Learn Whal is lho oislanco aiouno an ollipso wilh a somi-majoi axis
of 2 inchos ano a somi-minoi axis of 1 inch Uso (6.42) lo ooloimino lho
occonliicily of lho ollipso ano uso il lo sol up lho inlogial (6.48). 1hon lians-
foim lho inlogial using lho liig suLslilulion a = 2 sin(0), da = 2 cos (0) d0
ano oslimalo lho iosulling inlogial numoiically. Finally, iopoil youi iosulls
in a shoil ossay which incluoos a skolch of lho ollipso whoso aiclonglh is
Loing oslimaloo.
VrIte to Learn 1ho oailh`s oiLil is an ollipso wilh a somi-majoi axis of a =
04, 11, 000 milos ano a somi-minoi axis of / = 01, 404, 000 milos. How many
milos ooos lho oailh liavol in ono yoai in ils oiLil aLoul lho sun Wiilo a
shoil ossay oosciiLing lho molhoo usoo lo oslimalo lho longlh ano lho iosull
of lhal oslimalion.
VrIte to Learn Whal kino of cuivo is implioo Ly = 0 Whal ooos (6.48)
ioouco lo whon = 0 Whal is ils valuo Wiilo a shoil ossay which oosciiLos
lho signilcanco of lho occonliicily, incluoing why 0 < < 1 foi an ollipso
ano whal lypo of cuivo iosulls whon = 0.
VrIte to Learn Go lo lho liLiaiy ano invosligalo lho lopic of olliplic inlogials.
Iopoil lho iosulls of youi iosoaich in a shoil ossay on olliplic inlogials.
Crou LearnIng: Lach momLoi of lho gioup choosos a planol ano lhon oLlains
lho somi-majoi axis ano lho somi-minoi axis of lho planol`s oiLil. Lach
momLoi shoulo lhon uso (6.42) lo ooloimino lho occonliicily of lho oiLil,
shoulo sol up lho inlogial in (6.48), shoulo liansfoimil inlo a piopoi inlogial,
ano lhon shoulo oslimalo lho oislanco lho planol liavols in ono of ils yoais.
JnnJ nr:
Nol only oo liigonomoliic suLslilulions convoil impiopoi olliplic inlogials inlo
piopoi inlogials, Lul lhoy also convoil olliplic inlogials inlo a foim lhal allows
lhom lo Lo oslimaloo wilh ono of lho mosl powoiful numoiical lochniquos ovoi
oiscovoioo. In pailiculai, if a
0
ano /
0
aio posilivo numLois, lhon lol
a
l
=
a
0
/
0
2
, /
l
=
_
a
0
/
0
a
2
=
a
l
/
l
2
, /
2
=
_
a
l
/
l
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n
=
a
nl
/
nl
2
, /
n
=
_
a
nl
/
nl
.
.
.
.
.
.
ano so on. 1hon il can Lo shown lhal a
n
ano /
n
Lolh appioach lho samo numLoi
: as : appioachos . 1hal is,
lim
no
a
n
= lim
no
/
n
= :
1ho numLoi : is calloo lho n:.hn.-jn:. moan of a
0
ano /
0
.
Foi oxamplo, if a
0
= 1 ano /
0
= 0, lhon
a
l
=
1 0
2
= , /
l
=
_
1 0 = 8
a
2
=
8
2
= 4, /
2
=
_
8 = 8.87208
a
3
=
4 8.87208
2
= 8.08640, /
3
=
_
4 8.87208 = 8.0808
a
d
=
8.08640 8.0808
2
= 8. 08628, /
d
=
_
(8.08640) (8.0808) = 8. 08628
1hus, lo oocimal placos, lho aiilhmolic-goomoliic moan of a
0
= 1 ano /
0
= 0 is
: = 8.08628.
Why aio wo lalking aLoul lho aiilhmolic-goomoliic moan Il`s Locauso aLoul
200 yoais ago, lho malhomalician Kail Gauss piovoo somolhing liuly amazing.
Ho showoo lhal a n| ||.. .nj:n| J h ]: |.nJ, which is of lho foim
_
l
0
da
_
(1 a
2
) (1 /
2
a
2
)
can Lo compuloo wilh an aiilhmolic-goomoliic moan. In lho pioLloms Lolow, wo
inlioouco his molhoo ano ils iolalionship lo olliplic inlogials.
1. Gauss` molhoo is Lasoo on lho facl lhal
_
t/2
0
d0
_
a
2
cos
2
(0) /
2
sin
2
(0)
=
_
t/2
0
dc
_
_
ob
2
_
2
cos
2
(c)
_
_
a/
_
2
sin
2
(c)
Uso numoiical inlogialion lo voiify lhis iosull whon a = 1 ano / = 0.
Lxoicisos 2-4 piosonl lho ooiivalion of lho iosull in oxoiciso 1, ano lhon oxoiciso
shows how il is usoo lo compulo a complolo olliplic inlogial of lho lisl kino.
2. * Show lhal if 20 = c sin
l
( sin(c)) , lhon
2d0 =
cos (c)
_
1
2
sin
2
(c)
_
1
2
sin
2
(c)
dc
ano also lhal
_
( 1)
2
4 sin
2
(0) = cos (c)
_
1
2
sin
2
(c) (6.44)
Finally, show lhal if =
ob
ob
, lhon (6.44) Locomos
2
a /
_
a
2
cos
2
(0) /
2
sin
2
(0) = cos (c)
_
1
2
sin
2
(c)
3. * Uso lho suLslilulion 20 = csin
l
( sin(c)) wilh =
ob
ob
ano ils piopoilios
fiom oxoiciso 2 lo show lhal
_
t/2
0
d0
_
a
2
cos
2
(0) /
2
sin
2
(0)
=
_
t
0
dc
_
(a /)
2
(a /)
2
sin
2
(c)
4. *Uso lho suLslilulion c = 0 lo show lhal
_
t/2
0
dc
_
(a /)
2
(a /)
2
sin
2
(c)
=
_
t
t/2
dc
_
(a /)
2
(a /)
2
sin
2
(c)
ano lhon uso lhis lo oxplain why
_
t
0
dc
_
(a /)
2
(a /)
2
sin
2
(c)
= 2
_
t/2
0
dc
_
(a /)
2
(a /)
2
sin
2
(c)
Finally, show lhal
(ob)
d
=
(ob)
d
a/ ano lhon uso il lo show lhal
_
t
0
dc
_
(a /)
2
(a /)
2
sin
2
(c)
=
_
t/2
0
dc
_
_
ob
2
_
2
cos
2
(c)
_
_
a/
_
2
sin
2
(c)
5. *ComLino lho slops in 2-4 lo show lhal
_
t/2
0
d0
_
a
2
cos
2
(0) /
2
sin
2
(0)
=
_
t/2
0
dc
_
_
ob
2
_
2
cos
2
(c)
_
_
a/
_
2
sin
2
(c)
Uso lho suLslilulion a = sin(0) lo show lhal
_
l
0
da
_
(1 a
2
) (1 /
2
a
2
)
=
_
t/2
0
d0
_
cos
2
(0) (1 /
2
) sin
2
(0)
ano lhon uso lhis lo oxplain why if : is lho aiilhmolic-goomoliic moan of
a
0
= 1 ano /
0
=
_
1 /
2
, lhon
_
l
0
da
_
(1 a
2
) (1 /
2
a
2
)
=
_
t/2
0
da
_
:
2
cos
2
(0) :
2
sin
2
(0)
=

2:
1. DlFFLRLNTlAL LQUATlONS
Calculus was oovolopoo in pail lo Lo a lool foi solving oiloionlial oqualions. In
pailiculai, il was usoo lo lno |J J:n solulions lo oiloionlial oqualions, whoio
a solulion is saio lo Lo in |J J:n whon il is oxpiossoo as a lnilo comLinalion
of olomonlaiy funclions. Hypolholically, a closoo foim solulion lolls us all lhoio
is lo know aLoul lho oiloionlial oqualion, ano lhus aLoul lho ioal-woilo piocoss
which lho oiloionlial oqualion moools.
Finoing closoo foim solulions lo oiloionlial oqualions usually iooucos lo lho
pioLlom of ovalualing anliooiivalivos. As a iosull, lho sluoy of oiloionlial oqua-
lions has Loon lho piimo molivalion foi lho oovolopmonl of many of lho lochniquos
of inlogialion, as woll as Loing an unonoing souico of now funclions wilh oxciling
now piopoilios.
In lhis chaploi, wo will conconlialo on lnoing closoo foimsolulions of n:nh|
J.]:n.n| j&n.n, which aio oiloionlial oqualions of lho foim
j
t
=
p (a)
) (j)
In ooing so, wo will oovolop sovoial aooilional lochniquos of inlogialion, inlioouco
a vaiioly of now funclions, ano oxploio a sampling of lho myiiao ioal-woilo ap-
plicalions of oiloionlial oqualions. Hopofully, wo will also oiscovoi lhal lnoing a
closoo foim solulion lo a oiloionlial oqualion piooucos a sonso of complolion, a
sonso of accomplishmonl, ano a sonso of unooislanoing lhal placos il among lho
mosl woilhwhilo of inlolloclual puisuils.
1.1 Separable DiferenLial LquaLions
SearatIng YarIaLIes
Anliooiivalivos aio insliumonlal in lnoing solulions of oiloionlial oqualions. 1hus,
wo shoulo Lo ano aio ioaoy lo solvo oiloionlial oqualions, Loginning wilh a class
of oqualions known as n:nh| J.]:n.n| j&n.n.
Supposo lhal j is oolnoo implicilly as a funclion of a Ly lho oqualion
1 (j) = G(a) C (7.1)
foi somo conslanl C. If 1 ano G aio anliooiivalivos of ) ano p, iospoclivoly, lhon
d
da
1 (j) =
d
da
G(a)
d
da
C
1
t
(j) j
t
= G
t
(a)
) (j) j
t
= p (a)
Solving foi j
t
lhon yiolos a n:nh| J.]:n.nh| j&n.n
j
t
=
p (a)
)(j)
(7.2)
DlFFLRLNTlAL LQUATlONS 407
1o lno a solulion (7.1) lo a sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion (7.2), wo simply
iovoiso lho piocoss. 1hal is, wo musl unoo" lho oiloionlialion aLovo. Fiisl wo
ioplaco j
t
Ly djda:
dj
da
=
p (a)
)(j)
(7.8)
Wo lhon searate vaiiaLlos in (7.8) lo gol 5apa:aa
) (j) dj = p (a) da
afloi which wo aIy tLe antIderIvatIve lo Lolh sioos: Inag:aa
_
) (j) dj =
_
p (a) da
If 1 ano G aio anliooiivalivos of ) ano p, iospoclivoly, lhon as oxpocloo
1 (j) = G(a) C (7.4)
foi somo conslanl C. If possiLlo, wo lhon soIve Ior j in oiooi lo liansfoim lho 5o|xa o: ,
(if possiLlo) .nj:n| &: (7.4) inlo an r|..|j oolnoo solulion lo lho oiloionlial oqualion.
IXAMIII 1 Fino solulions lo lho sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion
j
t
= 2aj
SoIutIon: Fiisl, j
t
= 2aj can Lo wiillon
dj
da
= 2aj
Mulliplicalion Ly da ano oivision Ly j lhon yiolos
dj
j
= 2ada
1hus, applicalion of lho anliooiivalivo yiolos
_
dj
j
= 2
_
ada
ln[j[ = a
2
C
so lhal in solving foi j wo oLlain
[j[ = c
i
C
= c
i
c
C
Moioovoi, lho oolnilion of lho aLsolulo valuo funclion implios lhal 1ho solulion lo
[j[ = is givon
Ly j = . j = c
C
c
i
so lhal if wo oolno a now conslanl 1 = c

C
, lhon lho solulion is
j = 1c
i
(7.)
408 DlFFLRLNTlAL LQUATlONS
Howovoi, il musl Lo poinloo oul lhal whilo sopaialion of vaiiaLlos can pioouco
somo of lho solulions lo a sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion, il ooos nol nocossaiily
pioouco n|| lho solulions lo a sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion. Foi oxamplo, soo
oxoicisos 48 ano 44.
1& . j = 1c
i
:|nJ j
t
= 2aj Chock youi Ioaoing
InItIaI YaIues and Autononous EquatIons
If an inilial conoilion is givon, lhon il can Lo usoo lo ooloimino lho valuo of lho
aiLiliaiy conslanl. Howovoi, wo ooloimino lho valuo of lho aiLiliaiy conslanl
Lofoio solving foi j.
IXAMIII 2 Fino a solulion lo lho sopaiaLlo inilial valuo pioLlom
dj
da
= c
i
, j (0) = 1
SoIutIon: Sinco c
i
= c
i
c
, lho oiloionlial oqualion can Lo wiillon

as
dj = c
i
c
da
which in sopaialoo foim is
c
dj = c
i
da
Inlogialion yiolos
_
c
dj =
_
c
i
da
c
= c
i
C (7.6)
Lofoio wo solvo foi j, howovoi, lol us uso lho inilial conoilion lo oo-
loimino C. 1ho inilial conoilion says lhal whon a = 0, lhon j = 1. As
a iosull,
c
l
= c
0
C == C = c 1
Coiiosponoingly, lho inlogial cuivo (7.6) Locomos
c
= c
i
c 1
so lhal
j = ln(c
i
c 1)
An n&nn& J.]:n.n| j&n.n is a oiloionlial oqualion in which lho inpul
vaiiaLlo ooos nol appoai oxplicilly. In such casos, il is common lo ioplaco j
t
Ly
djdt sinco oflon j (t) is a funclion of limo t.
SLPARABLL DlFFLRLNTlAL LQUATlONS 400
IXAMIII J Fino solulions lo j
t
= lan(j)
SoIutIon: Fiisl, wo ioplaco j
t
Ly
J
J|
ano sopaialo
dj
dt
= lan(j)
dj
lan(j)
= dt
col (j) dj = dt
Wiiling col (j) as cos (j) sin(j) ano inlogialing yiolos
_
cos (j)
sin(j)
dj =
_
dt
Wo now lol n = sin(j) , dn = cos (j) dj ano ovalualo lho anliooiiva-
livos:
_
dn
n
=
_
dt
ln[n[ = t C
ln[sin(j)[ = t C (7.7)
1ho iosull (7.7) is an inlogial cuivo foim of lho solulion. Anolhoi
inlogial cuivo foim is givon Ly
sin(j) = 1c
|
whoio 1 = c
C
.
1hn J&n.n J & hn.n .J & | J: j .n sin(j) = 1c
|
Chock youi Ioaoing
Constants oI IroortIonaIIty
A vaiiaLlo is saio lo Lo n:j J.:|j wilh 1, oi oquivalonlly, lo Lo J.:|j
::.nn| lo 1 if lhoio is a conslanl / such lhal = /1. Sinco piopoilionalily
occuis fioquonlly in applicalions, sopaiaLlo oqualions oflon appoai in lho foim
j
t
= /
p (a)
)(j)
(7.8)
whoio / is nnn J ::.nn|.j. Whon sopaialing, il is common lo loavo
lho / wilh lho p (a) loim, so lhal a solulion lo (7.8) is of lho foim
1 (j) = / G(a) C
whoio 1 ano G aio anliooiivalivos of ) ano p, iospoclivoly.
IXAMIII ! Fino solulions lo j
t
= / a(j 2)foi a conslanl / 0.
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo ioplaco j
t
Ly djda lo oLlain
dj
da
= / a(j 2)
afloi which sopaialion yiolos
dj
j 2
= / ada
Sinco / is a conslanl ano can Lo facloioo oul of an anliooiivalivo,
inlogialion yiolos
_
dj
j 2
= /
_
ada
Wo lol n = j 2, dn = dj in lho lisl anliooiivalivo lo oLlain
_
dn
n
= /
_
ada
ln[n[ = /
a
2
2
C
ln[j 2[ = /
a
2
2
C (7.0)
Finally, applicalion of lho oxpononlial yiolos
j 2 = c
C
c
|i
/2
(7.10)
so lhal if wo oolno a now conslanl 1 = c
C
, lho solulion Locomos
j = 2 1c
|i
/2
Conslanls of piopoilionalily aio common in applicalions, ospocially whon lhoso ap-
plicalions uso oiloionlial oqualions as nnhnn.n| nJ| of ioal-woilo piocossos.
IXAMIII A spocial caso of TorrIceIII`s Iav says if a cylinooi
conlaining waloi has a small loak in ils Lollom, lhon lho ialo of chango
in lho hoighl of lho waloi in lho cylinooi is piopoilional lo lho squaio
iool of lho hoighl.
1-1: Loaking 1ank
(a) 1ianslalo lhis law inlo a sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion.
Uso /" as lho conslanl of piopoilionalily.
(L) Solvo lho sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion in (a).
SoIutIon: (a) If j (t) oonloos lho hoighl of lho waloi in lho cylinooi
al limo t, lhon
ialo of chango of hoighl is piopoilional lo squaio iool of hoighl
J
J|
= /
_
j
(L) Wo solvo lho oiloionlial oqualion in (a) Ly lisl sopaialing vaii-
aLlos:
dj
dt
= /
_
j == j
l/2
dj = /dt
Wo lhon inlogialo lo pioouco
_
j
l/2
dj = /
_
dt
2j
l/2
= /t C
afloi which, wo solvo foi j
j =
_
/t C
2
_
2
Howovoi, sinco / ano C aio aiLiliaiy, so also aio
|
2
ano
C
2
. 1hus, wo
ioplaco lhoso wilh lho now conslanls /
l
ano C
l
:
j (t) = (C
l
/
l
t)
2
Similaily, a vaiiaLlo is saio lo n:j .n:|j wilh 1, oi oquivalonlly, lo Lo
.n:|j ::.nn| lo 1 if lhoio is a conslanl / foi which =
|
1
.
Foi oxamplo, il has Loon shown lhal a layoi of ico on lho suifaco of a lako acls
as an insulaloi ano slows lho ialo of now ico foimalion, lhus causing lho ialo of
ico foimalion lo n:j .n:|j wilh lho lhicknoss of lho ico. 1hus, if j (t) is lho
lhicknoss of lho layoi of ico on lho suifaco of a lako al limo t, lhon
dj
dt
=
/
j
foi somo conslanl / 0.
IXAMIII 0 Fino solulions lo lho moool of ico foimalion
dj
dt
=
/
j
SoIutIon: 1o solvo lhis oiloionlial oqualion, wo sopaialo,
jdj = /dt
inlogialo,
_
jdj =
_
/dt
j
2
2
= /t C
ano solvo foi j:
j =
_
2/t 2C
1& J.J & j J:n ;7.:) ;7.1u) Chock youi Ioaoing
OrtLogonaI TrajectorIes
If G
t
(a) = p (a) ano 1
t
(j) = ) (j) , lhon lho sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion
dj
da
=
p (a)
) (j)
(7.11)
implicilly oolnos a Jnn.|j of cuivos of lho foim G(a) 1 (j) = H, whoio H is
a conslanl. 1hal is, foi oach valuo of H, wo oLlain an inlogial cuivo solulion lo
(7.11).
Lol us now oolno a n& oiloionlial oqualion Ly laking lho nogalivo iocipiocal
of (7.11):
dj
da
=
) (j)
p (a)
(7.12)
Whon a solulion lo lho n& oiloionlial oqualion (7.12) inloisocls cuivos of lho
foim G(a) 1 (j) = H, lhon lho langonl linos al lho poinl of inloisoclion lo lho
cuivos musl inloisocl al :.jh nnj|.
1-2: Oilhogonal 1iajocloiios
Foi lhis ioason, solulions lo (7.12) aio calloo :hjnn| :n]:. lo lho solu-
lions of (7.11)..
IXAMIII 7 Fino lho inlogial cuivo solulions lo lho sopaiaLlo oqua-
lion
dj
da
=
j
a
(7.18)
ano lhon lno a family of oilhogonal liajocloiios lo (7.18).
SoIutIon: Sopaialion of vaiiaLlos loaos lo
dj
j
=
da
a
_
dj
j
=
_

da
a
ln[j[ = ln[a[ C
[j[ = c
In]i]
c
C
j = c
C
1
a
1hus, if wo lol / = c
C
, lhon lho solulions aio of lho foim j =
|
i
.
1o lno oilhogonal liajocloiios lo (7.18), wo lako lho nogalivo
iocipiocal of lho iighl sioo lo oLlain lho n& oqualion
dj
da
=
a
j
Sopaialion of vaiiaLlos lhon loaos lo
jdj = ada
_
jdj =
_
ada
1
2
j
2
=
1
2
a
2
C
j
2
a
2
= 2C
If wo lol C
l
= 2C, lhon wo lno lho lho oilhogonal liajocloiios lo lho
cuivos j =
|
i
aio lho hypoiLolas of lho foim
j
2
a
2
= C
l
as is shown in lho lguio Lolow.
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
4
2
0
-2
-4
1-8: Dashoo cuivos aio oilhogonal lo solio cuivos
Lxoicisos:
5| h J||&.nj n:nh| J.]:n.n| j&n.n. 1J .h|, | J: j hn
h |&.n . J]nJ r|..|j n n J&n.n J h .n& n:.nh|. ; /, j, nnJ o
n: nnn)
1. j
t
= j 2. j
t
= 2j 8. j
t
= j
4. j
t
= 8j . j
t
= j 2 6. j
t
= 8 0.1j
7.
dj
da
= 4a
3
j
2
8.
dj
da
= a
3
j
2
0.
dj
da
= c
i
10.
dj
da
= c
i
11.
dj
da
= /
a
j
12.
dj
da
= /
j
a
18.
dj
da
=
j
2
1
aj
14.
dj
da
=
a
3
j
a
d
1
1.
dj
da
= /a(j 1) 16. j
t
=
/
j 1
17. j
t
=
1
o
aj 18. j
t
=
1
o
(a j) j
10. sin(j)
dj
da
= a 20. soc
2
(j) j
t
= 1
21.
dj
da
= soc (j) cos (a) 22.
dj
da
= csc (j) sin(a)
28.
dj
da
= cos (a) cos
2
(j) 24.
dj
da
= sin(a) sin
2
(j)
2.
dj
da
= cos (j) col (j) 26.
dj
da
= sin(j) lan(j)
27. j
t
= j 1, j (0) = 1 28. j
t
2j = 0, j (0) = 8
20.
1
j
dj
da
= 2a, j (0) = 1 80.
dj
da
=
a
j
, j (0) = 1
81. j
t
=
cos (a)
j
, j (0) = 0 82. j
t
= j sin(a) , j (0) = 1
33. In lhis oxoiciso, wo consiooi an oLjocl suLjocl only lo lho foico of fiiclion,
which loaos lo lho accoloialion of lho oLjocl Loing piopoilional lo ils volocily.
(a) 1ianslalo lhis law inlo a sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion. Uso /"
as lho conslanl of piopoilionalily.
34. In somo moools, lho foico of fiiclion loaos lo lho accoloialion Loing piopoi-
lional lo lho square of lho volocily.
(a) 1ianslalo lhis law inlo a sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion. Uso /"
as lho conslanl of piopoilionalily.
35. Nowlon`s law of cooling says lhal lho ialo al which an oLjocl`s lompoialuio
is changing is piopoilional lo lho oiloionco Lolwoon lho lompoialuio of lho
suiiounoing onviionmonl, oonoloo Ly 1, ano lho lompoialuio of lho oLjocl.
36. Supposo 1 (t) is lho lovol of poifoimanco al limo t of an inoivioual loaining
a coilain skill. If lho maximum lovol of poifoimanco in lhal skill is `, lhon
lho ialo of chango in poifoimanco is piopoilional lo lho oiloionco Lolwoon
` ano lho cuiionl lovol of poifoimanco.
37. Show lhal lho inlogial cuivo solulions lo lho sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion
dj
da
=
a
j
foim a family of ciiclos conloioo al lho oiigin. Whal aio lho oilhogonal
liajocloiios lo lhoso solulions
38. Whal family of cuivos is foimoo Ly lho solulions lo
dj
da
=
2j
a
Whal aio lho oilhogonal liajocloiios lo lho solulions
39. TorrIceIII`s Iav says lhal if waloi is oiaining fiom a lank, lho ialo of chango
of lho volumo wilh iospocl lo limo is piopoilional lo lho squaio iool of lho
ooplh of lho waloi. 1hal is, if \ is lho volumo of lho waloi ano j (t) is lho
hoighl of lho waloi al limo t, lhon
d\
dt
= /
_
j
Uso 1oiiicolli`s law lo ooiivo lho oiloionlial oqualion in oxamplo foi waloi
oiipping fiom a iighl ciiculai cylinooi. (Hinl: lho volumo of a iighl ciiculai
cylinooi is \ = r
2
j, whoio r is lho iaoius of lho cylinooi ano j is ils hoighl).
40. Whon waloi is al a hoighl j in a cono, lho iaoius of lho suifaco of lho waloi
is cj, whoio c is lho slopo of lho sioo of lho cono.
1-4: Loaking Cono
Lol`s supposo lhal waloi is oiaining fiom lho Lollom of a conical lank.
(a) Uso 1oiiicolli`s law lo ooiivo lho oiloionlial oqualion foi lho hoighl
j of lho waloi al limo t. (Hinl: volumo of a cono wilh a Laso of
iaoius r ano hoighl / is \ =
l
3
r
2
j).
(L) Solvo lho oiloionlial oqualion in (a).
41. Lol a, / Lo conslanls ano lol j (t) Lo a solulion lo lho |j.. j&n.n
j
t
= aj /j
2
(7.14)
Show lhal if wo lol . (t) =
l
(|)
, lhon
.
t
= a. / (7.1)
Whal is lho solulion lo (7.1) Whal ooos lhis imply is lho solulion lo
(7.14)
42. 1ho following oqualion is nol sopaiaLlo:
j
dj
da
= a
j
2
a
Show lhal lho suLslilulion n = aj liansfoims lho oqualion aLovo inlo
n
a
2
dn
da
= a
ano lhon solvo using sopaialion. Ioplaco n Ly aj ano solvo foi j lo lno
solulions lo lho oiiginal oqualion.
43. Sopaialion ooos nol nocossaiily pioouco all lho solulions lo a oiloionlial
oqualion, as wo will soo Ly oxploiing
j
t
= 2
_
j (7.16)
(a) Uso sopaialion of vaiiaLlos lo solvo (7.16).
(L) Show lhal j = 0 is also a solulion lo (7.16).
(c) Is lhoio any valuo of lho aiLiliaiy conslanl in (a) lhal piooucos lho
solulion in (L) 1hal is, is lho solulion in (L) a iosull of sopaialion
of vaiiaLlos
44. Doos sopaialion of vaiiaLlos pioouco all possiLlo solulions lo lho oiloionlial
oqualion
j
t
= 8j
l/3
Lxplain. (Hinl: Consiooi lho slops in oxoiciso 48)
45. Wilhoul aii iosislanco, a iainoiop which foll fiom a hoighl of 8000 fool woulo
ioach lho giouno wilh a volocily of aLoul 800 milos poi houi. Ouch! 1hus,
il is safo lo assumo lhal aii iosislanco plays a majoi iolo in lho molion of
a iainoiop. In facl, lho volocily of a iainoiop wilh a oiamoloi of 0.008
inchos (aLoul lho sizo of a iainoiop in a lighl oiizzlo) salislos lho following
oiloionlial oqualion
:a-- accc| = giavily aii iosislanco
:
Ju
J|
= 82: :c
whoio : is lho mass of lho iainoiop ano c is lho .n J J:nj.
1
(wo
aio assuming lhal oown is lho posilivo oiioclion so lhal posilivo volocilios
coiiospono lo ialo of oosconl).
(a) Lliminalo : ano solvo lho iosulling sopaiaLlo oqualion whon c =
2.64 poi socono. Uso an inilial volocily of (0) = 82 fool poi
socono.
(L) Inlogialo (t) in (a) lo oLlain r (t) , lho hoighl of lho oLjocl al limo
t. Assumo lhal r (0) = 8, 000 fool. How long unlil lho iainoiop
ioachos lho giouno How fasl is il liavoling whon il hils
46. VrIte to Learn: Sliing ail" oflon involvos lho uso of sliaighl linos lo
imply a cuivo. Foi oxamplo, a cuivo lhiough lho poinl (0, 10) is implioo Ly
1
Aoaploo fiom Iainoiops," soclion 7.1 of Jh n|&|& 1nJ:, 1|&n 11 Ly Davio Smilh
ano Lawionco C. Mooio, CD Hoalh \ Co, 1004.
lho lino sogmonls lhal connocl lho poinls (0, 10 a) on lho j-axis lo lho
poinls (a, 0) on lho a-axis, whoio a = 1, 2, . . . , 10
1-: Sliing Ail
In a shoil ossay, oxplain why lho oqualions of lho linos aio of lho foim
j =
_
1
10
a
_
a (10 a)
ano lhon show lhal lhis sol of linos is a solulion lo lho non-sopaiaLlo oiloi-
onlial oqualion
aj
t
j =
10j
t
1 j
t
1hon apply implicil oiloionlialion lo oLlain a now oiloionlial oqualion
which is sopaiaLlo ano whoso solulion is lho cuivo implioo Ly lho sliaighl
linos. (Hinl: j
tt
faclois oul of lho oqualion afloi implicil oiloionlialion ).
2
1.2 CrowLh and Decay
Iercentage Hates oI CLange
In lhis soclion, wo oxploio ono of lho mosl impoilanl sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqua-
lions, which is lho oiloionlial oqualion of lho foim
j
t
= /j, j (0) = 1
In pailiculai, wo will soo lhal lhis oqualion is insliumonlal in lho sluoy of giowlh
ano oocay in many applicalions.
If j (t) is a funclion of t, lhon lho inslanoous :nnj :n J hnnj ;'1O)
of j is lho ialio of lho ialo of chango j
t
lo lho aclual amounl j al limo t. 1hal is,
/1OC =
inslanlanoous ialo of chango of j
cuiionl valuo of j
=
j
t
j
Moioovoi, if lho '1O of j is oqual lo a conslanl /, lhon

= /, which is lho
samo as j
t
= /j. 1hus, all funclions wilh a conslanl ialo of chango / musl Lo a
solulion lo a oiloionlial oqualion of lho foim
j
t
= /j, j (0) = 1 (7.17)
whoio 1 is a conslanl known as lho .n..n| n|& of j (t) .
2
1ho non-sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion in oxoiciso 4 is a oiloionlial oqualion of lho foim
a
= g (
) , which is calloo a |n.:n& j&n.n.

Sinco (7.17) is lho samo as
J
Ji
= /j, sopaialion of vaiiaLlos loaos lo
dj
j
= /dt
Inlogialion lhon loaos lo
ln[j[ = /t C,
[j[ = c
||
c
C
j = c
C
c
||
Wo can lhon lol 1 = c
C
lo oLlain j = 1c
||
.
Lol us now show lhal j = 1c
||
is lho n|j solulion lo (7.17). If n(t) is also
a solulion lo (7.17) ano wo lol /(t) = c
||
n(t) , lhon
/
t
(t) = c
||
n
t
(t) /c
||
n(t)
Sinco n
t
(t) = /n(t) Ly assumplion, lhis simplilos lo
/
t
(t) = /c
||
n
t
(t) /c
||
n(t) = 0
1hus, / is conslanl ano sinco /(0) = c
0
n(0) = 1, il musl follow lhal /(t) = 1
foi all t. 1hus,
c
||
n(t) = 1 == n(t) = 1c
||
1hal is, j (t) = 1c
||
is lho n|j solulion lo (7.17) foi / ano 1 lxoo.
As a iosull, oxpononlial funclions aio oxaclly lhoso wilh a nnn :nnj
:n J hnnj. If / 0, lhon j is saio lo Lo j:&.nj rnn.n||j wilh iospocl lo
t, ano if / < 0, lhon j is saio lo Lo Jnj.nj rnn.n||j. Moioovoi, ooloimining
/ is a koy slop in consliucling moools of oxpononlial piocossos.
IXAMIII 1 Solvo lho inilial valuo pioLlom
j
t
= /j, j (0) =
givon lhal j (2) = 8.
SoIutIon: 1ho solulion lo j
t
= /j is of lho foim j = 1c
||
. Sinco 1 is
lho inilial valuo ano j (0) = , wo musl havo 1 = ano consoquonlly,
j = c
||
1ho givon valuo j (2) = 8 implios lhal j = 8 whon t = 2. 1hus,
8 = c
2|
Solving foi / lhon yiolos
c
2|
=
8
, 2/ = ln
_
8
_
, / =
1
2
ln
_
8
_
= 0.28
1hus, lho solulion lo j
t
= /j, j (0) = givon lhal j (2) = 8 is
j = c
0.235 |
CROWTH AND DLCAY 00
Wo oflon assumo lhal 1 ,= 0, sinco olhoiwiso lho piocoss unooi consiooialion
woulo nol Lo changing. 1his allows us lo oslimalo / ovon whon lho valuo of 1 is
oilhoi impossiLlo lo oslimalo oi iiiolovanl lo lho applicalion.
IXAMIII 2 Whal annual inloiosl ialo will causo an invoslmonl lo
oouLlo in valuo ovoiy lvo yoais assuming oxpononlial giowlh
SoIutIon: If j oonolos lho invoslmonl`s valuo al limo t in yoais, lhon
wo aio assuming lhal
j (t) = 1c
||
(7.18)
foi somo valuos of 1 ano /. 1o lno /, wo oLsoivo lhal an invoslmonl
of 1 oouLling in yoais implios lhal j () = 21. SuLsliluling inlo
(7.18) yiolos
21 = 1c
|5
(7.10)
Assuming 1 ,= 0 allows us lo ioouco (7.10) lo c
5|
= 2. Applying ln()
lhon yiolos
ln
_
c
5|
_
= ln(2)
/ = ln(2)
ano as a iosull, wo gol
/ =
ln(2)
= 0. 18862 04 = 18.86 /
1n:: h :&| .n rnn| .. 1hn J / = 18.86 / ::n Chock youi Ioaoing
\sIng Data Sets to EstInate /
Moio oflon lhan nol, an onliio sol of oala is usoo lo oslimalo /. 1o oo so,
howovoi, wo musl liansfoim lho oxpononlial moool inlo a linoai moool. Applying
lho naluial logaiilhm lo j = 1c
||
yiolos
ln(j) = ln
_
1c
||
_
= ln(1) ln
_
c
||
_
= ln(1) /t
so lhal lolling C = ln(1) iosulls in
ln(j) = C /t (7.20)
1ho liansfoimalion 1 = ln(j) lhon convoils (7.20) lho linoai moool An oxpononlial
moool is lians-
foimoo inlo a lin-
oai moool wilh
lho naluial loga-
iilhm.
1 = C / t
which can Lo ll lo a oala sol using a loasl squaios lino.
IXAMIII J Woilo populalion lguios sinco 100 aio iopoiloo Lo-
low, whoio t is lho yoai ano j is lho numLoi of pooplo in Lillions:
t = jcar j = jojn|atio: .n h.||.n
100 2.20
1060 8.020
1070 8.700
1080 4.40
1000 .800
Uso lho oala sol lo oslimalo lho inslanlanoous poiconlago ialo of
giowlh of lho woilo`s populalion fiom 100 lo 1000.
SoIutIon: If wo assumo lhal j (t) = 1c
||
, lhon 1 = ln(j) piooucos
lho now oala sol givon in lho lasl lwo columns Lolow:
t j t 1 = ln(j)
100 2.20 100 0.024
1060 8.020 1060 1.10
1070 8.700 1070 1.808
1080 4.40 1080 1.408
1000 .800 1000 1.668
Applying lho loasl squaios algoiilhm lo lho lasl lwo columns yiolos
lho loasl squaios lino
1 = 8. 620 0.0187t (7.21)
fiom which wo soo lhal / = 0.0187. Moioovoi, lho coiiolalion coom-
cionl is r = 0.0007. 1hus, assuming oxpononlial giowlh, wo can safoly
concluoo lhal lho woilo`s populalion has giown wilh an inslanlanoous
ialo of / = 1.87/ poi yoai sinco 100.
T
1990 1980 1970 1960 1950
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
8-1: 1 = 8. 620 0.0187t
x
2000 1990 1980 1970 1960 1950 1940
6
5
4
3
8-2: j = c
35. 6290.0lS75|
IXAMIII ! Uso lho moool in oxamplo 8 lo piooicl lho woilo`s
populalion foi lho yoai 2010.
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo ioplaco 1 Ly ln(j) in (7.21) lo oLlain
ln(j) = 8. 620 0.0187t (7.22)
Wo now lol t = 2010 ano solvo foi j :
ln(j) = 8.620 0.0187 (2010)
ln(j) = 2. 08
j = c
2.05S5
= 7. 88420 06770 1
CROWTH AND DLCAY 11
1hoio will Lo a lilllo moio lhan 7.8 Lillion pooplo on oailh in lho yoai
2010, accoioing lo lhis moool.
1hn &.|| h &:|J &|n.n h .n .u.u, n:J.nj ;7...) Chock youi Ioaoing
ExonentIaI Decay
Iiocossos in which a quanlily oocays occui fioquonlly in applicalions. Foi oxam-
plo, lho foico of fiiclion foi somo (Lul nol all) moving oLjocls is piopoilional lo
lho piooucl of lho mass : ano lho volocily of lho oLjocl. 1hal is,
1orcc = c:
whoio c 0. Sinco lho accoloialion a is lho ooiivalivo of , lho molion of somo
moving oLjocls is moooloo Ly
:
t
= c:, oi
t
= c (7.28)
1hal is, lho foico of fiiclion causos lho volocily of somo oLjocls lo oocay oxponon-
lially.
IXAMIII An aulomoLilo slams on ils Liakos whilo il is going 60
m.p.h.. Afloi ono socono, il has slowoo lo 40 m.p.h. Doloimino lho
amounl of limo unlil il has slowoo lo m.p.h. if ils volocily, (t) ,
salislos (7.28).
SoIutIon: 1ho oqualion
t
= c has only ono solulion, namoly
(t) =
0
c
c|
whoio
0
is lho inilial volocily of lho oLjocl. If wo lol t = 0 al lho
momonl lho Liakos aio ongagoo, lhon
0
= 60 ano
(t) = 60c
c|
1o ooloimino c, wo oLsoivo lhal whon t = 1 socono, lhon (1) = 40
m.p.h.. As a iosull,
(1) = 60c
c(l)
40 = 60c
c
ano solving foi c in lho usual way yiolos c = 0. 40461. 1hus, (t) =
0c
0.d05d65l|
ano wo musl lno t such lhal (t) = . 1hal is, wo musl
solvo foi t in lho following:
= 60c
c|
1o oo so, wo oivioo Ly 60 ano apply lho naluial logaiilhm:
c
c|
=

60
, ct = ln
_

60
_
= 2. 4840
Divioing Ly c = 0.40461 lhon yiolos
t =
2.4840
c
=
2.4840
0.40461
= 6.128 soc
Whon a planl oi animal oios, lho caiLon-14 in ils Looy Logins lo oocay lo caiLon-
12. Il has Loon ooloiminoo oxpoiimonlally lhal lho hn|J-|.J of caiLon-14 is 780
yoais. 1hal is, if 1 is lho inilial amounl of caiLon-14, lhon afloi 780 yoais lho
amounl iomaining will Lo
l
2
1. If wo assumo lhal lho ialio of caiLon-14 lo caiLon-
12 in living lissuo has nol changoo ovoi lho pasl 20,000 yoais, lhon lho ago of a
samplo will follow fiom lho amounl of caiLon-14 il conlains.
IXAMIII 0 A coilain planl samplo conlains only 6/ as much
caiLon-14 as ooos a living planl looay. How olo is il
SoIutIon: Wo lol j Lo lho amounl of caiLon-14 in lho samplo afloi t
yoais, ano lol
j (t) = 1c
||
Sinco lho half-lifo of caiLon-14 is 780 yoais, wo can assumo lhal
j (780) = 12, so lhal
1c
|5730
=
1
2
1ho inilial amounl, 1, is nol zoio ano lhus c
|5730
=
l
2
, which loaos lo In an oxponon-
lial oocay, lho
poiconlago ialo
of chango is nog-
alivo.
/ =
1
780
ln
_
1
2
_
= 1. 200681 10
d
Oui goal is lo lno t such lhal j (t) = 0.61. Sinco j (t) = 1c
||
, wo
havo
1c
||
= 0.61
Again, 1 cancols, ano wo aio lofl lo solvo foi t (whoio / = 1. 200681
10
d
):
c
||
= 0.6
/t = ln(0.6)
t =
1
/
ln(0.6) =
ln(0.6)
1. 20068 1 10
d
= 861.18 jcar-
1& |J . n nn| hn nn.n u' n n&h n:hn-1 n J n |..nj |nn Chock youi Ioaoing
Jnj
AodeIIng vItL DIerentIaI EquatIons
Diloionlial oqualions of lho foim j
t
= /j occui naluially in many oiloionl appli-
calions. Whon lhoy oo, wo uso lho facl lhal lho solulion lo j
t
= /j musl Lo of
lho foim j = 1c
||
, whoio 1 = j (0) .
IXAMIII 7 1ho isolhoimal compiossiLilily i
T
of a suLslanco wilh
a conslanl lompoialuio lhal has volumo \ al piossuio j is givon Ly
i
T
=
1
\
d\
dj
Al 20
C, lho isolhoimal compiossiLilily of waloi is 40.6 10

6
poi
almosphoios. If 00 ml of waloi has a piossuio of 1 almosphoio, lhon
CROWTH AND DLCAY 18
whal is lho volumo of lho waloi whon lho piossuio is incioasoo lo 2
almosphoios
SoIutIon: Solving foi
J\
J
loaos lo
d\
dj
= i
T
\
which has a solulion of \ = 1c
v
J
, whoio 1 is a conslanl. Whon

j = 1, lhon \ = 00 ml. 1hus,
00 = 1c
v
J
== 1 = 00c
v
J
= 400.072
As a iosull, whon j = 2, lhon
\ = 400.072c
vJ 2
= 400.072c
(d9.6l0
)2
= 400.026 :|
1hus, oouLling lho piossuio ooos nol causo a gioal ooal of chango in
lho volumo of lho waloi.
Lol`s concluoo wilh an oxamplo involving lho nn:n.n j of a pollulanl in
a lako, whoio lho conconlialion is lho amounl of lho pollulanl poi unil volumo.
In pailiculai, lol`s supposo lhal lho pollulanl is unifoimly oisliiLuloo in a lako
8
wilh a conslanl volumo \ , ano lhal lho souico of lho pollulanl has Loon sloppoo.
1hon \ j is lho lolal amounl of pollulanl in lho lako, ano if r oonolos lho ialo al
which polluloo waloi is lowing oul of lho lako, lhon
Iollulanl Oullow =
amounl of pollulanl loaving lho lako
unils of limo
=
amounl of pollulanl
unils of volumo

unils of volumo loaving lako
unils of limo
= j r
Sinco lho inlow of pollulion is zoio, wo havo
Ialo of Chango
of Iollulion
=
Iollulion
Inlow

Iollulion
Oullow
d
dt
[\ j (t)[ = 0 rj
Sinco \ is conslanl, lhis iooucos lo \ j
t
= rj, which loaos lo
j
t
=
r
\
j, j (0) = j
0
(7.24)
whoio j
0
is lho inilial conconlialion.
IXAMIII 8 Lako Liio has a volumo of
\ = 4.8 10
ll
cuLic molois
ano a moan oullow ialo of aLoul
r = 4.80 10
S
cuLic molois poi oay
8
1his is haioly a juslilaLlo assumplion, Lul il is ono which will allow us lo uso oxpononlial
funclions lo oLlain a gooo appioximalion.
How long unlil lho amounl of a coilain pollulanl in lho lako oocays lo
/ of ils cuiionl conconlialion
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, lho solulion lo (7.24) is
j = j
0
c
||
(7.2)
whoio / = r\. 1ho poiconlago ialo of chango is givon Ly
/ =
r
\
=
4.80 10
S
cuLic molois poi oay
4.8 10
ll
cuLic molois
= 0.00104808 poi oay
1ho cuiionl valuo is j
0
, so lhal wo musl lno t such lhal j (t) = 0.0j
0
.
j
0
c
0.00l0dS035|
= 0.0j
0
Cancoling j
0
ano applying ln(a) lhon yiolos
0.00104808t = ln(0.0)
which lianslalos inlo aLoul t = 288 yoais. 1hal is, il will lako aLoul
2,88 yoais unlil Lako Liio`s oullow can ioouco lho amounl of a givon
pollulanl in lho lako lo / of ils cuiionl conconlialion.
Lxoicisos
5| h .n..n| n|& :h|n. 5n &hh: h j&n.n . nJ|.nj rnn.n|
j:&h : Jnj.
1. j
t
= 0.2j, j (0) = 8 2. j
t
= j, j (0) =
8. j
t
= /j, j (0) = 8, j (2) = 7 4. j
t
= /j, j (0) = c, j (2) = 1
. j
t
= /j, j (0) = , j (2) = 1 6. j
t
= /j, j (0) = 1, j (2) = c
7. 1ho oouLling limo of an oxpononlially-giowing piocoss is lho limo ioquiioo lo
giow fiom an inilial valuo of 1 lo a valuo of 21. Whal is lho oouLling limo
of lho piocoss moooloo Ly
j
t
= j, j (0) = 2
8. 1ho oouLling limo of an oxpononlially-giowing piocoss is lho limo ioquiioo lo
giow fiom an inilial valuo of 1 lo a valuo of 21. Whal is lho oouLling limo
of lho piocoss moooloo Ly j
t
= 1.00j
9. 1ho hn|J-|.J of an oxpononlially-oocaying piocoss is lho limo ioquiioo lo oocay
fioman inilial valuo of 1 lo a valuo of
l
2
1. Whal is lho half-lifo of lho piocoss
moooloo Ly
j
t
= 8j, j (0) = 7
10. 1ho hn|J-|.J of an oxpononlially-oocaying piocoss is lho limo ioquiioo lo
oocay fiom an inilial valuo of 1 lo a valuo of
l
2
1. Whal is lho half-lifo of lho
piocoss moooloo Ly j
t
= 1.1j
11. Uso (7.22) lo piooicl whal lho populalion will Lo in 200.
CROWTH AND DLCAY 1
12. Uso (7.22) lo piooicl whon lho woilo populalion will pass 1 Lillion.
13. Loaulifa Nalional Iaik onco hao wolvos, Lul lhoy woio hunloo oul. In 1080,
howovoi, paik iangois ioinliooucoo wolvos inlo lho paik Ly ioloasing foui
paiis of wolvos. In 2000, paik iangois numLoioo lho wolf populalion al 02
wolvos. Assuming oxpononlial populalion giowlh, how many wolvos will Lo
in lho paik in 2010 In whal yoai will lho wolf populalion Locomo loo laigo
foi lho paik if il is oslimaloo lhal lho paik can suppoil no moio lhan 1000
wolvos
14. A loxlLook lhal now cosls $00 only cosl youi paionls $80 whon lhoy woio
in school 2 yoais ago. Assuming oxpononlial giowlh, whal will lhal samo
loxlLook cosl whon youi chiloion aio in collogo somo 2 yoais fiom now
15. If an invoslmonl oouLlos onco ovoiy 4 yoais, lhon how long unlil il liiplos,
assuming oxpononlial giowlh
16. VrIte to Learn: John invosls $1,000 in lho slock maikol al lho Loginning
of a coilain yoai. Al lho ono of lhal yoai, his invoslmonl is woilh $1,240.
Assuming oxpononlial giowlh, lno lho giowlh ialo foi John`s invoslmonl.
Wiilo an ossay oxplaining why lho assumplion of oxpononlial giowlh is a
gooo ono ano why lho giowlh ialo is a Lolloi moasuio of lho giowlh of
John`s invoslmonl lhan is lho simplo inloiosl ialo of 24/ poi yoai.
17. A polii oish which inilially conlains 100 Lacloiia has 700 Lacloiia an houi
laloi.
(a) Assuming lho giowlh is oxpononlial, lno lho moool j = 1c
||
foi
lhis colony of Lacloiia.
(L) How many Lacloiia woio in lho oish 1 minulos inlo lho oxpoii-
monl
(c) How long will il lako lho numLoi of Lacloiia lo oouLlo
(o) How long will il lako lho numLoi of Lacloiia lo liiplo
18. A coll of lho Lacloiium Lschoiichia coli (L-coli) in a nuliionl solulion will
oivioo ovoiy 1 minulos whon lho populalion is sumcionlly small. If 10
S
Lacloiia aio nocossaiy foi symploms of lho illnoss lo appoai ano if lhoio is
an inilial inlako of 100 Lacloiia, lhon appioximaloly how many houis will
olapso Lofoio symploms occui
19. A iumoi spioaos oxpononlially lhiough an aiLiliaiily laigo populalion. If
pooplo know lho iumoi inilially, ano 2 pooplo havo hoaio lho iumoi Ly lho
ono of lho lisl oay, lhon how many pooplo will havo hoaio lho iumoi Ly lho
ono of lho 7lh oay
20. A sphoio whoso iaoius is oiiginally 1 molls accoioing lo lho law
d\
dt
= 4/r
3
whoio \ is lho volumo of lho sphoio ano / = 2 soc
l
. Show lhal r = 1 c
3||
ano lno lho limo nocossaiy lo ioouco lho iaoius lo 12. (Hinl: \ =
d
3
r
3
)
21. A coilain planl samplo conlains only 8/ as much caiLon-14 as ooos a living
planl looay. Uso caiLon-14 oaling lo ooloimino lho ago of lho planl.
22. Whon only a small poiconlago of caiLon-14 iomains, ils uso in oaling is
unslaLlo Locauso small changos in lho samplo amounl loao lo laigo changos
in lho ago oslimalo. 1his is illuslialoo in lho pioLloms Lolow.
(a) Supposo lhal a coilain samplo conlainoo only 10/ as much caiLon-
14 as ooos a living planl looay. How olo is lho samplo
(L) Supposo lhal a coilain samplo conlainoo only 11/ as much caiLon-
(c) Supposo lhal a coilain samplo conlainoo only 12/ as much caiLon-
23. How much caiLon-14 will a 6,000 yoai olo samplo conlain as a poiconlago of
lho amounl of caiLon-14 in living lissuo
24. In a laLoialoiy, a scionlisl piooucos Iu-280 (Ilulonium-280). 1o lno lho
half-lifo lho scionlisl moasuios lho amounl piosonl al a pailiculai limo, 0.0
giams. Ono monlh (0.08888888 yoais) laloi sho moasuios 0.04000088 giams.
Fino lho half-lifo foi Iu-280 (nolo. lhoio will Lo an oiioi of aLoul 80 yoais
ouo lo lack of piocision in lho moasuiomonls i.o., lho lack of signilcanl
oigils)
25. Supposo lhal youi giaoo in lhis couiso is Lasoo on lho limo ioquiioo lo
masloi a now lopic. Spocilcally, supposo you Login wilh a giaoo of 100/
oach limo a now lopic is inliooucoo, ano lhon youi giaoo is iooucoo Ly
0./ poi houi unlil you pass a masloiy oxam" on lhal lopic. Assuming
oxpononlial giowlh, how many houis woulo olapso Lofoio you hao a giaoo
of 00/ foi lhal lopic Lofoio you hao a giaoo of 80/ Lofoio you hao a
giaoo of 70/
26. Whal annual inloiosl ialo will loao lo an invoslmonl`s oouLling in valuo ovoiy
foui yoais Lvoiy lhioo yoais Lvoiy lwo yoais Lvoiy yoai
27. Supposo lho amounl of a coilain oiug in lho Lloooslioam oocays oxponon-
lially, ano supposo lho oiug has a half-lifo of 4 houis ano a minimum of 0
milligiams of lho oiug nooos lo Lo in lho Llooo slioam al all limos. If an
inilial ooso of 200 milligiams is ingosloo, whon shoulo lho socono ooso Lo
lakon in oiooi foi lho amounl of lho oiug in lho Llooo lo iomain aLovo lho
minimum lovol How long afloi lho socono ooso of 200 milligiams shoulo
lho lhiio ooso Lo ingosloo lo mainlain lhis minimum lovol
28. Supposo lho amounl of a coilain painkilloi in lho Lloooslioam oocays oxpo-
nonlially. Il is iocommonooo nol lo oxcooo lwo 00mg laLlols of a pailiculai
pain killoi ovoiy six houis. If lho minimum lovol lo mainlain in lho Llooo in
oiooi lo havo ioliof is 10 mg ano lhis is mainlainoo Ly laking lho maximum
allowaLlo oosago, lhon whal is lho half-lifo of lhis oiug
29. 1ho Uniloo Slalos populalion iocoiooo in lho consusos sinco 100 is givon in
lho laLlo Lolow.
t-yoai 100 1060 1070 1080 1000
j-populalion (millions) 10.607 170.828 208.18 226.46 248.710
(a) 1iansfoim lho oala using 1 = ln(j).
(L) Uso loasl-squaios lo ooloimino lho oxpononlial moool.
(c) If lho cuiionl lionos conlinuo, appioximaloly whal will lho U.S.
populalion Lo in lho yoai 2000 in 2020
(o) In whal yoai will lho populalion Lo 1 Lillion Do you lhink lhis is
a ioasonaLlo answoi Lxplain.
CROWTH AND DLCAY 17
30. 1ho yoaily piico of a coilain loxlLook is givon Lolow.
t = yoai 1080 1000 1001 1002 1008
j = piico $0.00 $2.0 $.00 $8.00 $61.00
Assumo lhal lho piico of lho Look incioasos oxpononlially.
(a) 1iansfoim lho oala using 1 = ln(j) ano uso a loasl squaios lino
lo ooloimino /.
(L) Iiooicl lho piico of lho Look in lho yoai 2000. In lho yoai 2010.
31. John invosls $1000 in lho slock maikol. Ovoi lho couiso of sovoial monlhs,
his invoslmonl giows sloaoily, as lho oala sol Lolow iovoals:
t = monlh 0 1 2 8 4
j = amounl $1000 $1017.24 $108.70 $108.00 $1072.0
Assumo lhal lho invoslmonl giows oxpononlially ouiing lhoso monlhs.
(a) 1iansfoim lho oala using 1 = ln(j) ano uso a loasl squaios lino
lo oslimalo /.
(L) Mulliply / Ly 12 lo gol lho annual giowlh ialo. Al aLoul whal
annual poiconlago ialo is John`s invoslmonl giowing
(c) Assuming his invoslmonl conlinuos lo giow al lho samo ialo, how
much will John`s invoslmonl Lo woilh al lho ono of lho yoai Al
lho ono of lvo yoais
32. Fiom oaily FoLiuaiy lhiough lho lisl pail of May, 1000, lho Dow Jonos
Inousliial Avoiago (DJIA) gainoo almosl 2,000 poinls. Lolow is a soloclion
of Dow Jonos Inousliial Avoiagos foi a fow solocloo oalos ouiing lhal limo,
wilh j as lho inoox valuo t oays afloi FoLiuaiy 1:
4
FoL. 1 FoL. 16 Mai. 1 Mai. 1 Api. 1 Api. 1 May 8
t = oay 0 1 28 42 8 72 88
j = inoox 0,84.70 0,201.11 0,824.78 0,08.77 0,882.1 10,462.72 11,014.60
(a) 1iansfoim lho oala using 1 = ln(j) ano lhon giaph lho lians-
foimoo oala along wilh ils loasl squaios lino. Doos il appoai lhal
lho DJIA giow oxpononlially ouiing lhal limo poiioo
(L) Mulliply / in (a) Ly 86. Is lhis a gooo inoicaloi of lho annual
poiconlago ialo of giowlh of lho DJIA ouiing lhis limo poiioo, oi
is il loo high oi loo low
33. A Liologisl oiscovois a now Lacloiia ano oosiios lo know lho avoiago poiioo
of limo Lolwoon whon a Lacloiium oivioos ano whon il oivioos again. A
Lacloiial culluio is mixoo unlil lho Lacloiia can Lo assumoo lo Lo unifoimly
oisliiLuloo lhioughoul lho mixluio, ano lhon lho mixluio is oisliiLuloo uni-
foimly lo lvo polii oishos. 1ho lvo polii oishos aio placoo in an incuLaloi,
ano onco ovoiy houi, a singlo oish is iomovoo ano quickly fiozon. 1ho num-
Loi of Lacloiia in oach oish aio counloo ano lho following sol of oala is
piooucoo.
limo 2:00 8:00 4:00 :00 6:00
counl (in lhousanos) 128 1041 800 4704 784
How long ooos il lako foi lho Lacloiia populalion lo oouLlo (lho oouLling
limo of lho populalion is oquivalonl lo lho avoiago poiioo of limo Lolwoon
whon a Lacloiia oivioos ano whon il oivioos again.)
4
Fiom Dow Jonos Avoiagos" al hllp:avoiagos.oowjonos.comhomo.hlml.
34. Iopoal oxoiciso 88 whon lho oala sol is
limo 2:00 8:00 4:00 :00 6:00
counl (in lhousanos) 106 2018 8808 7002 16100
35. Whon
2
O
5
is oissolvoo in lho inoil solvonl caiLon loliachloiioo, il oocom-
posos accoioing lo lho Lalanco oqualion
2
2
O
5
4O
2
O
2
If j oonolos lho conconlialion in molos poi liloi of
2
O
5
al limo t in soconos,
lhon
dj
dt
= /j
whoio lho ialo conslanl is / = 6. 284 10
d
soc
l
al 81.84
C. How many
h&: ooos il lako foi a givon amounl of
2
O
5
lo oocomposo inlo half of
lho oiiginal amounl
36. Iopoal oxoiciso 8 using lho facl lhal / = 4.82 10

3
soc
l
al 64
C.
37. 1ho aoiaLalic compiossiLilily c of a suLslanco wilh a conslanl piossuio lhal
has volumo \ al lompoialuio T is givon Ly
c =
1
\
d\
dT
1ho aoiaLalic compiossiLilily of waloi is 2.110
d
poi oogioos Kolvin (
1).
If 00 ml of waloi has a lompoialuio of 800
1, lhon whal is lho volumo of

lho waloi whon lho lompoialuio is incioasoo lo 810
1
38. Iopoal oxamplo 7 using lho facl lhal aii is oioois of magniluoo moio
compiossiLlo lhan waloi.
39. 1ho aii piossuio j al an alliluoo of . fool aLovo soa lovol salislos lho hjJ:-
n. j&n.n
dj
d.
= cp
whoio c is lho oonsily of lho aii al hoighl . ano p is lho accoloialion ouo lo
giavily. 1ho 1j&n.n J 5n foi moisl aii is givon Ly
j = c1
J
T
u
whoio 1
J
is lho gas conslanl foi oiy aii ano T
u
is lho .:&n| n:n&: al
hoighl ..
6
(a) Assumo lhal 1
J
ano T
u
aio conslanl, ano lhon show lhal lho oon-
sily of lho aii c salislos
dc
d.
= /c
whoio / = p (1
J
T
u
) is a conslanl.
Fiom Chomical Scioncos" al hllp:www.chom.ualLoila.caplamLockchop102p02148.hlm

Ly Jamos IlamLock.
6
1ho viilual lompoialuio T is a funclion of lho aclual lompoialuio lhal incoipoialos lho
oowpoinl of lho almosphoio as woll.
CROWTH AND DLCAY 10
(L) Solvo lho oqualion in (a), liansfoim lho following oala using 1 =
ln(j) , uso a loasl squaios lino lo oslimaloLolh / ano 1, ano lhon
solvo foi c as a funclion of ..
. = alliluoo in molois 0 00 1000 100 2000 200 8000
c = aii oonsily in
|
n
1.28 1.17 1.11 1.06 1.01 0.07 0.010

40. Supposo wo havo : molos of an iooal gas whoso moloculos havo an avoiago
mass of :. 1ho iooal gas law says lhal
j\ = :/T
whoio j is piossuio, \ is lho volumo of lho gas, / is a conslanl, ano T is
lho lompoialuio of lho gas. Uso lho hyoioslalic oqualion j
t
(.) = cp in
oxoiciso 80 (whoio c is lho oonsily of lho gas ano p is lho accoloialion ouo
lo giavily) ano lho iooal gas law lo oLlain lho hn:n:. j&n.n
dj
d.
=
:p
/T
j
Assuming lhal :, p, /, ano T aio conslanl, whal is lho solulion lo lho
Laiomoliic oqualion ( Hinl: c =
no~~
uolunt
=
nn
\
)
41. 1ho :| j&n.n says lhal if ` is lho mass of a iockol ano
t
is lho
volocily of lho oxpanoing gassos, lhon
d =
t
d`
`
whoio (t) is lho volocily of lho iockol.
(a) 1iansfoim lho oqualion inlo
d`
d
=
1
t
`
ano lhon lno lho mass of lho iockol as a funclion of ils volocily.
(L) Supposo a singlo-slago iockol which is inilially al iosl on lho launch-
pao allains a volocily of 4.70 milos poi socono al lho poinl whoio
all of ils fuol has Loon consumoo. If lho mass of lho iockol wilhoul
any fuol is 1 lon, lhon how much fuol is consumoo in ioaching a
volocily of 4.70 milos poi socono
(c) Supposo lho oxhausl gas volocily is 1.7 fool poi socono ano lho
mass of lho iockol al a volocily of 4.70 milos poi socono is 1 lon.
Whal was lho mass of lho iockol inilially
42. VrIte to Learn: An aulomoLilo`s spoooomoloi ioaoing is lho samo as ils
ooomoloi ioaoing foi all limos Lolwoon 8:00 p.m. ano 8:0 p.m. on a coilain
oay. Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you oosciiLo lho ooomoloi ioaoing j (t)
as a funclion of t ano ooloimino lho spooo of lho aulomoLilo al 8:0 givon
lhal lho ooomoloi ioao 60 milos al 8:00 p.m.
43. VrIte to Learn: Supposo lhal a cai slams on ils Liakos whilo il is going 60
m.p.h., ano supposo lhal il has slowoo lo 40 m.p.h. afloi 1 socono. Assuming
oxpononlial oocay of lho cais volocily, answoi lho following:
(a) How long unlil lho cai slows lo 1 m.p.h.
(L) How long unlil lho cai slows lo 0.1 m.p.h.
(c) How long unlil lho cai slows lo 0.01 m.p.h.
(o) Do you Loliovo lhoso iosulls Wiilo a shoil ossay oxplaining why
an oxpononlial oocay moool piooicls lhal lho cai will novoi como
lo a complolo slop.
Henark 2 Jh :J..n J n n:-.nj n&nh.| .n r:. . |n&n
n n malhomalical ailifacl, &h.h . n nnhnn.n| :&| hn J n ::nJ
n :n| &:|J hnnnn.
1.3 ParLial FracLions
IntegratIon oI HatIonaI FunctIons
Many sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualions ioquiio a spocial molhoo of inlogialion calloo
h nhJ J n:.n| J:n.n. In lhis soclion, wo inlioouco lhis molhoo along
wilh sovoial of lho sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualions lhal ioquiio ils uso.
1o Login wilh, lol`s uso algoLia lo oovolop a molhoo foi ovalualing inlogials
of lho foim
_
(r a -) da
(a j) (a )
1o oo so, wo uso lho facl lhal lhoio aio numLois ano 1 such lhal
r a -
(a j) (a )
=

a j

1
a
(7.26)
1ho oxpansion on lho iighl of (7.26) is calloo lho n:.n| J:n.n rnn.n of lho
ialional funclion on lho lofl.
1o ooloimino lho pailial fiaclion oxpansion (7.26), wo mulliply Lolh sioos Ly
lho piooucl (a j) (a ) , which iosulls in
r a - = (a ) 1(a j)
Lxpanoing lho oxpiossion on lho iighl yiolos
r a - = (1) a 1j
As a iosull, 1 = r ano 1j = -, fiom which wo solvo foi ano 1.
IXAMIII 1 Uso a pailial fiaclion oxpansion lo ovalualo
_
2a 1
a
2
a 6
da
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo facloi lho oonominaloi ano wiilo lho inlogiano
in lho foim (7.26).
2a 1
(a 2) (a 8)
=

a 2

1
a 8
Mulliplying Lolh sioos Ly lho piooucl (a 1) (a 2) yiolos
2a 1 = (a 8) 1(a 2)
= a 81a 21
PARTlAL FRACTlONS 21
Giouping loims lhon yiolos
2a 1 = (1) a 821
Ly inspoclion, wo soo lhal 1 = 2 ano 821 = 1.
Sinco 1 = 2 is lho samo as = 2 1, lho socono oqualion
Locomos
8 (2 1) 21 = 1
6 81 21 = 1
1hus, 1 = oi 1 = 1, so lhal 1 = 2 Locomos
1 = 2, = 1
ano as a iosull, wo havo lho pailial fiaclion oxpansion
2a 1
(a 2) (a 8)
=
1
a 2

1
a 8
(7.27)
Finally, lho pailial fiaclion oxpansion is inlogialoo lo oLlain
_
2a 1
a
2
a 6
da =
_
1
a 2
da
_
1
a 8
da
= ln[a 2[ ln[a 8[ C
If lho oonominaloi has a facloi lhal is an .::J&.h| j&nJ:n.i.o., a quaoialic A quaoialic wilh
complox iools is
saio lo Lo iiio-
ouciLlo ovoi lho
ioals.
wilh complox ioolslhon a linoai loim 1a C" is placoo ovoi lhal iiioouciLlo
facloi in lho pailial fiaclion oxpansion.
_
a
2
a 4
a(a
2
4)
da
SoIutIon: 1ho inlogiano can Lo wiillon as
a
2
a 4
a(a
2
4)
=

a

1a C
a
2
4
Mulliplying Lolh sioos Ly lho piooucl a
_
a
2
4
_
yiolos
a
2
a 4 =
_
a
2
4
_
(1a C) a
1a
2
1a 4 = (1) a
2
Ca 4
1hus, 1 = 1, C = 1, ano 4 = 4. Consoquonlly, = 1 ano
1 1 = 1 == 1 = 0
so lhal lho pailial fiaclion oxpansion of lho inlogiano is
a
2
a 4
a(a
2
4)
=
1
a

1
a
2
4
SuLsliluling inlo lho anliooiivalivo lhon yiolos
_
a
2
a 4
a(a
2
4)
=
_
1
a
da
_
1
a
2
4
da
= ln[a[
1
2
lan
l
_
a
2
_
C
1h: J.J h .n: nnjn n J:n .n rnn| .. Chock youi Ioaoing
Heeated Hoots and Conuter AIgeLra Systens
Il is also possiLlo lhal iopoaloo iools oi powois of iiioouciLlo quaoialics occui as
faclois in lho oonominaloi of a ialional funclion. In such casos, oach succossivo
posilivo inlogoi powoi appoais as a loim in lho pailial fiaclion oxpansion. Foi
oxamplo, if (a r)
n
is a facloi of lho oonominaloi, lhon lho lisl : loims of lho
pailial fiaclion oxpansion is of lho foim
(a)
(a r)
n
j (a)
=

l
a r

2
(a r)
2
. . .

n
(a r)
n
. . .
whoio j (a) ano (a) aio polynomials.
IXAMIII J Uso a pailial fiaclion oxpansion lo ovalualo
_
a 8
(a 4)
2
da (7.28)
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo placo " ovoi an a4 facloi ano a 1" ovoi
(a 4)
2
:
a 8
(a 4)
2
=

a 4

1
(a 4)
2
1o solvo foi ano 1, wo mulliply lhioughoul Ly (a 4)
2
:
a 8 = (a 4) 1 = a 41
1hus, = 1 ano 1 4 = 8, so lhal 1 4 = 8 ano 1 = 7. Il follows
lhal
a 8
(a 4)
2
=
1
a 4

7
(a 4)
2
ano suLsliluling inlo lho inlogiano of (7.28) loaos lo
_
a 8
(a 4)
2
da =
_
1
a 4
da
_
7
(a 4)
2
da
= ln[a 4[
7
a 4
C
1ho oonominaloi of a ialional funclion may possiLly conlain all 8 lypos of faclois
linoai faclois, iiioouciLlo quaoialics, ano iopoaloo iools. Foilunaloly, howovoi,
lho algoLia involvoo in compuling coomcionls of pailial fiaclions is iooally suiloo
lo lho compuloi. 1hus, compuloi algoLia sysloms aio oflon usoo lo compulo
pailial fiaclion oxpansions.
IXAMIII ! Uso a compuloi algoLia syslomlo aio in lho calculalion
of
_
a
d
a
2
2a 2
a(a
2
1) (a 1)
3
da (7.20)
SoIutIon: Wo wiilo lho inlogiano as a pailial fiaclion oxpansion
a
d
a
2
2a 2
a(a
2
1) (a 1)
3
=

a

1a C
a
2
1

1
a 1

1
(a 1)
2

1
(a 1)
3
1o solvo foi , 1, C, 1, 1, ano 1, wo uso lho compuloi algoLia syslom
`n| lo oLlain
a
d
a
2
2a 2
a(a
2
1) (a 1)
3
`n|

2
a

a
a
2
1

1
a 1

8
(a 1)
3
Wo lhon inlogialo loim Ly loim lo ovalualo (7.20):
_
a
2
a 2
a(a 1)
3
da =
_
2
a
da
_
a
a
2
1
da
_
1
a 1
da
_
8
(a 1)
3
da
= 2 lna
1
2
ln
_
a
2
1
_
ln(a 1)
8
2 (a 1)
2
C
1.|| j&: j:nh.nj n|&|n: :J& n:.n| J:n.n rnn.n Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe LogIstIc EquatIon
In 1888, lho Lolgian malhomalician I. F. Voihulsl ioalizoo lhal populalions cannol
Locomo aiLiliaiily laigo, Lul insloao giow lowaio a limiling valuo known as
lho n::j.nj nn.j oi n&:n.n || of lho populalion. Ho lhon ioasonoo lhal
if lho populalion j al limo t is woll Lolow lho caiiying capacily , lhon il giows
oxpononlially wilh an .n:.n. j:&h :n of /. As a iosull, ho inliooucoo lho
|j.. j&n.n
j
t
= /j
_
1
j
_
(7.80)
as a now moool of populalion giowlh. Nolico lhal if j is voiy small wilh iospocl
lo , lhon j
t
- /j.
IXAMIII Supposo lhal j oonolos lho numLoi of lioos poi acio al
limo t on a coilain liacl of lano, ano supposo lhal j incioasos al a ialo
of 10/ poi yoai whon lho lioo populalion is woll Lolow lho caiiying
capacily of = 1000 lioos poi acio. Fino ano solvo lho logislic moool
of lho lioo giowlh on lhal lano.
SoIutIon: Foi j woll Lolow = 1000, lho giowlh ialo is / = 10/ poi
yoai. 1hus, lho oqualion (7.80) Locomos
dj
dt
= 0.1j
_
1
j
1000
_
(7.81)
1o solvo lhis oiloionlial oqualion, wo sopaialo vaiiaLlos lo oLlain
dj
j
_
1

l000
_ = 0.1 dt
Mulliplying Ly
l000
l000
on lho lofl ano lhon inlogialing Lolh sioos yiolos
_
1000
j (1000 j)
dj =
_
0.1dt (7.82)
1o ovalualo lho anliooiivalivo on lho lofl, wo musl oxpano lho inlo-
giano inlo ils pailial fiaclion oxpansion. Inoooo,
1000
j (1000 j)
=

j

1
1000 j
(7.88)
fiom which il follows lhal = 1 = 1. 1hus, (7.82) Locomos
_ _
1
j

1
1000 j
_
dj =
_
0.1dt
fiom which wo oLlain lho inlogial cuivo solulion
ln[j[ ln[1000 j[ = 0.1t C
5h& hn = 1 = 1 .n ;7.). ;:hn &.h j&: j:nh.nj n|&|n:) Chock youi Ioaoing
CLenIcaI KInetIcs
Lalanco oqualions in olomonlaiy chomisliy aio oflon of lho foim
ca1 C (7.84)
which says lhal c moloculos of lypo comLino wilh a moloculos of lypo 1 lo
pioouco moloculos of lypo C. Foi oxamplo, lho Lalanco oqualion
2H
2
0
2
2H
2
0
says lhal 2 moloculos of hyoiogon comLino wilh 1 moloculo of oxygon lo foim 2
moloculos of waloi.
Howovoi, Lalanco oqualions only quanlify lho ono iosull of a chomical ioaclion.
1hoy oo nol oxplain any of lho oynamics of lho ioaclion ilsolf. Insloao, hn.n|
|.n. is lho suLlolo of chomisliy in which lho aclual changos in a chomical
ioaclion aio moasuioo ano moooloo.
Supposo a conlainoi conlaining moloculos of Lolh ano 1 is hoaloo up (which
a chomisl woulo oosciiLo as moving lho syslom away fiom lhoimooynamic oqui-
liLiium"), causing moloculos of ano 1 comLino lo foim moloculos of C as oo-
sciiLoo Ly (7.84). Lol [[ oonolo lho conconlialion of al limo tlhal is, lho
numLoi of moloculos of lypo poi unil volumo al limo t, lol [1[ oonolo lho
conconlialion of 1 al limo t, ano lol j oonolo lho conconlialion of C al limo t.
7
Il can lhon Lo shown lhal chomical ioaclions of lho foim (7.84) aio moooloo
Ly a oiloionlial oqualion of lho foim
dj
dt
= /[[
[1[
i
(7.8)
whoio
J
J|
is lho :n.n :n of lho ioaclion ano / is lho :n.n :n nnn.
1ho numLois j ano i aio lho :J: of ano 1 in lho ioaclion, which along wilh
/ musl Lo oslimaloo oxpoiimonlally.
Now supposo lhal whon lho ioaclion Logins, lho conconlialion [[ is oqual
lo a ano lho conconlialion [1[ is oqual lo /. Sinco c moloculos of iosull in
7
Wo uso insloao of [C[ in kooping wilh lho nolalional convonlions usoo in lhis loxlLook.
Howovoi, chomisls uso [[ , [1[ ano [C[ oxclusivoly. Moioovoi, lhoy moasuio lho numLoi of
moloculos in n|, whoio ono molo is aLoul 6.0221S67 10
moloculos.
PARTlAL FRACTlONS 2
moloculos of C, lho numLoi of `s lhal havo ioacloo lo foim j numLoi of C`s al
limo t is cj, so lhal al limo t wo havo
[[ = inilial numLoi numLoi convoiloo lo C = a
c
j
Likowiso, a moloculos of 1 ioacl lo foim moloculos of C, so lhal
[1[ = /
a
j
SuLsliluling foi [[ ano [1[ in (7.8) lhus yiolos
dj
dt
= /
_
a
c
j
_
_
/
a
j
_
i
, j (0) = 0 (7.86)
whoio lho inilial conoilion j (0) = 0 is oquivalonl lo assuming lhal lhoio aio no
moloculos of C inilially.
1ho oqualion (7.86) is a sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion. Solving il ioquiios a
pailial fiaclion oxpansion. Ano il oi somolhing liko il is usoo lo oosciiLo ovoiy
chomical ioaclion known lo mangasolino comLuslion, plaslic pioouclion, ozono
ooplolion, ano ovon lho piocoss of hyoiogon ano oxygon comLining lo foim waloi.
IXAMIII 0 Lol j (t) Lo lho conconlialion in molos poi liloi of waloi
piooucoo Ly lho ioaclion
4H1r O
2
2H
2
0 21r
2
Lxpoiimonls show lhal lho ioaclion is lisl oiooi in Lolh H1r ano O
2
,
so lhal (7.86) Locomos
dj
dt
= / (a 2j)
_
/
1
2
j
_
Solvo lhis oqualion whon j
0
is lho inilial conconlialion ano a ,= 4/.
SoIutIon: Sopaialion of vaiiaLlos loaos lo
dj
(a 2j)
_
/
l
2
j
_ = /dt
Mulliplying Ly
2
2
ano inlogialing loaos lo
_
2
(a 2j) (2/ j)
dj =
_
/dt
1o ovalualo lho anliooiivalivo on lho lofl, wo musl oxpano lho inlo-
giano inlo ils pailial fiaclion oxpansion. Inoooo,
1
(a 2j) (2/ j)
=

(a 2j)

1
(2/ j)
fiom which il follows lhal
1
(a 2j) (2/ j)
=
2
(4/ a) (a 2j)

1
(4/ a) (2/ j)
SuLsliluling ano lnishing lho inlogialion loaos lo
_ _
2
(4/ a) (a 2j)

1
(4/ a) (2/ j)
_
dj =
_
/dt
1
4/ a
(ln(2/ j) ln(a 2j)) = /t C
whoio C is a conslanl. Consoquonlly, wo oLlain lho inlogial cuivo
ln(2/ j) ln(a 2j) = / (4/ a) t C
l
whoio C
l
= C (4/ a) .
Lxoicisos:
1n|&n h J||&.nj nn.J:.n. &.nj n n:.n| J:n.n rnn.n.
1.
_
da
a
2
a
2.
_
2da
a
2
2a
8.
_
da
a
2
4
4.
_
da
a
2
0
.
_
8a
2
1
a
3
a
da 6.
_
a
2
1
a
3
a
da
7.
_
2a 8
a
2
a 6
da 8.
_
2a 8
a
2
a 6
da
0.
_
6a
6a
2
7a 2
da 10.
_
10a 14
1a
2
28a 4
da
11.
_
da
a
d
1
12.
_
ada
a
d
1
18.
_
da
a(a 1)
2
14.
_
a 2
a(a 8)
2
da
1.
_
a
2
2
a
d
a
2
da 16.
_
1
a
6
a
d
da
17.
_
2da
a a
l
18.
_
ada
(a )
l0
5| h J||&.nj |j.. j&n.n.
10. j
t
= j (1 j) 20. j
t
= j (2 j)
21. j
t
= 2j (1 j) 22. j
t
= 2j (10 j)
28. j
t
= 0.0j
_
1
j
00
_
24. j
t
= 0.j
_
1
j
100
_
2. j
t
= j
_
1
j
_
26. j
t
= /j (1 j)
27. Supposo lhal al limo t = 0 lhoio aio 4 pooplo in a univoisily of 10,000 who
havo Loon lolo lo spioao lho woio lhal lho somosloi will ono ono oay oaily,
ano supposo lhal ono oay laloi lhoio aio 0 pooplo who havo hoaio lho nows.
How long will il lako foi half of lho univoisily lo hoai lhal lho somosloi will
ono ono oay oaily assuming logislic spioao of lho infoimalion
28. A viius has infocloo a cily of 0,000 pooplo who havo no immunily lo lho
oisoaso. 1ho viius was Lioughl lo lho lown Ly 100 pooplo ano il was founo
lhal 1,000 pooplo woio infocloo afloi 10 wooks. How long will il lako foi half
of lho populalion lo Locomo infocloo assuming logislic spioao of lho oisoaso
29. Lol`s supposo lhal j (t) is lho numLoi of Lacloiia poi unil volumo al limo
t in a nuliionl solulion wilh a conconlialion of c (t) unils of nuliionls poi
unil volumo. Lol`s fuilhoi supposo lhal j (t) salislos a oiloionlial oqualion
of lho foim
dj
dt
= / (c) j (t) (7.87)
whoio / (c) is lho ::J&.n :n of lho Lacloiia.
(a) Oflon / (c) is assumoo lo Lo piopoilional lo lho amounl of nuliionl
availaLlo. Uso lhis iooa lo oxplain why (7.87) can Lo wiillon in lho
foim
dj
dt
= ac j (7.88)
foi somo conslanl a.
(L) Supposo lhal c unils of nuliionl aio consumoo in piooucing ono
unil of populalion incioaso. Uso lhis lo oxplain why
c = c
0
cj
al limo t, whoio c
0
is lho inilial amounl of nuliionls in lho solulion.
(c) SuLslilulo foi c in (7.88), ano lhon solvo lho iosulling logislic oqua-
lion whon j
0
is lho inilial amounl of Lacloiia in lho solulion. Whal
is lho limil of lho solulion as t appioachos Whal ooos il iopio-
sonl
30. VrIte to Learn: If j (t) is lho populalion of a coilain ionowaLlo iosouico
al limo t lhal is Loing hn:J al a conslanl ialo H 0, lhon j (t) can
oflon Lo consiooioo lo Lo lho solulion lo lho mooiloo logislic oqualion
j
t
= /j
_
1
j
_
H (7.80)
whoio 0 is lho caiiying capacily of lho iosouico in lho ovonl of no hai-
vosling ano / 0 is lho inliinsic giowlh ialo. In a shoil ossay, oxplain how
(7.80) woulo Lo solvoo using sopaialion of vaiiaLlos ano a pailial fiaclion
oxpansion if 4H < /.
31. Al lompoialuios aLovo 00
1, lho chomical ioaclion wilh Lalanco law

O
2
CO CO
2
O
salislos lho sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion
dj
dt
= / (a j) (/ j)
whoio j is lho amounl of CO
2
al limo t piooucoo Ly lho ioaclion, a is lho
inilial amounl of O
2
, / is lho inilial amounl of CO, ano / is a conslanl.
Sopaialo vaiiaLlos, inlogialo wilh pailial fiaclions, ano solvo foi j assuming
lhal a ,= /.
32. Whal is lho solulion lo lho sopaiaLlo oqualion in oxoiciso 81 whon a = /
33. If j (t) oonolos lho amounl of O
2
al limo t piooucoo Ly lho chomical
ioaclion wilh Lalanco law
2O O
2
2O
2
lhon j salislos lho sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion
dj
dt
= / (a j)
2
_
/
1
2
j
_
whoio / is conslanl, a is lho amounl of O inilially, ano / is lho amounl of
O
2
inilially. Solvo lho sopaiaLlo oqualion foi j as a funclion of t assuming
lhal a ,= 2/.
34. Lxpoiimonlally, il can Lo shown lhal lho ioaclion ialo of lho chomical ioac-
lion
CO O
2
CO
2
O
is lisl oiooi in Lolh [CO[ ano [O
2
[ . If lhoio aio 0.2 molos poi liloi of
CO inilially, if lhoio aio 0.1 molos poi liloi of O
2
inilially, ano if lho
ioaclion ialo conslanl is / = 0.24 molos poi liloi poi minulo, lhon whal will
lho conconlialion of CO
2
in molos poi liloi Lo afloi minulos afloi 10
minulos
35. VrIte to Learn: Chomisls oflon assumo lhal lho conconlialion of ono of lho
chomicals in a nJ :J: ioaclion is so high lhal il is piaclically conslanl
lhioughoul lho ioaclion. Foi oxamplo, if c = 1 ano i = 1, lhoy mighl
assumo lhal a = / [1[ is conslanl, so lhal (7.86) Locomos
dj
dt
= a (a j) (7.40)
1ho iosulling ioaclion ano lho oqualion (7.40) aio Lolh calloo &J-]:
:J: hn.n| :n.n. Wiilo a shoil ossay oosciiLing lho solulion lo
(7.40) ano whal il iopiosonls. Whal is lho limil as t appioachos of j (t)
Whoio ooos a occui in lho solulion of (7.40) ano whal is signilcanl aLoul
whoio il occuis
36. Try It Out! Wilh lho holp of a chomisl, sol up a socono oiooi chomical
ioaclion, collocl oala in lho foim of lho conconlialion j of lho compouno C
al limo t, ano lhon ll (7.86) lo lho oala lo piooicl /. Lach momLoi of lho
gioup shoulo piosonl a oiloionl slago of lho piocoss.
37. Wo can also uso limils lo lno coomcionls of pailial fiaclion oxpansions.
Supposo lo Login wilh lhal
) (a) =

a r
p (a)
whoio p (a) is oiloionliaLlo al a = r.
(a) Show lhal
= (a r) p (a) (a r) ) (a)
(L) Lvalualo lho limil as a appioachos r lo oLlain
= lim
i:
(a r) ) (a)
(c) Lxplain why lhis molhoo ooos nol woik wilh iopoaloo iools.
38. Lol`s uso oxoiciso 87 lo ooloimino conslanls in lho pailial fiaclion oxpansion
1
a
2
0
=

a 8

1
a 8
(a) Uso L`hopilal`s iulo lo ovalualo
= lim
i3
(a 8)
1
a
2
0
(L) Uso L`hopilal`s iulo lo ovalualo
1 = lim
i3
(a 8)
1
a
2
0
(c) Chock youi woik Ly lnoing ano 1 using lho molhoo fiom lho
soclion aLovo.
39. SuLstItutIon versus IartIaI FractIons: In lhis oxoiciso, wo soo lhal
pailial fiaclions is nol nocossaiy foi all ialional funclion inlogianos Ly con-
siooiing
_
2a
a
2
0
da (7.41)
(a) Lvalualo (7.41) using lho suLslilulion n = a
2
0, dn = 2ada.
(L) Lvalualo (7.41) Ly lisl lnoing a pailial fiaclion oxpansion of lho
inlogiano.
(c) Uso piopoilios of lho logaiilhm lo show lhal lho iosull in (a) is lho
samo as lho iosull in (L). Which molhoo is oasioi
40. SuLstItutIon versus IartIaI FractIons: In lhis oxoiciso, wo soo lhal
pailial fiaclions is nol nocossaiy foi all ialional funclion inlogianos Ly con-
siooiing
_
2a 1
a
2
a
da (7.42)
(a) Lvalualo (7.42) using a suLslilulion.
(L) Lvalualo (7.42) Ly lisl lnoing a pailial fiaclion oxpansion of lho
inlogiano.
(c) Uso piopoilios of lho logaiilhm lo show lhal lho iosull in (a) is lho
samo as lho iosull in (L). Which molhoo is oasioi
41. *If j (t) oonolos lho amounl of H
2
al limo t consumoo Ly lho chomical
ioaclion H
2
1r
2
2H11, lhon j salislos lho ialhoi unusual sopaiaLlo
oiloionlial oqualion
dj
dt
= / (a j) (/ j)
l/2
whoio a is lho inilial amounl of H
2
, / a is lho inilial amounl of 1r
2
, ano
/ is a posilivo conslanl.
(a) Lol j (t) = / . (t)
2
(which is lho samo as . (t) = (/ j (t))
l/2
)
ano simplify assuming lhal 0 < . (t) <
_
/ al all limos t.
(L) Solvo lho sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion foi . (t) piooucoo in (a).
(c) Ioplaco . (t) using . (t) = (/ j (t))
l/2
ano solvo foi j lo oLlain
lho amounl of H
2
as a funclion of limo t.
1.4 MaLhemaLical Modeling
IredIctIons vIa AatLenatIcaI AodeIs
1hoio aio many ioal woilo quoslions which cannol Lo answoioo wilh common
sonso oi simplo oLsoivalion. Oui lvo sonsos cannol loll us if il will iain lomoiiow.
Simplo logic will nol loll us if lho oconomy is going lo slow oown oi spooo up.
Howovoi, a ioal woilo quoslion can Lo lianslaloo inlo a malhomalical quoslion
Ly consliucling a nnhnn.n| nJ| of lho ioal woilo piocoss. n|&|& can
lhon Lo usoo lo answoi lho malhomalical quoslion, ano lho iosulling malhomalical
answoi can Lo usoo lo liansfoim a sol of oala inlo a :J..n of lho ioal woilo
answoi.
In lhis soclion, nnhnn.n| nJ| aio sopaiaLlo oqualions of lho foim
j
t
= /
p (a)
) (j)
ano n|&|& is usoo lo pioouco an inlogial cuivo of lho sopaiaLlo oqualion,
1 (j) = C /G(a) (7.48)
whoio / ano C aio conslanl. 1:J..n lhon follows Ly llling (7.48) lo a sol of
oala wilh lho loasl squaios molhoo.
In pailiculai, 1 = 1 (j) ano A = G(a) liansfoims (7.48) inlo a linoai moool
1 = C /A
Consoquonlly, if lho piocoss Loing moooloo piooucos a oala sol of lho foim
(a
l
, j
l
) , . . . , (a
n
, j
n
)
lhon lolling A = G(a) ano 1 = 1 (j) piooucos a now oala sol which is suilaLlo
foi appioximalion Ly a loasl squaios lino, which in luin can Lo usoo lo piooicl
valuos of j givon valuos of a.
IXAMIII 1 Waloi in a soup can wilh a small holo in lho Lollom
has a hoighl j al limo t in minulos. Uso 1oiicolli`s law (oxamplo in
soclion 7-1) ano lho oala sol
t minulos 0 0. 1 1. 2
j inchos 8.87 2.818 2.818 1.87 1.
MATHLMATlCAL MODLLlNC 81
lo piooicl how long il will lako foi lho can lo oiain.
SoIutIon: 1oiicolli`s law says lhal lho ialo of chango
J
J|
is piopoi-
lional lo
_
j, which moans lhal
dj
dt
= /
_
j
Wo sopaialo lo oLlain j
l/2
dj = /dt ano lhon wo inlogialo:
_
j
l/2
dj = /
_
dt
j
l/2
12
= /t C
1ho iosull is simpliloo lo lho inlogial cuivo
2
_
j = /t C
If wo now lol 1 = 2
_
j ano T = t, lhon wo oLlain lho linoai moool
1 = /T C
ano wo liansfoim lho oiiginal oala sol inlo a now T, 1 oala sol:
T 0 0. 1 1. 2
1 8.674 8.84 8.042 2.780 2.440
A compuloi algoLia syslom is usoo lo ooloimino lho loasl squaios lino,
which is shown in ioo Lolow along wilh lho (T, 1 ) oala sol.
1 = 0. 618 T 8. 6646
T
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
3.6
3.4
3.2
3
2.8
2.6
4-2: Loasl Squaios lino
Consoquonlly, lho oala is usoo lo oLlain lho moool
2
_
j = 0. 618 t 8. 6646 (7.44)
Moioovoi, lho can is omply whon j = 0, which loaos lo
0. 618 t 8. 6646 = 0
ano which has a solulion of t = .078 minulos.
1 ;7.) :J. h nn&n J &n: .n h nn nJ: n.n&. Chock youi Ioaoing
evton`s Lav oI CooIIng
Nowlon`s law of cooling says lhal lho ialo al which an oLjocl`s lompoialuio is
changing is piopoilional lo lho oiloionco Lolwoon lho lompoialuio of lho sui- 1 oonolos lho
lompoialuio of
lho onviionmonl
suiiounoing an
oLjocl
iounoing onviionmonl, oonoloo Ly 1, ano lho lompoialuio of lho oLjocl. 1hal is,
if j (t) is lho lompoialuio of lho oLjocl al limo t, lhon
ialo of chango is piop lo oiloionco Lolwoon 1 ano j
dj
dt
= / (1 j)
Moioovoi, 1 is somolimos calloo lho nnh.n n:n&: of lho oLjocl.
IXAMIII 2 A pan of waloi is hoaloo lo 188
1 ano lhon lofl lo cool

in a ioom which is al a conslanl lompoialuio of 70
1. 1ompoialuio
moasuiomonls aio maoo oach minulo lo pioouco lho following sol of
oala:
8
limo in minulos 0 1 2 8 4 7 10
1ompoialuio in

1 188 184 180 177 174 171 166 10
Lol`s uso Nowlon`s law of cooling lo piooicl lho waloi`s lompoialuio
afloi 1 minulos.
SoIutIon: If j (t) is lho lompoialuio of lho waloi al limo t, lhon
1 = 70
1 so lhal
dj
dt
= / (70 j) (7.4)
Sopaialing lho j`s fiom lho t`s loaos lo
dj
70 j
= /dt
so lhal inlogialion yiolos
_
dj
70 j
= /
_
dt
ln[70 j[ = /t C (7.46)
If wo lol 1 = ln[70 j[ , lhon (7.46) is liansfoimoo inlo lho linoai
moool
1 = /t C
Wo now uso 1 = ln[70 j[ lo liansfoim lho oiiginal lompoialuio
oala inlo
t 0 1 2 8 4 7 10
1 4. 601 4. 64 4. 61 4. 8 4. 4 4. 22 4. 466 4.882
Applicalion of lho loasl squaios molhoo yiolos lho loasl squaios lino
1 = 4. 681 0.0806 t
Sinco 1 = ln[70 j[, lho inlogial cuivo of (7.4) is
ln[70 j[ = 4.681 0.0806t (7.47)
8
Using lho lompoialuio pioLo foi a 1I-80 oi ovon a simplo canoy lhoimomoloi.
1hus, whon t = 1 minulos, wo havo
ln[70 j[ = 4.681 0.0806 (1)
Solving foi j loaos lo j = 147. 17
1. 1hal is, lho moool piooicls lhal

lho waloi will havo cooloo lo 147.17
1 afloi lfloon minulos.

Il is impoilanl lo nolo lhal a solulion lo a oiloionlial oqualion moool is ilsolf a
piooiclion. 1hal is, moooling lho oulpul as a funclion of lho inpul is oquivalonl
lo piooicling an oulpul foi a givon inpul. 1ho solulion of
lho oiloionlial
oqualion is a
piooiclion of
unoLsoivoo
Lohavioui.
IXAMIII J Fino lho funclion moool of cooling in oxamplo 2
SoIutIon: In (7.47), wo havo ln[70 j[ = 4.681 0.0806t, which
loaos lo
ln(j 70) = 4.681 0.0806t
sinco j is always aLovo ioom lompoialuio. Applicalion of lho oxpo-
nonlial lhon loaos lo
j 70 = 107.878c
0.0306|
Solving foi j lhon yiolos
j (t) = 70 107.878 c
0.0306|
(7.48)
as is shown in lho lguio Lolow:
t
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
180
170
160
150
4-8: Cuivo is a piooiclion implioo Ly lho oala
Nolico lhal wo can uso lho cuivo lo oslimalo lhal lho lompoialuio of
lho waloi afloi lfloon minulos will Lo aLoul 147
(iopiosonloo Ly lho
Lox in lho giaph aLovo).
1 ;7.7) :J. h n:n&: J h &n: nJ: t = 20 n.n&. Chock youi Ioaoing
A SInIe AodeI Iron EIdenIoIogy
1ho logislic oqualion can also Lo usoo lo moool an opioomic in which a populalion
wilh a conslanl sizo is compiisoo of only lwo gioupslhoso infocloo Ly lho
oisoaso ano lhoso who aio suscopliLlo lo lho oisoaso (i.o., no ooalhs, no immunily,
no incuLalion, no laloncy, olc.). If wo lol j oonolo lho numLoi infocloo al limo t,
lhon j iopiosonls lho numLoi of suscopliLlos. Moioovoi, lho ialo of chango of
j is piopoilional lo Lolh lho numLoi of infocloos ano lho numLoi of suscopliLlos.
1hal is,
j
t
= cj ( j) (7.40)
which is a logislic oqualion wilh inliinsic giowlh ialo / = c.
IXAMIII ! In Januaiy of 1078, oxaclly 768 Loys ioluinoo lo a
Loy`s Loaioing school in Gioal Liilain, ano aLoul a wook laloi, ono of
lho Loys oovolopoo lho lu. 1ho noxl oay, anolhoi Loy oovolopoo lho
oisoaso, ano so on. 1ho following laLlo summaiizos lho oala foi lho
opioomic:
0
t = limo in oays 0 1 2 8 4 6 7
j = numLoi of Loys infocloo 1 2 4 8 16 81 0 111
Fino lho inliinsic giowlh ialo of lho lu opioomic al lhis school.
SoIutIon: 1o lno lho inliinsic giowlh ialo /, wo musl solvo (7.40)
whon = 768, liansfoim lho oala, ano lhon uso loasl squaios lo
oslimalo c. 1o Login wilh, wo sopaialo vaiiaLlos lo oLlain
_
dj
j (768 j)
=
_
cdt (7.0)
1o ovalualo lho anliooiivalivo on lho lofl, wo oxpano lho inlogiano
inlo a pailial fiaclion, lho iosull of which is
1
j (768 j)
=
1
768
_
1
j

1
768 j
_
1hus, (7.0) is liansfoimoo inlo
1
768
_ _
1
j

1
768 j
_
dj =
_
cdt
ln[j[ ln[768 j[ = 768ct C
afloi mulliplying Lolh sioos Ly 768. Finally, wo lol / = 768c lo oLlain
ln
j
768 j
= /t C (7.1)
Il follows lhal lho liansfoimalion
1 = ln
j
768 j
, T = t
liansfoims (7.1) inlo lho linoai moool
1 = /T C
1hus, wo liansfoim lho oala using T, 1 lo oLlain lho now oala sol
T 0 1.0 2.0 8.0 4.0 .0 6.0 7.0
1 6.686 .041 .246 4.20 8.848 8.162 2.470 1.770
0
Dala was oiiginally iopoiloo in Inluonza in a Loaioing School," 1:..h `J.n| J&:nn|
Maich 4, 1078.
1ho loasl squaios algoiilhm lhon iosulls in lho ll
1 = 0.604 T 6.620
so lhal lho inlogial cuivo solulion is
ln
j
768 j
= 0.604 t 6.620 (7.2)

1hus, lho inliinsic giowlh ialo is / = 60.4/ poi oayi.o., lho numLoi
of sluoonls who oovolop lho oisoaso incioasos Ly aLoul 70/ poi oay
inilially.
Oflon opioomiologisls oolno lho J&:n.n of an opioomic lo Lo lwico lho limo
ioquiioo foi half lho populalion lo Locomo infocloo. In oxamplo 4, half lho lolal
populalion is j = 881., so lhal (7.2) Locomos
ln
881.
768 881.
= 0.604 t 6.620
which has a solulion of t = 0. oays. 1hus, lho ouialion of lho opioomic is 10
oays.
1hj J & n J]n h J&:n.n n h nn&n J .n h&n &hn h Chock youi Ioaoing
.Jn. hj.n nnJ &hn n|| 7 &Jn hn hn .nJJ
TernInaI YeIocIty and tLe SkydIver
Whon a skyoivoi jumps fiom an aiiplano, hoi spooo ooos nol incioaso wilhoul
Louno unlil sho opons hoi chulo. Insloao, hoi spooo incioasos lo a :n.nn| |.j.
1his is Locauso hoi oownwaio volocily salislos 5| |n&,
t
= p /
whoio p is lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily ano / is an unknown conslanl which
musl Lo ooloiminoo using loasl squaios.
IXAMIII A skyoivoi jumps fiom a plano lying al a conslanl
alliluoo of 4,000 fool. Sho iocoios lho numLoi of fool r lhal sho has
fallon afloi t soconos, iosulling in lho following oala sol:
r = fool fallon al limo t 1 8 128 208
Whal is lho sky-oivoi`s loiminal volocily Lofoio sho pulls hoi chulo
SoIutIon: Wo lisl solvo Sloko`s law wilh p = 82
}|
soc
Ly sopaialing
vaiiaLlos ano inlogialing:
_
d
82 /
=
_
dt == ln[82 /[ = /t C
Sinco sho was nol moving voilically al limo t = 0, wo havo (0) = 0,
which wo suLslilulo inlo oui oqualion. As a iosull, C = ln(82) ano
solving foi loaos lo
ln(82 /) = /t ln(82) == (t) =
82
/
_
1 c
||
_
Wo lhon inlogialo onco moio lo oLlain r (t):
r (t) =
_
82
/
_
1 c
||
_
dt = C
l

82
/
t
82
/
2
c
||
ano sinco r (0) = 0 (no fool fallon inilially), wo oLlain
r (t) =
82
/
t
82
/
2
_
c
||
1
_
Wo cannol uso a loasl squaios lino, Lul wo can foim a lolal squaioo
oiioi funclion ano minimizo il. 1o Login wilh, lho lolal squaioo oiioi
funclion is of lho foim
1(/) = (r (t
l
) r
l
)
2
. . . (r (t
n
) r
n
)
2
whoio r
n
is lho aclual numLoi of fool fallon al limo t
n
. 1his iooucos lo
1(/) =
_
82
/

82
/
2
_
c
|
1
_
1.16
_
2
_
82
/
2
82
/
2
_
c
2|
1
_
7.
_
2
_
82
/
8
82
/
2
_
c
3|
1
_
128.07
_
2
_
82
/
4
82
/
2
_
c
d|
1
_
208.22
_
2
ano lho giaph of 1(/) is shown in lho lguio Lolow:
k
0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1ho ooiivalivo of 1(/) is voiy involvoo, ano solving 1
t
(/) = 0 is
impossiLlo lo oo in closoo foim. 1hus, lol us zoom unlil wo havo an
oslimalo of lho valuo of / whoio lho minimum occuis:
k
0.18 0.175 0.17 0.165 0.16 0.155 0.15
8
6
4
2
0
k
0.165 0.164 0.163 0.162 0.161 0.16
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
7-10: Giaphs of 1(/)
Il appoais lhal 1(/) is minimizoo whon / - 0.168. SuLsliluling
/ = 0.168 inlo lho volocily (t) lhon yiolos
(t) =
82
0.168
_
1 c
0.l635|
_
1ho loiminal volocily is lhon oolnoo lo Lo lho limil as t appioachos
of lho volocily funclion:
lim
|o
(t) = lim
|o
82
0.168
_
1 c
0.l635|
_
= 10.718
)cct
soc
1hus, lho loiminal volocily is appioximaloly 10.718 fool poi socono,
which is appioximaloly 188 milos poi houi.
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ nn .nj:n| &: J h j.n j&n.n, :nnJ:n h j.n Jnn nnJ &
n |n j&n: |.n .nn / nnJ C. Jhn & h nJ| :J. h &&
J: h |n .n& |.J.
1. j
t
= / Dala: t 0 1 2 8 4
j 1 2 8 4
2. j
t
= / Dala: t 0 1 2 8 4
j 8 1 -1 -8 -
8. j
t
= /j Dala: a 0 1 2 8 4
j 1.00 1.10 1.21 1.88 1.46
4. j
t
= /j Dala: t 0 1 2 8 4
j 1 2 4 8 16
.
dj
dt
=
/
j
Dala: t 0 1 2 8 4
j 2 2.440 2.828 8.162 8.464
6.
dj
da
= /
a
j
Dala: a 0 1 1.414 1.782 2 8
j 0.000 1.717 2.184 2.646 8.02
7.
dj
da
= /aj Dala: a 0 1 1.414 1.782 2 8
j 2.6 10.07 118.07 1000.16 0421.08
8.
dj
da
= /
j
a
Dala: t 0 1 2 8 4
j 0 1 4 0 16
0.
dj
dt
= / (72 j) Dala: t 0 10 1 20 2
j 82 66.44 71.108 71.004 71.080
10.
dj
da
= / j
2
Dala: a 1 2 8 4
j 1.2 2. 1.67 1
11. j
t
= 2/
_
j Dala: t 1 2 8 4
j 0.04 0.16 0.86 0.64
12.
dj
dt
= / cos
2
(j) Dala: t 0 1 2 8 4
j 1.268 1.870 1.482 1.462
13. A glass of waloi is hoaloo lo 180
1 ano lhon lofl lo cool in a ioom wilh

a conslanl lompoialuio of 80
1. 1ompoialuio moasuiomonls aio maoo oach

minulo iosulling in lho following oala:
1ompoialuio in

1 180 177 178 170 166 168 10 140
(a) Lol j (t) Lo lho lompoialuio of lho glass of waloi al limo t. Lxplain
why lho malhomalical moool of lho glass of waloi`s cooling is
dj
dt
= / (80 j)
(L) Fino lho inlogial cuivo of lho oqualion in pail (a).
(c) 1iansfoim lho oala using lho inlogial cuivo in pail (L), ano lhon
uso loasl squaios lo oslimalo / ano C.
(o) Whal will lho lompoialuio of lho waloi Lo afloi 1 minulos
14. A glass of waloi al 186
1 is placoo in a fioozoi which is al a conslanl

lompoialuio of 28
1. Iogulai moasuiomonls of ils lompoialuio aio maoo,

iosulling in lho oala sol
1ompoialuio in

1 186 184 180 126 128 120 11 104
(a) Lol j (t) Lo lho lompoialuio of lho glass of waloi al limo t. Whal
is Nowlon`s law of cooling in lhis silualion
(L) Fino lho inlogial cuivo of lho oqualion in pail (a).
(c) 1iansfoim lho oala using lho inlogial cuivo in pail (L), ano lhon
uso loasl squaios lo oslimalo / ano C.
(o) How long unlil lho glass of waloi fioozos
15. 1ho soup can on pago ?? wilh lho samo holo is llloo lo a oiloionl hoighl
ano again oLsoivoo, iosulling in lho oala
t minulos 0 0. 1 1. 2
j inchos 8. 068 2. 2.12 1.7 1.87
How long unlil lho soup can is omply
16. 1ho holo in lho soup can in oxoiciso 17 is onlaigoo, ano lhon lho soup can is
again llloo ano oLsoivoo, yioloing lho following oala:
t minulos 0 0.2 0. 0.7 1
j inchos 2. 688 2. 068 1. 62 1.2 0.87
How long unlil lho soup can is omply lhis limo
17. A small holo is punchoo inlo lho Lollom of a laigo cylinoiical Luckol, ano
lhon lho hoighls aio moasuioo ovoiy minulo, iosulling in lho oala
t minulos 0 1 2 10
j inchos 6 .688 .87 4. 8.87
How long unlil lho Luckol has complololy oiainoo
18. VrIte to Learn: Try It out! Iunch a small holo (Lul nol loo small) in lho
Lollom of a soup can wilh iaoius r. Insoil a iuloi so il slanos on lho Lollom
of lho soup can ano lll il wilh waloi. Moasuio lho hoighl of lho waloi al 80
socono inloivals, lhus yioloing
t minulos 0 0. 1 1. 2
j inchos = = = = =
1hon ll lho oala lo lho oqualion
dj
dt
= /
_
j
ano piooicl lho amounl of limo nocossaiy foi lho can lo complololy omply.
Iopoil youi iosulls in a foimal scionlilc papoi.
19. 1ho following oala sol oosciiLos a yoasl populalion j al limo t:
t = limo in houis 0 10 18 28 84 4 47
j = yoasl populalion 0.87 8.87 10.66 12.0 18.27 12.87 12.7
Assuming logislic giowlh ano lhal lho caiiying capacily is = 18, piooicl
lho yoasl populalion al 20 houis
20. Iopoal oxoiciso 10 whon lho caiiying capacily is = 66 ano wo havo lho
oala sol
t = limo in houis 0 1 2 8 4
j = yoasl populalion 0.6 18.8 20.0 47.2 71.1 110.1
21. 1ho laLlo Lolow lisls lho numLoi of pooplo infocloo poi 10,000 populalion
ouiing a 1006 lu oulLioak in lho Alsaco iogion of Fianco.
10
t = limo in oays 0 1 2 8 4 6 7
j = numLoi infocloo poi 10,000 2 4 10 22 47 00 106 81
Lslimalo lho inliinsic giowlh ialo / ano lho ouialion of lho opioomic. (Hinl:
= 10, 000)
22. VrIte to Learn: Try It out! Iiosonl a losl suLjocl a lisl of 0 lvo oigil
numLois choson al ianoom. Lol lho suLjocl oLsoivo lho lisl of numLois foi
ono minulo, ano lhon havo lhom wiilo oown as many numLois as lhoy can
iomomLoi in lho noxl minulo. Iopoal lhioo moio limos, lhus oLlaining a
sol of oala of lho foim
t minulos 0 2 4 6 8
j numLois loainoo 0 = = = =
Fil lho oala lo lho |n:n.nj &: moool
dj
dt
= / (0 j)
Iiooicl how long il will lako lho suLjocl lo loain 2 of lho numLois, ano
lhon oouLlo il as an oslimalo of how long lho suLjocl woulo nooo lo loain
all 0 numLois. Iopoil youi iosulls in a foimal scionlilc papoi.
10
Aoaploo fiom oala supplioo Ly Lo Iosoau Sonlinollos, copyiighl 1006.
25. VrIte to Learn: Try It out! Uso a lhoimomoloi lo ooloimino lho lompoi-
aluio of a ioom. Hoal a cup of waloi in a miciowavo ovon foi 2. minulos.
Iomovo immooialoly ano insoil a lhoimomoloi inlo lho waloi. Moasuio lho
lompoialuio al 80 socono inloivals Loginning 1 minulo afloi lho waloi has
Loon iomovoo. 1ho iosull will Lo a sol of oala of lho foim
t minulos 1.0 1. 2.0 2. 8.0 8. 4.0
j

1 = = = = = = =
Fil lho oala lo Nowlon`s law of cooling. 1hon uso lho inlogial cuivo solulion
lo oslimalo lho inilial lompoialuio of lho waloi. Iopoil youi iosulls in a
foimal scionlilc papoi.
26. VrIte to Learn 1ho Ioynolos numLoi of a low somolimos ioquiios lhal
wo moool oiag Ly
d
dt
= /
foi / conslanl ano somolimos ioquiios lhal wo moool oiag Ly
d
dt
= c
2
foi c conslanl whoio (t) is lho volocily of lho low al limo t. Lol`s ooloimino
which lypo of low piooucoo lhis oala sol:
t 0 1 2 8 4 6 7
88 26 18 12 0 6 4
Foi oach moool, solvo lho oiloionlial oqualion, liansfoim lho oala sol, ano
ll il lo a sliaighl lino. 1hon ooloimino which moool piooucos lho Losl linoai
ll lo lho liansfoimoo oala. Iopoil youi iosulls in a shoil ossay.
27. VrIte to Learn: 1ho amounl j in molos of Ihonolphlhaloin in a coilain
chomical ioaclion is moasuioo afloi t soconos, iosulling in lho oala sol
t = limo in soconos 0 10. 22.8 8.7 1.1 60.8 01.6
j = conconlialion in molos 0.000 0.004 0.0040 0.008 0.008 0.002 0.0020
Ly (7.84) on pago 7.84 of lho lasl soclion, wo know lhal lho foim of lho
chomical ioaclion is
dj
dt
= /j
whoio lho oiooi j is oilhoi 0, 1, 2, oi 8. Solvo lho oiloionlial oqualion ano

ll il lo lho oala foi oach of lhoso valuos of j. Which valuo of j appoais lo
pioouco lho Losl ll
28. VrIte to Learn: Try It out! Aii iosislanco also plays a iolo whon a
foalhoi is falling lo lho oailh, Lul is il piopoilional lo lho foalhoi`s volocily,
lho squaio of lho foalhoi`s volocily, oi noilhoi Uso a molion oolocloi lo
lako sovoial moasuiomonls of a foalhoi`s volocily ano accoloialion
t
as ils
falls lo oailh, lhus iosulling in a oala sol of lho foim
t in soconos = = = = =
in fool poi socono = = = = =
t
in fool poi socono
2
= = = = =
If aii iosislanco is piopoilional lo volocily, lhon lho volocily salislos
t
= 82 /
1hus, foi aii iosislanco piopoilional lo volocily, lho (,
t
) oala shoulo Lo
woll-ll wilh a linoai funclion whoso j-inloicopl is closo lo 82. If aii iosislanco
is piopoilional lo lho j&n: of lho volocily, lhon
t
= 82 c
2
If wo lol \ =
2
, lhon lhis Locomos
t
= 82 c\
1hus, lho (\,
t
) oala shoulo Lo woll-ll wilh a linoai funclion whoso j-
inloicopl is closo lo 82. Doloimino which of lho oala sols (,
t
) oi (\,
t
)
Losl lls lho Lalloon oala. Iopoil youi iosulls in a foimal scionlilc papoi.
29. A holium Lalloon wilh a volumo of \ ano a mass oonsily of j
n
has an ovoiall
mass of j
n
\ ano oisplacos a aii mass of j
oI:
\, whoio j
oI:
is lho oonsily of
lho suiiounoing aii. Ignoiing oiag, lho volocily of a iising holium Lalloon
salislos
mass accol = Luoyancy giavily
j
n
\
t
= j
oI:
\ p j
n
\ p
whoio p = 0.8 msoc
2
is lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily. Division Ly j
n
\
lhon loaos lo
d
dt
= p
_
j
oI:
j
n
1
_
(7.8)
whoio p, j
n
, ano j
oI:
aio assumoo conslanl foi small changos in alliluoo.
(a) Lol r (t) oonolo lho alliluoo al limo t of lho Lalloon moasuioo fiom
soa lovol. Solvo (7.8) lo show lhal if a Lalloon is ioloasoo fiom
iosl fiom giouno lovol (r = 0) , lhon
r (t) =
p
2
_
j
oI:
j
n
1
_
t
2
(L) A simpliloo appioximalion
11
lo aii oonsily as a funclion of alliluoo
/ is
j
oI:
(/) = 1.28c
|/l0000
A Lalloon is ioloasoo fiom iosl al giouno lovol whon / = 1, 000 fool
aLovo soa lovol, lhus yioloing
j
oI:
= 1.118 /p:
3
1ho hoighl of lho Lalloon is moasuioo al oiloionl limos t, lhus
yioloing lho oala sol
t = limo in soconos 0 1 2 8 4
r = hoighl in molois 0 0.44 1.78 4.01 7.11
Lslimalo lho oonsily of lho Lalloon Ly lnoing lho valuo of j
n
lhal
minimizos lho lolal squaioo oiioi funclion
1(j
n
) =
_
0.44 4.0
_
1.118
j
n
1
_
1
2
_
2
_
1.78 4.0
_
1.118
j
n
1
_
2
2
_
2
_
4.01 4.0
_
1.118
j
n
1
_
8
2
_
2
_
7.11 4.0
_
1.118
j
n
1
_
4
2
_
2
11
Aii oonsilios aclually vaiy fiom oay lo oay ano houi lo houi ooponoing on faclois such as
lompoialuio, humioily, Laiomoliic piossuio, ano winospooo.
(c) 1ho Lalloon will iiso lo an oquiliLiium hoighl / al which j
n
=
j
oI:
(/) , whoio j
oI:
(/) = 1.28c
|/l0000
. Whal is lho oquiliLiium
hoighl foi lho Lalloon lhal piooucoo lho oala in (L)
30. Try It Out! OLlain a holium-llloo Lalloon ano gonoialo limo-alliluoo oala
Ly ioloasing a Lalloon fiom iosl al giouno lovol ano moniloiing ils posilion
aLovo lho oailh foi lho lisl fow soconos.
31. An oxpoiioncoo skyoivoi incioasos hoi loiminal volocily Ly kooping hoi aims
closo lo hoi Looy ano lilling hoi hoao oownwaioaclions which minimizo
oiag. Sho iocoios oislancos fallon r al limos t lo oLlain lho following oala
sol:
t = limo in soconos 1 2 8 4 6 7
r = fool fallon al limo t 1 8 127 217 826 48 04
Whal is lho sky-oivoi`s loiminal volocily Lofoio sho pulls hoi chulo
32. A skyoivoi loaps fiom a plano which has a conslanl alliluoo of 4000 molois
ano wails 10 soconos Lofoio oponing his chulo. His volocily salislos
mass accol = giavily oiag
:
t
= 0.8: :c
whoio c is lho coomcionl of oiag. Ho iocoios oislancos fallon r al limos t
sinco loaving lho plano lo oLlain lho following oala sol:
r = molois fallon al limo t 4.7 18.1 80.2 67
Whal is his volocily whon ho pulls lho chulo al 10 soconos afloi loaving lho
plano
33. *A skyoivoi loaps fiom an aiiplano al a conslanl alliluoo of 4000 molois ano
wails 10 soconos Lofoio oponing his paiachulo. His volocily afloi oponing
his paiachulo salislos lho oiloionlial oqualion
mass accol = giavily oiag
:
t
= 0.8: :20
2
whoio : is his mass. Uso oxoiciso 81 lo ooloimino how fai lho skyoivoi falls
in lho lisl 10 soconos ano lo ooloimino lho inilial volocily of lho skyoivoi
whon ho opons his chulo. 1hon solvo lho oiloionlial oqualion foi lho volocily
of lho skyoivoi afloi ho opons his chulo, ano inlogialo lho iosull wilh iospocl
lo limo. How long ooos il lako lho skyoivoi lo ioach lho giouno
34. *VrIte to Learn: If a iainoiop is voiy small ano is appioximaloly sphoiical
wilh unifoim oonsily, lhon ils volocily salislos lho oqualion
d
dt
= 82
0.820 10
5
1
2

If lho volocily of lho iainoiop is appioximaloly 4 fool poi socono whon il
sliikos lho oailh, whal is lho appioximalo oiamoloi of lho iainoiop
35. * Hoio is a pioLlom which suifacos fiom limo lo limo in lho populai mooia.
1wo mon iocoivo oqual cups of coloo wilh oqual lompoialuios al lho samo
limo. 1ho lisl aoos cioamimmooialoly, Lul ooos nol oiink unlil lon minulos
laloi. 1ho socono wails lon minulos, aoos cioam, ano lhon oiinks. If lho
lompoialuio of lho cioam is lho samo foi Lolh, which of lho lwo mon oiinks
lho holloi coloo
36. Crou LearnIng: 1ho ancionls usoo waloiclocks ano houiglassos lo moasuio
limo. Hoio is how lhoy woik.
AenLer 1: Fino lho volumo of lho solio of iovolulion oLlainoo
Ly iovolving lho iogion unooi j = ca
l/d
ano ovoi [0, /[ aiouno lho
a-axis, whoio c is a conslanl.
AenLer 2: TorrIceIII`s Iav says lhal if waloi is oiaining fiom
a lank ano if /(t) is lho hoighl of lho waloi al limo t, lhon
d\
d/
d/
dt
= /
_
/ (7.4)
whoio \ (/) is lho volumo of lho waloi al a hoighl of /. Show lhal
if lho lank is in lho shapo of lho solio of iovolulion oLlainoo Ly
iovolving lho iogion unooi j = ca
l/d
ano ovoi [0, /[ aiouno lho
a-axis, lhon
J\
J|
= c
2
_
/.
AenLer 3: Uso 1oiicolli`s law (7.4) ano lho facl lhal
J\
J|
= c
2
_
/
lo show lhal
J|
J|
is conslanl.. Why ooos lhis imply lhal
J|
J|
is a
conslanl funclion
AenLer 4: Consliucl a lank in lho shapo of lho solio of iovo-
lulion oLlainoo Ly iovolving lho iogion unooi j = ca
l/d
ano ovoi
[0, /[ aiouno lho a-axis, punch a holo in ils Lollom (i.o., al (0, 0)
), ano lhon maik ol oqual hoighls lo coiiospono lo oqual unils of
limo.
1.5 Second Order SysLems
ILase Sace
Many malhomalical moools aio consliucloo using a jn of aulonomous oiloi-
onlial oqualions. In lhis soclion, wo oxploio nJ :J: jn, which aio of
lho foim
da
dt
= ) (a, j) ,
dj
dt
= p (a, j) (7.)
whoio ) (a, j) ano p (a, j) aio oxpiossions in a ano j.
1o Login wilh, an j&.|.h:.&n |&.n of a syslom (7.) is a paii of conslanl
funclions a = ano j = 1 lhal simullanoously salisfy (7.). Il follows lhal lho
oquiliLiia of a syslom (7.) aio lho solulions lo lho oqualions
) (a, j) = 0 a:d p (a, j) = 0
Moioovoi, lho chain iulo implios lhal
dj
dt
=
dj
da
da
dt
which in luin implios lhal p (a, j) =
J
Ji
) (a, j) . Solving foi
J
Ji
lhon loaos lo
dj
da
=
p (a, j)
) (a, j)
(7.6)
1ho sol of all inlogial cuivos of (7.6) is calloo lho hn ::n. of lho syslom
(7.). 1ho phaso poiliail iovoals lho iolalionship Lolwoon a ano j in lho syslom
(7.).
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho oquiliLiia ano lho phaso poiliail of lho syslom
da
dt
= 2j,
dj
dt
= 1 2a (7.7)
SoIutIon: 1ho oquiliLiia aio lho simullanoous solulions lo
2j = 0 a:d 1 2a = 0
1hus,
_
l
2
, 0
_
is lho only oquiliLiium.
1ho phaso poiliail is lho sol of inlogial cuivos of
dj
da
=
1 2a
2j
(7.8)
Foilunaloly, (7.8) is sopaiaLlo, ano in facl, sopaialion of vaiiaLlos
yiolos
2jdj = (1 2a) da
Inlogialion loaos lo
_
2jdj =
_
(1 2a) da, which iosulls in
j
2
= a a
2
C
1hus, lho cuivos j
2
= a
2
a C foim lho hn ::n. of (7.7).
x
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
y
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-1: Ihaso Cuivos foi a
t
= 2j, j
t
= 1 2a
1ho phaso spaco cuivos aio closoo cuivos. 1his inoicalos lhal valuos of a(t) ano
j (t) iopoal al iogulai inloivals, which is lo say lhal a(t) ano j (t) aio :.J.
J&n.n. 1hus, wo can concluoo lhal lho solulions lo (7.7) oscillalo aLoul lho
oquiliLiium poinl (0., 1) .
: h: |&.n ;7.7) .n &h.h a(t) . n|&nj .. Chock youi Ioaoing
Second Order Autononous EquatIons
Ihaso poiliails can also Lo usoo lo sluoy nJ :J: n&nn& J.]:n.n|
j&n.n, which aio oqualions of lho foim
d
2
a
dt
2
= )
_
a,
da
dt
_
(7.0)
SLCOND ORDLR SYSTLMS 4
whoio ) (a, a
t
) is an oxpiossion in a ano a
t
. 1o oo so, wo oolno lho vaiiaLlo j =
Ji
J|
,
so lhal
J
i
J|
=
J
J|
ano (7.0) Locomos lho syslom
da
dt
= j,
dj
dt
= ) (a, j)
1ho oquiliLiia musl salisfy j = 0, ) (a, j) = 0, which implios lhal lho oquiliLiia
aio of lho foim (j, 0) whoio ) (j, 0) = 0.
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho oquiliLiia ano phaso poiliail of
a
tt
= 1 a
2
SoIutIon: Wo lol j = a
t
(t) , so lhal a
tt
= j
t
implios lho following
syslom:
a
t
= j, j
t
= 1 a
2
1ho oquiliLiia aio solulions lo j = 0, 1 a
2
= 0, which aio (1, 0)
ano (1, 0) .
1ho phaso poiliail is lho sol of inlogial cuivos salisfying
dj
da
=
1 a
2
j
Sopaialion ano inlogialion loaos lo
_
jdj =
_
_
1 a
2
_
da
1hus, lho phaso poiliail is lho sol of cuivos of lho foim
j
2
2
= a
a
3
8
C
whoio C is conslanl.
-2: Ihaso poiliail of a
t
= j, j
t
= 1 a
2
Closoo cuivos in lho phaso poiliail in lguio -2 implios lhal lhoio aio poiiooic
solulions lo a
tt
= 1 a
2
. Lol`s look al an oxamplo in which lhoio aio no poiiooic
solulions.
IXAMIII J Foi . 0 conslanl, lno lho oquiliLiia ano phaso poi-
liail of
a
tt
.
2
a = 0
SoIutIon: Wo lol j = a
t
(t) , so lhal a
tt
= j
t
implios lho following
syslom:
a
t
= j, j
t
= .
2
a
1ho only oquiliLiium is (0, 0) , ano lho phaso poiliail is foimoo Ly lho
solulions lo
dj
da
=
.
2
a
j
Sopaialion loaos lo jdj = .
2
ada, ano inlogialion loaos lo
_
jdj = .
2
_
ada
1
2
j
2
=
1
2
.
2
a
2
H
Mulliplicalion Ly 2 loaos lo j
2
= .
2
a
2
H oi
j
2
.
2
a
2
= H
which is a family of hj:h|n conloioo al lho oiigin.
-8: Ihaso cuivos foi a
t
= j, j
t
= .
2
a
In aooilion, a phaso poiliail can Lo usoo lo lno solulions lo a socono oiooi oif-
foionlial oqualion. In pailiculai, lho suLslilulion j = a
t
oflon loaos lo a sopaiaLlo
oiloionlial oqualion lhal can Lo solvoo in closoo foim.
IXAMIII ! Uso lho phaso poiliail in oxamplo 8 lo lno solulions
lo
a
tt
.
2
a = 0
SoIutIon: In oxamplo 8, wo showoo lhal lho phaso poiliail of a
tt

.
2
a = 0 is
j
2
.
2
a
2
= H
As a iosull, j = a
t
implios lhal (a
t
)
2
= .
2
a
2
H oi
da
dt
=
_
.
2
a
2
H
Facloiing oul . loaos lo
da
dt
= .
_
a
2

H
.
2
Sopaialion of vaiiaLlos loaos lo
_
da
_
a
2

1
.
=
_
.dt
Howovoi, foimula (6.84) wilh a =
_
H. on pago 488 implios lhal
sinh
l
_
.a
_
H
_
= .t C
which yiolos a lnal solulion of
a =
_
H
.
sinh(.t C)
In facl, lho ioonlily foi lho hypoiLolic sino of a sum implios lhal lho jn:n|
|&.n lo
a
tt
.
2
a = 0
is givon Ly
a(t) = cosh(.t) 1sinh(.t)
whoio ano 1 aio conslanls.
1J a(t) = cosh(t) , hn &hn . a
tt
Chock youi Ioaoing
AIIcatIons In HIoIogy and ILysIcs
Ihaso poiliails aio usoo fioquonlly in applicalions. Lol`s look an oxamplo fiom
opioomiology.
IXAMIII In a populalion, lol o oonolo lho numLoi of pooplo sus-
copliLlo lo a givon oisoaso, lol 1 oonolo lho numLoi infocloo, ano lol 1
oonoloo lho numLoi iomovoo fiom lho infocloos. 1hon lho piogiossion
of lho oisoaso is in lho foim
o 1 1
A simplo moool of an SII opioomic moool is givon Ly
do
dt
= ro1,
d1
dt
= ro1 a1
whoio r is lho ialo of infoclion ano a is lho ialo of iomoval of lho
infocloos. Fino lho phaso poiliail of lhis simplo SII moool.
SoIutIon: 1ho phaso poiliail is foimoo Ly solulions lo
d1
do
=
ro1 a1
ro1
=
a ro
ro
d1 =
_
a
r
1
o
1
_
do
ano inlogialion loaos lo
_
d1 =
_ _
a
r
1
o
1
_
do
1 =
a
r
ln[o[ o C
whoio C is a conslanl. 1ho iosull is a family of cuivos lhal can Lo
usoo lo ooloimino whal lho maximum numLoi of infocloos is foi a
givon opioomic.
-4: Ihaso poiliail foi an SII opioomic
Now lol`s look al an oxamplo fiom physics.
IXAMIII 0 Spiing-mass oscillalions in lho ioal woilo" aio nol
poifocl haimonic oscillalois, Lul aio insloao moooloo Ly 1&nj`
j&n.n
a
tt
.
2
a a
3
= 0
whoio is a moasuio of lho slilnoss" of lho spiing. Fino lho phaso
poiliail of Dumng`s oqualion.
SoIutIon: If j = a
t
, lhon j
t
= .
2
a a
3
ano
dj
da
=
.
2
a a
3
j
Sopaialion ano inlogialion loaos lo
_
jdj =
_
_
.
2
a a
3
_
da
1
2
j
2
= .
2
a
2
2

a
d
4
H
As a iosull, lho phaso poiliail is givon Ly
a
d
2
.
2
a
2
j
2
= 2H
which foi 0 is a colloclion of closoo cuivos aLoul lho oiigin.
-: Ihaso poiliail of Dumng`s Lqualion
1hn J h |J &: .n h hn ::n. J 1&nj` j&n.n .n|j nh& Chock youi Ioaoing
h |&.n
TLe IenduIun EquatIon
Lol`s concluoo Ly consiooiing a ponoulum of longlh | lhal foims an anglo 0 al
limo t wilh a voilical lino.
-6: A ponoulum of longlh |
1ho ponoulumhas an oquiliLiiumal 0 = 0, which is slaLlo Locauso small vaiialions
loao lo small oscillalions aLoul 0 = 0. In conliasl, lho oquiliLiium 0 = al lho
lop of lho ponoulum`s aic is &nnh| sinco a small oovialion fiom 0 = will causo
lho ponoulum lo swing lowaio lho Lollom of ils aic.
-7: 0 = 0 is slaLlo, 0 =
t
2
is unslaLlo
Lol`s look al lhis phonomonon using a phaso poiliail of lho ponoulum`s anglo
0 al limo t. 1o Login wilh, supposo a mass : is localoo al lho ono of a ponoulum
of longlh | suLjocl lo a conslanl giavilalional accoloialion p 0.
-8: Foico of giavily in lwo compononls
1ho foico of giavily, :p, causos Lolh a lonsion in lho ponoulum ano molion
langonlial lo lho ciiculai aic. 1ho lonsion is Lalancoo Ly lho ponoulum aim.
1hus, lho nol foico al anglo 0 lhal causos lho molion of lho ponoulum is givon Ly
ct 1orcc = :p sin(0)
Sinco lho longlh of an aic on lho ciiclo is |0, lho volocily of lho ponoulum is = |0
t
ano lho accoloialion is a = |0
tt
. Nowlon`s law, 1 = :a, lhus implios lho oqualion
of molion is
:|0
tt
= :p sin(0)
which in luin simplilos lo lho nJ&|&n j&n.n
d
2
0
dt
2
=
p
|
sin(0) (7.60)
Lol`s lno lho oquiliLiia ano lho phaso poiliail of lho ponoulum oqualion. 1o
Login wilh, wo lol j =
J0
J|
, so lhal lho iosulling syslom is
d0
dt
= j,
dj
dt
=
p
|
sin(0)
Sinco sin(0) = 0 whon 0 = 0, , 2, . . . , lho oquiliLiia of lho ponoulum aio of
lho foim (:, 0) whoio : is an inlogoi.
1ho phaso poiliail is lho sol of inlogial cuivos of
dj
d0
=
p sin(0)
|j
Sopaialion loaos lo jdj =

l
sin(0) , so lhal inlogialion loaos lo
_
jdj =
p
|
_
sin(0) d0
j
2
2
=
p
|
cos (0) H
whoio H is a conslanl. 1hus, lho cuivos

2
=

l
cos (0)H foimlho phaso poiliail
of lho ponoulum
-0: Ihaso poiliail foi lho ponoulum
Cloaily, 0 = 0 is a slaLlo oquiliLiium, whilo 0 = appoais lo Lo unslaLlo, jusl as
wo suspocloo.
Lxoicisos
1.nJ h j&.|.h:.n nnJ hn ::n. J h J||&.nj jn:
1.
Ji
J|
= j,
J
J|
= a 2.
Ji
J|
= j,
J
J|
= a 2
8.
Ji
J|
= a 1,
J
J|
= j 1 4.
Ji
J|
= j
2
,
J
J|
= a 2
.
Ji
J|
= j
2
,
J
J|
= a 1 6.
Ji
J|
= j,
J
J|
= a 8
7.
Ji
J|
= j,
J
J|
= sin(a) 8.
Ji
J|
= 1,
J
J|
= aj
0.
Ji
J|
= sin(j) ,
J
J|
= lan(a) 10.
Ji
J|
= j,
J
J|
= ln(a 1)
11.
Ji
J|
=
_
j,
J
J|
= j cos (a) 12.
Ji
J|
= j,
J
J|
= a
1.nJ h hn ::n. J h J||&.nj nJ :J: J.]:n.n| j&n.n:
18. a
tt
a = 0 14. a
tt
= 1
1. a
tt
= 4a 16. a
tt
= a
2
17. a
tt
=
2a(a
t
)
2
a
2
1
18. a
tt
=
2a(a
t
)
2
a
2
1
10. a
tt
(a
t
)
2
a a = 0 20. a
tt
(a
t
)
2
a a = 0
1 h nhJ J j&nJ:n&: ]nJ |&.n h J||&.nj nJ :J: j&n-
.n:
21. a
tt
a = 0 22. a
tt
= 1
28. a
tt
= 4a 24. a
tt
= a
2
2. a
tt
=
2a(a
t
)
2
a
2
1
26. a
tt
=
2a(a
t
)
2
a
2
1
27. A piojoclilo noai lho oailh`s suifaco has a conslanl accoloialion of 82 fool
poi socono poi socono. 1hus, if r (t) is lho hoighl of a piojoclilo al limo t,
lhon
d
2
r
dt
2
= 82
Whal is lho phaso poiliail of lhis oqualion Uso lho molhoo of quaoialuios
lo lno lho aclual solulion.
28. If an oLjocl movos along a lino lhiough lho conloi of lho oailh, lhon ils
oislanco r (t) fiom lho conloi of lho oailh al limo t salislos
d
2
r
dt
2
=
/
r
2
Whal is lho phaso poiliail of lhis oqualion
29. Supposo a is a populalion lhal is giowing oxpononlially, ano j is a populalion
whoso ialo of giowlh is piopoilional lo Lolh a ano j (lho mass aclion law).
1hon
da
dt
= /a a:d
dj
dt
= jaj
whoio / ano j aio conslanls. Whal is lho phaso poiliail of lhis syslom
Whal aio lho oquiliLiia
30. Supposo lhal lho populalion in oxoiciso 20 is giowing logislically. 1hon
da
dt
= /a(1 a) a:d
dj
dt
= jaj
whoio / ano j aio conslanls. Whal is lho phaso poiliail of lhis syslom
31. If a is lho populalion of human hosls of a possiLlo viial infoclion ano j is lho
viial populalion ilsolf, lhon lho moool
da
dt
= [a p (j)[ a,
dj
dt
= /aj cj
is a ciuoo moool of lho viial infoclion of ils human hosls.
(a) Whal is lho phaso poiliail ano oquiliLiia whon p (j) = 0 foi all j
(L) Whal is lho phaso poiliail ano oquiliLiium whon p (j) = j
2
foi all
j
32. Iioloin-mINA inloiaclions can Lo oosciiLoo Ly lho syslom of oqualions
d`
dt
=
1
1 1
a,
d1
dt
= ` /
whoio a ano / aio conslanls. Whal is lho phaso poiliail of lhis syslom
33. Lol a oonolo lho numLoi of oxciloo pholons ano j oonolo lho numLoi of
slimulaloo aloms in a lasoi. 1hon a gooo moool of lho lasoi is givon Ly
da
dt
= aaj /a,
dj
dt
= aaj cj j
whoio a is lho gain coomcionl, / is lho ialo of aLsoiplion of pholons ouo lo
miiioi impoifoclions, c is lho ialo of sponlanoous omission, ano j is lho ialo
of pioouclion of slimulaloo aloms (i.o., a pump). Whal aio lho oquiliLiia of
lho moool Whal is lho phaso poiliail whon j = 0 (i.o., no aloms cuiionlly
Loing slimulaloo)
34. In oxoiciso 88, supposo insloao lhal a = 0. Inloipiol lho moool in lhis caso.
Also, lno lho phaso poiliail ano lho oquiliLiia of lho moool.
35. Al lho ono of lho soclion, wo showoo lhal lho phaso poiliail of lho ponoulum
of longlh | is foimoo Ly lho cuivos
j
2
2
=
p
|
cos (0) H
whoio H is conslanl. Supposo lhal j = 0 whon 0 = 0
0
foi a conslanl inilial
anglo 0
0
. Show lhal
d0
dt
=
_
2p
|
(cos (0) cos (0
0
))
ano lhus lhal lho solulion is of lho foim
_
d0
_
cos (0) cos (0
0
)
=
_
_
2p
|
_
t C
36. Try It out! {Crou LearnIng Iroject) A ponoulum of longlh 1 can Lo
usoo lo moasuio lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily al lho oailh`s suifaco. Hoio
is a pioposal foi a 8 momLoi gioup.
(a) AenLer 1: Iiosonl lho ponoulum oqualion ano show lhal
1
2
_
0
t
_
2
p
|
cos (0) = H
1hon oxplain why 1 = pA H if
1 =
1
2
_
0
t
_
2
, A =
cos (0)
|
(L) AenLer 2: Uso a CLL syslom oi viooolapo a ponoulum swinging
in fionl of a panol which has Loon maikoo ol in small anglos. Also
incluoo a clock showing soconos:
Moasuio 0 ano 0
t
al oiloionl limos t, whoio t is in soconos (nolo:
you may nooo lo appioximalo 0
t
Ly ialios of changos in 0 ovoi small
changos in limo.)
(c) AenLer 3: Uso lho oala collocloo Ly momLoi 8 lo pioouco a now
oala sol wilh
1 =
1
2
_
0
t
_
2
, A =
cos (0)
1
1hon ll lho now oala sol lo (??). 1ho slopo of lho ll is lho
accoloialion ouo lo giavily, which will Lo in molois poi soc
2
if 1 is
moasuioo in molois oi in fool poi soc
2
if 1 is moasuioo in fool.
37. Givon a syslom
da
dt
= ) (a, j) ,
dj
dt
= p (a, j)
lho a-n&|||.n aio lho cuivos whoio
Ji
J|
= 0 ano lho j-n&|||.n aio lho
cuivos whoio
J
J|
= 0. Whal aio lho nullclinos foi lho lasoi moool
da
dt
= aaj /a,
dj
dt
= aaj cj j
38. Whal aio lho nullclinos foi lho viial infoclion moool
da
dt
= [a p (j)[ a,
dj
dt
= /aj cj
whon p (j) = j
2
1.6 Harmonic OscillaLion
TLe HarnonIc OscIIIator
In lhis soclion, wo wanl lo oxploio a socono oiooi aulonomous oiloionlial oqualion
lhal appoais fioquonlly in applicalions. 1o oo so, lol us lisl supposo lhal j (t) is
lho haimonic oscillalion
j (t) = a cos (.t) / sin(.t)
whoio a, /, ano . aio conslanls. Diloionlialing iosulls in
j
t
(t) = .asin(.t) ./ cos (.t)
j
tt
(t) = .
2
a cos (.t) .
2
/ sin(.t)
so lhal facloiing yiolos j
tt
= .
2
(a cos (.t) / sin(.t)), oi oquivalonlly, j
tt
=
.
2
j. 1hus, j (t) is a solulion lo lho hn:nn. .||n: oiloionlial oqualion
j
tt
.
2
j = 0 (7.61)
Fuilhoimoio, j (0) = a ano j
t
(0) = /., which is lho samo as / = j
t
(0) .. In facl,
lho compulalions aLovo can Lo oxlonooo lo lho following lhooiom.
TLeoren 6.1: If j, , ano . aio conslanl, lhon lho n|j |&.n lo
lho haimonic oscillaloi pioLlom
j
tt
.
2
j = 0, j (0) = j, j
t
(0) =
is givon Ly lho haimonic oscillalion
j = j cos (.t)

.
sin(.t) (7.62)
Oflon haimonic oscillalions aio oisplacomonls aLoul an oquiliLiiumposilion. 1hus,
lho ooponoonl vaiiaLlo is oflon inloipioloo as a oislanco oilhoi aLovo oi Lolow lhal
oquiliLiium.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho poiioo, ampliluoo, ano oxlioma of lho solu-
lion lo
j
tt
4j = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 2 (7.68)
whoio j is a oisplacomonl, in conlimolois, fiom oquiliLiium. 1hon
skolch lho giaph of lho oscillalion.
SoIutIon: Sinco j = 1, . = 2, ano = 2, lhooiom 6.1 (spocilcally,
oqualion (7.62) ) implios lhal lho solulion lo (7.68) is
j (t) = 1 cos (2t)
2
2
sin(2t) = cos (2t) sin(2t)
HARMONlC OSClLLATlON
1ho ampliluoo is
n
=
_
2, lho poiioo is T = , ano lho ooiivalivo is
j
t
(t) = 2 sin(2t) 2 cos (2t)
Sinco j
t
(t) = 0 implios lhal 2 sin(2t) = 2 cos (2t) , which Locomos
lan(2t) = 1
1aLlo 6.1 implios lhal
2t =

4
:
whoio : is an inlogoi. 1hus, lho oxlioma aio localoo al
t =

8

:
2
which loaos lo lho giaph shown Lolow:
t
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
6-1
1ho impoilanco of lhooiom 6.1 cannol Lo ovoislaloo, Locauso lho haimonic oscil-
laloi oiloionlial oqualion occuis fioquonlly in applicalions.
IXAMIII 2 CaiLon Monoxioo (CO) is a oialomic moloculo wilh
a iooucoo mass of :
:
= 1.14 10
26
kg ano a moloculai Lono foico
conslanl of / = 188 Nowlon-molois (lho Lono foico conslanl is a
moasuio of lho slilnoss" of lho moloculai Lono). Il can Lo shown
lhal if j (t) is lho oisplacomonl fiom oquiliLiium of a viLialing CO
moloculo, lhon
:
:
j
tt
/j = 0 (7.64)
If j (0) = 1.8 angslioms (1 angsliom = 10
l0
molois) ano j
t
(0) = 0,
lhon whal is lho solulion lo (7.64) Whal is ils poiioo ano fioquoncy
SoIutIon: Wo can wiilo (7.64) as
j
tt

/
:
:
j = 0
which implios lhal . =
_
/:
:
=
_
188 (1.14 10
26
) = 4.087
10
ld
iaoians poi socono. Sinco j = j (0) = 1.8 10
l0
molois ano
= 0, lho solulion is
j (t) = 1.8 10
l0
cos
_
4.087 10
ld
t
_
1ho poiioo of lho oscillalion is
T =
2
4.087 10
ld
= 1.64 10
ld
soc
ano lho fioquoncy of lho oscillalion is
) =
1
1.64 10
ld
= 64.2 10
l2
/crt.
which is 64.2 1oliahoiz. 1o pul lhis in poispoclivo, lho .nJ:n:J -
:&n iangos fiom appioximaloly 10
ll
lo 10
l3
hoilz, so lho viLialional
fioquoncy foi caiLon monoxioo is in lho infiaioo spoclium.
1h: J h ]: n.n.n&n nJ: h :.j.n &: .n rnn| . Chock youi Ioaoing
Hooke`s Lav
1|` |n& says lhal if a mass : sliolchos a linoai spiing a oislanco 1 Loyono
ils naluial longlh, lhon lho iosloiing foico of lho spiing is
1
:t~|o:t
= /1
whoio / is a conslanl.
6-2: Mass : sliolchos a spiing a oislanco 1
Al j&.|.h:.&nlhal is, whon lho mass is nol movinglho mass`s woighl Lalancos
lho iosloiing foico. Sinco :p is lho woighl of lho mass (whoio p is lho accoloialion
ouo lo giavily), al oquiliLiium wo havo
/1 = :p (7.6)
Supposo now lhal al limo t lho spiing is sliolchoo a oislanco j Loyono oqui-
liLiium:
6-8: A Sliolchoo Spiing
1ho iosloiing foico is 1
:t~|o:t
= / [1 j[, so lhal Nowlon`s socono law yiolos
Mass accol = 1
:t~|o:t
Woighl
:j
tt
= / [1 j[ :p
:j
tt
= /1 /j :p
Sinco /1 = :p, lhis iooucos lo :j
tt
= /j oi oquivalonlly,
:j
tt
/j = 0 (7.66)
If (7.66) is oiviooo Ly :, lho iosull is of lho foim (7.61) wilh .
2
= /:.
HARMONlC OSClLLATlON 7
IXAMIII J A mass of 0.2 kg pulls a spiing lo an oquiliLiium po-
silion 10 cm Loyono ils naluial longlh. 1ho sliing is lhon pulloo an
aooilional 1 cm ( = 0.01 m) ano ioloasoo. Uso lhooiom 6.1 lo lno lho
solulion which oosciiLos lho iosulling oscillalion.
SoIutIon: 1o lno /, wo uso (7.6) wilh 1 = 0.1 m, p = 0.8 msoc
2
,
ano : = 0.2 kg.
/ 0.1 = 0.2 0.8 == / =
0.2 0.8
0.1
= 10.6
If j is lho oislanco fiom oquiliLiium al limo t, lhon (7.66) Locomos
0.2j
tt
10.6j = 0
Sinco
l9.6
0.2
= 08.0, lhis iooucos lo lho haimonic oscillaloi oqualion
j
tt
08j = 0
Locauso lho mass is nol moving immooialoly Lofoio il is ioloasoo,
lho inilial volocily is 0 ano consoquonlly, lho oqualion of molion is
j
tt
08j = 0, j (0) = 0.01 m, j
t
(0) = 0 (7.67)
Accoioing lo 1hooiom 6.1 wilh .
2
= 08, j = 0.01, ano = 0, lho
solulion is
j (t) = 0.01 cos
_
_
08t
_
0
_
08
sin
_
_
08t
_
1hus, lho solulion is j (t) = 0.01 cos
__
08t
_
.
Aclually, lho solulion foi oxamplo shoulo Lo wiillon in lho foim
j (t) = 0.01 cos
_
_
08t
_
0.1
1hal is, lho mass oscillalos fiom Lolwoon 0 ano 11 cm aLoul lho oquiliLiium of 10
cm. Moioovoi, sinco . =
_
08 ano T = 2
_
08, lho oscillalion is al a fioquoncy
of ) = 1T =
_
082 = 1. 76 hz, which is a lilllo moio lhan 1
l
2
up-oown cyclos
poi socono.
6-4: Spiing mass oxhiLils a haimonic oscillalion
1hn . h .n..n| |njh J h :.nj-nn .n rnn| Chock youi Ioaoing
HarnonIc OscIIIators In otLer SettIngs
1hoio aio a numLoi of olhoi sollings whoio a haimonic oscillaloi oiloionlial oqua-
lion occuis. Foi oxamplo, olocliical ciicuils oflon pioouco haimonic oscillalions.
1o illuslialo, lol`s consiooi lho cuiionl lowing lhiough a ciicuil wilh a lumpoo
capacilanco C, a lumpoo inouclanco 1, ano a conslanl vollago souico 1.
6-: An olocliic ciicuil lhal piooucos haimonically oscillaling cuiionl.
Kiikol`s laws in olocliical ciicuil lhooiy imply lhal
\
InJ
\
co
= \
~ou:ct
whoio \
co
, \
InJ
, ano \
~ou:ct
oonolo lho vollagos acioss lho capaciloi, lho inoucloi,
ano lho vollago souico, iospoclivoly. Howovoi, il can Lo shown lhal lho cuiionl
acioss a capaciloi is piopoilional lo lho limo ialo of chango of lho vollago \
co
ano lhal lho vollago \
InJ
acioss an inoucloi is piopoilional lo lho limo ialo of
chango of lho cuiionl:
\
InJ
= 1
d1
dt
a:d 1 = C
d\
co
dt
As a iosull, Kiikol`s law Locomos
11
t
\
co
= 1
whoio 1 is lho conslanl vollago souico.
Diloionlialing again loaos lo
11
tt

d\
co
dt
= 0
sinco 1 is conslanl. Finally, sinco \
t
co
= 1C, wo oLlain
11
tt

1
C
1 = 0 (7.68)
1his is a haimonic oscillaloi oqualion wilh .
2
= (1C)
l
.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho cuiionl 1 (t) in amps foi a ciicuil in which
1 = 0.4 honiios, C = 0.710
6
faiaos, 1 (0) = 2 amps, ano 1
t
(0) = 0.
Whal is lho poiioo, ampliluoo, ano fioquoncy of lho oscillalion
SoIutIon: 1ho oqualion (7.68) foi 1 = 0.4 ano C = 0.7 10
6
is
0.41
tt

1
0.7 10
6
1 = 0
Divioing lhioughoul Ly 0.4 lhus loaos lo
1
tt
(8, 71, 428) 1 = 0
1hus, .
2
= 8, 71, 428, so lhal . = 1800 ano
1 (t) = a cos (1800t) / sin(1800t)
Howovoi, 1 (0) = 2 implios lhal a = 2 ano 1
t
(0) = 0 implios lhal / = 0.
1hus,
1 (t) = 2 cos (1800t) a:j-
1ho ampliluoo is
n
= 2, lho poiioo is T = 2. = 21800, ano lho
fioquoncy is
) =
1
T
=
1800
2
= 800.808 /.
1hal is, lho cuiionl oscillalos aLoul 800 limos oach socono.
nn & hn: nn .||n.n J uu h:. Chock youi Ioaoing
ILase IortraIt Ior HarnonIc OscIIIators
Lol`s wiilo lho haimonic oscillaloi in lho foim
a
tt
.
2
a = 0
ano lol`s lol j = a
t
. Sinco a
tt
= .
2
a, lho phaso poiliail foi lho haimonic oscillaloi
is
da
dt
= j,
dj
dt
= .
2
a
1hus, lho oiigin is lho oquiliLiium ano lho phaso poiliail is
dj
da
=
.
2
a
j
jdj = .
2
ada
_
jdj = .
2
_
ada
j
2
2
= .
2
a
2
2
H (7.60)
whoio H is a conslanl known as lho n:jj of lho oscillalion. As a iosull, wo
oLlain
a
2
2.
2

j
2
2
= H
which is a family of ollipsos in which lho hoiizonlal axis is . limos longoi lhan lho
voilical axis.
6-6: Ihaso poiliail foi lho Haimonic Oscillaloi
IXAMIII Uso lho phaso poiliail lo oLlain lho gonoial solulion
in lhooiom 6.1.
SoIutIon: Sinco j = a
t
, wo can wiilo (7.60) in lho foim
_
da
dt
_
2
= 2H .
2
a
2
da
dt
= .
_
2H
.
2
a
2
1ho iosulling oqualion is sopaiaLlo, so wo oLlain
da
_
21
.
a
2
= .dt
_
da
_
21
.
a
2
=
_
.dt
sin
l
_
a
2H.
2
_
= .t C
a
2H.
2
= sin(.t C)
a(t) =
.
2
2H
sin(.t C)
Lol`s now oxpano using lho sino of lho sum ioonlily:
a(t) =
.
2
2H
sin(C) cos (.t)
.
2
2H
cos (C) sin(.t)
1hus, if wo lol a = .
2
sin(C) (2H) ano lol / = .
2
cos (C) (2H) ,
lhon lho iosull is lho haimonic oscillalion
a(t) = a cos (.t) / sin(.t)
Lxoicisos
1 h:n .1 J:n.n h |&.n nh J h J||&.nj hn:nn.
.||n: .n..n| n|& :h|n. Jhn ]nJ h :.J, J:j&nj, nnJ nn|.&J J
h .||n.n. 1.nn||j, |n h r:nn nnJ |h h j:nh J h .||n.n.
1. j
tt
j = 0, 2. j
tt
j = 0,
j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0 j (0) = 0, j
t
(0) = 1
8. j
tt
4j = 0, 4. j
tt
4j = 0,
j (0) = 2, j
t
(0) = 4 j (0) = 8, j
t
(0) = 6
. j
tt
8j = 0, 6. 8j
tt
j = 0,
j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 8 j (0) = 2, j
t
(0) = 2
1.nJ h hn:nn. .||n: j&n.n nnJ h :&|.nj |&.n j.n n :.nj-
nn jn &.h nn : nnJ 1|` nnn /. Jhn J:n.n h :.J,
J:j&nj, nnJ nn|.&J J h .||n.n. 1.nn||j, j:nh h .||n.n &.h n
j:nh.nj n|&|n:
7. : = 2 kg, / = 8
|
soc
8. : = 2 kg, / = 8
|
soc
j (0) = 0. m, j
t
(0) = 0 j (0) = 1 m, j
t
(0) = 0
0. : = 2 kg, / = 4
|
soc
, 10. : = 0.8 kg, / = 8

|
soc
,
j (0) = 0.08 m, j
t
(0) = 0 j (0) = 0.02 m, j
t
(0) = 0
11. : = 4 kg, / = 4
2 |
soc
, 12. : = 0.2 kg, / = 80

|
soc
,
j (0) = 0, j
t
(0) = 0.02
m
soc
j (0) = 0, j
t
(0) = 0
1n r:. 1 - 1, & ;7.) J:n.n h &::n .n h .:&..
18. 1 = 1 honiy, C = 0.2 10
6
faiaos 14. 1 = 1 honiy, C = 10
5
faiaos
1 (0) = 2 amps, 1
t
(0) = 0 1 (0) = amps, 1
t
(0) = 0
1. 1 = 4 honiios, C = 10
6
faiaos 16. 1 = 2 honiios, C = 10
6
faiaos
1 (0) = 10 amps, 1
t
(0) = 0 1 (0) = 0, 1
t
(0) = 2 ampssoc
17. Show lhal lho poiioo of a spiing-mass syslom is givon Ly
T = 2
_
/
:
(7.70)
18. Try It out! Hang a known mass : onlo lho ono of a spiing, ano lhon
wail unlil il slops moving. 1ho chango in longlh is 1, ano / can Lo now
Lo ooloiminoo. Uso (7.70) in oxoiciso 17 lo calculalo T. 1hon moasuio lho
limo ioquiioo foi 20 oscillalions of lho spiing ano oivioo Ly 20 lo oslimalo
T oiioclly. Doos lho calculaloo valuo of T malch lho oslimaloo valuo of T
19. Try It out! 1ho accoloialion ouo lo giavily can Lo moasuioo using a spiing-
mass syslom. Show lhal
/ =
:p
1
so lhal lho poiioo of lho spiing is
T = 2
_
1
p
(7.71)
1hon moasuio 1 ano T foi a givon spiing (soo oxoiciso 18), suLslilulo inlo
(7.71) ano solvo foi p.
20. Foi a givon ponoulum, moasuio lho poiioo of lho spiing as in oxoiciso 18.
How accuialoly ooos (7.71) pioouco lho longlh 1 of lho ponoulum
21. A spiing-mass oscillalos up ano oown in a haimonic oscillalion oosciiLoo Ly
j (t) = 8 cos (1t)
Whal is lho poiioo of lho oscillalion How fasl is lho spiing-mass moving
inilially Whal haimonic oscillaloi oiloionlial oqualion ooos il salisfy
Whal inilial conoilions ooos il havo
22. A spiing-mass oscillalos up ano oown in a haimonic oscillalion oosciiLoo Ly
j (t) = 80 cos (880t) 80 sin(880t)
Whal is lho poiioo of lho oscillalion Whal is lho ampliluoo How fasl
is lho spiing-mass moving inilially Whal haimonic oscillaloi oiloionlial
oqualion ooos il salisfy Whal inilial conoilions ooos il havo Whal ooos
ils giaph look liko
23. A massivo whool is allachoo lo a lhin molal wiio, ano lho whool is luinoo
lhiough an anglo 0, which lwisls lho wiio lhiough an anglo 0 as woll.
6-7: Massivo Whool Allachoo lo a 1hin Molal Wiio
If lho anglo 0 is sumcionlly small, lhon lho lwisl oxoils a loiquo t lhal is
piopoilional lo 0. 1hal is
t = i0
whoio i is lho loision conslanl. If 1 oonolos lho momonl of inoilia of lho
massivo whool, lhon lho loiquo will Lo iolaloo lo lho angulai accoloialion Ly
t = 1
d
2
0
dt
2
Solvo lho iosulling haimonic oscillaloi oqualion. Whal is lho poiioo of lho
oscillalion Whal is lho fioquoncy
24. A iighl cylinoiical coik wilh woighl n ano iaoius 1 LoLs up ano oown on
lho suifaco of lho waloi:
6-8: LoLLing Coik
:h.nJ :.n.| says lhal if j is lho oisplacomonl fiom oquiliLiium al
limo t, lhon
woighl accol = Louyanl Foico giavilalional accol
nj
tt
= 41
2
j
u
p j
whoio j
u
= 62. lLs poi cuLic fool is lho oonsily of lho waloi ano p = 82 fool
poi soc
2
is lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily. Whal is lho poiioo ano fioquoncy
of a LoLLing coik lhal woigh 1. pounos ano has a iaoius of 8 inchos
25. In calm aii wilh nogligiLlo oiag, a holium Lalloon will iiso lo an j&.|.h:.&n
n|.&J, which is an alliluoo whoio lho oonsily of lho aii oulsioo of lho
Lalloon malchos lho oonsily of lho aii insioo lho Lalloon. Il will lhon oscillalo
aLovo ano Lolow lhal oquiliLiium alliluoo.
6-0: Louncing Lalloon
Foi a coilain Lalloon, lho oisplacomonl fiom oquiliLiium al limo t salislos
.
tt
=
0.8
10000
.
Whal is . (t) oxplicilly if . (0) = 2 m ano .
t
(0) = 0 Whal is lho poiioo,
ampliluoo, ano fioquoncy of lho oscillalion
26. VrIte to Learn: * In a oialomic moloculo liko caiLon monoxioo, lho oqui-
liLiium oislanco j
0
Lolwoon lho nucloi of lho lwo aloms in lho moloculo is
lho oislanco al which lho moloculo ooos nol viLialo. Howovoi, if lho oislanco
j Lolwoon lho nucloi is nol j
0
, lhon lho Linoing foico causos lho moloculo lo
viLialo.
6-10: An inloinucloai foico lhal is spiing-liko."
1his inloinucloai foico is spiing-liko" in naluio. Inoooo, if j (t) is lho sop-
aialion al limo t, lhon j (t) salislos
:
:
j
tt
/ (j j
0
) = 0 (7.72)
whoio / is lho Lono foico conslanl ano
:
:
=
:
l
:
2
:
l
:
2
is lho iooucoo mass of lho moloculo. Lxplain why if j (0) = j ano j
t
(0) = ,
lhon lho solulion lo (7.72) is
j (t) = (j j
0
) cos (.t)

.
sin(.t) j
0
whoio . =
_
/:
:
. How is lho fioquoncy of lho oscillalion iolaloo lo lho
iooucoo mass ano lho Lono foico conslanl
1.1 Slope Fields and Lquilibria
SIoe FIeIds oI FIrst Order DIerentIaI EquatIons
1hoio aio many oiloionlial oqualions lhal cannol Lo solvoo Ly sopaialion oi any
olhoi moans. Such oiloionlial oqualions musl insloao Lo sluoioo j&n|.n.|j,
which moans lhal wo sook lo oiscovoi piopoilios of lho solulions wilhoul aclually
ooloimining lho solulions lhomsolvos.
A non-aulonomous oiloionlial oqualion is an oqualion of lho foim
j
t
= ) (a, j) (7.78)
whoio ) (a, j) is somo oxpiossion in a ano j. A | ]|J foi a non-aulonomous
oqualion is Lasoo on lho facl lhal a shoil lino sogmonl lhiough (a, j) wilh slopo
j
t
appioximalos lho solulion in lho vicinily of (a, j) .
7-1: Lino sogmonl is a small soclion of a langonl lino
Lol`s supposo lhal wo chooso a giio of poinls (a, j) in somo iogion of lho aj-plano.
If a shoil lino sogmonl wilh slopo j
t
is placoo al oach poinl in lho giio, lhon lho
iosull, which is known as a | ]|J foi lho oiloionlial oqualion (7.78), can Lo
usoo lo visualizo lho solulions lo (7.78).
7-2: Many lino sogmonls foim a slopo lolo
In aooilion, lho lino sogmonls in a slopo lolo aio oflon oiawn wilh aiiowhoaos on
lho iighl lo inoicalo lho oiioclion in which a is incioasing.
IXAMIII 1 Consliucl a slopo lolo foi j
t
= 2a j on lho giio
shown Lolow:
7-8: Giio foi a slopo lolo
SoIutIon: 1ho slopo funclion is ) (a, j) = 2a j. Whon a = 0, lhon
lho slopo is
o|ojc = 2 0 j = j
1hus, al (0, 0) lho slopo is 0, al (0, 0.1) lho slopo is 0.1, ano so on.
Now lol`s consiooi a = 0.1:
at (0.1, 0) : a = 0.1, j = 0.0 : o|ojc = 2 0.1 0 = 0.2
at (0.1, 0.1) : a = 0.1, j = 0.1 : o|ojc = 2 0.1 0.1 = 0.1
at (0.1, 0.2) : a = 0.1, j = 0.2 : o|ojc = 2 0.1 0.2 = 0
at (0.1, 0.8) : a = 0.1, j = 0.8 : o|ojc = 2 0.1 0.8 = 0.1
Similaily, al (0.2, 0) , lho slopo is 0.4, al (0.2, 0.1) , lho slopo is 0.8 ano
so on. Lolow is lho slopo lolo foi j = 2aj piooucoo Ly lho compuloi
SLOPL FlLLDS AND LQUlLlBRlA 6
algoLia syslom `n|.
7-4: Slopo lolo foi j
t
= 2a j
Slopo lolos aio oflon piooucoo Ly a calculaloi oi compuloi as a moans of visualiz-
ing lho solulion lo a oiloionlial oqualion. Foi oxamplo, lho slopo lolo of j
t
= aj
shown in lguio 4-0 was piooucoo wilh lho compuloi algoLia syslom `n|.
7-: Solulion lo j
t
= a j, j (0) = 0.
1ho Lluo cuivo is a solulion lo j
t
= a j wilh inilial conoilion j (0) = 0.
1.|| j&: j:nh.nj n|&|n: :J& | ]|J Chock youi Ioaoing
EquIIILrIa oI Autononous EquatIons
Slopo lolos aio pailiculaily usoful foi aulonomous oqualions, which aio oiloionlial
oqualions of lho foim
j
t
= ) (j) (7.74)
In pailiculai, if C is a numLoi foi which ) (C) = 0, lhon j = C is a conslanl
funclion which is also a solulion lo j
t
= ) (j) . Wo call j = C an j&.|.h:.&n
|&.n of (7.74). Slopo lolos of aulonomous oqualions yiolo infoimalion aLoul
lho j&.|.h:.n of a oiloionlial oqualion.
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho oquiliLiia of lho logislic oqualion
j
t
= 0.1j
_
1
j
1000
_
SoIutIon: 1ho oqualion is of lho foim j
t
= ) (j) whoio
) (j) = 0.1j
_
1
j
1000
_
ano ) (j) = 0 whon j = 0 oi whon 1

l000
= 0, which is whon
j = 1000. 1hus, lho oquiliLiia aio j = 0 ano j = 1000.
Moioovoi, an oquiliLiium j = C of j
t
= ) (j) is saio lo Lo nh| if
lim
|o
j (t) = C (7.7)
foi any solulion j (t) which is sumcionlly closo lo C al somo limo t. An oquiliLiium
which is nol slaLlo is saio lo Lo &nnh|.
Slopo lolos can Lo usoo lo ooloimino if an oquiliLiium is slaLlo oi unslaLlo.
Howovoi, lho slopo lolo is oflon consliucloo Ly hano in such inslancos. 1o oo
so, wo lisl oiaw lho oquiliLiia as hoiizonlal linos. Wo lhon losl ) (j) Lolwoon
lho oquiliLiia. If ) (j) < 0 on somo inloival (a, /) , lhon shoil lino sogmonls wilh
nogalivo slopos aio oiawn Lolwoon j = a ano j = /. If ) (j) 0 on (c, d) , lhon
shoil lino sogmonls wilh posilivo slopos aio oiawn Lolwoon j = c ano j = d.
7-6: LquiliLiium Analysis
If solulions lhal slail noai an oquiliLiium appioach lhal oquiliLiium, lhon lho
oquiliLiium is nh|. Olhoiwiso, lho oquiliLiium is unslaLlo.
IXAMIII J Uso a slopo lolo lo ooloimino if lho oquiliLiia of
j
t
= 0.1j
_
1
j
1000
_
(7.76)
aio slaLlo oi unslaLlo.
SoIutIon: In oxamplo 2, wo saw lhal lho oquiliLiia aio j = 0 ano
j = 1000. Nolico now lhal
) (1) = 0.1
_
1
l
l000
_
= 0.1001 < 0 == ) (j) < 0 )or j < 0
) (1) = 0.1
_
1
l
l000
_
= 0.0000 0 == ) (j) 0 )or j i: (0, 1000)
) (1001) = 0.1 (1001)
_
1
l00l
l000
_
= 0.001 < 0 == ) (j) < 0 )or j 1000
1hus, wo oiaw lino sogmonls wilh nogalivo slopo Lolow j = 0, lino
sogmonls wilh posilivo slopo Lolwoon j = 0 ano j = 1000, ano lino
sogmonls wilh nogalivo slopo foi j 1000.
7-7: Solulions lhal Login sumcionlly closo lo slaLlo oquiliLiium appioach lhal oquiliLiium
Solulions aLovo j = 1000 aio oocioasing, ano consoquonlly, lhoy musl
appioach 1000. Solulions Lolwoon j = 0 ano j = 1000 aio incioasing,
ano consoquonlly, lhoy also musl appioach 1000. 1hus, j = 1000 is a
slaLlo oquiliLiium, whilo j = 0 is an unslaLlo oquiliLiium.
1n rnn| , &hn J n |&.n h|& 0 J n a n:nh Chock youi Ioaoing
AIIcatIons oI EquIIILrIa
Slopo lolos can Lo usoo lo ooloimino lho appioximalo Lohavioi of a syslom whon
il is noai oquiliLiium.
IXAMIII ! Supposo lhal an inliavonously-infusoo solulion oolivois
a coilain oiug al a conslanl ialo of 100cc poi unil volumo of solulion
poi houi, ano supposo lhal lho Looy iooucos lho conconlialion Ly
aLoul 10/ oach houi. Fino lho oquiliLiium conconlialion ano show
lhal il is slaLlo.
SoIutIon: If j (t) oonolos lho conconlialion of lho oiug al limo t, lhon
ialo of chango ialo of ialo of
of conconlialion iomoval infusion
j
t
= 0.1j 100
1hus, lho oquiliLiium is lho solulion lo
0 = 0.1j 100
which is j = 1000 cc poi unil volumo. A slopo lolo foi lho moool is
givon Lolow:
x
10 8 6 4 2 0
y
1200
1100
1000
900
800
7-8: Slopo lolo foi oiug conconlialion
Cloaily, lho oquiliLiium is slaLlo.
Lol`s consiooi anolhoi class of oxamplos. If j (t) is lho populalion of a coilain
ionowaLlo iosouico al limo t lhal is Loing hn:J al a ialo H (j, t) al a popu-
lalion of j ano al limo t, lhon j (t) can oflon Lo consiooioo lo Lo lho solulion lo
lho mooiloo logislic oqualion
j
t
= /j
_
1
j
_
H (j, t) (7.77)
whoio is lho caiiying capacily of lho iosouico in lho ovonl of no haivosling ano
/ is lho inliinsic giowlh ialo. Slopo lolos ano oquiliLiia aio impoilanl in lhis
applicalion Locauso (7.77) can Lo solvoo in closoo foim only foi coilain choicos of
lho haivosling funclion H (t) .
IXAMIII A foiosl wilh a caiiying capacily of 1000 lioos poi
acio ano an inliinsic giowlh ialo of 0.1 / incioaso poi yoai is Loing
haivosloo al a ialo of 20 lioos poi acio poi yoai. Iioouco ano inloipiol
lho slopo lolo foi lhis moool. If lhoio aio inilially 00 lioos poi acio,
aLoul how many lioos poi acio will lhoio Lo afloi 2 yoais using / =
l
l2
(i.o., / aLoul lho longlh of ono monlh)
SoIutIon: 1ho moool (7.77) wilh / = 0.1, = 1000, ano H = 20
yiolos
j
t
= 0.1j
_
1
j
1000
_
20 (7.78)
1ho oquiliLiia of (7.78) aio lho solulions lo
0 = 0.1j (1 0.001j) 20
sinco 11000 = 0.001. Lxpanoing yiolos
0.0001j
2
0.1j 20 = 0
1o solvo lho oqualion, wo uso lho quaoialic foimula: Solulions lo
aj
2
/j c = 0
aio givon Ly
/
_
/
2
4ac
2a
j =
0.1
_
(0.1)
2
4 (0.0001) (20)
2 (0.0001)
= 276.80, 728.61
1hus, lho oquiliLiia aio j = 276.80 ano j = 728.61.
A slopo lolo foi (7.78) is shown Lolow:
7-0: Slopo lolo foi lioo haivosling
Cloaily, j = 728.61 lioos poi acio is a slaLlo oquiliLiium, whilo lho
oquiliLiium j = 276.80 is unslaLlo. 1hus, as long as lhoio aio moio
lhan 277 lioos poi acio in lho foiosl, lhon lho foiosl populalion will
giow lo an oquiliLiium of 782.61 lioos poi acio. Lul if lho numLoi of
lioos poi acio oiops Lolow 276.80, lhon haivosling will causo lho foiosl
lo oio oul.
1hn hnn .n rnn| .J h: n: .n..n||j n: hnn 7..1 : : Chock youi Ioaoing
n:
TLe LotkaYoIterra EquatIons
Supposo lhal a is lho populalion al limo t of a spocios of :j ano supposo lhal j
is lho populalion al limo t of a spocios of :Jn:. If wo assumo an amplo fooo
supply, lhon lho pioy spocios giows oxpononlially if lhoio aio no piooalois, which
moans lhal
da
dt
= a,
whoio 0 is lho .n:.n. j:&h :n nnn foi lho pioy populalion. If wo
fuilhoi assumo lhal lho pioy aio lho piooalois solo fooo souico, lhon lho piooaloi
populalion will oocay oxpononlially in lho aLsonco of pioy, which moans lhal
dj
dt
= 1j
whoio 1 0 is lho .n:.n. r.n.n :n nnn foi lho piooaloi populalion.
Finally, lol`s assumo lhal chango ouo lo piooalion of Lolh spocios is piopoilional
lo lho populalion of Lolh spocios. Il follows lhal lho piooaloi-pioy moool is lhus
givon Ly
da
dt
= a Caj,
dj
dt
= 1j 1aj (7.70)
whoio C 0 ano 1 0 aio lho inloiaclion conslanls foi lho lwo spocios. 1ho
piooaloi-pioy oqualions in (7.70) aio also known as lho 1|n-1|::n j&n.n
afloi lho lwo malhomalicians lhal oiiginally inliooucoo lhom.
1ho oquiliLiia aio lho poinls al which
Ji
J|
= 0 ano
J
J|
= 0 simullanoously.
1hus, lho oquiliLiia aio solulions lo
a Caj = 0 a:d 1j 1aj = 0
a(Cj) = 0 a:d j (1 1a) = 0
which can Lo shown lo Lo (0, 0) ano
_
1
1
,
.
C
_
. 1ho hn ::n. is foimoo Ly lho
solulions lo lho oiloionlial oqualion
dj
da
=
1j 1aj
a Caj
(7.80)
Allhough (7.80) is sopaiaLlo, lho closoo foim solulion is nol all lhal holpful (soo
oxoiciso 48). 1hus, wo insloao supply numoiical valuos foi lho paiamolois ano uso
slopo lolos lo sluoy lho phaso poiliail.
Foi oxamplo, Lolwoon 184 ano 108, lho Huoson Lay Company of Canaoa
kopl iocoios of lho numLoi of lynx ano haio polls lhoy solo. If a oonolos lho haio
populalion al limo t ano j oonolos lho lynx populalion al limo t in yoais, lhon
lhoii oala suggosls a Lolka-Volloiia moool of lho foim
da
dt
= a 0.08aj,
dj
dt
= 0.4j 0.01aj
1ho oquiliLiia aio consoquonlly (0, 0) ano
_
0.d
0.0l
,
l
0.03
_
= (40, 88.8) , which says lhal
a populalion of 40 haios ano 88.8 lynx`s iosulls in a conslanl numLoi of haios ano
lynx`s foi all limo.
1ho slopo lolo foi lho phaso poiliail is lho slopo lolo foi lho oqualion
dj
da
=
0.4j 0.01aj
a 0.08aj
which is shown in lguio 6-10:
7-10: Slopo lolo foi Lolka-Volloiia Ihaso Ioiliail
1ho slopo lolo shows lhal phaso cuivos aio closoo cyclos aLoul lho oquiliLiium.
1hus, foi inilial populalions noai lho oquiliLiium populalions, lho lynx-haio pop-
ulalions oscillalo.
Il musl Lo poinloo oul, howovoi, lhal whilo lho oquiliLiium (40, 88.8) malchos
lho oala fiom lho Huoson Lay company, lho paiamolois = 1, 1 = 0.4, C = 0.08,
ano 1 = 0.01 aio nol ioalislic. Foi oxamplo, = 1 implios lhal in lho aLsonco
of lynx, lho haio populalion woulo moio lhan oouLlo onco ovoiy 8 monlhs. 1hus,
whilo lho Lolka-Volloiia moool is voiy insliuclivo, il is nol quilo sophislicaloo
onough lo moool piooaloi-pioy inloiaclions in lho ioal woilo (soo oxoicisos 44 ano
4).
Lxoicisos:
1nh J h J||&.nj j&n.n . n&nn&. 1Jn.Jj nnj j&.|.h:.n J h J.J-
J:n.n| j&n.n nnJ hn & n | ]|J J:n.n .J hj n: nh|. &n
H 0, 0 nnJ / 0 n: nnn.
1. j
t
= j (1 j) 2. j
t
= j (2 j)
8. j
t
= 2j (1 j) 4. j
t
= 2j (10 j)
. j
t
= 0.0j
_
1
j
00
_
6. j
t
= 0.j
_
1
j
100
_
7. j
t
= 8j j
2
8. j
t
= j
2
8j
0. j
t
= j
2
8j 2 10. j
t
= 2j
2
6j 0
11. j
t
=
j 1
j
2
1
12. j
t
= c
1
18. j
t
= sin(j) , 14. j
t
= sin(j)
1. j
t
= /j 16. j
t
= /j
17. j
t
= j
_
1
j
_
18. j
t
= j
_
1
j
_
H
n:& n | ]|J J: nh J h J||&.nj j&.n.
10. j
t
= a j 20. j
t
= aj
21. j
t
= c
i
j 22. j
t
= sin(a) j
28. j
t
= a
2
24. j
t
= cos (a)
2. j
t
= 0, 26. j
t
= 1
27. j
t
=
a 2j
a j
28. j
t
=
a
2
j
2
2aj
29. HarvestIng: Supposo lhal lho numLoi of lioos in a coilain foiosl incioasos
al a ialo of / poi yoai, supposo lhal lho caiiying capacily of lho foiosl is
1,000 lioos poi acio, ano supposo lhal 200 lioos poi acio aio haivosloo fiom
lho foiosl ovoiy yoai.
(a) Fino lho oquiliLiia of lho piocoss.
(L) Uso a slopo lolo lo ooloimino which aio slaLlo ano which aio un-
slaLlo.
(c) Inloipiol youi lnoings in (L).
30. HarvestIng: A coilain lsh populalion oouLloo lho lisl yoai il was inlio-
oucoo inlo a lako whoio lhal spocios of lsh hao oisappoaioo. Il is oslimaloo
lhal lho maximum lsh populalion foi lho lako is 10,000 lsh, ano il is osli-
maloo lhal lshoimon will lako aLoul 4,000 lsh poi yoai oul of lho lako.
(a) Fino lho oquiliLiia of lho lsh populalion.
(L) Uso a slopo lolo lo ooloimino which aio slaLlo ano which aio un-
slaLlo.
(c) Inloipiol youi lnoings in (L).
1n r:. 1 h:&jh u, j& n& & n J.]:n.n| j&n.n nJ|, ]nJ .
j&.|.h:.n, nnJ J:n.n .J h j&.|.h:.n n: nh| : &nnh|.
31. A coilain oiug is infusoo inliavonously al a ialo of 00cc poi houi. If lho
Looy iomovos 2/ of lho oiug poi houi, lhon how much of lho oiug will Lo
in lho Looy afloi a long poiioo of limo
32. A coilain oiug is aominisloioo inliavonously al a ialo of 2cc poi houi. Sup-
poso lhal lho Looy iooucos lho oiug conconlialion Ly 1/ poi houi. How
much of lho oiug will Lo in lho Looy afloi 24 houis
33. Supposo lhal lho volocily in fool poi socono of a iainoiop wilh a oiamoloi
of 0.002 inchos salislos
t
= 82 118.44
Whal is lho loiminal volocily of lho iainoiop
12
34. As a coilain oLjocl falls lhiough lho aii, lho almosphoio slows ils piogioss
in piopoilion lo ils volocily. If lho oLjocl is slowoo al a ialo of 10/ poi
socono, whal is ils loiminal volocily
35. Acmo Collogo accopls 600 now sluoonls oach yoai, ano ovoiy yoai, 80/ of
lho sluoonls aio losl lo giaoualion, pooi giaoos, liansfoi, olcoloia. If lho
collogo conlinuos in lhis way foi a long poiioo of limo, lhon how laigoin
numLois of sluoonlswill lho collogo ovonlually Locomo
36. Lach monlh, Ciookoo Ciooil Coipoialion incioasos youi ciooil caio Lalanco
Ly 2/, ano oach monlh you pay lho minimum monlhly paymonl of $100.
Whal will youi Lalanco ovonlually Lo Will you ovoi pay ol lho ciooil
caio
18
12
Aoaploo fiom Falling Iainoiops" Ly Walloi J. Moyoi in Applicalions of Calculus, Ihilip
Sliamn, Loiloi, MAA Nolos numLoi 20, 1ho Malhomalical Associalion of Amoiica, 1008.
18
Ciooil caio companios oon`l aclually oo lhis, Lul if you uso youi ciooil caio ovoiy monlh,
any ciooil caio usago can oogonoialo lo lho poinl whoio you aio ossonlially only paying ol lho
inloiosl on whal you owo.
37. A oamis Luill acioss a slioamlowing al a ialo of 10,000 gallons of waloi oach
oay. If 10/ of lho waloi is losl oach oay lo ovapoialion, soopago lhiough
lho soil, ovoilow of lho oam, olcoloia, lhon how laigo, in gallons, will lho
pono Lohino lho oam ovonlually Locomo
38. A lfloon yoai moilgago al an annual inloiosl ialo of 7.2/ ( i.o., a monlhly
ialo of
0.072
l2
= 0.006 ) ioquiios a monlhly paymonl of $161. If j (t) is lho
Lalanco al limo t in monlhs ano if j (0) = $171, 000, lhon whal will lho
appioximalo Lalanco Lo in ono yoai In lvo yoais (Hinl: uso lho facl lhal
j
t
- Inloiosl - Iaymonl).
39. Supposo lhal foi lho moilgago in oxoiciso 88 lhal lho Loiiowoi insloao pays
$1,800 poi monlh. Whal will lho appioximalo Lalanco Lo in ono yoai In
lvo yoais
40. A lhiily yoai moilgago al an annual inloiosl ialo of 7.2/ ( i.o., a monlhly
ialo of 0.6/) ioquiios a monlhly paymonl of $1, 166.2. If j (t) is lho Lalanco
al limo t in monlhs ano if j (0) = $171, 000, lhon whal will lho appioximalo
Lalanco Lo in ono yoai In lvo yoais
41. 1hoio is a gioal ooal of ovioonco lo suggosl lhal onco a populalion oiops
Lolow a coilain ciilical valuo :, lho populalion will Locomo oxlincl. Wo can
incoipoialo lho oxlinclion facloi inlo populalion giowlh Ly mooifying lho
logislic oqualion inlo
j
t
= /j
_
1
j
__
1
j
:
_
(7.81)
whoio 0 < : < .
(a) Whal aio lho oquiliLiia of (7.81)
(L) Lxplain why j = : is always unslaLlo ano all olhoi oquiliLiia aio
slaLlo.
(c) Skolch a lypical slopo lolo of (7.81).
(o) Inloipiol lho iosulls in (c).
(o) * Can you solvo (7.81) using sopaialion of vaiiaLlos
42. A spocial kino of unslaLlo oquiliLiium is lho nJJ| j&.|.h:.&n, in which
solulions appioach lho oquiliLiium fiom ono sioo Lul nol fiom lho olhoi.
Consliucl slopo lolo oiagiams foi lho following ano lhon ioonlify lhoii saoolo
oquiliLiia.
(a) j
t
= j
2
(L) j
t
= j
2
2j 1
(c) j
t
= j
3
4j
2
(o) j
t
= j
d
4j
2
43. Fino lho phaso poiliail of lho Lolka-Volloiia oqualions Ly solving
dj
da
=
1j 1aj
a Caj
whoio , 1, C, ano 1 aio conslanls. Can you infoi lhal lhoio is a closoo
cuivo solulion fiom lho closoo foim oxpiossion foi lho phaso poiliail
44. Whal woulo lho oquiliLiia ano phaso-poiliail slopo lolo foi lho Lolka-Volloiia
oqualions Lo if = 0.2, 1 = 0.4, C = 0.08, ano 1 = 0.01
45. Vilo Volloiia mooiloo lho Lolka-Volloiia moool in an allompl lo oxplain lho
iosulls of a 1024 slalislical sluoy of lsh-shaik populalions in lho Aoiialic
Soa lhal showoo lhal lho shaik populalion incioasoo oiamalically ouiing
Woilo Wai I ano lhon oocioasoo immooialoly lhoioafloi. In pailiculai, if
, 1, C, ano 1 aio as in lho Lolka-Volloiia moool ano if 1, 1 aio lshing
ialo conslanls, lhon
da
dt
= a Caj 1a,
dj
dt
= 1j 1aj 1j
whoio a ano j aio lho populalion of lsh ano shaiks, iospoclivoly, al limo
t. Whal aio lho oquiliLiia foi lhis moool if 1 < Lxplain why lho slopo
lolo foi lhis moool is qualilalivoly lho samo as lho slopo lolo of lho Lolka-
Volloiia moool
46. In lho Lolka-Volloiia moool, wo assumoo oxpononlial giowlh of lho pioy
populalion. Supposo lhal in lho nhn of piooalois, lho pioy populalion
giows logislically accoioing lo lho law
da
dt
= a
_
1
a
_
whoio is lho caiiying capacily foi lho pioy. Whal is lho iosulling moool
Whal aio lho oquiliLiia Whal ooos lho slopo lolo look liko
Solf 1osl
J h h|.
(a) 1ho oiloionlial oqualion
J
J|
= 2j t is a sopaiaLlo oqualion.
(L) 1ho oiloionlial oqualions ajj
t
= 1 is a sopaiaLlo oqualion.
(c) 1ho solulion lo j
t
= 8j, j (0) = 2 is j = 8c
2i
.
(o) A savings accounl Lalanco giows oxpononlially.
(o) CaiLon-14 oocays oxpononlially lo CaiLon 12.
(f) In lho pailial fiaclion oxpansion of
2a 7
(a )(a 2)
wo nooo only consiooi lho foim
a

1
a 2
.
(g) In lho pailial fiaclion oxpansion of
2a 7
(a
2
)(a 2)
wo nooo only consiooi lho foim
a
2

1
a 2
.
(h) j
t
= 2j
2
j is a logislic moool.
(i) j
t
= j( j) is a logislic oqualion.
(j) A sopaiaLlo oqualion of lho foim
dj
da
= /
p (a)
) (j)
has solulions of lho foim 1 (j) = /G(a) C lhal can Lo ll lo oala lo
ooloimino / ano C.
(k) Lvoiy oiloionlial oqualion of lho foim j
t
= )(a, j) has an oquiliLiium
solulion.
(l) A haimonic oscillalion is a solulion lo lho oiloionlial oqualion j
t

.
2
j = 0.
(m) 1ho shoil lino sogmonls in a slopo lolo oiagiamaio piaclically lho samo
as a shoil soclion of an aclual solulion cuivo.
2. If a savings accounl Lalanco oouLlos ovoiy 10 yoais, lhon whal is lho ap-
pioximalo annual inloiosl ialo assuming conlinuous compounoing
(a) / (L) 6/ (c) 7/ (o) 8/ (o) 0/
8. Which of lho following is a solulion of
j
t
= 4a
_
j
lhal is not piooucoo Ly sopaialion of vaiiaLlos.
(a) j =
_
a
2
2
_
2
(L) j = a
3
(c) j = a
d
(o) j = 0 (o) j = 4a
4. Which of lho following is lho samo as
_
2a 1
a
2
7a 12
da :
(a)
_
1
a 4
da
_
1
a 8
da (L)
_
8
a 4
da
_

a 8
da
(c)
_

a 4
da
_
11
a 8
da (o)
_
0
a 4
da
_
7
a 8
da
. Solvo lho sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion
dj
da
= a
_
1 j
2
_
(a) lan
l
(j) =
a
2
2
C (L) ln
_
1 j
2
_
=
a
2
2
C
(c) lan(j) =
a
2
2
C (o)
8
8j j
3
=
a
2
2
C
_
a 8
a
2
a 2
da
7. Fino solulions lo lho oiloionlial oqualion
j
t
=
a
j(a 1)
8. Fino lho solulion lo lho oiloionlial oqualion j
t
= (2j 1)a, j (0) = 1
0. Fil lho givon oala lo lho solulions of lho oiloionlial oqualion lo oslimalo /.
dj
da
= /
a
j
,
a 0 1 2
j 2.0 2.2 2.0 .2
.
10. In lhis oxoiciso wo consiooi lwo sliains of Lcoli Lacloiia.
(a) Sliain ono consisls of a Lacloiia wilh inilial amounl 1
l
al limo t = 0.
1his sliain oouLlos ils populalion sizo ovoiy 1 minulos (0.2 houis).
Whal is lho moool foi j
l
(t), which is lho populalion of sliain ono al
limo t.(Iocall soclion 8.8)
(L) 1ho populalion sizo of lho socono sliain of Lacloiia is oslimaloo Ly
moasuiing lho aioa covoioo Ly lho colony. 1ho following moasuiomonls
aio lakon
t (houis) 0 0.2 0. 1.0
rca (sq. cm.) 1 1.7 2.8 8.8
Doloimino lho moool foi j
2
(t), lho populalion of sliain lwo al limo t.
(c) Whal is lho oouLling limo foi sliain lwo
(o) Which sliain of Lacloiia giows fasloi
11. Skolch lho slopo lolo of oach of lho oqualion j
t
= 0.88j 4
12. Whal socono oiooi oiloionlial oqualion has solulions of lho foim
j (t) = a cos (.t) / sin(.t) `
whoio a, /, ., ano ` aio conslanls
18. Solvo lho logislic oqualion j
t
= 0.2j (8 j) ano lhon compulo lho limil of
j (t) as t appioachos . 1hon skolch lho slopo lolo of lho oqualion ano
ioonlify slaLlo ano unslaLlo oquiliLiia. Whal is lho iolalionship Lolwoon lho
limil of lho closoo foim solulion ano lho oquiliLiia.
14. A falling oLjocl is suLjocl lo aii iosislanco piopoilional lo ils volocily. Ils
spooo is oocioasing al 2/ of ils volocily poi socono. Uso p = 82 fl.soc.
2
.
(a) Whal is lho moool foi lho ovonl
(L) Whal is lho loiminal volocily foi lho oLjocl
1. 1ho Mississippi-Missouii iivoi syslom has a moan low ialo of 18,000 cuLic
moloissoc. Supposo a oam woio lo Lo Luill acioss lho Mississippi ano
supposo lhal il is oslimaloo lhal 12/ of lho waloi in lho iosoivoii Lohino
lho oam will Lo losl poi oay ouo lo ovapoialion ano oullow ioloaso. Lol
j(t) oonolo lho volumo of waloi conlainoo Lohino lho oam al limo t.
(a) Whal is lho moool foi j(t) (Hinl: lisl mako suio ialos aio in lho samo
unils)
(L) Solvo lho oiloionlial oqualion.
(c) Appioximaloly whal volumo of waloi will lho iosoivoii havo lo holo
16. A laigo cylinoiical lank 6
t
in oiamoloi llloo inilially wilh 1
t
of waloi has
a 1 squaio inch iouno holo in lho Lollom of lho lank. Whon lho holo is
unpluggoo lho following oala is iocoiooo, whoio j(t) is lho hoighl of lho
waloi in lho lank al limo t
t (min) 0 0. 1.0 1.
j (fool) 1 0.04 0.88 0.82
(a) Fino lho moool foi j(t). (Hinl: Uso 1oiicolli`s law)
(L) How may minulos ooos il lako foi lho lank lo complololy oiain
(c) How many minulos ooos il lako foi lho lank lo omply half ils conlonls
(o) Al whal ialo is lho waloi oiaining fiom lho lank whon half il has
omplioo half ils conlonls
Jh Ar 5... 1hj n|&|&
Calculus (in pailiculai, lho funoamonlal lhooiom of calculus) was oiscovoioo
inooponoonlly Ly Sii Isaac Nowlon ano Gollfiioo LioLniz in lho lalo sovonloonlh
conluiy. Lul whal molivaloo Nowlon lo oovolop his voision of lho Calculus
Inoooo, whal is il aLoul calculus lhal sols il apail fiom all lolos of malhomalics
lhal camo Lofoio 1ho answoi lo lhal quoslion ioquiios lhal wo iovisil lho lisl
malhomalical moool Lasoo on calculusnamoly, lho molion of lho planols.
In lho oaily 1600`s, Johannos Koploi concluooo a half-conluiy of luimoil in
aslionomy Ly showing lhal a planol oiLils lho sun in an olliplical oiLil wilh lho
sun al ono focus ano lhal lho planol liavols fasloi in ils oiLil whon il is closoi lo
lho sun.
NS-1: Ilanol liavols fiom 1 lo Q in samo amounl of limo
il liavols fiom l lo \.
Howovoi, planols spoooing up ano slowing oown as lhoy liavoloo in ogg-shapoo
oiLils maoo aslionomy ovon moio mysloiious lhan Lofoio. Afloi yoais of aiguing
wholhoi lho oailh oi lho sun was al lho conloi of lho known univoiso, lho answoi
supplioo Ly Koploi`s laws was Noilhoi!" In facl, lho molion of lho planols now
soomoo sliangoi lhan ovoi wilh almosl know oxplanalion as lo why lho planols
woulo Lohavo in such ways.
Koploi himsolf was nol aLlo lo oxplain lho causo of such molion, ano foi a
half-conluiy afloiwaios, scionlisls liioo wilhoul succoss lo oxplain how such oiLils
coulo occui. In facl, lho mysloiy was nol uniavoloo unlil 166, whon a plaguo
in Lnglano closoo CamLiiogo Univoisily ano sonl a young malhomalician namoo
Isaac Nowlon homo lo his unclo`s faim.
1o oxplain Koploiian molion, Nowlon Luill on lho woik of ono of Koploi`s
conlompoiaiios, lho malhomalician ano scionlisl Galiloo Galiloi. Al lho ono of lho
sixloonlh conluiy, Galiloo showoo lhal oLjocls in fioo fall noai lho oailh`s suifaco
havo paiaLolic liajocloiios. Foi oxamplo, if a cannonLall is lioo hoiizonlally wilh
a muzzlo volocily of
0
fiom a hoighl / aLovo lho oailh, lhon afloi ono socono lho
cannon Lall will havo liavoloo a oislanco
0
hoiizonlally ano will havo fallon 16
fool voilically.
NS-2: Galiloan piojoclilo molion
Nowlon Luill upon Galiloo`s woik Ly lisl ioalizing lhal lho cannonLall is falling
lowaio a &:J oailh. In facl, al a oislanco of a lilllo unooi lvo milos fiom lho
cannon, lho oailh`s suifaco oiops 16 fool Lolow lho a-axis.
NS-8: Galiloan piojoclilo molion aLovo a cuivoo oailh
1hus, if
0
is aLoul milos poi socono, lhon lho cannonLall`s hoighl / afloi ono
socono is aLoul lho samo as ils inilial hoighl, which implios lhal molion in lho
noxl" socono can also Lo appioximaloo Ly a Galiloan liajocloiy wilh
0
- , ano
lhon lho noxl, ano lho noxl, ano so on.
NS-4: A Ialchwoik of Galiloan piojoclilo molions
1hal is, Nowlon suimisoo lhal Koploiian oiLils aio piaclically lho samo" as a
palchwoik of Galiloan liajocloiios, oach of which is valio only foi a shoil oislanco.
A Gn|.|nn n.n is along a paiaLolic aic of lho foim
j = 1
t
/
pa
2
2
2
0
(7.82)
whoio p = 82
}|
soc
is lho accoloialion ouo lo giavily al lho oailh`s suifaco ano 1

t
is lho iaoius of lho oailh, whoioas a 1|:.nn :h. aLoul lho oailh is an ollipso
of lho foim
a
2
j
2
= (j j)
2
(7.88)
whoio is lho n:..j of lho oiLil ano j is lho n:nn: of lho oiLil. 1hus,
Nowlon invonloo calculus so lhal ho coulo moool a Koploiian oiLil locally Ly
a Galiloan oiLil, ano as a iosull, ho was aLlo lo ooouco his law of Univoisal
giavilalion ano show lhal il oxplainoo all lho sliangonoss" inhoionl in Koploi`s
8 laws.
14
NS-: Nowlon`s oiiginal oiagiam fiom lho 1:.n..n
VrIte to Learn If lho cannonLall has an inilial volocily of
0
= milos poi
socono ano an inilial hoighl of 806 milos fiom lho conloi of lho oailh, lhon
ils Galiloan paiaLolic liajocloiy is
j = 806
pa
2
0
whoio p = 82
}|
soc
=
32
52S0
nIlt~
soc
, ano ils Koploiian molion is

a
2
j
2
=
_
412
82j
708
_
2
Uso oiloionlialion on lho Galiloan liajocloiy ano implicil oiloionlialion on
lho Koploiian molion lo show lhal j (0) , j
t
(0), ano j
tt
(0) aio lho samo in
Lolh casos. Wiilo a shoil ossay oxplaining how lhis iolalos lo lho oiscussion
aLovo.
VrIte to Learn Locally, wo assumo lho oailh`s suifaco is lal. 1hus, if wo lhiow
a LasoLall, il will slow unlil il ioachos a maximum alliluoo ano lhon accol-
oialo as il falls lowaio lho oailh.
LocaI:
NS-6: LasoLall on a lal oailh
Howovoi, if all of lho oailh`s mass woio localoo al ils conloi so lhal lho
suifaco of lho oailh oio nol gol in lho way, lhon lho LasoLall woulo oiLil lho
oailh`s conloi in a highly olliplical oiLil.
CIoLaI:
NS-7: LasoLall on a iouno oailh
14
Il musl also Lo poinloo oul lhal Calculus was oiscovoioo al aLoul lho samo limo Ly Gollfiioo
LioLniz of Goimany, lo whom wo owo much of lho nolalion in calculus wo now uso.
Inoooo, if
0
is lho hoiizonlal volocily al lho lop of ils aic ano / is lho
maximum hoighl of lho Lall, lhon lho occonliicily of lho Lall`s oiLil is
=

2
0
p (1
t
/)
1
ano ils paiamoloi is givon Ly j = (1 ) (1
t
/) . Wiilo a shoil ossay in
which you ooloimino lho Koploiian palh of a Lall wilh a hoiizonlal spooo
of 88 fool poi socono whon il ioachos ils maximum hoighl of 10 fool, ano in
lhal ossay, oiaw an analogy Lolwoon lho iolalivo spooo of lho LasoLall ano
lho spoooing up ano slowing oown of a planol as il oiLils lho sun.
VrIte to Learn Uso lho facl lhal Galiloan liajocloiios (7.82) ano Koploiian lia-
jocloiios (7.88) as funclions of a havo lho samo j-cooioinalo, lho samo ooiiv-
alivo ano lho samo socono ooiivalivo al a = 0 lo ooiivo lho facl lhal
=

2
0
p (1
t
/)
1
ano lhal j = (1 ) (1
t
/) . Wiilo a shoil ossay oxplaining youi compu-
lalions ano youi iosulls.
VrIte to Learn * Allhough wo cannol consiooi lho full scopo of Nowlon`s law of
Univoisal Giavilalion al lhis poinl, wo can uso lho molhoos in lhis chaploi
lo oxploio :.n| molion of an oLjocl noai lho oailh. In pailiculai, if r is
lho hoighl of an oLjocl al limo t, lhon
:
d
2
r
dt
2
=
G`:
r
2
whoio : is lho mass of lho oLjocl, ` = .08 10
2d
/p is lho mass of lho
oailh, ano
G = 6.67 10
ll
:
2
/p
2
is lho univoisal giavilalional conslanl. Show lhal lho phaso cuivos aio of
lho foim
H =
1
2
_
dr
dt
_
2
G`
r
whoio H is a conslanl. Whal oo lho aclual solulions look liko whon H < 0
Whon H = 0 Whon H 0 Lxplain lho signlcanco of all 8 casos.
VrIte to Learn Go lo lho liLiaiy anooi suif lho inloinol lo loain moio aLoul
lho woik of Galiloo, Koploi ano Nowlon. 1hon wiilo a papoi oosciiLing how
Nowlon was loo lo gonoializo Galiloo`s piojoclilo molion in oiooi lo oxplain
Koploi`s laws.
Crou LearnIng In lhis gioup loaining oxoiciso, wo ompiiically" ooloimino lho
valuo of
0
nocossaiy foi lho cannonLall lo achiovo a ciiculai oiLil (assuming
lhal lho oailh is a poifocl sphoio). Complolo lho following compulalions,
ano lhon piosonl youi lnoings lo lho class.
(a) Conute tLe radIus oI tLe eartL: On a coilain oay, lho sun
iisos in Knoxvillo al 7:14 a.m., Lul il iisos in Nashvillo aLoul 11
minulos laloi. If wo assumo lhal Nashvillo is 100 milos ouo wosl
of Knoxvillo, lhon lho suifaco of lho oailh is moving al a spooo of
l90
ll
= 17. 278
nIlt~
nIn
. Mulliply Ly 24 60 = 1440 minulos in a oay.
1ho iosull is lho ciicumfoionco of lho oailh. Divioo Ly 2 lo oLlain
lho iaoius of lho oailh.
(L) Conute tLe curvature oI tLe eartL. Lol 1 oonolo lho iaoius
of lho oailh. Convoil il inlo fool. (1 milo = 280 fool). Uso
lho Iylhagoioan lhooiom ano lho oiagiam Lolow lo ooloimino lho
oislanco a in fool which musl Lo liavoisoo hoiizonlally Lofoio lho
oailh`s suifaco is 16 fool h|& lho hoiizonlal lino.
NS-8: a is lho oislanco liavoloo langonlially unlil a 16 fool
oiop
(c) Conute tLe dIstance an oLject IaIIs In one second. Ac-
coioing lo Galiloo, lho hoighl r (t) al limo t of lho cannonLall is
r (t) = /
1
2
pt
2
How fai ooos lho oLjocl fall in lho lisl socono if p = 82 fool poi
socono poi socono
(o) ConLIne your conutatIons Into a resentatIon vLIcL ex-
IaIns vLy cIrcuIar notIon aLout tLe eartL requIres tLe
InItIaI veIocIty oI aLout
0
= a Ieet er second, vLere a Is
as In {L).
JnnJ nr:
Anolhoi impoilanl mooolono lhal has Loon monlionoo sovoial limos in lho
loxlis lhal a caLlo hangs in lho shapo of a hj:h|. .n. Lol`s concluoo Ly
using oiloionlial oqualions lo show lhal lhis is liuo.
If lho soclion of a hanging caLlo Lolwoon ils lowosl poinl ano a poinl (a, j) is
nol moving, lhon lho foico of ils woighl inoucos lonsions T
0
ano T
l
al oilhoi ono
of lho soclion.
NS-0: Hanging CaLlo wilh woighl oiagiam
Moioovoi, lho lonsions Lalanco lho woighl of lho caLlo, loaoing lo lho iighl liianglo
shown aLovo. 1hus,
ncip/t
T
0
= lan(0)
sinco woighl is a moasuio of lho foico of giavily. Nolico, howovoi, lhal
dj
da
= lan(0)
1hus, wo havo
ncip/t
T
0
=
dj
da
If wo now lol - oonolo lho oislanco fiom lho lowosl poinl lo (a, j) ano if lol n
oonolo lho woighl poi unil longlh of lho caLlo, lhon lho woighl of lho soclion of
lho caLlo Lolwoon lho lowosl poinl ano lho poinl (a, j) is
ncip/t = n-
whon n is conslanl. Lolling j
t
oonolo djda lhus yiolos
T
0
j
t
= n-
so lhal applicalion of lho ooiivalivo yiolos
T
0
j
tt
= n
d-
da
(7.84)
Howovoi, in lho liianglo aLovo, il is cloai lhal
d-
da
= soc (0) =
_
1 lan
2
(0) =
_
1
_
dj
da
_
2
Ioplacing d-da in (7.84) Ly
_
1 (j
t
)
2
lhus yiolos
j
tt
=
n
T
0
_
1 (j
t
)
2
Usually, wo lol a = nT
0
, so lhal oui oiloionlial oqualion Locomos
j
tt
= a
_
1 (j
t
)
2
(7.8)
Lol`s solvo (7.8) ano lhus show lhal a hanging caLlo, which is also known as a
nnn:j, hangs in lho shapo of lho hypoiLolic cosino.
NS-10: Iowoi linos hang in lho shapo of a calonaiy
1. Lol j = j
t
. 1hon j
t
= j
tt
ano (7.8) Locomos
j
t
= a
_
1 j
2
(7.86)
which is a sopaiaLlo oiloionlial oqualion. Solvo lho oqualion foi j (a).
2. Lol j = j
t
ano lhon inlogialo lo lno j.
8. Show lhal if lho cuivo implioo Ly lho caLlo passos lhiough lho poinls
(c, d2) , (0, /) , ano (c, d2) , lhon lho oqualion of lho cuivo is
j = /
1
a
(cosh(aa) 1)
whoio a is lho solulion lo lho oqualion cosh
_
l
2
ad
_
= 1 a(c /) .
NS-11: Calonaiy wilh oqualion j = /
l
o
[cosh(aa) 1[
8. SLQULNCLS AND SLRlLS
Noaily all moooin compulois aio oosconoanls of lho LNIAC (Eloclionic umoiical
Inlogialoi ano Compuloi), a piooucl of Woilo Wai II scionlilc ano onginooiing
iosoaich which was unvoiloo on Valonlino`s Day in 1046. In pailiculai, lho LNIAC
was a maiiiago of lho olocliical onginooiing of John W. Mauchly ano J. Iiospoi
Lckoil ano lho inilial concopls of compuloi piogiamming oullinoo Ly lho malh-
omalician John von Noumann. Many olhois also conliiLuloo, ano lo lhis oay,
lhoio is somo conliovoisy as lo lho vaiious iolos playoo Ly lho malhomalicians
ano onginoois who oovolopoo lho LNIAC.
Howovoi, lhoio is no conliovoisy aLoul lho facl lhal lho moooin compuloi
was oovolopoo as a lool foi moooin malhomalics. 1ho physicisls, onginoois ano
malhomalicians who woikoo on LNIAC unooislooo lhal lhoy woio cioaling a lool
lhal woulo iovolulionizo compulalion, ano inoooo, compulois havo liuly Locomo
lho logical ongino" of malhomalics onvisionoo Ly lho LNIAC`s oovolopois.
In lhis chaploi, wo inlioouco somo of lho iooas in calculus which havo maoo
lho compuloi a powoiful lool in scionco ano lochnology. In pailiculai, wo oxamino
inlniloly long lisls of numLois, which aio calloo j&n, ano wo oxploio inlniloly
long sums of numLois, which aio calloo :.. Moioovoi, wo uso soquoncos ano
soiios lo oxploio an iooa al lho coio of moooin scioncolho oocomposilion of a
funclion inlo a inlnilo soiios of sinos ano cosinos.
8.1 Sequences
CeneraI Tern oI a Sequence
Whon lho inpuls of a funclion aio iosliicloo lo lho posilivo inlogois, lhon lhal
funclion is calloo a j&n. Oflon wo uso lho lolloi : lo iopiosonl lho inpul
sinco : is gonoially usoo lo oonolo a posilivo inlogoi. Foi oxamplo, if : oonolos a
posilivo inlogoi, lhon lho funclion ) (:) = :
2
is a soquonco. A aguanca
a uncon
toa npu
a:a :a:cau
o a poxa
naga:.
Howovoi, wo gonoially oo nol uso funclion nolalion lo oosciiLo soquoncos, Lul
insloao wo uso lho nolalion a
n
lo oonolo lho jn:n| :n of lho soquonco. Foi
oxamplo, in placo of ) (:) = :
2
, wo insloao wiilo
a
n
= :
2
ano lhon wo uso a
n
= :
2
lo gonoialo a
n
foi oach ::
: = 1 : = 2 : = 8 . . . , gonoial loim . . .
1, 4, 0, . . . , :
2
, . . .
1ho nolalion . . . " is known as an ||.. ano is inloipioloo lo moan ano lho
palloin conlinuos." Ilacing an ollipsis al lho ono of lho lisl of numLoi aLovo
inoicalos lhal lho soquonco is inlniloly long.
In closoo foim, a soquonco as a wholo wilh gonoial loim a
n
is oonoloo Ly
a
n
o
n=l
. Howovoi, in oxpanooo foim lho soquonco a
n
o
n=l
is an inlnilo lisl
a
l
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
, . . .
SLQULNCLS AND SLRlLS 8
Moiovoi, lho numLoi of loims lisloo in lho Loginning is nol impoilanl. 1hal is,
a
n
o
n=l
can also Lo wiillon
a
l
, a
2
, a
3
, a
d
, . . . , a
n
, . . .
ano if lho lisl fow loims iovoal a palloin, lhon lho gonoial loim can Lo omilloo
allogolhoi
IXAMIII 1 Wiilo lho soquonco 2
n
o
n=l
in oxpanooo foim.
SoIutIon: Sinco lho gonoial loim is a
n
= 2
n
, lolling : = 1 loaos lo
l
2
, lolling : = 2 loaos lo
l
d
, ano so on. 1hus, lho oxpanooo foim of
2
n
o
n=l
is
1
2
,
1
4
,
1
8
, . . . ,
1
2
n
, . . .
IXAMIII 2 Wiilo lho soquonco
_
1
:
2
_
o
n=l
in oxpanooo foim.
SoIutIon: Sinco a
n
= 1:
2
, lho oxpanooo foim of lho soquonco is
1,
1
4
,
1
0
, . . . ,
1
:
2
, . . . (8.1)
Moioovoi, lho oxpanooo foim can also Lo wiillon
1,
1
4
,
1
0
,
1
16
,
1
2
,
1
86
,
1
40
, . . . ,
1
:
2
, . . .
ano sinco lho lisl six oi sovon loims iovoals a palloin, lho gonoial
loim can Lo omilloo allogolhoi:
1,
1
4
,
1
0
,
1
16
,
1
2
,
1
86
,
1
40
, . . .
1hn n: h ]: J&: :n J h j&n 8
n
o
n=0
Chock youi Ioaoing
CraLs and LInIts oI Sequences
Sinco a soquonco a
n
is a funclion, ils giaph is lho sol of inpul-oulpul paiis
of lho foim (:, a
n
) , whoio : is a posilivo inlogoi. Foi oxamplo, lho soquonco
_
:
2
:
2
1
_
o
n=l
is givon Ly
1
2
,
4
,
0
10
,
16
17
,
2
26
,
86
87
,
40
0
, . . .
ano lho coiiosponoing inpul-oulpul paiis aio
_
1,
1
2
_
,
_
2,
4
_
,
_
8,
0
10
_
,
_
4,
16
17
_
,
_
,
2
26
_
,
_
6,
86
87
_
,
_
7,
40
0
_
, . . .
86 SLQULNCLS AND SLRlLS
If lhoso paiis aio plolloo as poinls in lho aj-plano, lho iosull is lho giaph in lguio
1-1.
x
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1-1: Giaph of a Soquonco
Moioovoi, sinco a
n
is a funclion, il can havo a hoiizonlal asymplolo. Inoooo,
in lho oxamplo aLovo, lho numLois in lho soquonco appioach lho hoiizonlal as-
ymplolo j = 1. As a iosull, wo say lhal lho soquonco
_
:
2
:
2
1
_
o
n=l
has a limil of
1 ano wo wiilo
lim
no
:
2
:
2
1
= 1
1his loaos us lo lho following oolnilion:
DehnItIon 1.1: A soquonco a
n
o
n=l
has a limil 1, which wo wiilo as
lim
no
a
n
= 1, if givon any 0, lhoio is a posilivo inlogoi such lhal
if : _ , lhon [a
n
1[ <
1hal is, can Lo choson so lhal all lho loims a
n
foi : _ aio insioo lho laigol
inloival (1 , 1 ) .
IXAMIII J Show lhal lho soquonco
4,
4
4
,
4
0
, . . . ,
4
:
2
, . . .
has a limil of 0.
SoIutIon: Givon any 0, wo can lno an laigo onough lo foico
d
n
lo Lo insioo of (, ) foi all : _ . Foi oxamplo,

d
n
is wilhin = 0.2
of 0 foi all : _ , as is shown in lho lguio Lolow:
1-2: If = 0.2, lhon
d
n
is insioo of (, ) whon : _
1hus, lho limil of lho soquonco musl Lo 0.
SLQULNCLS 87
Limils of soquoncos havo piopoilios similai lo limils of funclion in gonoial.
TLeoren: If a
n
o
n=l
ano /
n
o
n=l
aio convoigonl soquoncos ano / is
a conslanl, lhon
lim
no
(a
n
/
n
) = lim
no
a
n
lim
no
/
n
lim
no
(/a
n
) = / lim
no
a
n
lim
no
(a
n
/
n
) = lim
no
a
n
lim
no
/
n
lim
no
/ = /
lim
no
(a
n
/
n
) =
_
lim
no
a
n
__
lim
no
/
n
_
lim
no
_
a
n
/
n
_
=
IIn
r
or
IIn
r
br
i) lim
no
/
n
,= 0
In aooilion, if lim
no
a
n
= 1 ano ) is conlinuous al 1, lhon
lim
no
) (a
n
) = ) (1)
Also, lhoio is a Squoozo lhooiom foi soquoncos which says lhal
if a
n
_ c
n
_ /
n
ano if lim
no
a
n
= lim
no
/
n
= 1,
lhon lim
no
c
n
= 1
IXAMIII ! Lvalualo lho following limil, if il oxisls:
lim
no
4 4 cos (:)
:
2
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, wo can wiilo lhis as lho sum of lwo limils
lim
no
4 4 cos (:)
:
2
= lim
no
4
:
2
lim
no
4 cos (:)
:
2
In oxamplo 8, wo showoo lhal lho lisl limil is 0. Moioovoi, sinco
1 _ cos (:) _ 1, wo havo
4
:
2
_
4 cos (:)
:
2
_
4
:
2
Lxamplo 8 implios lim
no
d
n
= lim
no
d
n
= 0. 1hus, lho squoozo lhooiom

implios lhal
lim
no
4 cos (:)
:
2
= 0
5 &hn . h n|& J h |.n. Chock youi Ioaoing
lim
no
4 4 cos (:)
:
2
LInIts vItL L`LoItaI`s HuIe
If wo can lno a funclion ) (a) such lhal a
n
= ) (:) foi all :, lhon
lim
no
a
n
= lim
io
) (a) (8.2)
whon Lolh limils oxisl. Moioovoi, (8.2) allows us lo uso L`hopilal`s iulo lo ovalualo
limils of soquoncos.
IXAMIII Fino lho limil of lho soquonco
1
2
,
4
,
0
10
,
16
17
,
2
26
, . . . ,
:
2
:
2
1
, . . . (8.8)
SoIutIon: 1ho gonoial loim of lho soquonco is a
n
=
n
l
, so lhal Ly
(8.2), wo havo
lim
no
:
2
:
2
1
= lim
io
a
2
a
2
1
1ho lalloi limil is of lho foim
o
o
, so lhal wo gol
lim
io
a
2
a
2
1
= lim
io
2a
2a
= 1
As shown oailioi, lho limil of lho soquonco (8.8) is 1.
IXAMIII 0 Fino lho limil of lho soquonco
c
l
, 4c
2
, 0c
3
, 16c
d
, 2c
5
, . . .
SoIutIon: 1ho gonoial loim is a
n
= :
2
c
n
, so lhal lho limil of lho
soquonco is
lim
no
a
n
= lim
no
:
2
c
n
= lim
no
a
2
c
i
Sinco lho limil is of lho foim 0, wo liansfoim il ano uso L`hopilal`s
iulo:
lim
no
a
2
c
i
= lim
io
a
2
c
i
= lim
io
2a
c
i
= lim
io
2
c
i
= 0
1hus, lho limil of lho soquonco wilh gonoial loim a
n
= :
2
c
n
is 0.
1.nJ h |.n. J h j&n Chock youi Ioaoing
1
8
,
2
,
8
7
,
4
0
, . . . ,
:
2: 1
, . . .
TLe Aonotone Convergence TLeoren
Whon lho limil of a soquonco cannol Lo ovalualoo using L`hopilal`s iulo, wo oflon
iosoil lo a lhooiolical Lul voiy usoful iosull. In pailiculai, if lhoio is a numLoi 1
such lhal
a
n
_ 1
foi all posilivo inlogois :, lhon 1 is saio lo Lo an &: h&nJ on lho soquonco
a
n
o
n=l
. Foi oxamplo, lho soquonco
1
2
,
2
8
,
8
4
,
4
, . . . ,
:
: 1
, . . . (8.4)
has an uppoi Louno of 1 sinco foi all posilivo : wo havo
:
: 1
< 1
SLQULNCLS 80
1ho |n &: h&nJ of a soquonco is lho smallosl possiLlo uppoi Louno foi
lho soquonco. Foi oxamplo, lho soquonco (8.4) has uppoi Lounos of 1, 2, ano so
on. Howovoi, lho numLoi 1 is lho smallosl possiLlo uppoi Louno on (8.4), so il is
lho loasl uppoi Louno. Finally, if
a
l
_ a
2
_ a
3
_ . . . _ a
n
_ a
nl
_ . . .
lhon lho soquonco a
n
o
n=l
is saio lo Lo .n:n.nj. ComLining lhoso concopls
loaos lo lho following iosull:
Aonotone Convergence TLeoren: If an incioasing soquonco has
an uppoi Louno, lhon lho limil of lho soquonco is ils loasl uppoi Louno.
Likowiso, if a
l
_ a
2
_ . . . _ a
n
_ a
nl
_ . . . , lhon a
n
o
n=l
is saio lo Lo
J:n.nj. Moioovoi, if a oocioasing soquonco has a |&: h&nJ, lhon lho limil
of lho soquonco is ils j:n |&: h&nJ.
1o ooloimino if a soquonco is incioasing oi oocioasing, wo oxamino lho oiloionco
a
n
a
nl
. If a
n
a
nl
_ 0 foi all :, lhon a
n
_ a
nl
ano lho soquonco is .n:n.nj.
Howovoi, if a
n
a
nl
_ 0, lhon lho soquonco is J:n.nj.
IXAMIII 7 Givon lhal [a[ < 1, ooloimino if lho soquonco
[a[ , [a[
2
, [a[
3
, . . . , [a[
n
, . . . (8.)
is incioasing oi oocioasing, ano lhon apply lho monolono convoigonco
lhooiom.
n
= [a[
n
, so lhal a
nl
= [a[
nl
.
1hus, lho oiloionco a
n
a
nl
Locomos
a
n
a
nl
= [a[
n
[a[
nl
= [a[
n
(1 [a[) _ 0
As a iosull, a
n
_ a
nl
, which implios lhal (8.) is oocioasing. Sinco
lho gioalosl lowoi Louno of (8.) is 0, wo havo
lim
no
[a[
n
= 0 i) [a[ < 1
Soquoncos may also involvo lho Jn:.n| J&n.n, :!, which is oolnoo Ly :! a p:ou-
uc o a na-
ga: :on 1 up
o anu nc|uu-
ng :.
:! = : (: 1) . . . 8 2 1
Foi oxamplo, 4! = 4 8 2 1 = 24 ano ! = 4 8 2 1 = 120. 1ho mosl impoilanl
piopoily of lho facloiial funclion is lhal
(: 1)! = (: 1) :! (8.6)
Foi oxamplo, 4! = 4 8! ano ! = 4!.
IXAMIII 8 Doloimino if lho soquonco
2
1!
,
8
2!
,
4
8!
,

4!
, . . . ,
: 1
:!
, . . . (8.7)
is incioasing oi oocioasing, ano lhon apply lho Monolono convoigonco
lhooiom.
n
=
nl
n!
, so lhal a
nl
=
n2
(nl)!
. 1his
loaos lo
a
n
a
nl
=
: 1
:!

: 2
(: 1)!
=
: 1
: 1

: 1
:!

: 2
(: 1)!
1ho piopoily (8.6) lhus yiolos a common oonominaloi ano allows us
lo simplify:
a
n
a
nl
=
(: 1)
2
(: 2)
(: 1)!
=
:
2
: 1
(: 1)!
Sinco :
2
:1 0 foi : _ 1, wo havo a
n
_ a
nl
. 1hus, lho soquonco
(8.7) is oocioasing.
Moioovoi, ovoiy loim in lho soquonco (8.7) is posilivo, so il has a
lowoi Louno of 0. In facl, il can Lo shown lhal 0 is aclually ils gioalosl
lowoi Louno, so lhal lho monolono convoigonco lhooiom implios lhal
lim
no
: 1
:!
= 0
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h jn:n| :n J h j&n
1.
1
2
,
2
8
,
8
4
,
4
, . . . 2.
2
8
,
4
0
,
8
27
,
16
81
, . . .
8.
1
2
,
8
4
,

8
,
7
16
, . . . 4.
1
2
,
2
6
,
8
24
,

120
, . . .
.
0
2
,
8
4
,
1
8
,
1
48
, . . . 6.
1
1
,
4
2 1
,
0
8 2 1
,
16
4 8 2 1
, . . .
G:nh h ]: J&: :n J nh j&n nnJ hn n|&n h |.n.
7. lim
no
1
: 2
8. lim
no
:
: 2
0. lim
no
:
2
1
:
2
1
10. lim
no
:
2
:
2
2
11. lim
no
8:
2
2: 1
(2: 1)
2
12. lim
no
(: 1)
2
1
(2: 1)
2
18. lim
no
:
2
: 2
14. lim
no
:
3
(: 2)
2
1. lim
no
_
:
: 2

:
2
7
(2: 1)
2
_
16. lim
no
_
:
: 2

:
_
:
2
1
_
17. lim
no
lanh(:) 18. lim
no
ln(:)
10. lim
no
c
n
20. lim
no
soch(:)
SLQULNCLS 01
1:n.n .J h j&n . .n:n.nj : J:n.nj hj ;n) j:nh.nj h ]: J&
:n J h j&n nnJ hn ;h) hj J:n.n.nj h .jn J a
n
a
nl
. 1 h
j&n hn n |.n. 1r|n.n.
21. a
n
=
1
:
22. a
n
=
1
:
2
28. a
n
=
2: 1
: 8
24. a
n
=
: 2
4: 8
2. a
n
=
4
n
8
nl
26. a
n
=
4
nl
n
27. a
n
=
4
:!
28. a
n
=
: 2
:!
20. a
n
=
: 1
:!
80. a
n
=
:
2
2:
:!
31. Lxplain why lho following is liuo:
lim
no
a
n
=
_
0 [a[ < 1
[a[ 1
32. Lvalualo lho limil
lim
no
:
: 1
ano lhon uso lho iosull lo oxplain why lho soquonco
1
2
,
2
8
,
8
4
,
4
,

6
, . . . , (1)
n
:
: 1
, . . .
ooos nol havo a limil.
33. Supposo a
n
_ 0 foi all : ano supposo lhal
lim
no
a
n
= 0
Doos lho soquonco (1)
n
a
n
o
n=l
convoigo Lxplain.
34. Supposo a
n
_ 0 foi all : ano supposo lhal
lim
no
a
n
= 1
whoio 1 ,= 0. Doos lho soquonco (1)
n
a
n
o
n=l
convoigo Lxplain.
35. Uso lho oolnilion of lho limil of a soquonco lo piovo lhal
if lim
no
a
n
= 1 ano lim
no
/
n
= 1, lhon lim
no
(a
n
/
n
) = 1 1
36. Uso lho oolnilion of lho limil of a soquonco lo piovo lhal
if lim
no
a
n
= 1 ano r is a numLoi, lhon lim
no
(ra
n
) = r1
37. VrIte to Learn: Whal ooos lho soquonco a
n
o
n=l
look liko if a
l
=
l
l0
ano
foi : _ 2 wo havo
a
nl
= a
n

:
10
n
Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you nol only answoi lhis quoslion, Lul in which
you also uso lho Monolono convoigonco lhooiom lo piovo lhal lho soquonco
convoigos.
38. VrIte to Learn:Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you oxplain why a iopoaling
oocimal musl Lo lho limil of a soquonco a
n
o
n=l
of lho foim
a
nl
= a
n

r
10
nn
, a
l
=
r
10
n
foi lxoo posilivo inlogois r ano : wilh r _ 10
n
. 1hon uso lho Monolono
convoigonco lhooiom lo piovo lhal all such soquoncos convoigo.
39. Lol 1 Lo lho loasl uppoi Louno of a Lounooo incioasing soquonco a
n
o
n=l
.
(a) Foi a givon 0, oxplain why lhoio musl Lo al loasl ono posilivo
inlogoi such lhal
a
1
(L) Lxplain why il musl follow lhal
a
n
1 (8.8)
foi all : _ .
(c) Show lhal (8.8) iooucos lo
[a
n
1[ <
Whal is lho valuo of lho limil lim
no
a
n
40. Lol GLo lho gioalosl lowoi Louno of a Lounooo oocioasing soquonco a
n
o
n=l
.
Show lhal
lim
no
a
n
= G
(Hinl: lol /
n
= a
n
ano soo piovious oxoiciso).
41. 1ho Koch cuivo is slailoo Ly oivioing a lino sogmonl of longlh 1 inlo lhioo
ioonlical pails, iomoving lho mioolo lhiio ano ioplacing il wilh lwo sogmonls
lhal also havo a longlh of
l
3
.
1ho mioolo lhiio of oach of lhoso lino sogmonls is suLsoquonlly iomovoo ano
ioplacoo wilh lwo sogmonls of lho samo longlh. 1ho iosulling cuivo has a
longlh of 160.
If lhis piocoss is conlinuoo ao-inlnilum, lho iosull is lho 1h &:.
How long is lho Koch cuivo
SLQULNCLS 08
8.2 Linear Recursion
LInear HecursIon
1hoio aio many applicalions of soquoncos in which lho coomcionls of a soquonco
j
n
o
n=0
salisfy an oqualion of lho foim
j
nl
= ) (j
n
)
Such oqualions aio calloo :&:.n ano aio impoilanl in many applicalions, as
wo will soo in lho noxl soclion.
IXAMIII 1 Foi j
0
= 2, gonoialo lho noxl 4 loims (i.o., j
l
, j
2
, j
3
,
ano j
d
) of lho soquonco of iloialos of lho iocuision
j
nl
= 2j
2
n
SoIutIon: 1ho iocuision implios lhal

j
l
= 2j
2
0
= 8 = 8 a:d j
2
= 2j
2
l
= 1
Likowiso, j
3
= 2j
2
2
= 2 (1)
2
= 44 ano
j
d
= 2j
2
3
= 2 (44)
2
= 806, 04
In lhis soclion, wo conconlialo on |.nn: :&:.n, which aio iocuisions of lho
foim
j
nl
= rj
n
a (8.0)
whoio r ano a aio conslanls. A linoai iocuision may also Lo calloo a |.nn: Jj-
nnn.n| jn oi a |.nn: J.]:n j&n.n.
IXAMIII 2 If j
0
= 2, whal aio lho noxl foui iloialos of lho linoai
iocuision
j
nl
=
1
2
j
n

1
2
SoIutIon: Sinco j
0
= 2, lho iocuision loaos lo
j
l
=
1
2
j
0

1
2
=
2
2

1
2
=
8
2
j
2
=
1
2
j
l

1
2
=
82
2

1
2
=
8
4

1
2
=

4
j
3
=
1
2
j
2

1
2
=
4
2

1
2
=

8

1
2
=
0
8
j
d
=
1
2
j
3

1
2
=
08
2

1
2
=
0
16

1
2
=
17
16
1hus, lho soquonco of iloialos of j
nl
=
l
2
j
n

l
2
wilh j
0
= 2 is
2,
8
2
,

4
,
0
8
,
17
16
, . . .
Linoai iocuisions oflon appoai in conloxls in which j
n
is lho n of lho syslom
afloi : limo poiioos, ano lho oqualion (8.0) is a foimula which |.nn:|j iolalos lho
nr slalo of lho syslom lo lho cuiionl slalo of lho syslom.
IXAMIII J Amoiicanvillo has an inilial populalion of 10,000 poo-
plo in 1000. If lho Liilh ialo is / annually ano lho ooalh ialo is 1/
annually, lhon lno lho linoai iocuision (8.0) lhal iolalos lho cuiionl
yoai`s populalion lo noxl yoais populalion. Whal will lho populalion
Lo in 2010
Solulion: If j
n
oonolos lho populalion in lho :
||
yoai sinco 1000, lhon
lho numLoi of Liilhs in lho :
||
yoai is 0.0j
n
ano lho numLoi of ooalhs
in lho :
||
yoai is 0.01j
n
. 1hus,
Noxl Yoai = Cuiionl Liilhs Doalhs
j
nl
= j
n
0.0j
n
0.01j
n
1hus, j
nl
= 1.04j
n
. Sinco j
0
= 10, 000, wo havo j
l
= 1.04 (10, 000) =
10, 400 ano
j
2
= 1.04j
l
= 1.04 (10400) = 10, 816
Similaily, j
3
= 1.04j
2
= 11, 240 ano j
d
= 1.04j
3
= 11, 600. Sinco 2010
is lho : = 20
||
yoai sinco 1000, wo conlinuo in lho samo fashion unlil
wo oLlain j
20
, which is
j
20
= 1.04j
l9
= 21, 011
1hj . j
0
= 10, 000 .n rnn| . Chock youi Ioaoing
CeonetrIc IrogressIon
1ho gonoial loim of a soquonco of iloialos of a linoai iocuision can Lo oxpiossoo
in closoo foim Ly lho J:n&|n J: jn:. :j:.n. Lofoio inliooucing lhis
foimula, howovoi, wo musl lisl oslaLlish an ioonlily involving 1r . . . r
n2
r
nl
. In pailiculai, if wo oxpano lho piooucl
(1 r)
_
1 r r
2
. . . r
nl
_
lhon lho iosull is
(1 r)
_
1 r r
2
. . . r
nl
_
= 1 r r
2
. . . r
nl
r r
2
. . . r
nl
r
n
1hal is, wo havo
(1 r)
_
1 r r
2
. . . r
nl
_
= 1 r
n
which implios lhal
1 r r
2
. . . r
nl
=
1 r
n
1 r
(8.10)
LlNLAR RLCURSlON 0
Lol`s now apply lhis lo linoai iocuisions. If lho inilial valuo of (8.0) is j
0
, lhon
j
l
= rj
0
a ano j
2
= rj
l
a. SuLsliluling j
l
inlo lho oqualion foi j
2
lhon yiolos
j
2
= r ( rj
0
a ) a = r
2
j
0
ar a
Likowiso, j
3
= rj
2
a = r
_
r
2
j
0
ar a
_
a. 1his simplilos as woll, ano inoooo,
j
3
= r
3
j
0
ar
2
ar a ano j
d
= r
d
j
0
ar
3
ar
2
ar a
As a iosull, lho gonoial loim of a linoai iocuision is of lho foim
j
n
= r
n
j
0
ar
nl
. . . ar
2
ar a
Moioovoi, lho gonoial loim can Lo facloioo inlo
j
n
= r
n
j
0
a
_
1 r r
2
. . . r
nl
_
As a iosull, lho ioonlily (8.10) implios lho following:
CeonetrIc IrogressIon: 1ho gonoial loim of lho soquonco of iloi-
alos of
j
nl
= rj
n
a
foi an inilial valuo j
0
is givon Ly
j
n
= r
n
j
0
a
_
1 r
n
1 r
_
(8.11)
Soquoncos gonoialoo Ly (8.11) aio also known as jn:. :j:.n.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho gonoial loim of lho iocuision
j
nl
=
1
2
j
n

1
2
, j
0
= 2
1hon uso lho gonoial loim lo gonoialo j
l
, j
2
, j
3
, ano j
l0
.
SoIutIon: 1ho iocuision is of lho foim j
nl
= rj
n
a whoio a = r =
l
2
. 1hus, (8.11) yiolos
j
n
=
j
0
2
n

1
2
_
1
l
2
r
1
l
2
_
Simplifying lho oonominaloi lhon yiolos
j
n
=
2
2
n

1
2
_
1
l
2
r
l
2
_
=
1
2
nl
1
1
2
n
Sinco
l
2
r
=
2
2
r
, wo fuilhoi simplify lo
j
n
=
2
2
n
1
1
2
n
= 1
1
2
n
Whon : = 0, wo oLlain j
0
= 1
l
2
= 1 1 = 2. Likowiso,
j
l
= 1
1
2
l
= 1
1
2
=
8
2
j
2
= 1
1
2
2
= 1
1
4
=

4
j
3
= 1
1
2
3
= 1
1
8
=
0
8
which malchos whal wo saw in oxamplo 2. Moioovoi, whon : = 10, wo
oLlain
j
l0
= 1
1
2
l0
= 1
1
1024
=
102
1024
which in oocimal foim is j
l0
= 1.00007662.
1hn &&|J j& hjh.. . h |.n. J h j&n .n rnn| Chock youi Ioaoing
LInIts and AIIcatIons
If [r[ < 1, lhon r = c
o
foi somo numLoi a 0, so lhal
lim
no
r
n
= lim
no
c
on
= 0
1hus, if [r[ < 1, lhon
lim
no
j
n
= lim
no
r
n
j
0
a lim
no
_
1 r
n
1 r
_
= 0 a
1 0
1 r
1his yiolos lho following:
TLeoren 2.2: If [r[ < 1 ano j
nl
= rj
n
a, lhon
lim
no
j
n
=
a
1 r
If [r[ _ 1, lhon lho limil of j
n
o
n=0
ooos nol oxisl.
Foi inslanco, oxamplo 4 yiolos
lim
no
j
n
= lim
no
_
1
1
2
n
_
= 1
which is lho samo as lho iosull in lhooiom 2.2 wilh a = 0. ano r = 0..
IXAMIII Fino lho gonoial loim ano compulo lho limil of
j
nl
= 0.7j
n
8, j
0
= 1 (8.12)
SoIutIon: Sinco r = 0.1 ano a = 0, lho foimula (8.11) implios lhal
lho gonoial loim of lho soquonco is
j
n
= (0.7)
n
j
0
8
_
1 (0.7)
n
1 (0.7)
_
= (0.7)
n
10 (1 (0.7)
n
) (8.18)
LlNLAR RLCURSlON 07
sinco j
0
= 0. As a iosull, lho limil of lho iocuision (8.12) is
lim
no
j
n
= lim
no
[(0.7)
n
10 (1 (0.7)
n
)[ = 0 10 (1 0) = 10 (8.14)
1ho soquonco ano lho limiling valuo of 10 aio shown Lolow:
x
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
10
8
6
4
2
0
2-1: Soquonco has a limil of 10
Goomoliic piogiossions ano lhoii limils aio impoilanl in a wioo numLoi of appli-
calions, as wo shall soo in lho iomainooi of lhis soclion.
IXAMIII 0 Lach monlh, lho Golham Gazollo losos / of ils suL-
sciiLois. Howovoi, a suslainoo aovoilising campaign piooucos 1000
now suLsciiLois oach monlh. If Lolh lionos conlinuo inoolniloly, aLoul
how many suLsciiLois will lho Golham Gazollo ovonlually havo
SoIutIon: Lol j
n
oonolo lho numLoi of suLsciiLois in lho :
||
monlh.
1hon
Noxl Monlh 0/ of 1his Monlh Now SuLsciiLois
j
nl
= 0.0j
n
1000
Howovoi, lho gonoial loim foi j
nl
= 0.0j
n
1000 is
j
n
= (0.0)
n
j
0
1000
_
1 (0.0)
n
1 0.0
_
1ho limil as : appioachos of j
n
is
lim
no
j
n
= lim
no
_
(0.0)
n
j
0
1000
_
1 (0.0)
n
0.0
__
= 0 j
0
1000
_
1 0
0.0
_
= 20, 000
1hus, lho GolhamGazollo can oxpocl lo havo aLoul 20,000 suLsciiLois
if Lolh lho liono of losing / ano also lho liono of gaining 1000 now
suLsciiLois conlinuos inoolniloly.
1J h Ghnn Gn. hn .u,uuu :nJ: &::n|j, nh& h& nnnj &.|| hj Chock youi Ioaoing
hn n jn: |n:
AIIcatIons to FInance
Linoai iocuisions occui fioquonlly in lnancial applicalions. In pailiculai, if j
n
oonolos lho Lalanco ouiing lho :
||
poiioo of an invoslmonl ano if i is lho inloiosl
ialo poi poiioo, lhon i j
n
is lho amounl of inloiosl paio in lho :
||
poiioo ano
noxl poiioo = piovious poiioo inloiosl paymonl
j
nl
= j
n
i j
n
a
which simplilos lo j
nl
= (1 i) j
n
a. 1hus, r = 1 i ano a is lho amounl of
oach paymonl.
IXAMIII 7 Fino lho Lalanco afloi 1 yoai of a loan of $100,000 foi
2 yoais al an inloiosl ialo of 0/ annually if lho monlhly paymonls
aio $880.20.
SoIutIon: Sinco lho annual inloiosl ialo is 0/ ano lho poiioos aio
monlhs, lho inloiosl ialo poi poiioo is
i =
0/
12
= 0.7/ = 0.007
If j
n
oonolos lho loan Lalanco afloi : monlhs, lhon
noxl monlh = piovious monlh inloiosl - paymonl
j
nl
= j
n
0.007 j
n
- 880.20
which simplilos lo lho linoai iocuision
j
nl
= 1.007j
n
880.20
Sinco lho inilial Lalanco is $100,000, (8.11) yiolos a gonoial loim of
j
n
= (1.007)
n
100, 000 880.20
_
1 (1.007)
n
1 1.007
_
1hus, afloi ono yoai, lho loan Lalanco will Lo
j
l2
= (1.007)
l2
100, 000 880.20
_
1 (1.007)
l2
1 1.007
_
= 08, 884.82
Wo can also uso linoai iocuisions lo ooloimino lho paymonl foi a givon loan. In
pailiculai, in oiooi lo pay ol lho loan in oqual paymonls, wo simply loavo a as
a paiamoloi, sol j
= 0, ano solvo foi a.

IXAMIII 8 Fino lho monlhly paymonl ioquiioo foi an aulo loan
of $20,000 ovoi yoais al 12/ AII compounooo monlhly.
SoIutIon: Sinco i =
0.l2
l2
= 0.01, lho loan Lalanco j
n
afloi : monlhs
salislos
noxl monlh = piovious monlh inloiosl paymonl
j
nl
= j
n
0.1 j
n
a
LlNLAR RLCURSlON 00
whoio lho monlhly paymonl, a, is unknown. 1ho iosull is lho linoai
iocuision
j
nl
= 1.01j
n
a
Sinco lho inilial Lalanco is j
0
= $20, 000, (8.11) yiolos a gonoial loim
of
j
n
= (1.01)
n
20, 000 a
1 (1.01)
n
1 1.01
Sinco yoais is : = 60 monlhs, paying ol lho loan moans j
60
= 0.
1hus,
0 = (1.01)
60
20000 a
1 (1.01)
60
1 1.01
Solving foi a yiolos a = 444.80. 1hus, lho monlhly paymonl foi lho
aulo loan is
$444.80 poi monlh
which lhus lolls us lhal a $20,000 aulomoLilo puichasoo wilh a yoai
loan al 12/ aclually cosls 60 $444.80 = $26, 608.40.
Lxoicisos:
1: h j.n j
0
, jn:n h nr :n ;..., j
l
, j
2
, j
3
, nnJ j
d
) J h j&n
J .:n J nh :&:.n.
1. j
nl
= 2j
n
(1 j
n
) 2. j
nl
= j
n
(1 j
n
)
j
0
= 0.1 j
0
= 0.
8. j
nl
= 8.2j
n
(1 j
n
) 4. j
nl
= 8.j
n
(1 j
n
)
j
0
= 0. j
0
= 0.
. j
nl
= 8.88j
n
(1 j
n
) 6. j
nl
= 4j
n
(1 j
n
)
j
0
= 0. j
0
= 0.
7. j
nl
= j
3
n
0.7j
n
8. j
nl
= j
3
n
1.44j
n
j
0
= 0.2 j
0
= 0.2
0. j
nl
= j
n
ln[j
n
[ 10. j
nl
= j
n
ln[j
n
[
j
0
= 0.00 j
0
= 0.00
11. j
nl
= sin
_
t
3
j
n
_
12. j
nl
= sin
_
t
2
j
n
_
j
0
= 1 j
0
= 0.
1.nJ h jn:n| :n J h J||&.nj |.nn: :&:.n j.n hn j
0
= 8 .n nh.
1 h jn:n| :n :J& h nr J&: :n J h j&n. Jhn & h
jn:n| :n J:n.n .J h j&n hn n |.n..
18. j
nl
= 2j
n
14. j
nl
= 4j
n
1. j
nl
=
l
2
j
n
16. j
nl
=
l
3
j
n
17. j
nl
= 0.2j
n
7 18. j
nl
= 0.2j
n
10. j
nl
= j
n
1 20. j
nl
= 0.1j
n
11
21. j
nl
=
l
5
j
n
1 22. j
nl
= 2j
n
1
28. j
nl
=
5
d
j
n

l
S
24. j
nl
=
d
5
j
n

7
l0
25. Supposo lhal wo Loiiow $100,000 foi 2 yoais al an inloiosl ialo of 0/
annually, Lul insloao of making lho ioquiioo monlhly paymonls of $880.20,
wo insloao pay $1000 oach monlh. Whal will lho loan Lalanco Lo al lho ono
of lho lisl yoai Al lho ono of lho socono yoai
26. A lfloon yoai moilgago al an annual inloiosl ialo of 7.2/ioquiios a monlhly
paymonl of $161. If j (t) is lho Lalanco al limo t in monlhs ano if j (0) =
$171, 000, lhon whal will lho Lalanco Lo in ono yoai In lvo yoais
27. Supposo lhal foi lho moilgago in oxoiciso 26 lhal lho Loiiowoi insloao pays
$1,800 poi monlh. Whal will lho appioximalo Lalanco Lo in ono yoai In
lvo yoais How much loss is lhis lhan lho coiiosponoing Lalancos in oxoiciso
27
28. A lhiily yoai moilgago al an annual inloiosl ialo of 7.2/ ioquiios a monlhly
paymonl of $1, 166.2. If j (t) is lho Lalanco al limo t in monlhs ano if
j (0) = $171, 000, lhon whal will lho Lalanco Lo in ono yoai In lvo yoais
29. Whal will lho monlhly paymonls Lo foi a 80 yoai loan of $200,000 homo loan
givon a 7./ AII Compulo lho piooucl of lho amounl of oach paymonl
ano lho numLoi of paymonls lo ooloimino lho ullimalo cosl of lho homo.
30. Whal will lho monlhly paymonls Lo foi a 20 yoai loan of $200,000 homo loan
givon a 7./ AII Compulo lho piooucl of lho amounl of oach paymonl
ano lho numLoi of paymonls lo ooloimino lho ullimalo cosl of lho homo.
31. Supposo wo know lhal wo can aloio lo pay $00.00 oach monlh foi an
aulomoLilo. If wo Loiiow lho monoy foi lho cai al 12/ inloiosl ovoi foui
yoais, how oxponsivo a cai can wo aloio (Hinl: solvo foi j
0
givon lhal
j
dS
= 0. )
32. Which has lowoi paymonls, a loan of $200,000 foi 80 yoais wilh monlhly
paymonls givon a 7./ AII oi a loan of $200,000 foi 1 yoais wilh 6/
AII.
1n r:. h:&jh , j& n& n:& n |.nn: :&:.n nnJ hn ]nJ .
|.n..
33. Acmo Collogo accopls 600 now sluoonls oach yoai, ano ovoiy yoai, 80/ of
lho sluoonls aio losl lo giaoualion, pooi giaoos, liansfoi, olcoloia. If lho
collogo conlinuos in lhis way foi a long poiioo of limo, lhon how laigoin
numLois of sluoonlswill lho collogo ovonlually Locomo (i.o., sol up lho
linoai iocuision ano lno ils limil).
34. Lach monlh, Ciookoo Ciooil Coipoialion incioasos youi ciooil caio Lalanco
Ly 2/, ano oach monlh you pay lho minimum monlhly paymonl of $100.
Whal will lho Lalanco ovonlually Lo Will you ovoi pay ol lho ciooil caio
35. A coilain oiug is infusoo inliavonously al a ialo of 00cc poi houi. If lho
Looy iomovos 2/ of lho oiug poi houi, lhon afloi a long poiioo of limo,
how much of lho oiug will Lo in lho Looy al any givon limo
36. A coilain oiug is aominisloioo inliavonously al a ialo of 2cc poi houi. Sup-
poso lhal lho Looy iooucos lho oiug conconlialion Ly 1/ poi houi. How
much of lho oiug will Lo in lho Looy afloi 24 houis Whal is lho oquiliLiium
solulion
37. If c
n
oonolos lho conconlialion of Aigon in lho :
||
oxpolloo Lioalh ano
oonolos lho ialio of almosphoiic aii lo lung capacily oxchangoo in oach
Lioalh, lhon
c
nl
= (1 ) c
n

LlNLAR RLCURSlON 601
whoio is lho conconlialion of Aigon in lho almosphoio ( = 0.08/ =
0.0008 ). If = 18/, lhon whal is lho oquiliLiium conconlialion of Aigon
oxpolloo in oach Lioalh
38. A coilain spocios of molh inhaLiling a coilain islano Liooos annually ano
lhon oios. If 80/ of lho olspiing suivivo lo iopioouco, ano if appioximaloly
700 molhs immigialo lo lho islano fiom suiiounoing islanos oach yoai, whal
will lho molh populalion of lho islano ovonlually Lo
39. In lhis oxoiciso, wo ooiivo lho linoai iocuision foimula (8.11) in a oiloionl
mannoi.
(a) Nolico lhal wo can wiilo lho linoai iocuision foimula as
j
nl
= rj
n
a
1 r
1 r
(8.1)
Uso lhis lo gonoialo j
l
in loims of j
2
. How is il iolaloo lo (8.11)
whon : = 1
(L) SuLslilulo lho oxpiossion foi j
l
inlo lho oxpiossion foi
j
2
= rj
l
a
1 r
1 r
Simplify lo lho foim implioo Ly (8.11) whon : = 2.
(c) SuLslilulo (8.11) foi j
n
in (8.1) ano simplify. Whal is lho iosull
40. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay which oxplains why if : ano / aio
posilivo inlogois such lhal / < 10
n
, lhon lho linoai iocuision
j
nl
=
1
10
n
j
n

/
10
n
gonoialos a iopoaling oocimal. Foi oxamplo, if j
0
= 0, : = 1 ano / = 7,
lhon
j
nl
=
1
10
j
n

7
10
, j
0
= 0
gonoialos lho soquonco j
0
= 0, j
l
= 0.7, j
2
= 0.77, j
3
= 0.777, ano so on.
How woulo wo ooloimino lho ialional numLoi iopiosonloo Ly lhis iopoaling
oocimal
8.3 DiscreLe Dynamical SysLems
FIxed IoInts and VeL DIagrans
Linoai iocuisions aio a spocial lypo of iocuision, in lhal a :&:.n is a soquonco
a
n
o
n=l
gonoialoo Ly a foimula of lho foim
a
nl
= ) (a
n
) (8.16)
Iocuisions in which a
0
vaiios acioss a wioo iango of valuos aio calloo J.:
Jjnnn.n| jn. In lhis soclion, wo oxploio iocuisions ano oisciolo oynamical
sysloms giaphically, numoiically, ano analylically.
1o Login wilh, a numLoi j such lhal ) (j) = j is calloo a ]rJ .n of ) (a) .
A lxoo poinl in a oynamical syslom is an analoguo of an j&.|.h:.&n in lho slopo
lolo of a oiloionlial oqualion.
IXAMIII 1 Whal aio lho lxoo poinl(s) of lho iocuision
a
nl
= 2.a
n
a
2
n
SoIutIon: 1ho lxoo poinls aio solulions lo ) (a) = a, whoio ) (a) =
2.a a
2
. 1hus,
2.a a
2
= a
1.a a
2
= 0
a(1. a) = 0
so lhal lho lxoo poinls aio 0 ano 1.. 1o chock oui woik, lol us nolico
lhal if a
0
= 1., lhon
a
l
= 2.a
0
a
2
0
= 2. 1. 1.
2
= 8.7 2.2 = 1.
a
2
= 2.a
l
a
2
l
= 2. 1. 1.
2
= 8.7 2.2 = 1.
ano so on. Similaily, if a
0
= 0, lhon a
l
= a
2
= . . . = 0.
Wo can oxploio lho Lohavioi of a oisciolo oynamical syslom in lho vicinily of a
lxoo poinl Ly using a &h J.nj:nn. A woL oiagiam is consliucloo Ly oiawing
Lolh lho lino j = a ano lho cuivo j = ) (a) . If ) (a) has a lxoo poinl al j, lhon
lho lino j = a inloisocls j = ) (a) al a = j.
8-1: ) (j) = j
Lol us now chooso a poinl (a
0
, a
0
) on lho lino j = a (soo Lolow iighl). Moving
voilically lo lho cuivo j = ) (a) moans moving lo lho poinl (a
0
, a
l
) , whoio a
l
=
) (a
0
), ano lhon moving hoiizonlally lo j = a lakos us lo lho poinl (a
l
, a
l
) .
8-2: WoL Diagiams
DlSCRLTL DYNAMlCAL SYSTLMS 608
Moving voilically again lo j = ) (a) yiolos (a
l
, a
2
) whoio
a
2
= ) (a
l
)
ano lhon moving hoiizonlally lo j = a lakos us lo (a
2
, a
2
) . Conlinuing ao inlni-
lum lhus givos us a giaphical iopiosonlalion of (8.16). Inoooo, if lho woL oiagiam
closos " in on lho lxoo poinl (j, j) (as il ooos aLovo iighl), lhon
lim
no
a
n
= j
IXAMIII 2 Foi a
0
= 0.4, consliucl a woL oiagiam foi lho iloialos
of lho oisciolo oynamical syslom
a
nl
= 2.a
n
a
2
n
SoIutIon: 1o consliucl a woL oiagiam, wo giaph lho funclion j =
2.a a
2
along wilh lho lino j = a. Wo lhon Login al (a
0
, a
0
) =
(0.4, 0.4) , movo voilically lo j = 2.aa
2
, ano lhon movo hoiizonlally
lo (0.84, 0.84) on j = a. Wo lhon movo voilically lo j = 2.a a
2
,
movo hoiizonlally lo (1.8044, 1.8044) on j = a, ano so on.
8-8: Fixoo Ioinl is alliacling
Sinco il appoais lhal lho soquonco is closing in" on lho lxoo poinl
(1., 1.) , wo can concluoo lhal
lim
no
a
n
= 1.
1hn . a
2
.J a
0
= 0.4 nnJ a
nl
= 2.a
n
a
2
n
Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe FIxed IoInt TLeoren
Supposo lhal ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo al a lxoo poinl j, ano lol 1
(a) oonolo lho

linoaiizalion of ) (a) al j. A woL oiagiam illuslialos lhal iloialion of ) (a) is
piaclically lho samo as iloialion of 1
(a) as long as a
n
is sumcionlly closo lo j.
8-4: Iloialion wilh a linoai Appioximalion of )
1hal is, if a
n
is sumcionlly closo lo j, lhon a
nl
= ) (a
n
) is piaclically lho samo
as
a
nl
= 1
(a
n
) (8.17)
Sinco 1
(a) = ) (j) )
t
(j) (a j) ano sinco ) (j) = j, lho iocuision (8.17) is a
of lho foim
a
nl
= j )
t
(j) (a
n
j)
Now supposo lhal a
0
= j / whoio / is voiy closo lo 0. 1hon a
l
= ) (a
0
) is
piaclically lho samo as
a
l
= j )
t
(j) (j / j) = j )
t
(j) /
Moioovoi, a
2
= ) (a
l
) is piaclically lho samo as
a
2
= j )
t
(j) (a
l
j)
= j )
t
(j) (j )
t
(j) / j)
= j [)
t
(j)[
2
/
Likowiso, il is oasy lo show lhal a
n
= j [)
t
(j)[
n
/ foi all : _ 0.
If [)
t
(j)[ < 1, lhon
lim
no
a
n
= lim
no
(j) / lim
no
[)
t
(j)[
n
= j / 0
Wo summaiizo lhis iosull in lho falling lhooiom.
FIxed IoInt TLeoren: If ) (j) = j ano if [)
t
(j)[ < 1, lhon lho
soquonco a
nl
= ) (a
n
) salislos
lim
no
a
n
= j
foi a
0
choson sumcionlly closo lo j.
If [)
t
(j)[ < 1, lhon wo say lhal j is an n:n.nj ]rJ .n of ), ano if [)
t
(j)[ 1,
lhon wo say lhal j is a :||.nj ]rJ .n of ).
IXAMIII J Fino ano classify lho lxoo poinls of
a
nl
= a
3
n
0.06a
n
(8.18)
as oilhoi alliacling oi iopolling. Illuslialo wilh a woL oiagiam.
SoIutIon: Sinco ) (a) = a
3
0.06a lho lxoo poinls aio solulions lo
) (a) = a.
a
3
0.06a = a
a
3
1.06a = 0
a
_
a
2
1.06
_
= 0
a(a 1.4) (a 1.4) = 0
1hus, lho lxoo poinls aio a = 1.4, 0, 1.4. Howovoi, )
t
(a) = 8a
2
0.06, so lhal
[)
t
(1.4)[ =

8 (1.4)
2
0.06
= 4.02 1, j = 1.4 i- rcjc||i:p

[)
t
(0)[ =

8 (0)
2
0.06
= 0.06 < 1, j = 0 i- attracti:p

[)
t
(1.4)[ =

8 (1.4)
2
0.06
= 4.02 1, j = 1.4 i- rcjc||i:p

1his is illuslialoo in lho woL oiagiam Lolow foi a
0
= 1.2.
8-: An alliacling Fixoo Ioinl
1hn . a
l
.J a
0
= 1.4 nnJ a
nl
= a
3
n
0.06a
n
Chock youi Ioaoing
DIscrete DynanIcaI Systens In AIIcatIons
Iopulalion giowlh is oflon moooloo Ly oqualions of lho foim
a
nl
= ) (a
n
)
whoio a
n
is lho numLoi of inoiviouals in a givon populalion afloi : limo slops.
Foi oxamplo, |j.. j:&h is oflon moooloo Ly a iocuision of lho foim
a
nl
= a
n
/a
n
_
1
a
n
_
(8.10)
whoio is calloo lho n::j.nj nn.j of lho syslom.
IXAMIII ! Fino ano classify lho lxoo poinls of (8.10) whon / = 2
ano = 4.
SoIutIon: Sinco a
nl
= 2a
n
_
1
ir
d
_
implios lhal ) (a) = 2a
_
1
i
d
_
,
lho lxoo poinls salisfy
2a
_
1
a
4
_
= a
Cloaily, a = 0 is a lxoo poinl. If a ,= 0, lhon
2
a
2
= 1 == a = 2
Howovoi, ) (a) = 2a
2i
d
implios lhal )
t
(a) = 2 a. 1hus,
[)
t
(0)[ = [2 0[ = 2 1, j = 0 i- rcjc||i:p
[)
t
(0)[ = [2 2[ = 0 < 1, j = 2 i- attracti:p
Lxamplo 4 says lhal if a populalion is oouLling ovoiy limo poiioo, lhon il will
iapioly appioach ils caiiying capacily.
8-6: Logislic Giowlh
1hoio aio also many olhoi oisciolo oynamical sysloms lhal aio usoo foi moooling
populalions, as will Lo oxploioo in lho oxoicisos.
Disciolo oynamical sysloms aio also usoo in a numLoi of olhoi applicalions.
Foi oxamplo, nJ :J: |.nn: oiloionco oqualions, which aio oqualions of lho
foim
j
nl
= aj
n
/j
nl
can Lo iowiillon as ]: :J: J.: Jjnnn.n| jn Ly lolling
1
n
=
j
n
j
nl
(8.20)
Lol`s look al a famous oxamplo of lhis lypo of oisciolo oynamical syslom.
IXAMIII In 1202 A.D., FiLonacci showoo lhal if a paii of iaLLils
ovoiy paii of iaLLils piooucos a paii of iaLLils afloi ono monlh ano
anolhoi paii of iaLLils afloi 2 monlhs, lhon lho numLoi j
n
of paiis of
iaLLils afloi : gonoialions salislos
j
nl
= j
n
j
nl
(8.21)
1ho soquonco gonoialoo Ly lho socono oiooi linoai iocuision (8.21)
whon j
0
= j
l
= 1 is calloo lho 1.hnn. j&n. Wiilo lho lisl foui
loims of lho FiLonacci soquonco ano lhon uso (8.20) lo iowiilo il as a
lisl oiooi oisciolo oynamical syslom. 1hon lno ano classify lho lxoo
poinls.
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, if j
0
= j
l
= 1, lhon
j
2
= j
l
j
0
= 1 1 = 2
j
3
= j
2
j
l
= 2 1 = 8
j
d
= j
3
j
2
= 8 2 =
ano so on. In gonoial, lho 1.hnn. n&nh: aio lho numLois in lho
soquonco
1, 1, 2, 8, , 8, 18, 21, 84, . . .
in which oach loim is lho sum of lho lwo piovious loims.
Noxl, applicalion of (8.20) implios lhal 1
nl
salislos
1
nl
=
j
nl
j
n
=
j
n
j
nl
j
n
= 1
j
nl
j
n
Howovoi, 1
n
=

r
r
lhon implios lhal
1
nl
= 1
1
1
n
(8.22)
1hus, lho :n. of succossivo FiLonacci numLois salislos lho iocui-
ionco iolalion (8.22). Sinco 1
nl
= ) (1
n
) whoio ) (a) = 1
l
i
, lho
lxoo poinl of (8.22) salislos
1
1
a
= a == a 1 = a
2
1hus, a
2
a 1 = 0, which via lho quaoialic foimula has a solulion
of
a =
1
_
2
sinco ialios of FiLonacci numLois aio posilivo. Moioovoi, )
t
(a) =
a
2
)
t
_
1
_
2
_
=
_
1
_
2
_
2
= 0.882 < 1
1ho lxoo poinl lhooiom consoquonlly loaos us lo concluoo lhal
lim
no
1
n
=
1
_
2
(8.28)
i.o., ialios of succossivo FiLonacci numLois appioach a limil of
l
_
5
2
.
1ho numLoi 1 =
l
_
5
2
is oflon calloo lho j|Jn :n. oi lho goloon moan. Liko ,
lho goloon ialio 1 occuis fioquonlly in applicalions. In facl, il was inlonlionally
incoipoialoo Ly lho ancionl Giooks inlo much of lhoii ail ano aichilocluio.
Moioovoi, (8.28) also has an alloinalivo inloipiolalion. 1ho iocuision (8.22)
implios lhal
1
n
= 1
1
1
nl
= 1
1
1
l
Jr
= 1
1
1
l
l

T
r
ano so on. If wo conlinuo inoolniloly, lhon wo oLlain
1
1
1
l
l

.
.
.
= lim
no
1
n
=
1
_
2
1ho oxpiossion on lho lofl is calloo a n.n&J J:n.n, ano lho lxoo poinl lho-
oiom lhus implios lhal il has a valuo of 1 =
l
_
5
2
.
1hn n nJ: .n h 1.hnn. j&n Chock youi Ioaoing
IerIodIc IoInts and HIIurcatIon
In aooilion lo lxoo poinls, oisciolo oynamical sysloms can also havo j|, whoio
a cyclo of longlh is a sol of poinls
a
0
, a
l
, . . . , a
l
such lhal a
I
,= a
if i ,= , a
l
= ) (a
) , ano ) (a
l
) = a
0
. Foi oxamplo, poinls
j ano foim a 2-cyclo if j ,= ano ) (j) = whilo ) () = j, which is lo say lhal
unooi an iocuision a
nl
= ) (a
n
) , wo havo
j j . . .
In a woL oiagiam, a 2 cyclo coiiosponos lo a ioclanglo wilh voilicos (j, j) ,
(j, ) , (, j) , ano (j, j) .
8-7: A 2-cyclo
1ho 2-cyclo is n:n.nj if a
0
sumcionlly closo lo j implios a
2n
j (oi if a
0
sumcionlly closo lo implios a
2n
).
1o lno poiioo 2 poinls, wo nolico lhal = ) (j) ano j = ) () implios lhal
j = ) () (j)) . 1hus, poiioo 2 poinls aio lhoso solulions lo
) () (a)) = a
which aio nol lxoo poinls of ) (a) . Sinco
J
Ji
) () (a)) = )
t
() (a)) )
t
(a) , wo havo
d
da
) () (a))
i=
= )
t
() (j)) )
t
(j) = )
t
() )
t
(j)
so lhal Ly lho lxoo poinl lhooiom, a 2-cyclo is n:n.nj if
[)
t
() )
t
(j)[ < 1
ano is :||.nj if [)
t
() )
t
(j)[ 1.
IXAMIII 0 Fino ano classify lho poiioo 2 poinls of
a
nl
=
1
2
2a
2
n
as oilhoi alliacling oi iopolling. Illuslialo wilh a woL oiagiam.
SoIutIon: 1ho iocuision is of lho foim a
nl
= ) (a
n
) whoio ) (a) =
l
2
2a
2
. 1ho oqualion ) () (a)) = a iooucos lo
1
2
2 [) (a)[
2
= a ==
1
2
2
_
1
2
2a
2
_
2
= a
which simplilos lo
4a
2
8a
d
= a (8.24)
Facloiing loaos lo
a(2a 1)
_
4a
2
2a 1
_
= 0
which implios lhal a = 0, a =
l
2
,
l
d

l
d
_
, oi
l
d

l
d
_
. Howovoi,
) (0) =
l
2
ano also
)
_
1
2
_
=
1
2
2
_
1
4
_
= 0
1hus, 0
l
2
. . . is a 2-cyclo. Moioovoi, )
t
(a) = 4a, which implios
lhal
)
t
(0) )
t
_
1
2
_
= 0 (2) = 0
ano sinco 0 < 1, lho 2-cyclo is alliacling.
8-8: An alliacling 2-cyclo
Similaily, lho poiioo 8 poinls aio solulions lo
) () () (a))) = a
which aio nol lxoo poinls oi poiioo 2 poinls, ano lho poiioo 4 poinls aio solulions
lo
) () () () (a)))) = a
which aio nol lxoo, poiioo 2, oi poiioo 8 poinls.
Lxoicisos:
1:n.n nnJ |n.Jj h ]rJ .n J nh J h J||&.nj J.: Jjnnn.n|
jn. 1 n &h J.nj:nn .||&:n j&: n|&.n.
1. a
nl
=
l
2
a
n
1 2. a
nl
= 8a
n
2
8. a
nl
= 2a
n
(1 a
n
) 4. a
nl
= a
n
(1 a
n
)
. a
nl
= 8.2a
n
(1 a
n
) 6. a
nl
= 8.a
n
(1 a
n
)
7. a
nl
= 8.88a
n
(1 a
n
) 8. a
nl
= 4a
n
(1 a
n
)
0. a
nl
= 2
l
2
a
2
n
10.
11. a
nl
= a
2
n
8a
n
2 12. a
nl
=
3
d
a
2
n
5
2
a
n
2
18. a
nl
= 8
a
n
l
2
3
2
14.
1. a
nl
= a
3
n
0.7a
n
16. a
nl
= a
3
n
1.44a
n
17. a
nl
= 2a
2
n
a
3
n
18. a
nl
= a
d
n
8a
n
10. a
nl
= a
n
ln[a
n
[ 20. a
nl
= a
n
ln[a
n
[
21. a
nl
= sin
_
t
3
a
n
_
22. a
nl
= sin
_
t
2
a
n
_
1:n.n nnJ |n.Jj h . j| J nh J h J||&.nj J.: Jjnnn.n|
jn. 1 n &h J.nj:nn .||&:n j&: n|&.n.
28. a
nl
= 2
l
2
a
2
n
24. a
nl
= a
2
n
1
2. a
nl
= a
2
n
8a
n
2 26. a
nl
=
37
l2
a
n
(1 a
n
)
27. a
nl
= 8
a
n
l
2
3
2
28. a
nl
= 8.1a
n
(1 a
n
)
29. If j
n
is lho populalion of a coilain colloclion of sanohill cianos, lhon
j
nl
= j
n
0.0087j
n
_
1
j
n
104.6
_
Doloimino ano classify lho lxoo poinls of lho sanohill ciano populalion.
Lxplain lho signilcanco of lho iosull.
30. 1ho populalion 1
n
(in millions) of Swooon fiom 1800 lo 1020 can Lo moooloo
Ly
j
nl
= j
n
1.8 0.028 (j
n
1.8)
_
1
j
n
1.8
6.886
_
whoio j
0
= 2.802. Doloimino ano classify lho lxoo poinls of lho populalion
of Swooon. Lxplain lho signilcanco of lho iosull.
31. In 1.|:` &|n.n nJ|, lho populalion a
n
afloi : limo slops salislos
lho iocuision
a
nl
= a
n
c
b(li
r
/)
(8.2)
whoio / ano aio posilivo conslanls. Doloimino ano classify lho lxoo
poinls of (8.2). Whal is lho signilcanl of
32. In slill anolhoi populalion moool, lho populalion a
n
afloi : limo slops sal-
islos lho iocuision
a
nl
=
/a
n
/ a
n
whoio / ano / aio posilivo conslanls. Doloimino ano classify lho lxoo poinls
of (8.2). 1hon oxplain why wo musl ioquiio / / in oiooi foi lho populalion
moool lo mako sonso.
33. If j
n
iopiosonls lho poiconlago of ioo Llooo colls in ciiculalion on oay : lhal
woio piooucoo Ly lho maiiow on oay :, lhon j
n
salislos lho iocuision
j
nl
=
jr
1 r j
n
(8.26)
whoio j is lho ialio of lho numLoi piooucoo lo lho numLoi losl ano r is lho
poiconlago of ioo Llooo colls iomovoo Ly lho sploon oach oay. Doloimino ano
classify lho lxoo poinls of (8.26). Whal is lho signilcanl aLoul lho moool
whon j = 1
34. If j
n
oonolos lho numLoi of loiminal sogmonls of a coilain algao planl afloi
: giowlh slagos, lhon
j
nl
= (1 ) j
n
rj
nl
whoio is lho fioquoncy wilh which a loiminal sogmonl piooucos a paii
of oaughloi loiminal sogmonls ano r is lho fioquoncy wilh which noxl-lo-
loiminal sogmonls pioouco a singlo oaughloi sogmonl. Uso lho ialio
1
n
=
j
n
j
nl
(8.27)
lo liansfoim (8.27) inlo a lisl oiooi iocuision. Whal is lho lxoo poinl of
1
n
Is il alliacling oi iopolling Whal is lho signilcanco of lho lxoo poinl.
35. If ) (j) = j ano if [)
t
(j)[ = 1, lhon j is somolimos calloo a nJJ| .n of
). Show lhal lho lxoo poinl of lho iocuision
a
nl
= 2 a
n
is a saoolo poinl. Uso a woL oiagiam lo oxploio lho Lohavioi of lho iloialos
in lho vicinily of lhis lxoo poinl.
36. Foi whal valuo of / ooos lho iocuision
a
nl
= /a
n
(1 a
n
)
havo a saoolo poinl (soo oxoiciso 8 foi oosciiplion of saoolo poinls)
37. Show lhal if a
0
= ano if
a
nl
= 1
2
a
n
lhon lho soquonco a
n
o
n=0
has a limil of j, whoio j is lho n.n&J J:n.n
j = 1
2
1
2
l

.
.
.
Whal is lho valuo of j
38. Show lhal a iocuision of lho foim
a
nl
=
aa
n
/
ca
n
d
, c ,= 0
iosulls in a conlinuoo fiaclion. (Hinl: iowiilo lho iocuision in lho foim
a
nl
=
a
c

1
ca
n
d
whoio 1 = /
o
c
d ). Whal iolalionship Lolwoon a, /, c, ano d is nocossaiy
foi lho conlinuoo fiaclion lo convoigo
39. In lho iocuision givon Ly
a
nl
= /a
n
(1 a
n
) (8.28)
lho paiamoloi / is calloo lho h.J&:n.n n:nn:. A h.J&:n.n J.nj:nn
is a picluio of lho sol of alliacling poinls al a givon valuo of /.
Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you uso woL oiagiams lo oxplain how lho
Lifuicalion oiagiam is iolaloo lo lho iocuision (8.28).
40. VrIte to Learn: A oisciolo oynamical syslom a
nl
= ) (a
n
) is saio lo Lo
hn. if il has lho following 4 piopoilios.
1
(a) SensItIve Deendence on InItIaI CondItIons. Ioinls closo
logolhoi cannol iomain closo logolhoi. Spocilcally, lhoio oxisls a
numLoi c 1 such lhal
[) (a) ) (/)[ _ c [a /[
whonovoi a ano / aio sumcionlly closo.
(L) IerIodIc IoInts are HeeIIIng: A poiiooic poinl j is a numLoi
such lhal if a
0
= j, lhon a
n
= j foi somo : 0. A poiiooic poinl
is iopolling if [)
t
(a
0
) )
t
(a
l
) . . . )
t
(a
nl
)[ 1 whon a
0
= a
n
= j
Lul a
,= j foi any = 1, . . . , : 1.
(c) Hounded Sequences oI Iterates: 1hoio is an inloival [a, /[ con-
laining all lho poiiooic poinls such lhal if a
0
is in [a, /[ , lhon a
n
is
in [a, /[ foi all : 0.
(o) *ExIstence oI VanderIng OrLIts: 1hoio is a soquonco of iloi-
alos a
n
o
n=0
in an inloival [a, /[ conlaining all lho poiiooic poinls
such lhal if j is a poiiooic poinl ano 0, lhon lhoio oxisls inl-
niloly many iloialos a
n
such lhal [a
n
j[ < .
Wiilo a shoil ossay illuslialing oach of lhoso phonomona foi a
nl
= ) (a
n
)
whon
) (a) =
_
2a i) a _ 0.
2a 1 i) a 0.
which is giaphoo Lolow along wilh lho lino j = a.
x
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
(Hinls: 1hoso will holp wilh 1-4 aLovo)
(a) Lxplain why [a /[ < 0. moans lhal c = 2
(L) Whal is )
t
(a) foi all a ,= 0.
(c) Lxplain why a
0
in [0, 1[ implios lhal a
n
is in [0, 1[ foi all :.
(o) *A oocimal in Laso 2 is of lho foim 0.d
l
d
2
d
3
d
d
. . .
2
whoio d
= 0 oi
1 ano
0.d
l
d
2
d
3
d
d
. . .
2
=
d
l
2

d
2
2
2

d
3
2
3

d
d
2
d
. . .
Foi oxamplo, lho Laso 2 oocimal 0.01101
2
is lho numLoi
0.01101
2
=
0
2

1
2
2

1
2
3

0
2
d

1
2
5
=
18
82
Lxplain why lho poiiooic poinls of ) aio lho iopoaling oocimals in
Laso 2, ano lhon consiooi lho soquonco gonoialoo Ly
a
0
= 0.101001000100001 . . .
2
1
1hoio is no univoisally accoploo oolnilion of chaos, Lul lhoso 4 iooas capluio lho ossonco of
whal mosl malhomalicians woulo call chaos.
8.4 Luler`s and NewLon`s MeLhods
EuIer`s AetLod
Soquoncos aio oflon usoo in numoiical oslimalion. In lhis soclion, wo will ox-
ploio lwo such usos of soquoncososlimaling solulions lo oiloionlial oqualions
ano oslimaling inlogials.
Lol`s Login wilh a simplo molhoo foi oslimaling lho solulion lo inilial valuo
pioLloms of lho foim
j
t
= ) (a, j) , j (a) = j
o
(8.20)
whoio j
o
is a numLoi ano whoio ) (a, j) is somo oxpiossion in a ano j. Fiisl, lol
us consliucl a soquonco of inpul valuos of lho foim
a
0
= a, a
2
= a /, a
3
= a 2/, . . . , a
n
= a :/, . . .
foi a givon valuo of /. Nolico lhal a
l
= a
0
/, a
2
= a
l
/, ano in gonoial,
a
nl
= a
n
/.
If / is closo lo 0, lhon (8.20) implios lhal
j (a
n
/) j (a
n
)
/
- ) (a
n
, j (a
n
))
Howovoi, j (a
nl
) = j (a
n
/) , so lhal
j (a
nl
) - j (a
n
) /) (a
n
, j (a
n
))
If wo now lol j
0
= j (a) ano
j
nl
= j
n
/) (a
n
, j
n
) (8.80)
lhon j
n
is an appioximalion of j (a
nl
) whon / is sumcionlly small. Wo say lhal
j
n
o
n=0
is lho soquonco of 1&|: .nn of lho solulion lo (8.20).
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho lisl 6 loims of lho soquonco of Luloi oslimalos
wilh / = 0.1 lo lho solulion of
j
t
= 2a j, j (0) = 0.1 (8.81)
SoIutIon: Sinco ) (a, j) = 2a j, Luloi`s molhoo is of lho foim
j
nl
= j
n
0.1 (2a
n
j
n
) = 0.2a
n
0.0j
n
Sinco / = 0.1, lho a-cooioinalos foi (8.81) aio
a
0
= 0, a
l
= a
0
0.1 = 0.1, a
2
= a
l
0.1 = 0.2, . . .
1o ooloimino lho soquonco of Luloi oslimalos j
n
, wo Login wilh lho
inilial valuo of j
0
= 0.1. Il lhon follows lhal
j
l
= 0.2a
0
0.0j
0
= 0.2 (0) 0.0 (0.1) = 0.00
Similaily, oslimalos foi j
2
, j
3
, ano so on aio as follows:
j
2
= 0.2a
l
0.0j
l
= 0.2 (0.1) 0.0 (0.00) = 0.101
j
3
= 0.2a
2
0.0j
2
= 0.2 (0.2) 0.0 (0.101) = 0.1800
j
d
= 0.2a
3
0.0j
3
= 0.2 (0.8) 0.0 (0.1800) = 0.17781
j
5
= 0.2a
d
0.0j
d
= 0.2 (0.4) 0.0 (0.17781) = 0.24002 0
1hus, lho soquonco of Luloi oslimalos is of lho foim
0.1, 0.00, 0.101, 0.1800, 0.17781, 0.240020, . . .
Ilolling lho (a
n
, j
n
) paiis ano connocling lhom wilh lino sogmonls
lhus loaos lo an oslimalo of lho solulion lo (8.81).
4-1: Luloi Appioximalion of a Solulion
Lslimalos piooucoo wilh Luloi`s molhoo lono lo Locomo loss accuialo as : in-
cioasos. Foi oxamplo, Luloi oslimalos of j
t
= j, j (0) = 1 oo nol giow as fasl as
lho aclual solulion of j = c
i
, as shown in oxamplo 2.
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho soquonco of Luloi oslimalos wilh / = 0.2 of
lho solulion lo j
t
= j, j (0) = 1.
SoIutIon: Sinco ) (a, j) = j, Luloi`s molhoo is
j
nl
= j
n
/j
n
= (1 /) j
n
= (1.2) j
n
If j
0
= 1, lhon j
l
= 1.2j
0
= 1.2 ano j
2
= 1.2j
l
= (1.2)
2
. Il follows
lhal lho :
||
Luloi oslimalo is of lho foim j
n
= (1.2)
n
, so lhal in closoo
foim lho soquonco of Luloi oslimalos is (1.2)
n
o
n=0
, oi oquivalonlly,
1, 1.2, (1.2)
2
, (1.2)
3
, . . . , (1.2)
n
, . . .
Sinco a
0
= 0, a
l
= 0.2, a
3
= 0.4, ano so on, wo can compaio lho Luloi
oslimalos lo lho aclual valuos of j = c
i
al lho numLois a
n
.
: a
n
Luloi = j
n
Aclual = c
ir
0 0 1 1
1 0.2 1.2 1.22
2 0.4 1.44 1.402
8 0.6 1.728 1.8221
4 0.8 2.0786 2.224
1.0 2.48882 2.718281
Cloaily, lho Luloi oslimalos oo nol giow as fasl as c
i
ooos.
1& | . j
l0
c
2
= 7. 880... Chock youi Ioaoing
LULLR`S AND NLWTON`S MLTHODS 61
EuIer`s AetLod ear StaLIe EquIIILrIa
If j = C is an oquiliLiium of an aulonomous oiloionlial oqualion j
t
= ) (j) , lhon
) (C) = 0. 1hus, if j
n
= C, lhon
j
nl
= j
n
/) (j
n
) = j
n
/) (C) = j
n
which moans lhal if j
0
= C, lhon j
n
= C foi all :. 1hal is, if j = C is an
oquiliLiium, lhon Luloi`s molhoo is oxacl if j
0
= C.
Moioovoi, if C is a slaLlo oquiliLiium of j
t
= ) (j) , lhon choosing an inilial
valuo j
0
sumcionlly closo lo an oquiliLiium j = C implios lhal
lim
no
j
n
= C
ano in facl, Luloi oslimalos lono lo .n: as lhoy appioach a slaLlo oquiliLiium.
IXAMIII J Fino lho soquonco of Luloi oslimalos foi / = 0.1 of lho
solulion lo
j
t
= 2j ( j) j (1) = 4 (8.82)
Whal is lho limil of lho soquonco of Luloi oslimalos
SoIutIon: Sinco ) (j) = 2j ( j) , Luloi`s molhoo is of lho foim
j
nl
= j
n
2j
n
( j
n
) 0.1
Sinco j
0
= j (1) = 4, wo havo
j
l
= j
0
2j
0
( j
0
) 0.1 = 4 2 4 ( 4) 0.1 = 4.8
j
2
= j
l
2j
l
( j
l
) 0.1 = 4.8 2 4.8 ( 4.8) 0.1 = 4.002
j
3
= j
2
2j
2
( j
2
) 0.1 = 4.002 2 4.002 ( 4.002) 0.1 = 4.00008
ano so on. A slopo lolo foi (8.82) is shown Lolow:
4-2: Luloi`s molhoo noai a slaLlo oquiliLiium
If j (a) is sumcionlly closo lo foi any a, lhon j (t) appioachos as
t appioachos . 1hus, j = is a slaLlo oquiliLiium of (8.82), ano
coiiosponoingly, lho limil of lho soquonco of Luloi oslimalos is
lim
no
j
n
=
Sinco much of scionco ano onginooiing is lho sluoy of Lohavioi noai slaLlo oquiliL-
iia, Luloi`s molhoo is valuaLlo in spilo of ils lack of piocision in gonoial. Inoooo,
wo soo il usoo in a wioo vaiioly of applicalions.
IXAMIII ! Supposo lhal an inliavonously-infusoo solulion oolivois
a coilain oiug al a conslanl ialo of 100cc poi unil volumo of Llooo poi
houi. If lho inilial conconlialion of lho oiug is 800cc poi unil volumo,
whal will Lo lho appioximalo conconlialion an houi laloi (uso / = 6
minulos = 0.1 houis).
SoIutIon: If j (t) oonolos lho conconlialion of lho oiug al limo t, lhon
ialo of chango ialo of ialo of
of conconlialion iomoval infusion
j
t
= 0.1j 100
1hus, lho oquiliLiium is lho solulion lo
0 = 0.1j 100
which is j = 1000 cc poi unil volumo. A slopo lolo foi lho moool is
givon Lolow:
x
10 8 6 4 2 0
y
1200
1100
1000
900
800
4-8: Luloi`s molhoo appioximalos infusion
Cloaily, lho oquiliLiium is slaLlo. Luloi`s molhoo is of lho foim
j
nl
= j
n
0.1 (0.1j
n
100) = 0.00j
n
10
Sinco j
0
= 800, wo havo
j
l
= 0.00j
0
10 = 0.00 800 10 = 802
j
2
= 0.00j
l
10 = 0.00 802 10 = 808.08
j
3
= 0.00j
2
10 = 0.00 804 10 = 80.04
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
j
l0
= 0.00j
9
10 = 0.00 817.28 10 = 810.12
1hus, lhoio will Lo a conconlialion of aLoul 810.12 cc poi unil volumo
in aLoul ono houi.
1& | . j
l0
c
2
= 7. 880.. Chock youi Ioaoing
evton`s AetLod
If ) (j) = 0 ano )
t
(j) ,= 0, lhon soquoncos can Lo usoo lo appioximalo lho valuo
of j. In pailiculai, if a
0
is an inilial oslimalo of j, lhon lol us lol a
l
oonolo lho
zoio of lho nnjn |.n lo j = ) (a) al a
0
.
4-4: a
0
, a
l
, a
2
, . . . aio incioasingly Lolloi oslimalos of j
1ho langonl lino lo j = ) (a) al a
l
can lhon Lo usoo lo piooicl a Lolloi oslimalo
a
2
, ano so on.
In gonoial, if a
n
oonolos lho :
||
appioximalion of j, lhon a
nl
is lho iool of
lho langonl lino lo j = ) (a) al an inpul a
n
:
4-: a
nl
is ooloiminoo Ly a
n
As a iosull, a iun of a
n
a
nl
loaos lo a iiso of ) (a
n
) , which moans lhal
) (a
n
)
a
n
a
nl
= -|ojc o) nnjn |.n = )
t
(a
n
)
Wo now solvo foi a
nl
:
a
n
a
nl
=
) (a
n
)
)
t
(a
n
)
== a
nl
= a
n
) (a
n
)
)
t
(a
n
)
1ho iosull is lho molhoo oosciiLoo Lolow:
evton`s AetLod: Supposo lhal ) (j) = 0 ano lhal a
0
is sumcionlly
closo lo j. If wo lol
a
nl
= a
n
) (a
n
)
)
t
(a
n
)
(8.88)
lhon lho soquonco a
n
o
n=0
convoigos lo j.
Moioovoi, whon Nowlon`s molhoo woiks, il lonos lo woik voiy woll.
IXAMIII Uso Nowlon`s molhoo lo oslimalo lho zoio of ) (a) =
a
3
8a 2:
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
4-6: A zoio in lho inloival [0, 1[
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = 8a
2
8, Nowlon`s molhoo yiolos
a
nl
= a
n
a
3
n
8a
n
2
8a
2
n
8
Lol us supposo lhal wo chooso lho inilial oslimalo lo Lo a
0
= 1. 1hon lo
10 oocimal placos lho appioximalions gonoialoo Ly Nowlon`s molhoo
aio
a
l
= a
0

a
3
0
8a
0
2
8a
2
0
8
= 1
1 8 2
8 8
= 0. 667
a
2
= a
l

a
3
l
8a
l
2
8a
2
l
8
= 0. 667
(0.667)
3
8 (0.667) 2
8 (0.667)
2
8
= 0.0820
a
3
= a
2

a
3
2
8a
2
2
8a
2
2
8
= 0.088
(0.088)
3
8 (0.088) 2
8 (0.088)
2
8
= 0.06074
a
d
= a
3

a
3
3
8a
3
2
8a
2
3
8
= 0.06074
(0.06074)
3
8 (0.06074) 2
8 (0.06074)
2
8
= 0.0607164
a
5
= a
d

a
3
d
8a
d
2
8a
2
d
8
= 0.0607164
(0.0607164)
3
8 (0.0607164) 2
8 (0.0607164)
2
8
= 0.60716870
Moioovoi, a
6
, a
7,
ano a
S
aio lho samo as a
5
up lo 10 oocimal placos.
J 1u J.nn| |n, &hn . h |&.n a
3
8a 2 = 0 Chock youi Ioaoing
Convergence oI evton`s AetLod
As a oisciolo oynamical syslom, Nowlon`s molhoo foi a funclion ) (a) is of lho
foim
a
nl
= (a
n
) whoio (a) = a
) (a)
)
t
(a)
1hus, if ) (j) = 0 ano )
t
(j) ,= 0, lhon
(j) = j
) (j)
)
t
(j)
= j
0
)
t
(j)
= j
1hal is, a zoio of ) is a lxoo poinl of .
Moioovoi, lho quolionl iulo yiolos
t
(a) = 1
[)
t
(a)[
2
) (a) )
tt
(a)
[) (a)[
2
so lhal if ) (j) = 0 ano )
t
(j) ,= 0, lhon
t
(j) = 1
[)
t
(j)[
2
0
[)
t
(j)[
2
= 1 1 = 0
Sinco [
t
(j)[ = 0 < 1, a zoio of ) is an alliacling lxoo poinl of . 1hus, if a
0
is choson sumcionlly closo lo j ano if )
t
(j) ,= 0, lhon lho soquonco a
n
o
n=0
of
iloialos of Nowlon`s molhoo salislos
lim
no
a
n
= j
Howovoi, Nowlon`s molhoo ooos nol always convoigo. 1o Login wilh, if )
t
(j) =
0, lhon Nowlon`s molhoo cannol Lo usoo al all. In aooilion, if a
0
is nol sumcionlly
closo lo j lo Login wilh, lhon Nowlon`s molhoo may nol convoigo.
IXAMIII 0 Apply Nowlon`s molhoo lo ) (a) = ln[a[ foi a
0
= c
2
.
x
8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
4-7: Nowlon`s molhoo fails foi a
0
= c
2
- 7. 80
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) =
l
i
, Nowlon`s molhoo Locomos
a
nl
= a
n
ln[a
n
[
1a
n
which simplilos lo
a
nl
= a
n
a
n
ln[a
n
[
If wo Login wilh a
0
= c
2
, lhon
a
l
= a
0
a
0
ln[a
0
[ = c
2
c
2
ln
c
2
= c
2
2c
2
= c
2
a
2
= a
l
a
l
ln[a
l
[ = c
2
c
2
ln
c
2
= c
2
2c
2
= c
2
Likowiso, a
3
= c
2
ano a
d
= c
2
, so lhal lho soquonco gonoialoo Ly
Nowlon`s molhoo is
c
2
, c
2
, c
2
, c
2
, . . . , (1)
n
c
2
, . . .
ano consoquonlly, Nowlon`s molhoo ooos nol convoigo lo oilhoi of lho
zoioos of ln[a[ .
Lxoicisos:
1 1&|:` nhJ J: h j.n n|& J / ]nJ h ]: J&: :n J h
j&n J 1&|: .nn. |:nn.|j, j&: .n:&: nnj n| j& :J&
nnJ j:nh 1&|: n:r.nn.n &.h j&: n|&|n:.
1. j
t
= a j, j (0) = 1.1 2. j
t
= aj, j (0) = 1.1
/ = 0.1 / = 0.01
8. j
t
= c
i
j, j (0) = 0.0 4. j
t
= sin(a) j, j (0) = 1
/ = 0.1 / = 0.1
. j
t
= a
2
, j (1) = 1.2 6. j
t
= cos (a) j (0) = 1
/ = 0.1 / = 0.1
7. j
t
= 0, j (1) = 2 8. j
t
= 1, j (1) = 0
/ = 0.1 / = 0.1
0. j
t
= c
i
j (1 j) , j (0) = 1 10. j
t
= j (1 j) cos (a) , j (0) = 0
/ = 0.1 / = 0.1
1.nJ nn nh| j&.|.h:.&n J nh J h J||&.nj n&nn& j&n.n. Jhn
h j
0
| h j&.|.h:.&n nnJ n|j 1&|:` nhJ. 1 h j&n J
1&|: .nn n:nh h nh| j&.|.h:.&n
11. j
t
= j (1 j) 2. j
t
= j (2 j)
18. j
t
= 2j (1 j) 4. j
t
= 2j (10 j)
1. j
t
= 0.0j
_
1
j
00
_
6. j
t
= 0.j
_
1
j
100
_
17. j
t
= j
2
8j 2 18. j
t
= 2j
2
6j 0
1nh J h J||&.nj J&n.n hn n .nj| .: .n h .n:n| [2, 4[ . 1 A&-
n` nhJ n:r.nn hn .: J&: J.nn| |n J n&:nj.
10. ) (a) = a
2
8 18. ) (a) = 2a
2
1a 0
21. ) (a) = a
5
a 1 20. ) (a) = 2a
3
1a 0
28. ) (a) = 4a 8 24. ) (a) = 11a 8
2. ) (a) = cos (a2) 26. ) (a) = a c
i
27. ) (a) = lna 28. ) (a) = lanh(a)
20. ) (a) =
sin(a)
a
80. ) (a) = c
i
c
2i
31. Fino lho iocuision gonoialoo Ly applying Nowlon`s molhoo lo ) (a) =
(a a)
n
. Whal is lho gonoial loim of lhal iocuision Whal ooos il convoigo
lo
32. Show lhal Nowlon`s molhoo applioo lo ) (a) =
l
i
a iosulls in
a
nl
= 2a
n
aa
2
n
How is lhis iolaloo lo oslimalion of lho iocipiocal of a
33. Il is oasy lo soo lhal ) (a) = a
l/3
has a zoio al 0. Apply Nowlon`s molhoo
lo ) (a) = a
l/3
wilh a
0
= 1. Doos lho soquonco havo a limil of 0 Whal
happons
34. Apply Nowlon`s molhoo lo ) (a) = ln([a[) wilh an inilial oslimalo of a
0
= c
3
.
Whal happons
35. If ) (a) has moio lhan ono zoio, lhon choosing a
0
closo lo a givon zoio may
slill causo Nowlon`s molhoo lo convoigo lo a moio oislanl zoio of ) (a) .
(a) Consliucl lho Nowlon`s molhoo iocuision foi ) (a) = 4a
d
4a
2
(L) Chooso oiloionl inilial appioximalions in [1, 1[ . Which zoio oo
lhoy convoigo lo Do any of lhom ovoi convoigo lo lho mioolo iool
of zoio
36. If a funclion ) (a) has no ioal zoioos, lhon lho soquonco of iloialos of Nowlon`s
molhoo may Lo hn.. Foi oxamplo, consiooi Nowlon`s molhoo foi lho
funclion
) (a) = a
d
1
Doos lho soquonco of iloialos convoigo How oo lho Nowlon`s molhoo iloi-
alos Lohavo
37. A foiosl wilh a caiiying capacily of 1000 lioos poi acio ano an inliinsic
giowlh ialo of 0.1 / incioaso poi yoai is Loing haivosloo al a ialo of 20
lioos poi acio poi yoai. If lhoio aio inilially 00 lioos poi acio, aLoul how
many lioos poi acio will lhoio Lo afloi 2 yoais Uso Luloi`s molhoo wilh
/ =
l
l2
(i.o., / aLoul lho longlh of ono monlh) (Hinl: soo pago (60) )
38. A oamis Luill acioss a slioamlowing al a ialo of 10,000 gallons of waloi oach
oay. If 10/ of lho waloi is losl oach oay lo ovapoialion, soopago lhiough
lho soil, ovoilow of lho oam, olcoloia, lhon how laigo, in gallons, will lho
pono Lohino lho oam ovonlually Locomo ALoul how Lig will il Lo afloi
ono monlh (uso / = 1 oay foi 80 oays)
39. VrIte to Learn: Supposo lhal ) (a) is conlinuous on [a, /[ ano oiloionliaLlo
on (a, /) , ano supposo lhal )
t
(a) ,= 0 foi all a in (a, /) . Wiilo a shoil ossay
in which you apply Nowlon`s molhoo lo
/(a) = ) (/) ) (a) )
t
(a) (/ a)
Whal is signilcanl aLoul lho zoio of /(a) Whal is lho
40. Show lhal Luloi`s molhoo applioo lo j
t
= ) (a) ovoi a iogulai paililion of
an inloival [a, /[ iosulls in lho lofl onopoinl appioximalion of
_
b
o
) (a) da.
8.5 lnniLe Series
Sequences oI IartIaI Suns
Ono of lho mosl impoilanl applicalions of soquoncos is in lho sluoy of inlnilo
soiios, whoio an .n]n. :. is an inlniloly long sum of a sol of numLois
a
l
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . . 1hal is, an inlnilo soiios is an oxpiossion of lho foim A a:a a
un o an nn-
na a o nun-
|a:. Hanca,
a p|u gn.
a
l
a
2
. . . a
n
. . . (8.84)
1o mako sonso of (8.84), wo oolno lho :
||
pailial sum of lho soiios lo Lo
-
n
= a
l
a
2
. . . a
n
If lho soquonco of pailial sums -
n
o
n=l
has a limillhal is, if lhoio is a numLoi
1 such lhal
lim
no
-
n
= 1
lhon wo say lhal lho soiios n:j. Moioovoi, wo say lhal 1 is lho &n J h
:., ano wo wiilo
a
l
a
2
. . . a
n
. . . = 1
IXAMIII 1 Compulo lho sum of lho soiios
1
1 2

1
2 8

1
8 4

1
4

1
6

1
6 7
. . . (8.8)
SoIutIon: 1ho lisl pailial sum is -
l
=
l
2
ano lho socono pailial sum
is
-
2
=
1
1 2

1
2 8
=
2
8
Moioovoi, lho lhiio ano fouilh pailial sums aio
-
3
=
1
1 2
1
2 8
1
8 4
=
8
4
ano -
d
=
1
1 2
1
2 8
1
8 4
1
4
=
4
Il is oasy lo soo lhal lho gonoial loim of lho soquonco of pailial sums
is
-
n
=
:
: 1
1hus, lho limil of lho pailial sums -
n
yiolos lho sum of lho soiios
(8.8).
1
1 2

1
2 8

1
8 4

1
4

1
6
. . . = lim
no
:
: 1
= 1
Iocall lhal oonolos lho summalion opoialion, so lhal wo may wiilo
a
l
a
2
. . . a
n
. . . =
o
n=l
a
n
Locauso is lho Giook lolloi sigma," lhis is calloo lho .jnn nolalion of lho
soiios. Moioovoi, : is lho .nJr ano a
n
is lho gonoial loim of lho soiios. Foi
oxamplo,
1
1 2

1
2 8

1
8 4

1
4
. . .
1
:(: 1)
. . . =
o
n=l
1
:(: 1)
Sigma nolalion allows us lo slalo lho piimaiy piopoilios of convoigonl soiios in a
compacl ano piociso foim.
TLeoren 4.1 If

o
n=l
a
n
ano

o
n=l
/
n
convoigo ano / is conslanl,
lhon
o
n=l
(a
n
/
n
) =
o
n=l
a
n
n=l
/
n
o
n=l
(a
n
/
n
) =
o
n=l
a
n
n=l
/
n
lNFlNlTL SLRlLS 628
o
n=l
(/a
n
) = /
o
n=l
a
n
IXAMIII 2 Givon lhal

o
n=l
l
n(nl)
= 1, whal is lho sum of lho
soiios
o
n=l
8
:(: 1)
SoIutIon: 1ho lhooiom aLovo allows us lo wiilo
o
n=l
8
:(: 1)
= 8
o
n=l
1
:(: 1)
= 8 1 = 8
Lqually impoilanl, if lho soquonco of pailial sums of a soiios ooos nol havo a
limil, lhon wo say lhal lho soiios J.:j. 1hal is, if lho soquonco of pailial sums A a:a u-
xa:ga
aguanca o
pa:a| un
a| o axa a
|n.
-
n
o
n=l
ooos nol havo a limil, lhon
a
l
a
2
. . . a
n
. . . dicrpc-
IXAMIII J Doloimino if lho following soiios convoigos oi oivoigos:
2 4 4 4 4 4 4 . . .
SoIutIon: 1ho lisl fow pailial sums aio
-
l
= 2, -
2
= 24 = 2, -
3
= 244 = 2, -
d
= 2444 = 2
fiom which wo soo lhal lho soquonco of pailial sums is
2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, . . . , (1)
n
2, . . .
Howovoi, lho limil of lho soquonco of pailial sums ooos nol oxisl. 1hal
is,
lim
no
[(1)
n
2[ doc- :ot cai-t
Consoquonlly, lho soiios
2 4 4 4 4 4 4 . . . dicrpc-
1r|n.n &hj lim
no
[(1)
n
2[ J n r.. Chock youi Ioaoing
CeonetrIc SerIes
Ono of lho moio impoilanl soiios in calculus is lho jn:. :.
1 a a
2
. . . a
n
. . . (8.86)
whoio a is calloo lho nnn :n. of lho soiios. 1ho pailial sums of lho soiios
aio of lho foim
-
n
= 1 a a
2
. . . a
n
Howovoi, lho ioonlily (8.10) in lho piovious soclion implios lhal
-
n
= 1 a a
2
. . . a
n
=
1 a
nl
1 a
If [a[ < 1, lhon lim
no
a
nl
= 0 (soo pago ??), so lhal
1 a . . . a
n
. . . = lim
no
(1 a . . . a
n
) = lim
no
1 a
nl
1 a
=
1
1 a
If [a[ _ 1, lhon lim
no
a
nl
oivoigos.
TLeoren 5.1: If [a[ _ 1, lho goomoliic soiios (8.86) oivoigos. How-
ovoi, if [a[ < 1, lhon
1 a a
2
. . . a
n
. . . =
1
1 a
(8.87)
Foi oxamplo, a iopoaling oocimal is aclually a goomoliic soiios, ano in such casos,
lhooiom .1 lolls us how lo convoil lho iopoaling oocimal inlo ils ialional numLoi
iopiosonlalion.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho ialional numLoi iopiosonlalion foi lho io-
poaling oocimal
2
0.88888 . . .
SoIutIon: Wo Login Ly nolicing lhal lho iopoaling oocimal can Lo
wiillon as
0.8888 . . . =
8
10

8
100

8
1000

8
10000
. . .
Facloiing oul lho loim
3
l0
yiolos
0.8888 . . . =
8
10
_
1
1
10

1
100
. . .
1
10
n
. . .
_
1ho soiios insioo lho paionlhosos is of lho foim (8.87) wilh a =
l
l0
.
1hus, lhooiom 8.1 implios lhal
0.8888 . . . =
8
10
_
1
1
l
l0
_
=
8
10

10
0
=
8
0
=
1
8
IXAMIII Fino lho ialional numLoi iopiosonlalion foi lho io-
poaling oocimal
0.212121 . . .
2
Nolico lhal a non-iopoaling oocimal can also Lo wiillon as an inlnilo soiios, Lul lhal soiios
will nol Lo a goomoliic soiios. Foi oxamplo, lho numLoi t is givon Ly
t = S.1119 . . . = S
1
10

1
100

1
100

1000

9
10000
. . .
which is nol a goomoliic soiios.
lNFlNlTL SLRlLS 62
SoIutIon: Wo Login Ly nolicing lhal lho iopoaling oocimal can Lo
wiillon as
0.212121 . . . =
21
100

21
10000

21
100000
. . .
Facloiing oul lho loim a =
2l
l00
yiolos
0.212121 . . . =
21
100
_
1
1
100

1
10000
. . .
_
1
100
_
n
. . .
_
1ho soiios insioo lho paionlhosos is of lho foim (8.87) wilh a =
l
l00
.
1hus, lhooiom 8.1 implios lhal
0.212121 . . . =
21
100
_
1
1
l
l00
_
=
21
100
_
1
99
l00
_
=
21
100
_
100
00
_
=
21
00
=
7
88
1:.Jj rnn| hj n&.nj
7
33
n n n|&|n:. Chock youi Ioaoing
Aore CeonetrIc SerIes
Goomoliic soiios oo nol occui sololy in lho sluoy of iopoaling oocimals. Inoooo,
lhooiom 8.1 has a wioo iango of applicalions.
IXAMIII 0 Fino lho sum of lho goomoliic soiios
2
8

2
6

2
12

2
24
. . .
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, wo can facloi oul a =
2
3
lo oLlain
2
8
_
1
1
2

1
4

1
8
. . .
_
Sinco 4 = 2
2
, 8 = 2
3
ano so on, lho soiios insioo lho paionlhosos is a
goomoliic soiios:
2
8
_
1
1
2

1
4

1
8
. . .
(1)
n
2
n
. . .
_
1ho common ialio a =
l
2
salislos [a[ < 1, so lhal Ly (8.87) wo oLlain
2
8
_
1
1
2

1
4

1
8
. . .
(1)
n
2
n
. . .
_
=
2
8
_
1
1
l
2
_
=
4
0
2
8

2
6

2
12

2
24
. . . =
4
0
Finally, lol us consiooi an oxamplo whoio wo apply lhooiom 8.1 lo a goomoliic
soiios of funclions.
IXAMIII 7 Apply lhooiom 8.1 lo lho soiios
1 c
|
c
2|
. . . c
n|
. . .
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, lho soiios is a goomoliic soiios wilh common
ialio a = c
|
sinco il can Lo wiillon
1 c
|
_
c
|
_
2
. . .
_
c
|
_
n
. . .
As a iosull, whon [c
|
[ < 1, lhon
1 c
|
_
c
|
_
2
. . .
_
c
|
_
n
. . . =
1
1 c
|
1: &hn n|& J t . [c
|
[ < 1 Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe DIvergence Test
Finally, lol us ooiivo a gonoial losl foi ooloimining if a soiios oivoigos. In gonoial,
nolico lhal if
-
n
= a
l
a
2
. . . a
nl
a
n
lhon lho : 1 pailial sum is
-
nl
= a
l
a
2
. . . a
nl
Il is lhon oasy lo soo lhal -
n
-
nl
= a
n
, so lhal if lho soiios convoigosi.o., if
lho limil of lho pailial sums oxisls ano is oqual lo somo numLoi 1lhon
lim
no
a
n
= lim
no
(-
n
-
nl
) = lim
no
-
n
lim
no
-
nl
= 1 1 = 0
1hal is, if lho inlnilo soiios
a
l
a
2
. . . a
n
. . .
convoigos, lhon il musl follow lhal
lim
no
a
n
= 0
If wo luin lhis aiouno, lhon wo gol lho following iosull:
TLeoren 3.2: If lim
no
a
n
,= 0 oi if lim
no
a
n
ooos nol oxisl, lhon a
l

a
2
. . . a
n
. . . oivoigos
Wo call lhooiom 8.2 lho J.:jn Locauso il is a molhoo foi ooloimining if
a soiios J.:j.
IXAMIII 8 Apply lho oivoigonco losl lo
1 2 4 8 . . . 2
n
. . .
lNFlNlTL SLRlLS 627
SoIutIon: Sinco lho gonoial loim is 2
n
, lhooiom 8.2 loaos us lo
lim
no
2
n
=
Sinco lho limil is nol 0, lho soiios
1 2 4 8 . . . 2
n
. . . dicrpc-
IXAMIII 0 Apply lhooiom 8.2 lo lho soiios
2
1

8
2

4
8

4

6

7
6

8
7
. . .
SoIutIon: Wo ioonlify lhal a
l
= 2, a
2
=
3
2
, a
3
=
d
3
ano in gonoial
a
n
=
nl
n
. Sinco
lim
no
a
n
= lim
no
: 1
:
= 1 ,= 0
lho oivoigonco lhooiom implios lhal lho soiios oivoigos.
Lxoicisos:
G.n hn
o
n=l
l
n
=
t
6
nnJ
o
n=l
l
l0
r
=
l
9
, ]nJ h &n J h J||&.nj :.:
1.
o
n=l
_
1
:
2

1
10
n
_
2.
o
n=l
:
2
8.
o
n=l
_
1
:
2

8
10
n
_
4.
o
n=l
8
10
n
n:& h j&n J n:.n| &n, nnJ hn J:n.n h jn:n| :n J
h j&n J n:.n| &n. 1 h :. n:j
. 1
1
2

1
4

1
8
. . .
1
2
n
. . . 6. 1
1
2

1
2

1
8

1
8

1
4
. . .
7.
8
4

8
16

8
64

8
26
. . . 8.
8
2

8
4

8
8

8
16
. . .
0. 1 1 1 1 . . . 10. 4 4 4 4 4 4 . . . 4 (1)
nl
. . .
11. 1
1
2

1
2

1
8

1
8

1
4

1
4
. . . 12. 1 2 2 8 8 4 4 . . .
18. 2
8
4

4
8

16

6
82

7
64
. . . 14. 1
2
8

2
0

2
27

2
81

2
248
. . .
1.
1
2!

2
8!

8
4!

4
!

6!
. . . 16. 1
2
8

2
0

2
27

2
81

2
248
. . .
1:n.n .J h :. n:j : J.:j. 1J . n:j, J:n.n &hn .
n:j . 1J . J.:j, r|n.n &hj . J.:j.
17. 0.1111 . . . 18. 0.4444 . . .
10. 0.444 . . . 20. 0.282828 . . .
21.
2
8

2
1

2
7

2
87
. . . 22.
1
2

1
6

1
18

1
4
. . .
28.
1
10

4
80

16
00

64
270
. . . 24.
8
2

0
4

27
16

81
64
. . .
2. 8 4 2 1 . . . 26.

2
c
2

3
c
3

d
c
d

5
c
5
. . .
27.
1
2

8
4

7
8

1
16
. . . 28. 1
2
8

8

4
7
. . .
20. 1 c
l
c
2
c
3
. . . 80. sin
_
t
2
_
sin
_
2t
2
_
sin
_
3t
2
_
sin
_
dt
2
_
. . .
1 h jn:. :. J:n&|n ]nJ h &n J nh :. nnJ J:n.n
h n|& J t J: &h.h . n:j.
81. 1 c
|
c
2|
. . . c
n|
. . .
82. 1 cos (t) cos
2
(t) . . . cos
n
(t) . . .
88. 1 t
2
t
d
. . . t
2n
. . .
84. 1 lan(t) lan
2
(t) . . . lan
n
(t) . . .
35. Inloipiol lho following oiagiam wilh a goomoliic soiios.
36. Nolico lhal lho iopoaling oocimal 0.00000 . . . can Lo inloipioloo as oilhoi
0
10

0
100

0
1000

0
10000
. . . (8.88)
oi as lho limil of lho soquonco of lnilo oocimals
0.0, 0.00, 0.000, 0.0000, . . . (8.80)
(a) Lxplain lho iolalionship Lolwoon (8.88) ano (8.80).
(L) Show lhal lho gonoial loim of (8.80) is
-
n
= 1
1
10
nl
(c) Lxplain whal is moanl Ly lho oqualion
0.0000 . . . = 1
lNFlNlTL SLRlLS 620
37. A h.nn:j J.nn| rnn.n is oolnoo lo Lo
d
0
.d
l
d
2
d
3
. . . d
n
. . .
bo~t 2
= d
0

d
l
2

d
2
2
2

d
3
2
3
. . .
d
n
2
n
. . .
Uso lho goomoliic soiios foimula lo ioouco 0.10101010 . . .
bo~t 2
lo a fiaclion.
38. A hrnJ.nn| rnn.n is oolnoo lo Lo
d
0
.d
l
d
2
d
3
. . . d
n
. . .
bo~t l6
= d
0

d
l
16

d
2
16
2

d
3
16
3
. . .
d
n
16
n
. . .
Uso lho goomoliic soiios foimula lo ioouco 0.0000 . . .
bo~t l6
lo a fiaclion.
39. VrIte to Learn: In lhis oxoiciso, wo ooiivo lhooiom 8.1 in a oiloionl
mannoi.
(a) Lol -
n
= 1 r r
2
. . . r
n
. Show lhal -
n
salislos lho iocuision
-
nl
= r-
n
1
(L) Lxplain why -
0
= 1 ano lhon oxplain why
-
n
= r
n
1 r
n
1 r
(c) Whal is lim
no
-
n
whon [r[ < 1 Whal is lim
no
-
n
whon [r[ _ 1
(o) In a shoil ossay, oxplain how lhis is iolaloo lo lhooiom .1.
40. VrIte to Learn: A Lall iolls wilh a conslanl spooo of 1 yaio ovoiy 4
soconos. 1hus, al limo t = 0 il is al posilion , ano al limo t = 4 il is al
posilion 1:
Howovoi, wo coulo aiguo lhal lho Lall iolls halfway fiom lo 1 in half lho
limo, lhon il iolls half again in half again lho limo, ano so on.
In a shoil ossay, uso goomoliic soiios lo oxplain how wo can slill concluoo
lho Lall is ovonlually al posilion 1.
41. VrIte to Learn: Somo may aiguo lhal oxoiciso 40 implios lhal lho Lall
novoi quilo ioachos posilion 1. Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you aiguo lhal
ovon lhough lho Lall iolls halfway lo 1, lhon half again lo 1, ano so on,
ils posilion afloi 2 soconos ioquiios lhal ils posilion musl Lo 1 afloi ono
socono.
42. 1ho nn: is lho sol of poinls lhal iomains if lho opon inloival
_
l
3
,
2
3
_
is iomovoo fiom [0, 1[ , lho inloivals
_
l
9
,
2
9
_
ano
_
7
9
,
S
9
_
is iomovoo fiom lho
iosull, lho foui inloivals
_
1
27
,
2
27
_
,
_
7
27
,
8
27
_
,
_
10
27
,
20
27
_
,
_
2
27
,
26
27
_
aio iomovoo fiom lho suLsoquonl iosull, ano so on ao inlnilum.
(a) Namo lhioo oiloionl numLois which aio in lho Canloi sol.
(L) Whal is lho lolal of lho longlhs of lho opon inloivals lhal aio
iomovoo
(c) Lasoo on lho iosull in (L), whal woulo you say is lho longlh" of
lho canloi sol ilsolf (i.o., lho longlh" of lho sol lhal iomains afloi
all lho opon inloivals aio iomovoo).
43. 1ho 5.:.n|. jn| is lho goomoliic lguio foimoo Ly lisl paililioning a
squaio inlo foui ioonlical squaios ano lhon lho squaio in lho uppoi iighl
coinoi is iomovoo. Lach iomaining squaio is similaily paililionoo, ano lhon
lho squaio in lho uppoi iighl coinoi of oach is iomovoo.
1ho piocoss is conlinuoo ao-inlnilum. 1ho lguio which iomains onco all
uppoi iighl coinoi" squaios havo Loon iomovoo is calloo lho sioipinski gas-
kol.
Assuming lho inilial squaio has sioos of longlh 1, whal is lho lolal aioa of
lho squaios lhal aio iomovoo fiom lho inilial squaio As a iosull, whal oo
you concluoo is lho aioa" of lho soiipinski gaskol
8.6 The lnLegral TesL
TLe IntegraI Test
In lhis soclion, wo oovolop a convoigonco losl foi .. :n :., which aio
soiios of lho foim
a
l
a
2
. . . a
n
. . . (8.40)
in which a
n
_ 0 foi all :. In pailiculai, a posilivo loim soiios can Lo inloipioloo
lo Lo lho lolal aioa of a colloclion of ioclanglos wilh wiolh 1 ano hoighl a
n
.
THL lNTLCRAL TLST 681
6-1: Soiios as aioa of a colloclion of ioclanglos
1ho pailial sum -
n
=

n
|=l
a
|
lhus iopiosonls lho aioa of lho lisl : ioclanglos.
In pailiculai, -
l
= a
l
is lho aioa of lho 1sl ioclanglo, -
2
= a
l
a
2
is lho
aioa of lho 1sl 2 ioclanglos, ano so on. Howovoi, -
l
_ -
2
Locauso -
2
iopiosonls a
gioaloi aioa, ano similaily, -
2
_ -
3
. Inoooo, lho highoi lho inoox :, lho gioaloi lho
aioa onclosoo, which moans lhal lho soquonco of pailial sums foims an .n:n.nj Ja pa:a|
un o a
poxa a:n
a:a o:n
an nc:aang
aguanca.
j&n:
-
l
_ -
2
_ -
3
_ . . . _ -
n
_ . . .
As a iosull, lho soquonco of pailial sums will havo a limil if il has an uppoi Louno.
Supposo now lhal lhoio is a posilivo, conlinuous, oocioasing funclion ) (a)
foi which ) (/) = a
|
. As is shown in lho lguio Lolow, lho lisl : ioclanglos aio
nocossaiily Lolow lho giaph of ) (a):
6-2: If a
n
_ ) (:) ano ) oocioasing
(8.41)
1hus, wo havo lho following uppoi Louno on lho :
||
pailial sum
a
l
a
2
. . . a
n
_ a
l

_
n
l
) (a) da
Similaily, lianslaling lho ioclanglos ono unil lo lho iighl implios lhal
_
n
l
) (a) da _ a
l
a
2
. . . a
n
so lhal wo havo lho following:
_
n
l
) (a) da _
n
|=l
a
n
_ a
l

_
n
l
) (a) da (8.42)
1hal is, wo can uso an inlogial lo pioouco an uppoi ano lowoi Louno on lho :
||
pailial sum.
IXAMIII 1 Iioouco uppoi ano lowoi Lounos on lho soquonco of
pailial sums of
o
|=l
1
/
2
SoIutIon: If wo lol ) (a) =
l
i
, lhon ) (a) is oocioasing, conlinuous,

posilivo, ano ) (/) =
l
|
. Moioovoi,
_
n
l
) (a) da =
_
n
l
1
a
2
da =
1
a
n
l
so lhal wo havo
_
n
l
) (a) da = 1
l
n
. Sinco a
l
=
l
l
, lhis implios lhal
_
n
l
) (a) da _
n
|=l
1
/
2
_ a
l

_
n
l
) (a) da
1
1
:
_
n
|=l
1
/
2
_ 2
1
:
Foi oxamplo, if : = 10, lhon wo oLlain
0.0 _
l0
|=l
1
/
2
_ 1.0
1 j& h.n| h &n . |: &: h&nJ : h |&: h&nJ Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe IntegraI Test
If
_
o
l
) (a) da oxisls, lhon (8.42) yiolos
n
|=l
a
n
_ a
l

_
n
l
) (a) da _ a
l

_
o
l
) (a) da (8.48)
which implios lhal lho soquonco
n
|=l
a
n
o
n=l
is Lounooo. Moioovoi,
n
|=l
a
n
o
n=l
is also incioasing, so lhal lho monolono convoigonco lhooiomimplios lhal
n
|=l
a
n
o
n=l
convoigos. Howovoi, if
_
o
l
) (a) da oivoigos, lhon (8.42) implios lhal
= lim
no
_
n
l
) (a) da _ lim
no
n
|=l
a
|
1hal is, if
_
o
l
) (a) da oivoigos, lhon so also ooos lho soiios. Moio gonoially, wo
havo lho following.
TLe IntegraI Test: If ) (a) is posilivo, conlinuous ano oocioasing on
[, ) foi somo inlogoi , ano if ) (:) = a
n
foi all : _ , lhon
o
n=l
a
n
convoigos if
_
o
) (a) da convoigos
o
n=l
a
n
oivoigos if
_
o
) (a) da oivoigos
Howovoi, lol us nol foigol lhal lho inlogial losl is ooiivoo fiom (8.42). Inoooo,
many malhomalicians Loliovo lhal lho pioof of lho inlogial losli.o., lho inoqual-
ily (8.42)is moio impoilanl lhan lho conclusion of lho inlogial losl.
IXAMIII 2 Apply lho inlogial losl lo lho soiios
1
1
4

1
0

1
16
. . .
1
:
2
. . . =
o
n=l
1
:
2
(8.44)
SoIutIon: Wo lisl oLsoivo lhal ) (a) =
l
i
is oocioasing, posilivo ano

conlinuous on [1, ) ano also lhal ) (:) =
l
n
. As a iosull, wo ovalualo
lho inlogial of ) (a) = a
2
ovoi [1, ):
_
o
l
1
a
2
da = lim
1o
_
1
l
a
2
da = lim
1o
a
l
1
1
l
= lim
1o
_
1
1

1
1
_
= 1
Sinco lho inlogial convoigos, lho soiios (8.44) also convoigos.
IXAMIII J Uso lho inlogial losl lo ooloimino if lho following soiios
convoigos oi oivoigos:
1
2

2

8
10
. . .
:
:
2
1
. . . =
o
n=l
:
:
2
1
(8.4)
Wo nolico lhal ) (a) =
i
i
l
is oocioasing, posilivo ano conlinuous on
[1, ) ano lhal ) (:) =
n
n
l
_
o
l
a
a
2
1
da = lim
1o
_
1
l
a
a
2
1
da
Wo uso lho suLslilulion n = a
2
1,
l
2
dn = ada wilh limils of inlogia-
lion n(1) = 1
2
1 = 2 ano n(1) = 1
2
1, which givos us ln(a) goa o
a a ap-
p:oaca
_
o
l
a
a
2
1
da = lim
1o
_
1
l
2
dn
n
= lim
1o
ln[n[[
1
l
2
= lim
1o
_
ln
_
1
2
1
_
ln(2)
=
1hus, lho soiios (8.4) oivoigos.
IXAMIII ! Apply lho inlogial losl lo
1
1
c

1
c
2
. . .
1
c
n
. . . =
o
n=0
c
n
(8.46)
SoIutIon: Wo nolico lhal ) (a) = c
i
is oocioasing, posilivo ano
conlinuous on [0, ) ano lhal ) (:) = c
n
lho inlogial of ) (a) = c
i
ovoi [0, ):
_
o
0
c
i
da = lim
1o
c
i
1
0
= lim
1o
_
c
1
c
0
_
= 1 (8.47)
1hus, lho soiios (8.46) convoigos.
1 ;.1) r|n.n &hj
_
o
l
) (a) da nJ n h h nn n
o
n=l
a
n
-SerIes
Finally, lol us apply lho inlogial losl lo an impoilanl class of soiios. Foi a conslanl
j, a soiios of lho foim
1
1
2

1
8
. . .
1
:
. . . =
o
n=l
1
:
(8.48)
is calloo a j-:.. If j 1, lhon wo nolico lhal ) (a) =
l
i
is oocioasing on
[1, ), so lhal wo havo A j-a:a con-
xa:ga j 1
_
o
l
1
a
da = lim
1o
a
l
j 1
1
l
=
1
j 1
lim
1o
_
1
1
l
1
_
=
1
j 1
1hal is, a j-soiios convoigos whon j 1. Moioovoi, foi all 0 < j < 1, lho inlogial
_
o
l
1
a
= lim
1o
a
l
j 1
1
l
=
1
j 1
lim
1o
_
1
l
1
_
=
ano whon j = 1, lho soiios also oivoigos (soo Lolow). Whon j _ 0, lho oivoigonco A j-a:a u-
xa:ga j _ 1 losl implios lhal lho j-soiios (8.48) oivoigos. 1hal is, wo can concluoo lhal a
j-soiios oivoigos whon j _ 1.
IXAMIII Doos lho following soiios convoigo oi oivoigo:
1
1
_
2

1
_
8

1
_
4
. . .
1
_
:
. . .
SoIutIon: Wo can iowiilo lho soiios as
1
1
_
2

1
_
8

1
_
4
. . .
1
_
:
. . . =
o
n=l
1
:
l/2
which is a j-soiios wilh j =
l
2
. Sinco
l
2
< 1, lho soiios oivoigos.
1 h -:.
o
n=l
l
n
n:j : J.:j Chock youi Ioaoing

TLe HarnonIc SerIes
Whon j = 1, lho soiios (8.48) is calloo lho hn:nn. :.. 1hal is, haimonic
soiios is givon Ly
1
1
2

1
8
. . .
1
:
. . . =
o
n=l
1
:
Wo nolico lhal ) (a) =
l
i
is oocioasing on [1, ) so lhal wo ovalualo lho following
inlogial:
_
o
l
1
a
da = lim
1o
_
1
l
a
l
da = lim
1o
ln[a[[
1
l
= lim
1o
(ln[1[ ln[1[) =
1hus, lho haimonic soiios oivoigos lo , which wo wiilo as
1
1
2

1
8
. . .
1
:
. . . = (8.40)
Moioovoi, lho haimonic soiios illuslialos lhal lho pailial sums of a soiios can
convoigo oi oivoigo voiy slowly. As a iosull, losls foi convoigonco aio lo Lo
piofoiioo ovoi numoiical compulalions wilh pailial sums.
Inoooo, in spilo of lho facl lhal lho haimonic soiios sums lo , lho 2000
||
pailial sum of (8.40) is
-
2000
= 1
1
2

1
8

1
4

1

1
6
. . .
1
2000
= 8.178868
In lho laLlo Lolow, wo havo lisloo a sampling of lho pailial sums of lho haimonic
soiios wilh inoicos up lo 800.
: -
n
: -
n
: -
n
2000 8.178868 4000 8.87180 8000 0.6447
2001 8.178868 4001 8.87164 8001 0.64600
2002 8.170867 4002 8.87180 8002 0.6472
2008 8.170867 4008 8.87214 8008 0.6480
2004 8.180866 4004 8.87280 8004 0.6407
200 8.180864 400 8.87264 800 0.6100
Any of lho lhioo columns woulo soom lo inoicalo a convoigonl soiios. Inoooo,
-
d000
= 8.87180 ano -
d005
= 8.87264 oiloi Ly only 0.0012. Howovoi, lho haimonic
soiios ooos nol convoigo, ano ovon lhough lho pailial sums giow voiy slowly, lhoy
oo Locomo inlniloly laigo as : appioachos .
Lxoicisos:
1 ;..) ]nJ &: nnJ |&: h&nJ n h n:.n| &n J h j.n :..
1hn n: h h&nJ &hn : = 10
1.
o
n=l
1
:
3
2.
o
n=l
1
_
:
3
8.
o
n=l
1
:
4.
o
n=l
1
: 1
.
o
n=l
1
_
:
6.
o
n=l
:
t
1J h .. :n :. . n n -:., & h .nj:n| J:n.n .J
h :. n:j : J.:j. 1J h :. . n -:., & h n|& J j
J:n.n .J h :. n:j : J.:j.
7.
o
n=l
1
:
3
8.
o
n=l
1
_
:
3
0.
o
n=l
1
: 1
10.
o
n=l
1
_
:
11.
o
n=l
:
t
12.
o
n=l
1
2: 1
18.
o
n=l
1
2: 1
14.
o
n=2
:
:
2
1
1.
o
n=l
: 1
:
3
16.
o
n=l
1
:
2
2: 1
17.
o
n=2
1
:
2
1
18.
o
n=l
:
:
d
1
10.
o
n=l
:
3
:
d
1
20.
o
n=l
: 1
:
d
:
21.
o
n=l
ln(:)
:
22.
o
n=l
soch
2
(:) 28.
o
n=l
lan
l
(:) 24.
o
n=l
c
n
c
2n
1
2.
o
n=l
ln(:)
:
2
26.
o
n=l
ln(:)
:
3
27.
o
n=l
c
n
sin(c
n
)
28.
o
n=l
:sin
_
l
n
_
20.
o
n=l
1
_
:
2
1
80.
o
n=l
1
_
:
2
0.2
31. Conuter AIgeLra Systen: Uso a compuloi algoLia syslom lo aio in lho
ovalualion of lho impiopoi inlogial implioo Ly lho inlogial losl:
(a)
1
1 2

1
2

1
8 10

1
4 17
. . .
1
:(:
2
1)
. . .
(L)
1
1 2

1
8 4

1
6
. . .
1
(2: 1) 2:
. . .
(c)
1
c 1

1
c
2
1

1
c
3
1
. . .
1
c
n
1
. . .
(o)
1
cosh(1)

1
cosh(2)

1
cosh(8)
. . .
1
cosh(:)
. . .
32. A |jn:.hn. j-:. is a soiios of lho foim
o
n=2
1
:[ln(:)[
Foi whal valuos of j ooos a logaiilhmic j-soiios convoigo Foi which ooos il
oivoigo
33. Consiooi lho soiios
1
c
l/5

2
c
2/5

8
c
3/5
. . .
:
c
n/5
. . . =
o
n=l
:c
n/5
(a) Giaph lho funclion ) (a) = ac
i/5
ano solocl an inloival on which
il is oocioasing.
(L) Lvalualo
_
o
ac
i
da whoio is an inlogoi choson fiomlho inloival
ooloiminoo in (a).
(c) Doos lho soiios convoigo oi oivoigo
34. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxploio lho soiios
1
1 2

1
2 8

1
8 4

1
4
. . .
1
:(: 1)
. . .
(a) Compulo -
l
, -
2
, ano so on unlil you oiscovoi a palloin foi lho
pailial sums. Doos lho soiios convoigo
(L) Lasoo on youi answoi in (a), ooos lho following inlogial convoigo
oi oivoigo
_
o
l
1
a(a 1)
da
(c) Lvalualo lho inlogial
_
o
l
1
a(a 1)
da
Doos lho inlogial convoigo oi oivoigo
35. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxploio lho oivoigonco of lho haimonic soiios
1
1
2

1
8
. . .
1
:
. . .
(a) Show lhal
ln(:) _ 1
1
2

1
8
. . .
1
:
_ 1 ln(:)
(L) Uso lho inoqualily in (a) lo oslimalo lho sizo of lho :
||
pailial sum
of lho haimonic soiios whon : = 1000, whon : = 1, 000, 000 ano
whon : = 1, 000, 000, 000. ALoul how long unlil lho :
||
pailial
sum is gioaloi lhan 100 (Hinl: solvo ln(:) = 100 ).
36. EuIer`s Constant: 1ho slow oivoigonco of lho haimonic soiios molivaloo
Luloi lo sluoy lho soquonco whoso gonoial loim is
-
n
= 1
1
2

1
8
. . .
1
:
ln(:)
(a) Uso lho ioonlily in pail (L) of oxoiciso 8 lo show lhal -
n
_ 0 foi
all :.
(L) Uso lho facl lhal
_
nl
n
l
i
da = ln(: 1) ln(:) lo show lhal
1
: 1
< ln(: 1) ln(:)
(c) Uso lho iosull in (L) lo show lhal lho soquonco of -
n
`s is a oocioas-
ing soquonco.
(o) A oocioasing soquonco which is Lounooo Lolow musl convoigo.
1hus, lhoio is a numLoi calloo 1&|:` nnn such lhal
lim
no
_
1
1
2

1
8
. . .
1
:
ln(:)
_
=
Lslimalo Ly compuling -
n
foi vaiious valuos of :.
37. An AsyntotIc InequaIIty: Lxplain why if
_
o
l
) (a) da oivoigos, lhon
(8.42) implios lhal
1 _
a
l
. . . a
n
_
n
l
) (a) da
_
a
l
_
n
l
) (a) da
1
1hon uso lho squoozo lhooiom lo show lhal
lim
no
_
a
l
. . . a
n
_
n
l
) (a) da
_
= 1
38. VrIte to Learn: A usoful iosull in oslimaling lho sum of a soiios is lhal if
) (a) is posilivo, conlinuous, ano oocioasing wilh ) (:) = a
n
, lhon
_
o
nl
) (a) da _ 1
n
|=l
a
|
_
_
o
n
) (a) da
whoio 1 =
o
|=l
a
|
. Lxplain lhis iosull using lho picluios Lolow:
6-8: Implios inoqualily in oxoiciso 88
39. 1ho inoqualily in 87 shows lhal lho soiios 1 2 8 4 . . . salislos
lim
no
_
1 2 . . . :
_
n
l
ada
_
= 1
Uso lhis lo show oovolop an oslimalo of 1284. . . : foi laigo valuos
of :.
40. 1ho inoqualily in 87 shows lhal lho soiios
_
1
_
2
_
8
_
4 . . . salislos
lim
no
_
_
1
_
2
_
8 . . .
_
:
_
n
l
_
ada
_
= 1
Uso lhis lo show oovolop an oslimalo of
_
1
_
2
_
8 . . .
_
: foi laigo
valuos of :.
8.1 The Comparison and OLher TesLs
TLe ConarIson Test
If

o
n=l
a
n
is a posilivo loim soiios, lhon ils pailial sums -
n
= a
l
. . . a
n
foim
an incioasing soquonco. 1hus, lho soiios will convoigo if lho soquonco of pailial
THL COMPARlSON AND OTHLR TLSTS 680
sums has an uppoi Louno. 1o lno such a Louno, lol us supposo lhal a
n
_ /
n
foi
all : _ 1 ano lol`s supposo lhal

o
n=l
/
n
convoigos. Il follows lhal
a
l
. . . a
n
_ /
l
. . . /
n
_
o
n=l
/
n
foi all :. 1hal is,

o
n=l
/
n
is a Louno on lho pailial sums of

o
n=l
a
n
, lhus
implying lhal

o
n=l
a
n
convoigos.
Convoisoly, lol us supposo lhal

o
n=l
a
n
oivoigos. 1hon lho inoqualily
a
l
. . . a
n
_ /
l
. . . /
n
implios lhal lho pailial sums of

o
n=l
/
n
oo nol havo an uppoi Louno. Honco,
o
n=l
/
n
also oivoigos. As a iosull, wo havo lho following lhooiom.
ConarIson Test: If lhoio oxisls an inlogoi such lhal a
n
_ /
n
foi
all : _ , lhon

o
n=l
a
n
convoigos if

o
n=l
/
n
convoigos ano

o
n=l
/
n
oivoigos if

o
n=l
a
n
oivoigos.
A posilivo loim soiios is oflon compaioo lo lho soiios oLlainoo Ly ignoiing all Lul
lho highosl oiooi loims in lho numoialoi ano in lho oonominaloi. As a iosull,
a givon soiios is oflon compaioo lo a j-soiios. ( iocall lhal a j-soiios convoigos if
j 1 Lul oivoigos if j _ 1 ).
IXAMIII 1 Apply lho compaiison losl lo Compaio a
givon soiios lo
a soiios wilh
only lho highosl
oiooi loims
fiom lho nu-
moialoi ano lho
oonominaloi.
o
n=l
: 1
:
3
2: 1
SoIutIon: Wo compaio lo lho soiios involving only lho oominanl loims
in lho numoialoi ano oonominaloi. 1hal is, wo compaio lho givon so-
iios lo
o
n=l
n
n
=

o
n=l
l
n
. 1o oo so, wo musl consliucl an inoqualily

Lolwoon lho gonoial loims of lho lwo soiios. Wo Login wilh an oLvious
inoqualily involving lho oonominaloi:
:
3
2: 1 _ :
3
1ho iocipiocal lhon loaos lo
1
:
3
2: 1
_
1
:
3
Sinco : 1 _ :, wo mulliply on lho lofl Ly : 1 ano on lho iighl Ly
::
: 1
:
3
2: 1
_
:
:
3
o
n=l
: 1
:
3
2: 1
_
o
n=l
1
:
2
1ho laigoi soiios

o
n=l
l
n
is a convoigonl j-soiios (i.o., j = 2), which

implios lhal lho smalloi soiios

o
n=l
nl
n
2nl
also convoigos.
IXAMIII 2 Doloimino if lho following soiios convoigos oi oivoigos:
o
n=l
2: 1
2:
2
1
SoIutIon: In oiooi lo uso lho compaiison losl, wo lisl nolo lhal wo
wanl lo compaio lo lho soiios
o
n=l
2:
2:
2
=
o
n=l
1
:
which is a oivoigonl j-soiios (j = 1). 1o oo so, wo Login wilh lho
oLvious:
2:
2
_ 2:
2
1
1aking lho iocipiocals on Lolh sioos lhon yiolos Ioconsliucl lho
gonoial loim of
lho givon soiios
on lho lofl of lho
inoqualily.
1
2:
2
_
1
2:
2
1
(8.0)
Sinco 2: _ 2: 1, mulliplying (8.0) on lho lofl Ly 2: ano on lho
iighl Ly 2: 1 ooos nol chango lho inoqualily:
2:
2:
2
_
2: 1
2:
2
1
Applying lho summalion opoialoi lo Lolh sioos yiolos
o
n=l
1
:
_
o
n=l
2: 1
2:
2
1
Sinco lho smalloi soiios oivoigos, lho laigoi soiios

o
n=l
2nl
2n
l
also
oivoigos.
1hoio aio soiios foi which lho inoqualilios oo nol woik oul so nicoly. Howovoi,
lhoso soiios can oflon Lo :.nJrJ lo facililalo lho compaiisons, as is oxploioo in
oxoicisos 8-88, afloi which lho compaiison losl woiks nicoly.
1hn :. &.|| h nn:J &.h h :. Chock youi Ioaoing
o
n=l
1
:
2
:
ALsoIute Convergence
Supposo wo havo a soiios

o
n=l
a
n
whoio lho a
n
`s may Lo oilhoi posilivo oi noga-
livo. Il is oasy lo soo lhal
[a
n
[ _ a
n
_ [a
n
[
Aooing [a
n
[ lhioughoul yiolos
0 _ a
n
[a
n
[ _ 2 [a
n
[
Applying lho summalion opoialoi yiolos
o
n=l
(a
n
[a
n
[) _ 2
o
n=l
[a
n
[
so lhal if lho laigoi soiios 2
o
n=l
[a
n
[ convoigos, lhon so also ooos lho smalloi
soiios,

o
n=l
(a
n
[a
n
[) . Moioovoi, sinco
a
n
= a
n
[a
n
[ [a
n
[
applying lho summalion opoialoi yiolos
o
n=l
a
n
=
o
n=l
(a
n
[a
n
[ [a
n
[) =
o
n=l
(a
n
[a
n
[)
o
n=l
[a
n
[
1hus, if

o
n=l
[a
n
[ convoigos, lhon so also ooos

o
n=l
a
n
. 1his loaos us lo lho
following oolnilion
DehnItIon 7.2: If
o
n=l
[a
n
[ convoigos, lhon
o
n=l
a
n
is saio lo n:j
nh|&|j.
Moioovoi, wo can uso lho compaiison losl lo ooloimino wholhoi oi nol a soiios
convoigos aLsoluloly.
IXAMIII J 1osl lho following soiios foi aLsolulo convoigonco:
1
1
4

1
0

1
16
. . .
(1)
nl
:
2
. . . =
o
n=l
(1)
nl
:
2
(8.1)
SoIutIon: 1ho soiios ilsolf is nol a posilivo loim soiios. Howovoi,
laking lho aLsolulo valuo of oach loim in lho soiios yiolos
o
n=l
(1)
nl
:
2
=
o
n=l
1
:
2
which is a convoigonl j-soiios (i.o., j = 2). Honco lho oiiginal soiios
(8.1) convoigos nh|&|j.
IXAMIII ! 1osl lho following soiios foi aLsolulo convoigonco:
o
n=l
(1)
n
: 2
n
SoIutIon: Sinco 2
n
: foi all posilivo inlogois :, lho soiios of aLsolulo
valuos is of lho foim
o
n=l
(1)
n
: 2
n
=
o
n=l
1
2
n
:
Wo Login lho compaiison Ly lnoing an oxpiossion nn||: lhan 2
n
:.
1o oo so, wo musl suLliacl a loim |n:j: lhan :. Sinco also 2
nl
:,
wo suLliacl 2
nl
lo oLlain
2
n
: 2
n
2
nl
Sinco 2
n
2
nl
= 2 2
nl
2
nl
iooucos lo 2
nl
, wo havo
o
n=l
1
2
n
:
<
o
n=l
_
1
2
_
nl
1ho lasl soiios is a goomoliic soiios wilh common ialio
l
2
, which implios
lhal il convoigos. As a iosull, lho oiiginal soiios
o
n=l
(1)
n
: 2
n
co:crpc- a/-o|ntc|j
n& 2
2l
nnJ nn: . &.h 2. n& 2
3l
nnJ nn: . &.h 8. Chock youi Ioaoing
n& 2
dl
nnJ nn: . &.h 4. nn & n|&J hn 2
nl
. n|&nj h.jj:
hnn :
AIternatIng SerIes
An n|:nn.nj :. is a soiios in which lho signs of lho loims alloinalo. 1hal
is, if a
n
0, lhon
o
n=l
(1)
nl
a
n
= a
l
a
2
a
3
a
d
. . . (1)
nl
a
n
. . .
is an n|:nn.nj :.. If wo also ioquiio lhal lho soquonco a
n
o
n=l
Lo oocioasing
wilh a limil of 0, lhon lho pailial sums havo an inloiosling palloin. 1o Login wilh,
-
2
= a
l
a
2
is loss lhan -
l
= a
l
. Sinco a
2
_ a
3
, aooing a
3
lo -
2
will nol quilo gol
us Lack lo -
l
. 1hal is,
-
3
= a
l
a
2
a
3
_ a
l
a
2
a
2
= a
l
= -
l
Likowiso, suLliacling a
d
fiom -
3
will nol quilo mako il Lack oown lo -
2
. 1hal is,
a
3
_ a
d
implios lhal
-
d
= a
l
a
2
a
3
a
d
_ a
l
a
2
a
3
a
3
= a
l
a
2
= -
2
1hus, lho ooo pailial sums foim a oocioasing soquonco Lounooo Lolow Ly lho
incioasing soquonco of ovon pailial sums:
Cloaily lhon, lho limils of Lolh soquoncos oxisl, ano sinco -
nl
-
n
= (1)
nl
a
n
,
lho oiloionco Lolwoon lho lwo limils appioachos zoio, lhus implying lhal lho limil
of ovon pailial sums ano lho limil of ooo pailial sums Lolh havo lho samo limil
1.
Nolico also lhal lho :
||
pailial sum can Lo no failhoi fiom 1 lhan lho noxl
loim in lho soiios. 1hus, wo havo lho following:
AIternatIng SerIes Test: If
o
n=l
(1)
nl
a
n
is an alloinaling soiios
in which
i) a
n
_ a
nl
)or all : ano ii) lim
no
a
n
= 0
lhon lho alloinaling soiios

o
n=l
(1)
nl
a
n
convoigos lo a numLoi 1
lhal salislos
[-
n
1[ < a
nl
Moioovoi, if a
n
_ 0, lhon

o
n=l
(1)
nl
a
n
is also an alloinaling soiios lo which
lho alloinaling soiios losl can Lo applioo.
IXAMIII 1ho n|:nn.nj hn:nn. :. is lho alloinaling so-
iios givon Ly
1
1
2

1
8

1
4
. . .
(1)
n
:
. . . =
o
n=l
(1)
nl
:
1osl foi convoigonco oi oivoigonco. If il convoigos, compulo -
l0
ano
oslimalo ils accuiacly.
SoIutIon: Il is sliaighlfoiwaio lo show lhal
1
:
_
1
: 1
)or a|| : a:d lim
no
1
:
= 0
1hus, lho n|:nn.nj hn:nn. :. n:j. Moioovoi,
-
l0
= 1
1
2

1
8

1
4

1

1
6

1
8

1
0

1
10
which is appioximaloly -
l0
= 0.7806. Moioovoi, -
l0
musl oiloi fiom
lho sum of lho soiios Ly no moio lhan a
ll
, so lhal wo havo
[0.7806 1[ <
1
11
= 0.0000
1hal is, lho sum of lho soiios 1 musl salisfy
0.68066 < 1 < 0.82146
1 h :.
o
n=l
(1)
n
cos (:a)
:
2
n:j nh|&|j J: n|| a Chock youi Ioaoing
CondItIonaI Convergence
Whon a soiios has Lolh posilivo ano nogalivo loims, lho compaiison losl can Lo
usoo only lo ooloimino wholhoi oi nol lho soiios convoigos aLsoluloly. Howovoi,
il is possiLlo lhal lho givon soiios convoigos wilhoul convoiging aLsoluloly, as is
implioo Ly lho following oolnilion:
DehnItIon 7.3: If lho soiios
o
n=l
a
n
convoigos Lul lho soiios
o
n=l
[a
n
[
oivoigos, lhon lho soiios
o
n=l
a
n
is saio lo n:j nJ..nn||j.
Foi oxamplo, in oxamplo wo oomonslialoo lho convoigonco of lho n|:nn.nj
hn:nn. :.,
1
1
2

1
8

1
4

1

1
6
. . . =
o
n=l
(1)
nl
:
Howovoi, lho soiios of aLsolulo valuos of lho alloinaling soiios is of lho foim
o
n=l
(1)
nl
:
=
o
n=l
1
:
1hal is, lho soiios of aLsolulo valuos piooucos lho hn:nn. :., which was
shown lo oivoigo in soclion 8.4. As a iosull, wo can concluoo lhal lho alloinaling
haimonic soiios ooos not convoigo aLsoluloly.
1hal is, lho alloinaling soiios convoigos, ovon lhough il ooos nol convoigo
aLsoluloly. 1hal is, lho alloinaling haimonic soiios n:j nJ..nn||j.
Soiios which only convoigo conoilionally aio soloom usoo in applicalions Lo-
causo lhoy oflon convoigo voiy slowly ano also Locauso a ioaiiangomonl of lho
loims mighl nol convoigo al all. Foi oxamplo, lho alloinaling haimonic soiios can
Lo ioaiiangoo Ly giouping lho ooo ano ovon loims sopaialoly:
_
1
1
8

1
. . .
1
2: 1
. . .
_
_
1
2

1
4

1
6
. . .
1
2:
. . .
_
(8.2)
Lach of lho lwo soiios in (8.2) lhon compaios lo a j-soiios wilh j = 1, which
implios lhal Lolh soiios oivoigo. 1hal is, lho alloinaling haimonic soiios can Lo
ioaiiangoo inlo lho sum of lwo J.:jn soiios.
Inoooo, il can Lo shown lhal a conoilionally convoigonl soiios can Lo ioaiiangoo
so lhal il convoigos lo any givon numLoi. As a iosull, wo will woik wilh aLsoluloly
convoigonl soiios whonovoi possiLlo in lhis loxlLook.
Lxoicisos:
1h.h J h J||&.nj :. n:j, nnJ &h.h J.:j
1.
o
n=l
: 2
:
3
2.
o
n=l
:
2
4
:
d
1
8.
o
n=l
:
2: 1
4.
o
n=l
2:
:
d
8: 2
.
o
n=l
8:
2
8: 7
2:
3
1
6.
o
n=l
6:
3
7: 1
0:
5
18:
3
2
7.
o
n=l
(: 1)
2
:
d
2: 1
8.
o
n=2
_
: 1
:
2
1
_
2
0.
o
n=2
:
l/2
:
3/2
:
l/2
10.
o
n=l
1
_
: 1
11.
o
n=l
1
2
n
8
12.
o
n=l
2
n
n
:
18.
o
n=2
1 cos (:)
:
2
14.
o
n=2
1
2c
n
1
1.
o
n=l
1
(: 1)!
( Hinl: (: 1)! _ :
2
: )
1:n.n .J h j.n :. n:j nh|&|j. 1J . J n, hn &:. J
n n:j nh|&|j.'
16.
o
n=l
(1)
n
:
2
17.
o
n=l
(1)
n
:
2
1
18.
o
n=2
(1)
nl
: 1
10.
o
n=l
(1)
n
:
2
:
d
2:
20.
o
n=l
(1)
n
_
: 1
21.
o
n=l
1
:
sin
_
1
:
_
22.
o
n=l
sin(:a)
:
2
28.
o
n=l
cos (:a)
:
5
2:
24.
o
n=l
cos (:a)
: cos (:)
1 h |:nn.nj :. J:n.n .J h J||&.nj n:j. 1J hj
n:j, n& h 10
||
n:.n| &n. 1& | . h 10
||
n:.n| &n h
n&n| &n J h :.
2.
o
n=l
(1)
n
:
2
26.
o
n=l
(1)
n
_
:
_
: 1
27.
o
n=l
(1)
nl
: 1
28.
o
n=l
(1)
nl
c
n
20.
o
n=l
sin
_
nt
2
_
80.
o
n=l
l
n
sin
_
nt
2
_
31. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxamino lho conoilionally convoigonl soiios
1
1
8

1

1
7
. . .
(1)
nl
2: 1
. . . =
o
n=l
(1)
nl
2: 1
(8.8)
(a) Lxplain why (8.8) ooos nol convoigo aLsoluloly Lul ooos convoigo
conoilionally.
(L) Ioaiiango (8.8) inlo lho oiloionco of lwo oivoigonl soiios.
32. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxamino lho conoilionally convoigonl soiios
1
2

1
4

1
6

1
8
. . .
(1)
nl
2:
. . . =
o
n=l
(1)
nl
2:
(8.4)
(a) Show lhal (8.4) ooos nol convoigo aLsoluloly Lul ooos convoigo
conoilionally.
33. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxamino lho conoilionally soiios
1
1
2

1
8

1
4

1

1
6

1
7

1
8
. . . (8.)
(a) Show lhal (8.) ooos nol convoigo aLsoluloly.
(L) Ioaiiango (8.) inlo lho sum of lwo conoilionally convoigonl so-
iios.
34. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxamino lho soiios
1
2

1
8

1
4

1

1
6

1
7

1
8

1
0

1
10
. . . (8.6)
(a) Doos (8.6) convoigo oi oivoigo
35. HeIndexIng: In lhis oxoiciso, wo losl foi lho convoigonco of lho soiios
o
n=2
1
4:
2
1
(8.7)
(a) Lxplain why lho compaiison losl cannol Lo oiioclly applioo lo lho
soiios as il is wiillon:
(L) Wiilo oul lho lisl foui loims of (8.7) ano lho lisl foui loims of
lho soiios
o
|=l
1
4 (/ 1)
2
1
Aio lhoy lho samo Lxplain.
(c) Show lhal lho soiios in (L) can Lo wiillon as
o
|=l
1
4/
2
8/ 8
ano lhon apply lho compaiison losl. Doos (8.7) convoigo
36. HeIndexIng: Show lhal
o
n=2
1
(2: 1) 2:
=
1
8 4

1
6
. . . =
o
n=l
1
(2: 1) (2: 2)
ano lhon apply lho compaiison losl lo ooloimino if lho soiios convoigos oi
oivoigos.
37. HeIndexIng: Show lhal lho compaiison losl cannol Lo applioo oiioclly lo
o
n=2
1
:
2
1
Ioinoox lho soiios Ly lolling : = / 1 ano losl foi convoigonco.
38. HeIndexIng: Show lhal lho compaiison losl cannol Lo applioo oiioclly lo
o
n=2
1
2: 1
Ioinoox lho soiios Ly lolling : = / 1 ano losl foi convoigonco.
39. 1ho goomoliic soiios
1
2

1
4

1
8
. . .
1
2
n
. . . (8.8)
can Lo ioaiiangoo inlo lho sum of lwo goomoliic soiios:
_
1
2

1
8

1
82
. . .
1
2
_
1
4
n
_
. . .
_

_
1
4

1
16
. . .
1
4
n
. . .
_
(8.0)
Show lhal (8.8) ano (8.0) convoigo lo lho samo numLoi.
40. In lhis oxoiciso, wo look al ioaiiangomonls of lho aLsoluloly convoigonl soiios
1
1
2

1
4

1
8
. . .
_
1
2
_
n
. . . =
o
n=0
_
1
2
_
n
(8.60)
(a) Uso lho goomoliic soiios losl lo show lhal (8.60) convoigos.
(L) Consliucl lho soiios of aLsolulo valuos of loims in (8.60) ano show
lhal il also convoigos.
(c) Uso lho goomoliic soiios losl lo ooloimino lho sum of lho soiios
1
1
4

1
16
. . .
_
1
4
_
n
. . .
(o) Uso lho goomoliic soiios losl lo ooloimino lho sum of lho soiios
1
2

1
8

1
82
. . .
(hinl: facloi oul 12 ).
(o) Ioaiiango lho soiios in (8.60) so lhal il is lho sum of lho lwo soiios
in (c) ano (o). ComLino lho sums of lho soiios in (c) ano (o) ano
compaio lo lho sum in (a).
41. VrIte to Learn: In a shoil ossay, show lhal lho pailial sums of lho soiios
1
2

1
2

1
8

1
8

1
4

1
4
. . . (8.61)
aio of lho foim
o
n
=
_
2
nl
i) : is ooo
0 i) : is ovon
ano lhon oxplain why lim
no
o
n
= 0. Doos lho soiios (8.61) convoigo aL-
soluloly Whal can wo say aLoul lho soiios
42. VrIte to Learn: In oxoiciso 41, wo showoo lhal lho following soiios con-
voigos conoilionally
1
2

1
2

1
8

1
8

1
4

1
4
. . . (8.62)
In a shoil ossay, oxplain why lho soiios
1
2

1
8

1
4

1
2

1

1
6

1
7

1
8

1
8

1
0

1
10

1
4

1
11

1
12

1
18
. . .
is a ioaiiangomonl of (8.62). Uso lho following pailial sums lo suggosl lhal
lho ioaiiangomonl convoigos, Lul ooos nol convoigo lo 0.
l
2

l
3

l
d

l
2

l
5

l
6

l
7
= 1.0028714
l
2

l
3

l
d

l
2

l
5

l
6

l
7

l
3

l
S

l
9

l
l0
= 1.0068402
l
2

l
3

l
d

l
2

l
5

l
6

l
7

l
3

l
S

l
9

l
l0

l
d

l
ll

l
l2

l
l3
= 1.0068004218
Solf 1osl
J h h|.
(a) An incioasing soquonco musl convoigo.
(L) A convoigonl soquonco musl Lo incioasing.
(c) 1ho oocimal 1.284678010111218 . . . is lho limil of lho soquonco
_
1.2
`
8 . . . :
_
o
n=2
(o) A goomoliic soiios salislos a linoai iocuision
(o) If a
nl
= ) (a
n
) ano [)
t
(j)[ < 1, lhon a
0
closo lo j implios lhal
lim
no
a
n
= j
(f) Lvoiy funclion has al loasl ono lxoo poinl.
(g) If ) (j) = 0, lhon Nowlon`s molhoo convoigos lo j.
(h) 1ho soiios
o
n=l
a
n
convoigos only if lho soquonco a
n
o
n=l
convoigos.
(i) 1ho pailial sums of a posilivo loim soiios foim an incioasing soquonco.
(j) If a
n
_ 0 ano if ) (a) _ 0 salislos
n
|=l
a
n
_
_
n
l
) (a) da
foi all posilivo inlogois :, lhon lho convoigonco of
_
n
l
) (a) da implios
lho convoigonco of lho soiios
o
n=l
a
n
(k) 1ho j-soiios
o
n=l
1
:
convoigos only if j 1
(l) 1ho compaiison losl can Lo usoo lo losl foi lho convoigonco of a con-
oilionally convoigonl soiios.
2. Supposo looay I givo you a oollai ano lhon oach oay afloi I givo you half
of whal I gavo you lho oay Lofoio. How much monoy will I havo ovonlually
givon lo you
(a) $2 (L) $26 (c) $2048 (o)
8. 1ho soiios
o
n=27
2
n
:
2
(a) convoigos (L) oivoigos (c) alloinalos (o) losl is inconclusivo
4. 1ho soiios
o
n=l
_
:
:
2
1
. 1ho soiios
o
n=l
8
n
4
n
6. Doloimino lho limil, if il oxisls, of lho soquonco
1
1
,
8
2
,

8
,
7
4
, . . .
7. Supposo you havo an accounl fiom which you wilhoiaw $100 oach monlh. If
lho inloiosl on lho accounl is 0./ poi monlh, lhon whal minimum inilial
Lalanco is nocossaiy in oiooi foi lho accounl lo always havo moio lhan $100
in il
8. Disciolo Iopulalions can ovon Lo moooloo Ly oqualions of lho foim
j
nl
= / j
n
log
l0
_
1
j
n
_
whoio j
n
is lho populalion afloi : gonoialions, ano whoio / ano 1 aio
posilivo conslanls. Fino ano classify lho lxoo poinls of lhis populalion
moool.
0. Uso Nowlon`s molhoo lo oslimalo lho zoio of
) (a) = a ln(a)
10. Apply Luloi`s molhoo lo lho oiloionlial oqualion
j
t
= j
2
, j (0) = 1
Do lho oslimalos Locomo Lolloi oi woiso as : incioasos Lxplain.
11. 1osl foi convoigonco using lho compaiison losl:
o
n=0
: 1
:
3
8: 1
12. Uso lho inlogial losl lo losl lho convoigonco of lho soiios
o
n=l
:c
n
18. Uso a oiagiam lo show lhal
_
nl
l
da
2a 1
da _
n
|=l
1
2/ 1
_ 1
_
n
l
da
2a 1
ano lhon uso lhis lo oxplain why
o
n
=
n
|=l
1
2/ 1

1
2
ln(2: 1)
is Lounooo Lolow Ly 0 (i.o., o
n
_ 0 foi all :). 1hon show lhal o
n
_ o
nl
foi all : ano lhal o
n
_ 1 foi all :. 1hon oxplain why lho soquonco o
n
o
n=l
convoigos.
14. VrIte to Learn: Lol a
0
ano /
0
Lo posilivo numLois ano oolno
a
nl
=
a
n
/
n
2
a:d /
nl
=
_
a
n
/
n
Show lhal if )
n
=
or
br
, lhon
)
nl
=
1
2
_
_
)
n

1
_
)
n
_
(8.68)
Fino lho lxoo poinl(s) of (8.68) ano show lhal lhoy aio slaLlo. 1hon in a
shoil ossay, oxplain why (8.68) implios lhal
lim
no
a
n
= lim
no
/
n
whon Lolh limils oxisl.
8
1. *1osl foi convoigonco:
o
n=l
: 2
n
:
2
2
n
16. *1osl foi convoigonco:
o
n=l
ln(:)
:
2
Jh Ar 5... Jh 1.nnnn 7n 1&n.n
Goomoliic soiios occui naluially in lho sluoy of goomoliic piogiossion ano
linoai iocuision. Lul oo j-soiios aclually occui in applicalions Inoooo, lhoy
oo, ano oui noxl slop is lo show lhal j-soiios aio impoilanl in a wioo vaiioly of
applicalions.
1ho answoi is lhal lho numLoi ano lho vaiioly of applicalions is liuly amazing!
Foi oxamplo, lho 1.nnnn 7n J&n.n foi posilivo inlogoi valuos j 1 can Lo
oolnoo
(j) =
1
(j 1)!
_
o
0
t
l
c
|
1
dt (8.64)
whoio (j 1)! = j (j 1) . . . 8 2 1 is lho piooucl of lho lisl j posilivo inlogois.
1ho Iiomann Zola funclion can also Lo oolnoo foi non-inlogoi valuos of j, as wo
will soo Lolow.
Inlogials of lho foim (8.64) occui fioquonlly in Lolh quanlum mochanics ano
slalislical mochanics. Foi oxamplo, Ilanck usoo lho concopl of a quanlum of
onoigy lo show lhal lho lolal inlonsily iaoialoo Ly a LlackLooy al lhoimal oqui-
liLiium is
1
|o|ol
=
2/
c
2
_
o
0
i
3
c
|i/|T
1
di (8.6)
whoio c is lho spooo of lighl in a vacuum, / is Ilanck`s conslanl, / is Lollzmann`s
conslanl, ano T is lho lompoialuio of lho Llack Looy. In aooilion, lho Iiomann
zola funclion is founoalional in lho sluoy of piimo numLois.
Howovoi, lol`s nolico lhal lho inlogial (8.64) is oquivalonl lo
(j) =
1
(j 1)!
_
o
0
t
l
c
|
(c
|
1) c
|
dt =
1
(j 1)!
_
o
0
1
1 c
|
t
l
c
|
dt
8
1ho common limil of o ano b is calloo lho n:.hn.-jn:. moan of o
ano b
. Il is
impoilanl in many applicalions, such as lho ono in lho nJnnJ nr al lho ono of chaploi
6.
Sinco c
|
< 1 foi all t 0, wo can uso lho goomoliic soiios lo wiilo
1
1 c
|
=
o
n=0
_
c
|
_
n
=
o
n=0
c
n|
(j) =
1
(j 1)!
_
o
0
o
n=0
c
n|
t
l
c
|
dt =
1
(j 1)!
_
o
0
o
n=0
t
l
c
(nl)|
dt
Now lol us assumo lhal lho inlogial ano lho sum can Lo swilchoo (a ialhoi laigo
assumplion, Lul ono lhal can nonolholoss Lo shown lo Lo valio afloi a gioal ooal
of juslilcalion). 1hon
(j) =
o
n=0
1
(j 1)!
_
o
0
t
l
c
(nl)|
dt
Lol`s now io-inoox wilh : = :1, so lhal insloao of : = 0 lo , wo havo : = 1
lo :
(j) =
o
n=l
1
(j 1)!
_
o
0
t
l
c
n|
dt (8.66)
Allhough lhis may soom a Lil complicaloo al lhis poinl, lol ovalualo il foi
j = 8:
(8) =
o
n=l
1
2!
_
o
0
t
3l
c
n|
dt =
o
n=l
1
2 1
_
o
0
t
2
c
n|
dt
1ho impiopoi inlogial musl Lo ovalualoo using laLulai inlogialion:
n d
t
2
c
n|
2t
l
n
c
n|
2
l
n
c
n|
0
l
n
c
n|
1ho iosull is lhal
_
o
0
t
2
c
n|
dt = lim
1o
_
t
2
:
c
n|
2t
:
2
c
n|
2
:
3
c
n|
_
1
0
=
2
:
3
(8) =
o
n=l
1
2
_
o
0
t
2
c
n|
dt =
o
n=l
1
2
2
:
3
=
o
n=l
1
:
3
1hal is, (8) is a j-soiios wilh j = 8.
Likowiso, il can Lo shown lhal
(j) =
o
n=l
1
:
(8.67)
foi all j 1. Consoquonlly, ovoiy applicalion involving lho Iiomann Zola funclion
aio aclually applicalion of j-soiios. Inoooo, lho impoilanco of lho j-soiios in
applicalions cannol Lo ovoislaloo.
VrIte to Learn Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you uso j = 2 in lho foimula (8.66)
lo show lhal (2) is a j-soiios. Incluoo in lho ossay lho compulalion of a
pailial sum of
1
1
2
2

1
8
2

1
4
2
. . .
1
:
2
. . .
as an appioximalion of (2) .
VrIte to Learn Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you uso n =
|u
|T
, dn =
|
|T
di,
n(0) = 0, ano n() = lo iowiilo (8.6) as
1
|o|ol
=
2/
d
T
d
c
2
/
3
_
o
0
n
3
c
u
1
dn
1hon uso lho oiscussion aLovo lo oxpiossion 1
|o|ol
in loims of a j-soiios.
VrIte to Learn In gonoial, lho Iiomann Zola funclion is oolnoo
(a) =
1
I(a)
_
o
0
t
il
c
|
1
dt, a 1
whoio lho jnnnn J&n.n is oolnoo I(a) =
_
o
0
t
il
c
|
dt. Uso lho molhoos
aLovo lo show lhal wo can iowiilo (a) as
(a) =
1
I(a)
o
n=l
_
o
0
t
il
c
n|
dt
1hon lol n = :t, dn = :dt, n(0) = 0 ano n() = lo show lhal (a)
iooucos lo a j-soiios.
VrIte to Learn Go oo lho liLiaiy anooi soaich lho inloinol lo lno oul as much
as you can aLoul lho Iiomann Zola funclion. Wiilo a foimal iopoil oolailing
youi lnoings.
Crou LearnIng Ono of lho mosl impoilanl ioonlilios of lho Iiomann zola func-
lion is lhal if : is an inlogoi, lhon
(1 :) =
2
(2)
n
cos
_
:
2
_
(: 1)! (:)
Lach momLoi of lho gioup shoulo chooso ono of (1) , (2) , (8) , ano
(4) ano shoulo uso lho ioonlily aLovo lo oxpioss lho iospoclivo valuos in
loims of convoigonl j-soiios.
JnnJ nr:
1ho j-soiios iopiosonlalion (8.67) of (a) only woiks foi a 1, Lul (a) ilsolf
aclually oxisls foi a much laigoi iango of a. 1o soo lhis, lol us nolico lhal if wo
alloinalo signs in a posilivo loim soiios, lhon in ils sum wilh lho oiiginal soiios
lho ooo loims cancol.
_
1
1
2
i

1
8
i

1
4
i
. . .
_
_
1
1
2
i

1
8
i

1
4
i
. . .
_
=
2
2
i

2
4
i
. . .
Sinco (a) = 1
l
2

l
3

l
d
. . . , wo havo
(a)
o
n=l
(1)
n
:
i
=
2
2
i

2
4
i
. . .
2
(2:)
i
. . .
Howovoi, lho soiios on lho iighl is lho sum ovoi posilivo ovon inlogois, which aio
of lho foim 2:, so lhal wo can wiilo
(a)
o
n=l
(1)
n
:
i
=
o
n=l
2
(2:)
i
which in luin loaos lo
(a)
o
n=l
(1)
n
:
i
=
o
n=l
2
2
i
:
i
=
2
2
i
o
n=l
1
:
i
Sinco (a) =

o
n=l
l
n
, wo lhus havo
(a)
o
n=l
(1)
n
:
i
= 2
li
(a)
which wo solvo foi (a) lo oLlain
(a) =
1
1 2
li
o
n=l
(1)
n
:
i
(8.68)
Il can Lo shown lhal lho soiios in (8.68) convoigos foi all a 0, so lhal (8.68) is
oolnoo foi all a 0 such lhal a ,= 1.
Moioovoi, unliko lho j-soiios iopiosonlalion, lho iopiosonlalion (8.68) of lho
zola funclion iaisos lho possiLilily lhal (a) may havo zoioos foi somo valuos of
a 0. Inoooo, ono of lho mosl famous unsolvoo pioLloms in malhomalics is lho
1.nnnn 1jh., which conjocluios lhal if (.) = 0 ano . is nol a nogalivo
numLoi, lhon . is an imaginaiy numLoi of lho foim
. =
1
2
io
whoio o can Lo oilhoi posilivo oi nogalivo ano i is lho imaginaiy unil, i
2
=
1. Locauso of lho impoilanco of (a) in physics, onginooiing, ano malhomalics,
solving lho Iiomann Hypolhosis woulo likoly havo a piofouno olocl on lhoso lolos.
As an aoooo inconlivo, lho Iiomann Hypolhosis is a Millonnium pioLlom of lho
Clay Malhomalics Inslilulo which olois a piizo of 1 million oollais lo lho lisl
poison oi poisons lo solvo lho Iiomann Hypolhosis.
1. Uso lho alloinaling soiios losl lo show lhal

o
n=l
(l)
r
n
convoigos foi all

a 0.
2. ** Anolhoi iopiosonlalion of lho zola funclion is givon Ly
(a) =
1
1 2
li
o
n=0
1
2
nl
n
|=0
:!
/! (: /)!
(1)
|
(/ 1)
i
Can you show lhal il iooucos lo (8.68) (Hinl:
n!
|!(n|)!
is calloo a h.nn.n|
.n Locauso il is lho /
||
onliy in lho :
||
iow of Iascal`s liianglo. You
may also wanl lo oxploio 1&|:` :. :nnJ:nn.n ).
8. ** 1ho valuo of (1) is impoilanl in :n:nn|..n.n h:j. 1hus, wo
nooo a iopiosonlalion foi (a) lhal convoigos foi nogalivo numLois as woll.
Can you show lhal lho soiios
o
n=0
1
2
nl
n
|=0
:!
/! (: /)!
(1)
|
(/ 1)
i
convoigos foi all a Whal is lho iosulling oxpiossion foi (1) (soo piovious
oxoiciso) (Hinl: you will nooo lo compaio lo a goomoliic soiios, ano you
may nooo lo oxploio lho liLiaiy ano lho inloinol lo lno aooilional piopoilios
of lho Linomial coomcionls).
9. TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
Locauso lhoy aio Lasoo on Linaiy logic, calculalois ano compulois can only aoo, A conpua:
on|, capa||a
o pa:o:nng
a|anana:,
a:nac. A||
ga: naa-
nac nu |a
np|ananau
t ota:a.
suLliacl, mulliply ano oiviooano lhoy oo nol oivioo all lhal woll! 1hal is,
a compuloi ooos nol naluially oslimalo ln(2) wilh lho oocimal appioximalion
0.6081472, Lul ialhoi il musl Lo piogiammoo lo pioouco such appioximalions
using only aiilhmolic ano Linaiy logic.
Howovoi, a polynomial is Ly oolnilion a funclion lhal involvos only aooilion,
suLliaclion ano mulliplicalion. 1hal is, polynomials can Lo compuloo oxaclly
wilh a compuloi ano aio lhus iooal foi uso as appioximalions lo moio complicaloo
funclions.
In many applicalions, lho polynomials usoo in appioximalions aio 1ayloi poly-
nomials, whoio lho n
||
Jnj|: |jnn.n| J a funclion ) (a) conloioo al a numLoi
j is oolnoo lo Lo
T
n
(a) = ) (j) )
t
(j) (a j)
)
tt
(j)
2!
(a j)
2
. . .
)
(n)
(j)
:!
(a j)
n
(0.1)
whoio )
(n)
(j) is lho :
||
ooiivalivo of ) (a) al a = j ano whoio lho facloiial
funclion :! is lho piooucl of lho posilivo inlogois fiom 1 up lo :. Inoooo, lho
funoamonlal lhooiomof calculus allows us lo oxlono 1ayloi polynomials inlo ono of
lho mosl impoilanl malhomalical lools ovoi inliooucoo inlo scioncolho 1ayloi`s
soiios oxpansion of a funclion.
1ayloi`s soiios aio uniivaloo in lhoii voisalilily, as lhoy appoai in sollings
ianging fiom numoiical appioximalion in compuloi piogiamming lo lhooiolical
oosciiplions of suLalomic pailiclos in quanlum mochanics. Wo will soo somo of
lhoso applicalions in lho pagos lo como, along wilh many of lho olhoi iooas ano
applicalions lhal havo maoo 1ayloi`s soiios founoalional lo much of lho scionco
ano malhomalics of lho pasl lhioo hunoioo yoais.
9.1 Taylor Polynomials
CeneraIIzIng tLe Tangent LIne Concet
In lhis soclion, wo gonoializo lho langonl lino concopl lo highoi oogioo polynomials.
Spocilcally, lho n
||
Jnj|: |jnn.n| J a funclion ) (a) conloioo al a numLoi j
is oolnoo lo Lo
T
n
(a) = ) (j) )
t
(j) (a j)
)
tt
(j)
2!
(a j)
2
. . .
)
(n)
(j)
:!
(a j)
n
(0.2)
whoio )
(n)
(j) is lho :
||
ooiivalivo of ) (a) al a = j ano whoio :!, pionouncoo :
facloiial," is lho piooucl of lho posilivo inlogois fiom 1 up lo :.
1o lno lho :
||
1ayloi polynomial of a funclion ) (a) foi givon : ano j, wo
consliucl a laLlo in which lho lisl column conlains lho numLois 0 up lo : ano
lho socono column conlains lho ooiivalivos of ) (a) of oiooi 0 up lo oiooi :, wilh
TAYLOR`S SLRlLS 67
)
(0)
(a) Loing lho funclion ilsolf. A lhiio column is consliucloo fiom lho socono
column Ly suLsliluling lho givon j inlo oach of lho ooiivalivos of ) (a) , ano lhon
lho lhiio column is usoo lo consliucl lho 1ayloi polynomial using (0.2). Moioovoi,
& J n .n|.Jj &: n&n.n, Locauso in laloi soclions wo will Lo liying Simplifying
compulalions
ooslioys
palloins.
lo ioonlify palloins in lho compulalions, ano simplilcalion ooslioys palloins.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho lhiio oogioo 1ayloi polynomial of ) (a) = a
d
conloioo al j = 2.
SoIutIon: Wo Login wilh a laLlo whoso lisl iow is lho zoio-lh"
ooiivalivo of lho funclioni.o., lho funclion ilsolf. Wo lhon complolo
lho column Ly compuling lho lisl, socono, ano lhiio ooiivalivos of
) (a) , which givos us
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(2)
0 a
d
1 4a
3
2 4 8a
2
8 4 8 2a
Wo complolo lho laLlo Ly ovalualing oach of lho onliios in lho socono
column al j = 2, which yiolos
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(2)
0 a
d
2
d
1 4a
3
4 2
3
2 4 8a
2
4 8 2
2
8 4 8 2a 4 8 2 2
Fiom (0.2), wo soo lhal lho lhiio oogioo 1ayloi polynomial of ) (a)
conloioo al j = 2 is
T
3
(a) = ) (2) )
t
(2) (a 2)
)
tt
(2)
2!
(a 2)
2
)
ttt
(2)
8!
(a 2)
3
Sinco 2! = 2 1 ano 8! = 8 2 1, llling in fiom lho laLlo yiolos
T
3
(a) = 2
d
4 2
3
(a 2)
4 8 2
2
2 1
(a 2)
2
4 8 2 2
8 2 1
(a 2)
3
Cancollalion ano simplilcalion lhon yiolos
T
3
(a) = 16 82 (a 2) 24 (a 2)
2
8 (a 2)
3
IXAMIII 2 Fino T
2
(a) conloioo al 1 of ) (a) = ln(a) .
SoIutIon: Wo Login wilh lho laLlo of ooiivalivo infoimalion:
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(1)
0 ln(a) ln(1)
1 a
l
1
2 a
2
1
68 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
ano sinco ln(1) = 0, llling in fiom lho laLlo yiolos
T
2
(a) = ) (1) )
t
(1) (a 1)
)
tt
(1)
2!
(a 1)
2
= 0 1 (a 1)
1
2
(a 1)
2
= (a 1)
1
2
(a 1)
2
Il is impoilanl lo nolo lhal lho :
||
oogioo 1ayloi polynomial of an :
||
oogioo
polynomial is oqual lo lho polynomial ilsolf, iogaioloss of whoio lho appioximalion
is conloioo.
IXAMIII J Fino T
2
(a) conloioo al j = 8 whon ) (a) = a
2
.
SoIutIon: 1ho laLlo of ooiivalivos is
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(8)
0 a
2
0
1 2a 6
2 2 2
As a iosull, lho 1ayloi polynomial T
2
(a) is
T
2
(a) = 0 6 (a 8)
2
2!
(a 8)
2
If wo oxpano lho 1ayloi polynomial in oxamplo 8, wo oLlain
T
2
(a) = 0 6a 18 a
2
6a 0
= a
2
6a 6a 0 0 18
= a
2
1hn . T
5
(a) J ) (a) = a
5
n:J n j = 0 Chock youi Ioaoing
LInearIzatIon and QuadratIc AroxInatIon
1ho lisl lwo 1ayloi polynomials aio givon spocial namos ano nolalions. 1ho lisl
1ayloi polynomial is oonoloo Ly 1
(a) ano is of lho foim

T
l
(a) = 1
(a) = ) (j) )
t
(j) (a j) (0.8)
1ho funclion 1
(a) is calloo lho |.nn:..n.n of ) (a) al j sinco ils giaph is lho

langonl lino lo ) (a) al a = j.
jictnrc
TAYLOR POLYNOMlALS 60
IXAMIII ! Fino 1
l
(a) of ) (a) = a
2
. 1hon skolch ils giaph ano
lho giaph of ) (a) ovoi [2, 2[
SoIutIon: 1ho laLlo of ooiivalivos is
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(1)
0 a
2
1
1 2a 2
As a iosull, lho 1ayloi polynomial is
1
l
(a) = 1 2 (a 1)
which simplilos lo 1
l
(a) = 2a 1, so lhal j = 2a 1 is langonl lo
j = a
2
whon j = 1.
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
1ho socono 1ayloi polynomial al j is oflon oonoloo Q
(a) . Il is oolnoo
T
2
(a) = Q
(a) = ) (j) )
t
(j) (a j)
)
tt
(j)
2!
(a j)
2
(0.4)
ano is known as lho j&nJ:n. n:r.nn.n ) (a) whon a = j, ano ils giaph
is a n:nh|n which is langonl lo ) (a) whon a = j.
IXAMIII Fino lho linoaiizalion ano quaoialic appioximalion
i.o., lho lisl ano socono 1ayloi polynomialsal a = 0 of
) (a) = 1 a
a
2
2

a
3
6

a
d
24
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo consliucl a laLlo of ooiivalivos up lo oiooi 2:
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(0)
0 1 a
a
2
2

a
3
6

a
d
24
1
1 1
2a
2

8a
2
6

4a
3
24
1
2
2
2

6a
6

12a
2
24
1
T
l
(a) = 1
0
(a) = 1 1 (a 0) = 1 a
660 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
ano suLsliluling inlo (0.4) yiolos
T
2
(a) = Q
0
(a) = 1 1 (a 0)
1
2
(a 0)
2
= 1 a
a
2
2
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
1-1: ) (a) is in Llack, T
l
is ioo, ano T
2
is gioon
1 T
l
(a) h |.nn:..n.n J T
2
(a) n j = 0 Chock youi Ioaoing
AIIcatIon to DIerentIaI EquatIons
1ayloi polynomials can Lo usoo lo appioximalo solulions lo oiloionlial oqualions.
1o oo so, wo simply complolo oui laLlo Loginning in lho socono column wilh lho
ooiivalivo j
t
ano Loginning in lho lisl column wilh lho givon inilial valuo:
IXAMIII 0 Fino lho quaoialic appioximalion T
2
(a) of lho solu-
lion lo
j
t
= aj, j (0) = 1 (0.)
SoIutIon: Sinco wo will nooo j
tt
(0), wo Login Ly compuling j
tt
using
implicil oiloionlialion:
d
da
j
t
=
d
da
(aj)
Applicalion of lho piooucl iulo iosulls in
j
tt
=
_
d
da
a
_
j a
_
d
da
j
_
j
tt
= j aj
t
(0.6)
Sinco j (0) = 1, wo can now wiilo lho laLlo of ooiivalivos
: j
(n)
(a) j
(n)
(0)
0 j (0) = 1
1 aj
2 j aj
t
Sinco j
t
= aj ano j (0) = 1, wo havo j
t
(0) = 0 j (0) = 0. Likowiso, wo
oLlain j
tt
(0) using j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0 ano lho facl lhal j
tt
= j aj
t
.
: j
(n)
(a) j
(n)
(0)
0 j (0) = 1
1 aj 0 j (0) = 0
2 j aj
t
j (0) 0 j
t
(0) = 1 0 = 1
1ho comploloo laLlo lhon yiolos lho quaoialic appioximalion of lho
solulion of (0.), which is
T
2
(a) = 1 0 (a 0)
1
2
(a 0)
2
= 1
a
2
2
IXAMIII 7 Fino lho quaoialic appioximalion of lho solulion lo
j
t
= a
5
2j
2
, j (1) = 8 (0.7)
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo lisl compulo j
tt
using implicil oiloionlialion:
j
tt
=
d
da
_
a
5
2j
2
_
= a
d
4jj
t
1hus, oui laLlo of ooiivalivos is j
t
(0) in lho soc-
ono iow of lho
lhiio column is
usoo in lho lhiio
iow of lho lhiio
column.
: j
(n)
(a) j
(n)
(1)
0 j (1) = 8
1 a
5
2j
2
1
5
2 8
2
= 10
2 a
d
4jj
t
1 4 8 10 = 288
ano oui quaoialic appioximalion is
T
2
(a) = 1 10 (a 1)
288
2
(a 1)
2
1r|n.n &hj
J
Ji
_
a
5
2j
2
_
= a
d
4jj
t
Chock youi Ioaoing
Second Order DIerentIaI EquatIons
1ayloi appioximalions aio ospocially impoilanl foi socono oiooi oiloionlial oqua-
lions. 1o oo so, j (0) ano j
t
(0) musl Lo givon, so lhal foi a socono oiooi oiloionlial
oqualion, wo nooo only lno j
tt
(0) .
IXAMIII 8 Fino lho quaoialic appioximalion of lho solulion lo
j
tt
= (a 2) j
t
2j, j (0) = 8, j
t
(0) = 4
SoIutIon: Al a = 0, lho oiloionlial oqualion says lhal
j
tt
(0) = (0 2) j
t
(0) 2j (0)
SuLsliluling j (0) = 8 ano j
t
(0) = 4 loaos lo
j
tt
(0) = 2 8 2 (4) = 2
1hus, lho socono 1ayloi polynomial is
T
2
(a) = j (0) j
t
(0) a
j
tt
(0)
2
a
2
= 8 4a
2
2
a
2
ano as a iosull, lho quaoialic appioximalion of lho solulion is
T
2
(a) = a
2
4a 8
662 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
In facl, in many applicalionsin numoiical analysis ano physics, foi oxamplo
il is nol unusual foi lho solulions lo socono oiooi oiloionlial oqualions lo Lo
polynomials. In such casos, lho 1ayloi polynomials aio nol only appioximalions,
Lul oflon aio lhomsolvos lho solulions.
Foi oxamplo, lho 1ayloi polynomial j = a
2
4a8 wo consliucloo in oxamplo
8 is aclually a solulion lo lho oiiginal oiloionlial oqualion
j
tt
= (a 2) j
t
2j
1o soo lhis, lol`s nolico lhal j
t
= 2a 4 ano j
tt
= 2, so lhal suLslilulion loaos lo
2 = (a 2) (2a 4) 2
_
a
2
4a 8
_
Wo now FOIL (i.o., uso lho oisliiLulivo law) lo oLlain
2 =
_
2a
2
4a 4a 8
_
_
2a
2
8a 6
_
2 = 2a
2
8a 8 2a
2
8a 6
2 = 2
1hal is, j = a
2
4a 8 iooucos j
tt
= (a 2) j
t
2j lo an ioonlily (i.o., il makos
lho oiloionlial oqualion liuo), so lhal il is inoooo a solulion.
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h j.n Jnj|: |jnn.n| n:J n h j.n n|& j. Jhn j:nh h
Jnj|: |jnn.n| nnJ h J&n.n n nn .n:n| nn.n.nj j.
1. T
2
(a) foi ) (a) = a
2
8a 1, j = 0
2. T
2
(a) foi ) (a) = a
3
8a
2
a 1, j = 1
8. T
3
(a) foi ) (a) = sin(a) , j = 0
4. T
3
(a) foi ) (a) = lan(a) , j = 0
. T
d
(a) foi ) (a) = ln(a) , j = 1
6. T
d
(a) foi ) (a) = ln(a 1), j = 2
7. T
3
(a) foi ) (a) = c
i
, j = 0
8. T
3
(a) foi ) (a) = cos (a), j =
t
d
0. T
d
(a) foi ) (a) = sin
_
a
2
_
, j = 0
10. T
3
(a) foi ) (a) = c
i
, j = 1
1.nJ h |.nn:..n.n nnJ &nJ:n. n:r.nn.n J h j.n J&n.n n h
j.n .n&. Jhn j:nh h J&n.n, . |.nn:..n.n, nnJ . &nJ:n. n:r-
.nn.n.
11. ) (a) = a
3
, j = 1 12. ) (a) = a
5
, j = 1
18. ) (a) = c
i
, j = 0 14. ) (a) = ln(a) , j = 1
1. ) (a) =
_
2 a
2
, j = 1 16. ) (a) =
_
2 a
2
, j = 0
17. ) (a) = cosh(a) , j = 0 18. ) (a) = sinh(a) , j = 0
1.nJ h j&nJ:n. n:r.nn.n h |&.n J nh J h J||&.nj .n..n|
n|& :h|n.
10. j
t
= 6a
2
, j (0) = 4 20. j
t
= sin
_
a
2
_
, j (
_
) = 2
21. j
t
= 8j, j(0) = 2 22. j
t
= j
2
, j (0) =
28. j
t
= a
2
j, j (2) = 8 24. j
t
= aj, j (8) = 8
2. j
t
= j c
i
, j(ln(2)) = 1 26. j
t
= j
2
c
i
, j (0) = 2
27. j
t
= a
2
j aj
2
, j (0) = 1 28. j
t
=
_
1 j
2
, j (0) = 1
20. j
tt
= 2j j
t
, j (0) = 8, j
t
(0) = 2
80. j
tt
j = 0, j(0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0
31. 1ho following oxploios lho iolalionship Lolwoon lho uppoi half of lho ciiclo
of iaoius 1
)(a) =
_
1
2
a
2
ano ils quaoialic appioximalion al 0 foi vaiious valuos of 1.
(a) Show lhal lho quaoialic appioximalion of ) (a) al 0 is
T
2
(a) = 1
a
2
21
(L) Giaph ) (a) ano T
2
(a) whon 1 = 0. on [0.2, 0.2[
(c) Giaph ) (a) ano T
2
(a) whon 1 = 2.2 on [1.12, 1.12[
(o) Giaph ) (a) ano T
2
(a) whon 1 = 10 on [, [
32. VrIte to Learn: In aslionomical loloscopos, paiaLolic miiiois aio usoo lo
collocl ano focus incoming lighl on lho oyopioco. Howovoi, in consliucling
low cosl aslionomical loloscopos, a ciiclo is usoo lo appioximalo a paiaLola
sinco sphoiical miiiois cosl loss lo manufacluio lhan paiaLolic miiiois. A
iulo of lhumL is lhal sphoiical miiiois aio only usoo on loloscopos wilh
miiiois loss lhan 4. inchos in oiamoloi. Wiilo a shoil ossay which oosciiLos
why sphoiical miiiois can Lo usoo on small loloscopos Lul shoulo nol Lo
usoo on laigoi loloscopos. (hinl: soo piovious oxoiciso).
33. A spocial caso of 1jnJ:` J.]:n.n| j&n.n is givon Ly
(1 a
2
)j
tt
2aj
t
6j = 0, j(0) =
1
2
, j
t
(0) = 0 (0.8)
(a) Show lhal T
2
(a) =
l
2
_
8a
2
1
_
(L) Show lhal j =
l
2
_
8a
2
1
_
is a solulion lo (0.8).
34. 1ho 1:n. |jnn.n| aio solulions lo lho oiloionlial oqualion
j
tt
2aj
t
2:j = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0 (0.0)
(a) Show lhal T
2
(a) = 1 :a
2
. Whal is T
2
(a) whon : = 2
(L) Show lhal j = 1 2a
2
is a solulion lo (0.0) whon : = 2.
35. 1ho hhjh |jnn.n| aio solulions of lho oiloionlial oqualion
_
1 a
2
_
j
tt
aj
t
:
2
j = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0 (0.10)
foi : = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
(a) Show lhal T
2
(a) = 1 2a
2
whon : = 2.
(L) Show lhal j = 1 2a
2
is a solulion lo (0.10) whon : = 2.
(c) Fino T
3
(a) whon : = 8, ano lhon show Ly suLslilulion inlo (0.10)
lhal il is aclually a solulion lo (0.10) whon : = 8.
(o) 1ho ChoLyshov polynomials can also Lo oolnoo
T
n
(a) = cos
_
:cos
l
(a)
_
(0.11)
whoio cos
l
(a) is lho invoiso cosino. Show lhal (0.11) simplilos lo
T
2
(a) = 1 2a
2
whon : = 2 ano lo lho answoi in (c) whon : = 8.
36. 1ho 1nj&:: |jnn.n| 1
o
n
(a) aio solulions lo lho oqualion
aj
tt
(c 1 a) j
t
:j = 0, j (0) =
1
2
(1 c) (2 c) , j
t
(0) = 2c
Whal is 1
o
2
(a)
664 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
37. In lhis oxoiciso wo oxamino lho inilial valuo pioLlom
j
t
=
2j
a 1
, j (0) = 1 (0.12)
(a) Show lhal lho quaoialic appioximalion of lho solulion is T
2
(a) =
1 2a a
2
.
(L) Show oiioclly lhal j = 1 2a a
2
is lho solulion lo (0.12).
(c) Solvo (0.12) using sopaialion of vaiiaLlos. Is il lho samo as lho
funclions in (a) ano (L)
38. Fino T
5
(a) conloioo al j = 0 foi ) (a) = (a 1)
5
. How is lhis iolaloo lo
Iascal`s liianglo oxpansion of (a 1)
5
39. L`LoItaI`s ruIe: Assumo lhal p

tt
(j) ,= 0 ano uso lho quaoialic appioxima-
lions of ) (a) ano p (a) lo show lhal whon ) (j) = p (j) = )
t
(j) = p
t
(j) = 0,
lhon
lim
i
) (a)
p (a)
=
)
tt
(j)
p
tt
(j)
40. L`LoItaI`s ruIe: Assumo lhal p
ttt
(j) ,= 0 ano uso cuLic appioximalions of
) (a) ano p (a) lo show lhal whon ) (j) = p (j) = )
t
(j) = p
t
(j) = )
tt
(j) =
p
tt
(j) = 0, lhon
lim
i
) (a)
p (a)
=
)
ttt
(j)
p
ttt
(j)
41. 1ho 0
||
oiooi Lossol funclion is oolnoo
J
0
(a) =
1
_
t
0
cos (asin0) d0
(a) Whal is J
0
(0)
(L) 1o compulo lho ooiivalivo of J
0
(a) , wo oiloionlialo unooi lho
inlogial sign. 1hal is,
J
t
0
(a) =
d
da
1
_
t
0
cos (asin0) d0 =
_
t
0
_
d
da
cos (asin0)
_
d0
Whal is J
t
0
(0)
(c) Similaily, lno J
tt
0
(0) . Whal is lho socono 1ayloi polynomial T
2
(a)
of J
0
(a) conloioo al 0.
42. 1ho 1
~|
oiooi Lossol funclion is oolnoo
J
l
(a) =
1
_
t
0
cos (asin0 0) d0
(a) Whal is J
l
(0)
(L) 1o compulo lho ooiivalivo of J
l
(a) , wo oiloionlialo unooi lho
inlogial sign. 1hal is,
J
t
l
(a) =
d
da
1
_
t
0
cos (asin0 0) d0 =
_
t
0
_
d
da
cos (asin0 0)
_
d0
Whal is J
t
l
(0)
(c) Similaily, lno J
tt
l
(0) . Whal is lho socono 1ayloi polynomial T
2
(a)
of J
l
(a) conloioo al 0.
43. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxploio lho facl lhal if T
n
(a) is lho :
||
1ayloi polynomial
of ) (a) , lhon lho poilion of [T
n
(a)[
2
lhal foims an :
||
oogioo polynomial
is lho :
||
1ayloi polynomial of [) (a)[
2
.
(a) Show lhal lho 2
nJ
1ayloi polynomial of ) (a) = cos (a) conloioo al
0 is
T
2
(a) = 1
a
2
2
(0.18)
(L) Fino T
2
(a) conloioo al 0 of lho funclion
p (a) =
1
2

1
2
cos (2a)
(c) Show lhal p (a) = cos
2
(a) , ano lhon squaio lho polynomial in
(0.18). How is il iolaloo lo lho iosull in (L)
44. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxploio lho facl lhal if T
n
(a) is lho :
||
1ayloi polynomial
of ) (a) , lhon lho poilion of [T
n
(a)[
2
lhal foims an :
||
oogioo polynomial
is lho :
||
1ayloi polynomial of [) (a)[
2
.
(a) Show lhal lho 8
:J
1ayloi polynomial of ) (a) = sin(a) conloioo al
0 is
T
2
(a) = a
a
3
8!
(0.14)
(L) Fino T
3
(a) conloioo al 0 of lho funclion
p (a) =
1
2

1
2
cos (2a)
(c) Show lhal p (a) = sin
2
(a) , ano lhon squaio lho polynomial in
(0.18). How is il iolaloo lo lho iosull in (L)
9.2 Families of Taylor Polynomials
CeneraI FornuIas Ior TayIor IoIynonIaIs
1ho colloclion of all possiLlo 1ayloi polynomials of a funclion ) (a) is calloo lho
Jnn.|j J Jnj|: |jnn.n| of lho funclion. 1o ooloimino lho family of 1ayloi
polynomials of a funclion, wo lisl ioonlify a n:n iolaling lho ooiivalivos lo lho
inoox :, ano onco lhal palloin is oslaLlishoo, lho oolnilion
T
n
(a) = ) (j) )
t
(j) (a j)
)
tt
(j)
2!
(a j)
2
. . .
)
(n)
(j)
:!
(a j)
n
is usoo lo oovolop a foimula foi lho family of 1ayloi polynomials. 1hal is, lho
palloin is a funclion mapping lho inoox : lo )
(n)
(j), ano lho family of 1ayloi
polynomials is a funclion mapping : lo lho :
||
1ayloi polynomial, T
n
(a) .
IXAMIII 1 Consliucl lho family of 1ayloi polynomial appioxima-
lions lo ) (a) = c
i
conloioo al a = 0.
666 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
SoIutIon: Wo Login wilh a laLlo of ooiivalivos of ) (a) = c
i
:
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(0)
0 c
i
c
0
= 1
1 c
i
c
0
= 1
2 c
i
c
0
= 1
8 c
i
c
0
= 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
: c
i
c
0
= 1
Cloaily, )
(n)
(0) = 1 foi all :, so lhal lho 1ayloi polynomial is
T
n
(a) = ) (0) )
t
(0) (a 0)
)
tt
(0)
2!
(a 0)
2
. . .
)
(n)
(0)
:!
(a 0)
n
= 1 1 a
1
2!
a
2
. . .
1
:!
a
n
1hus, lho family of 1ayloi polynomials of c
i
conloioo al 0 is
T
n
(a) = 1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
a
n
:!
(0.1)
Foimulas liko (0.1) allows us lo gonoialo 1ayloi polynomials of a givon oogioo :.
Foi oxamplo, (0.1) implios lhal lho lisl, lhiio ano lflh 1ayloi polynomials of c
i
conloioo al 0 aio
T
l
(a) = 1 a
T
3
(a) = 1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
T
5
(a) = 1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!

a
d
4!

a
5
!
Moioovoi, as : Locomos laigoi, lho polynomials T
n
(a) Locomo Lolloi ano Lolloi
appioximalions of c
i
, as is shown in lho giaph Lolow in which c
i
is in hoavy Llack
ano T
l
(a) , T
3
(a) , T
5
(a) aio in ioo, Lluo ano gioon, iospoclivoly:
x
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
50
40
30
20
10
0
2-1: 1ayloi Appioximalions of c
i
conloioo al j = 0
1 ;:.1) jn:n T
7
(a). Chock youi Ioaoing
FAMlLlLS OF TAYLOR POLYNOMlALS 667
TLe CeonetrIc SerIes
1ho goomoliic soiios wo consiooioo in soclion 7-8 has ils own family of 1ayloi
polynomial appioximalions.
IXAMIII 2 Consliucl lho family of 1ayloi polynomials conloioo
al 0 of
) (a) =
1
1 a
SoIutIon: Wo Login Ly consliucling a laLlo of lho lisl lvo oi six
ooiivalivos ano lhon suLsliluling 0 &.h& nnj .n|.]n.n! Whon looking
foi a palloin,
oo nol simplify
inloimooialo
calculalions.
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(0)
0 (1 a)
l
1
1 (1 a)
2
1
2 2 (1 a)
3
2
8 8 2 (1 a)
d
8 2
4 4 8 2 (1 a)
5
4 8 2
4 8 2 (1 a)
6
4 8 2
Oui goal is lo iolalo lho inoicos in lho lisl column lo lho ooiivalivos
in lho lhiio column. Sinco 0! = 1, 1! = 1, 2! = 2 1 ano so on, wo havo
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(0)
0 (1 a)
l
1 = 0!
1 (1 a)
2
1 = 1!
2 2 (1 a)
3
2 = 2!
8 8 2 (1 a)
d
8 2 = 8!
4 4 8 2 (1 a)
5
4 8 2 = 4!
4 8 2 (1 a)
6
4 8 2 = !
so lhal lho gonoial foim of )
(n)
(0) is
)
(n)
(0) = :!
As a iosull, lho 1ayloi polynomials conloioo al 0 aio givon Ly
T
n
(a) = ) (0) )
t
(0) (a 0)
)
tt
(0)
2!
(a 0)
2
. . .
)
(n)
(0)
:!
(a 0)
n
= 1 a
2!
2!
a
2
. . .
:!
:!
a
n
= 1 a a
2
. . . a
n
1hal is, lho foimula foi lho :
||
1ayloi polynomial of ) (a) = 1 (1 a)
is
T
n
(a) = 1 a a
2
. . . a
n
(0.16)
Familios of 1ayloi polynomials aio gooo appioximalions of a funclion ) (a) only
on a lnilo inloival conlaining lho conloi a = j. Foi oxamplo, in lho giaph Lolow,
lho funclion ) (a) =
l
li
in hoavy Llack is plolloo againsl
T
l
(a) = 1 a
T
3
(a) = 1 a a
2
a
3
T
5
(a) = 1 a a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
in ioo, Lluo ano gioon, iospoclivoly:
668 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
10
5
0
-5
-10
2-2: 1ayloi appioximalions of (1 a)
l
conloioo al j = 0
Cloaily, lho lhioo polynomials T
l
(a) , T
3
(a) ano T
5
(a) aio not gooo appiox-
imalions of ) (a) whon a is in lho inloival [1, 2[ . Inoooo, T
n
(a) is an incioasingly
Lolloi appioximalion of ) (a) =
l
li
only ovoi lho inloival (1, 1) .
1& n: h Jnj|: |jnn.n| J ) (a) =
l
li
n:J n j = 0 :|nJ h Chock youi Ioaoing
jn:. :.
HesIst tLe \rge to SInIIIy
Locauso lho simplilcalion of inoivioual compulalions can ooslioy lho palloin wo
sook, wo musl iosisl lho uigo lo simplify whon allompling lo iolalo lho inoox :
lo lho :
||
ooiivalivo. Insloao, wo shoulo sook ways of simullanoously iowiiling
onliio columns of coomcionls.
IXAMIII J Consliucl lho family of 1ayloi polynomials lo ) (a) =
ln(a) conloioo al a = 1. Wo Login wilh a laLlo of ooiivalivos:
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(1)
0 ln(a) 0
1 a
l
1
2 1a
2
1
8 (1) (2) a
3
(1)
2
(1 2)
4 (1) (2) (8) a
d
(1)
3
(1 2 8)
(1) (2) (8) (4) a
5
(1)
d
(1 2 8 4)
In lho lhiio column of lho laLlo, wo simullanoously collocloo lho noga-
livo signs" inlo powois of 1. Howovoi, wo sloppoo shoil of simplifying
(1)
2
lo 1, (1)
3
lo 1, (1)
d
lo 1, ano so on.
In oach iow, 1 in lho lhiio column is iaisoo lo ono loss lhan
lho inoox. Similaily, lho piooucls in lho lhiio iow ono al lho inlogoi
which is ono loss lhan lho inoox, so lhal lho gonoial foim of )
(n)
(1) is
)
(n)
(1) = (1)
nl
(1 2 8 . . . (: 1)) = (1)
nl
(: 1)!
As a iosull, lho family of 1ayloi polynomials of ln(a) conloioo al a = 1
is
T
n
(a) = ) (1) )
t
(1) (a 1)
)
tt
(1)
2!
(a 1)
2
. . .
)
(n)
(1)
:!
(a 1)
n
= 0 1 (a 1)
1
2!
(a 1)
2
. . .
(1)
nl
(: 1)!
:!
(a 1)
n
Sinco :! = : (: 1)!, lhis fuilhoi simplilos lo
T
n
(a) = (a 1)
1
2
(a 1)
2
. . .
(1)
nl
:
(a 1)
n
IXAMIII ! Consliucl lho family of 1ayloi polynomials of lho sino
funclion conloioo al a = 0.
SoIutIon: Wo Login wilh a laLlo of ooiivalivos:
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(0)
0 sin(a) 0
1 cos (a) 1
2 sin(a) 0
8 cos (a) 1
4 sin(a) 0
cos (a) 1
1o ioonlify lho palloin in lho lhiio column, wo musl oosciiLo lho ovon
ano ooo loims sopaialoly, which wo oo Ly using inoicos of lho foim
2:" lo oosciiLo ovon loims ano inoicos of lho foim 2:1"lo oosciiLo
ooo loims. Sinco lho ovon coomcionls in lho lhiio column aio zoio, wo Lvon loims aio
inooxoo Ly 2:"
ano ooo loims
aio inooxoo Ly
2a 1"
havo
)
(2n)
(0) = 0
foi all :. Howovoi, )
(l)
(0) = 1, )
(3)
(0) = 1, )
(5)
(0) = 1, ano so on.
1hal is, lho ooo coomcionls alloinalo in sign, which is wiillon as
)
(2nl)
(0) = (1)
n
1hus, lho 1ayloi polynomials conloioo al 0 of sin(a) aio of lho foim
T
2nl
(a) = )
t
(1) (a 0)
)
ttt
(0)
8!
(a 0)
3
. . .
)
(2nl)
(0)
(2: 1)!
(a 0)
2nl
Nolico lhal wo only incluoo ooo inoicos sinco all ovon-inooxoo loims
aio 0. SuLsliluling )
(2nl)
(0) = (1)
n
lhon givos us
T
2nl
(a) = a
a
3
8!

a
5
!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
(2: 1)!
Likowiso, il can Lo shown lhal lho 1ayloi polynomials conloioo al 0 of cos (a) aio
T
2n
(a) = 1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2n
(2:!)
(0.17)
1hal is, lho cosino funclion 1ayloi polynomials involvo only ovon inooxoo loims.
Gn:n T
S
(a) J: cos (a) n:J n 0 &.nj ;:.17). Chock youi Ioaoing
670 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
TayIor IoIynonIaIs ear YertIcaI Asyntotes
Locauso polynomials oo nol havo voilical asymplolos, polynomial appioximalions
aio pooi appioximalions in lho vicinily of a voilical asymplolo. Coiiosponoingly,
if lho :
||
ooiivalivo of ) (a) has a voilical asymplolo, lhon T
n
(a) ano all highoi
oiooi 1ayloi polynomials aio pooi appioximalions of ) (a) on any closoo inloival
conlaining lhal asymplolo.
IXAMIII Fino lho socono ano lhiio 1ayloi polynomials conloioo
al j = 1 of ) (a) = a
d/3
.
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo lisl consliucl a laLlo:
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(1)
0 a
d/3
1
1
d
3
a
l/3 d
3
2
d
9
a
2/3 d
9
8
S
27
a
5/3 S
27
As a iosull, lho socono 1ayloi polynomial conloioo al 1 is
T
2
(a) = ) (1) )
t
(1) (a 1)
)
tt
(1)
2!
(a 1)
2
= 1
4
8
(a 1)
4
0
1
2
(a 1)
2
ano lho lhiio 1ayloi polynomial conloioo al 1 is
T
3
(a) = ) (1) )
t
(1) (a 1)
)
tt
(1)
2!
(a 1)
2
)
ttt
(1)
8!
(a 1)
3
= 1
4
8
(a 1)
4
0
1
2
(a 1)
2
8
27
1
6
(a 1)
3
1ho giaphs of ) (a) = a
d/3
, T
2
(a) ano T
3
(a) aio shown Lolow in Llack, Lluo ano
gioon, iospoclivoly.
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
2-8: 1ayloi polynomials aio nol always gooo appioximalions
Whon a 0, il is cloai lhal T
2
(a) ano T
3
(a) aio gooo appioximalions of ) (a) .
Howovoi, T
2
(a) ano T
3
(a) aio not gooo appioximalions of ) (a) whon a _ 0. 1his
is Locauso )
tt
(a) , )
ttt
(a) , ano all suLsoquonl ooiivalivos of ) (a) havo a voilical
asymplolo al 0, ovon lhough ) (a) ilsolf ooos nol havo a voilical asymplolo.
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h jn:n| J:n J h Jnn.|j J Jnj|: |jnn.n| n:J n j. Jh :&|
J:n r:. 1-1 &.|| h &J .n .n -.
1. ) (a) = c
2i
, j = 0 2. ) (a) = c
i
, j = 1
8. ) (a) = ln(1 a) , j = 0 4. ) (a) = ln(2 a) , j = 1
. ) (a) = a
l
, j = 1 6. ) (a) = a
l
, j = 1
7. ) (a) = a
2
, j = 1 8. ) (a) = a
2
, j = 1
0. ) (a) = cosh(a) , j = 0 10. ) (a) = sinh(a) , j = 0
11. ) (a) = sin(a) , j = 12. ) (a) = cos (a) , j = 2
18. ) (a) = sin(a) , j =
t
d
14. ) (a) = cos (a) , j =
t
d
1. ) (a) = lan
l
(a) , j = 0 16. ) (a) = ln
_
a
2
1
_
, j = 0
17. ) (a) =
l
2
ln
a 1
a 1
, j = 0 18. ) (a) = c
i
, j = 0
1: nh J&n.n j.n h|&, J h J||&.nj:
1.nJ T
2
(a), T
3
(a) nnJ T
d
(a) . `& nnj h nh| & :&| J:n
nh.
G:nh ) (a), T
2
(a), T
3
(a) nnJ T
d
(a) : [8, 8[ .
1Jn.Jj nnj .n:n| n &h.h h Jnn.|j J Jnj|: |jnn.n| J
n nn: :.J jJ n:r.nn.n J ) (a) .
10. ) (a) = a
l
, j = 1 20. ) (a) = a
l
, j = 1
21. ) (a) = ln(1 a) , j = 0 22. ) (a) = ln(2 a) , j = 1
28. ) (a) = a
2/3
, j = 1 24. ) (a) = a
3/5
, j = 1
2. ) (a) = lan
l
(a) , j = 0
26. Lxplain why lho 1ayloi polynomials conloioo al j = 1 aio pooi appioxima-
lions of ) (a) = a
l/3
foi a < 0.
27. Lol ) (a) = [a[ .
(a) Lxplain why T
l
(a) = ) (a) foi all a _ 0 whon T
l
(a) is conloioo al
any j such lhal j 0.
(L) Lxplain why T
n
(a) = T
l
(a) foi all : _ 1 whon T
n
(a) is conloioo
al any j such lhal j 0.
(c) Lxplain why T
n
(a) is nol a gooo appioximalion of ) (a) whon
a < 0.
28. Conuter AIgeLra Systen:
1
Uso a 1ayloi polynomial lo gonoialo T
7
(a) ,
T
9
(a) ano T
ll
(a) conloioo al 0. 1hon giaph lhoso along wilh lho oiiginal
funclion ovoi lho givon inloival:
(a) ) (a) = lan(a) (L) ) (a) = sin
_
c
2i/3
_
(c) ) (a) = lanh(a)
a in [8, 8[ a in [, [ a in [, [
j in [1, 1[ j in [1, 1[ j in [1, 1[
29. 1ho 5.n .nj:n| is oolnoo lo Lo
Si (a) =
_
i
0
sin(t)
t
dt
Ils family of 1ayloi polynomials conloioo al a = 0 is
T
2nl
(a) = a
a
3
8 8!

a
5
!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
(2: 1) (2: 1)!
1
such as lho commano tayIor{oxpiossion1,vai,oiooi[,poinl[) on lho 1I-80 ano 1I-02.
672 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
(a) Whal aio T
5
(a) , T
7
(a) ano T
9
(a)
(L) Giaph T
5
(a) , T
7
(a) ano T
9
(a) ovoi [2, 2[ . Whal woulo you ox-
pocl Si (a) lo look liko ovoi [2, 2[
(c) Conuter AIgeLra Systen:
2
Uso a compuloi algoLia syslom
lo gonoialo T
2l
(a) , T
25
(a) ano T
29
(a) conloioo al 0 of Si (a) ,
ano lhon giaph lhoso lhioo ovoi [10, 10[ . Whal woulo you ox-
pocl Si (a) lo look liko ovoi [10, 10[
30. Lol J
0
(a) oonolo lho 0
||
oiooi Lossol funclion. 1ho family of 1ayloi poly-
nomials of J
0
(a) conloioo al 0 is givon Ly
T
2n
(a) = 1
a
2
4

a
d
4
2
(2!)
2

a
6
4
3
(8!)
2
. . .
(1)
n
a
2n
4
n
(:!)
2
(0.18)
(a) Giaph T
d
(a) , T
6
(a) ano T
S
(a) on [2, 2[ . Do lho giaphs of any
of lho lhioo cioss lho a-axis in lhis inloival
(L) Conuter AIgeLra Systen:
8
Fino T
2d
(a) ano plol il ovoi [0, 10[ .
How many limos ooos ils giaph cioss lho a-axis on [0, 10[
(c) 1ho family of 1ayloi polynomials of J
0
(a) can also Lo wiillon as
T
2n
(a) = 1
a
2
2
2

a
d
2
2
4
2
a
6
2
2
4
2
6
2
. . .
(1)
n
a
2n
2
2
4
2
6
2
. . . (2:)
2
Show lhal T
d
(a) ano T
6
(a) wilh lhis foimula aio lho samo as lhoso
in (a).
31. Lol J
l
(a) oonolo lho 1
~|
oiooi Lossol funclion. 1ho family of 1ayloi poly-
nomials of J
l
(a) conloioo al 0 is givon Ly
T
2nl
(a) =
2a
4

4a
3
4
2
(2!)
2

6a
5
4
3
(8!)
2
. . .
(1)
nl
(2:) a
2nl
4
n
(:!)
2
(0.10)
(a) Giaph T
3
(a) , T
3
(a) ano T
7
(a) on [2, 2[ . Do lho giaphs of any
of lho lhioo cioss lho a-axis in lhis inloival
(L) Conuter AIgeLra Systen:
4
Fino T
23
(a) ano plol il ovoi [0, 10[ .
How many limos ooos ils giaph cioss lho a-axis on [0, 10[
(c) Uso lho facl lhal J
l
(a) = J
t
0
(a) lo ooiivo (0.10) fiom (0.18).
32. In lhis oxoiciso, wo iovisil lho family of 1ayloi appioximalions of ) (a) =
l
li
conloioo al 0, which aio
T
n
(a) = 1 a a
2
a
3
a
d
. . . a
n
(a) Lvalualo T
l
(a) , T
3
(a) ano T
5
(a) al a = 1.
(L) Lvalualo T
2
(a) , T
d
(a) ano T
6
(a) al a = 1.
(c) Compulo ) (1) , ano lhon oxplain why T
n
(1) is nol a gooo ap-
pioximalion of ) (1) foi any valuo of :.
33. Fino lho family of 1ayloi appioximalions of ) (a) = (a 1)
d
conloioo al
a = 0. How aio T
5
(a) , T
6
(a) , . . . iolaloo lo T
d
(a) .
34. Fino lho family of 1ayloi appioximalions of ) (a) = (a 1)
5
conloioo al
a = 0. How aio T
6
(a) , T
7
(a) , . . . iolaloo lo T
5
(a) .
2
8
4
35. Show lhal lho family of 1ayloi appioximalions of ) (a) = c
i
conloioo al j is
T
n
(a) = c
_
1 (a j)
1
2!
(a j)
2
. . .
1
:!
(a j)
n
_
36. Show lhal if a is a conslanl, lhon lho family of 1ayloi appioximalions of
) (a) = c
io
T
n
(a) = c
o
_
1 a
a
2
2!
. . .
a
n
:!
_
9.3 Taylor`s Theorem
EstInatIng Error In LInearIzatIon AroxInatIons
In lhis soclion, wo uso inlogialion Ly pails ano lho funoamonlal lhooiom of calcu-
lus lo oovolop a lool foi ooloimining how woll a 1ayloi polynomial T
n
(a) conloioo
al j appioximalos lho funclion ) (a) lhal gonoialoo il. 1o oo so, wo Login wilh
1ayloi`s lhooiom foi T
l
(a) conloioo al j of a funclion ) (a) which is socono oif-
foionliaLlo ovoi [a, /[ .
In pailiculai, foi a in [a, /[ ano j lxoo, lol`s uso inlogialion Ly pails lo ovalualo
_
i
(a t) )
tt
(t) dt
Sinco t is lho vaiiaLlo of inlogialion, lolling n = a t moans lhal dn = dt.
Moioovoi, lolling d = )
tt
(t) yiolos = )
t
(t) , so lhal
_
i
(a t) )
tt
(t) dt = (a t) )
t
(t)[
i

_
i
)
t
(t) dt
Howovoi,
_
i
)
t
(t) dt = ) (a) ) (j) , so lhal wo havo
_
i
(a t) )
tt
(t) dt = (a a) )
t
(a) (a j) )
t
(j) ) (a) ) (j)
Simplifying ano ioaiianging loims lhus yiolos
_
i
(a t) )
tt
(t) dt = ) (a) [ ) (j) )
t
(j) (a j) [ (0.20)
Sinco T
l
(a) = ) (j) )
t
(j) (a j), lhis fuilhoi simplilos lo
) (a) T
l
(a) =
_
i
(a t) )
tt
(t) dt (0.21)
Applying aLsolulo valuos ano using a piopoily of inlogials lhon
[) (a) T
l
(a)[ _
_
i
[(t a) )
tt
(t)[ dt
674 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
Finally, sinco t, j, ano a aio all in [a, /[ , wo musl havo [t a[ _ [/ a[, so lhal
[) (a) T
l
(a)[ _ (/ a)
_
b
o
[)
tt
(a)[ da (0.22)
foi all a in [a, /[ . Moioovoi, lho inoqualily (0.22) can Lo usoo lo oslimalo lho oiioi
in appioximaling ) (a) ovoi [a, /[ Ly ils linoaiizalion T
l
(a) conloioo al j.
IXAMIII 1 Apply (0.22) lo ) (a) = a
3
ovoi [0.0, 1.1[ if j = 1.
SoIutIon: Sinco )
t
(a) = 8a
2
ano )
t
(1) = 8, wo havo T
l
(a) = 8a 2.
Moioovoi, (0.22) wilh )
tt
(a) = 6a yiolos
[) (a) T
l
(a)[ _ (1.1 0.0)
_
l.l
0.9
[6a[ da
SuLsliluling ano ovalualing lho inlogial lhon yiolos
a
3
(8a 2)
_ (0.2)
_
l.l
0.9
6ada = 0.24
1hal is, lho funclion a
3
oilois fiom 8a 2 Ly loss lhan 0.24 ovoi lho
inloival [0.0, 1.1[ .
8-1: Liioi piooicloo lo Lo loss lhan 0.24
IXAMIII 2 Lslimalo lho oiioi in appioximaling ) (a) = sin(a)
ovoi [0.1, 0.1[ Ly ils linoaiizalion al j = 0.
SoIutIon: 1ho linoaiizalion is T
l
(a) = a. Sinco )
tt
(a) = sin(a) ,
1ayloi`s lhooiom (0.22) Locomos
[) (a) T
l
(a)[ _ (0.1 0.1)
_
0.l
0.l
[sin(a)[ da
which afloi suLsliluling ) (a) = sin(a) ano T
l
(a) = a yiolos
[sin(a) a[ _ (0.2)
_
0.l
0.l
[sin(a)[ da
Afloi ovalualing lho inlogial, wo lno lhal
[sin(a) a[ _ 0.002
TAYLOR`S THLORLM 67
G:nh hh sin(a) nnJ a : [0.1, 0.1[ . nn j& || h & nn: Chock youi Ioaoing
TayIor`s TLeoren
Wo can oxlono lho ioonlily in (0.21), which is
) (a) T
l
(a) =
_
i
(a t) )
tt
(t) dt (0.28)
lo highoi oogioo 1ayloi polynomials. 1o oo so, lol us nolico lhal lho family of
1ayloi polynomials T
n
(a) conloioo al j can Lo wiillon in lho foim
T
n
(a) = ) (j) )
t
(j) (a j) . . .
)
(nl)
(j)
(: 1)!
(a j)
nl
)
(n)
(j)
:!
(a j)
n
1hal is, lho noxl" 1ayloi polynomial ano lho piovious" 1ayloi polynomial sal-
isfy
T
n
(a) = T
nl
(a)
)
(n)
(j)
:!
(a j)
n
(0.24)
1hus, if wo apply inlogialion Ly pails lo (0.28) wilh n = )
tt
(t) , dn = )
ttt
(t)
ano d = (a t) dt, =
l
2
(a t)
2
, lhon
) (a) T
l
(a) =
)
tt
(t)
2
(a t)
2

_
i
(a t)
2
2
)
ttt
(t) dt
SuLsliluling lho limils ano simplifying lhon yiolos
) (a) T
l
(a)
)
tt
(j)
2!
(a j)
2
=
_
i
(a t)
2
2
)
ttt
(t) dt
1ho foimula (0.24) lhus implios lhal
) (a) T
2
(a) =
_
i
(a t)
2
2!
)
ttt
(t) dt
Iopoaloo inlogialion Ly pails lhon loaos lo Jnj|:` h:n, which says lhal
) (a) T
n
(a) =
_
i
(t a)
n
:!
)
(nl)
(t) dt (0.2)
foi all posilivo inlogois :. Iiopoilios of inlogials can lhon Lo usoo lo liansfoim
(0.2) inlo lho inoqualily
[) (a) T
n
(a)[ _
_
i
[t a[
n
:!
)
(nl)
(t)
dt
ano sinco a, j, ano t aio in [a, /[ , lhal wo havo
[) (a) T
n
(a)[ _
_
i
[t a[
n
:!
)
(nl)
(t)
dt _
_
b
o
[/ a[
n
:!
)
(nl)
(t)
dt
1hal is, wo havo lho following:
676 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
TayIor`s InequaIIty: If j is in [a, /[ano if )
(nl)
(a) is conlinuous on
[a, /[, lhon
[) (a) T
n
(a)[ _
[/ a[
n
:!
_
b
o
)
(nl)
(a)
da (0.26)
whoio T
n
(a) is lho :
||
1ayloi polynomial of ) (a) conloioo al j.
Moioovoi, (0.26) allows us lo oslimalo lho oiioi in appioximaling ) (a) Ly T
n
(a)
conloioo al somo j in a givon inloival [a, /[ .
IXAMIII J Lslimalo lho oiioi in appioximaling ) (a) = a
l
ovoi
[, 6[ Ly T
5
(a) conloioo al somo poinl j in [, 6[ .
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo nolico lhal : = ano lhal )
(6)
(a) = 720a
7
.
As a iosull, 1ayloi`s lhooiom (0.26) says lhal
a
l
T
5
(a)
_
[6 [
5
!
_
6
5
720a
7
da
Lvalualing lho inlogial lhon lolls us lhal
a
l
T
5
(a)
_ 0.008888
1hj J T
5
(a) hn h n:J n n j .n [, 6[ Chock youi Ioaoing
HenaInder EstInatIon FornuIas
1ayloi`s lhooiom is oflon usoo lo oslaLlish 1nn.nJ: .nn.n J:n&|n foi an
onliio family of 1ayloi polynomials ovoi a givon inloival.
1o illuslialo, lol us oslimalo lho oiioi in appioximaling ) (a) = c
i
Ly T
n
(a)
conloioo al j = 0 ovoi lho inloival [0, /[ , whoio / is conslanl. In lho piovious
soclion, wo showoo lhal lho :
||
1ayloi polynomial of c
i
conloioo al 0 is
T
n
(a) = 1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
a
n
:!
Moioovoi, if ) (a) = c
i
, lhon )
(nl)
(a) = c
i
, so lhal (0.26) Locomos
[c
i
T
n
(a)[ _
[/ 0[
n
:!
_
b
0
c
i
da _
/
n
:!
_
c
b
1
_
Sinco c
b
1 _ c
b
, lhis fuilhoi simplilos lo
c
i
_
1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
a
n
:!
_
_
/
n
:!
c
b
(0.27)
TAYLOR`S THLORLM 677
IXAMIII ! Fino a Louno on lho oiioi in appioximaling c
i
ovoi
[0, 2[ Ly
T
l0
(a) = 1 a
a
2
2!
. . .
a
l0
10!
SoIutIon: 1ho inoqualily (0.27) implios lhal lho oiioi in lho appiox-
imalion ovoi [0, 2[ salislos
c
i
_
1 a
a
2
2!
. . .
a
l0
10!
_
_
2
l0
10!
c
2
= 0.00208
Alloinalivoly, wo can wiilo lhis iosull as
c
i
= 1 a
a
2
2!
. . .
a
l0
10!
0.00208 (0.28)
foi all a in [0, 2[ .
Locauso of lho piopoilios of lho sino funclion, wo nooo only oovolop an oiioi
foimula foi ) (a) = sin(a) whon a is in
_
0,
t
d
. In lho piovious soclion, wo showoo

lhal lho 1ayloi polynomials of sin(a) conloioo al 0 aio
T
n
(a) = a
a
3
8!

a
5
!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
(2: 1)!
As a iosull, 1ayloi`s lhooiom ovoi
_
0,
t
d
Locomos
[sin(a) T
n
(a)[ _
_
t
d
0
_
2nl
(2: 1)!
_
t/d
0
)
(n)
(a)
da
Sinco ) (a) = sin(a) , ils :
||
ooiivalivo is oilhoi a sino oi a cosino, lhus implying
lhal

)
(nl)
(a)
_ 1. As a iosull, wo oLlain
sin(a)
_
a
a
3
8!

a
5
!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
(2: 1)!
_
_
(4)
2n2
(2: 1)!
(0.20)
foi all a in [0, 4[ . Likowiso, il can Lo shown lhal if a is in [0, 4[ , lhon
cos (a)
_
1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2n
(2:)!
_
_
(4)
2nl
(2:)!
(0.80)
IXAMIII Fino a Louno on lho oiioi in appioximaling sin(0.)
Ly a 1ayloi polynomial conloioo al 0 whon : = 4.
SoIutIon: Whon : = 4, (0.20) Locomos
sin(a)
_
a
a
3
8!

a
5
!

a
7
7!

a
9
0!
_
_
_
t
d
_
l0
0!
_ 0.0000002
1hus, sinco 0. is in
_
0,
t
d
, lhis implios lhal
sin(0.)
_
0.
(0.)
3
8!

(0.)
5
!

(0.)
7
7!

(0.)
9
0!
_
_ 0.0000002
which wo can alloinalivoly wiilo as
sin(0.) = 0.
(0.)
3
8!

(0.)
5
!

(0.)
7
7!

(0.)
9
0!
0.0000002
678 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
5:n.jhJ:&n:J n|&|n.n h& hn Chock youi Ioaoing
0.
(0.)
3
8!

(0.)
5
!

(0.)
7
7!

(0.)
9
0!
= 0. 47042 80
nn: h. n n|&|n:-:J&J n:r.nn.n J sin(0.) ;.n :nJ.nn!).
AacLaurIn SerIes HeresentatIons
In oach of lho lhioo iomainooi oslimalion lhooioms aLovo, lho oiioi loim ap-
pioachos 0 as : appioachos . Foi oxamplo, if a is in [0, /[, lhon (0.27) implios
lhal
lim
no
c
i
_
1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
a
n
:!
_
_ lim
no
_
/
n
:!
c
b
_
Howovoi, /
n
:! appioachos 0 as : appioachos . 1hus, foi any givon valuo of a,
wo can concluoo lhal
lim
no
c
i
_
1 a
1
2!
a
2
. . .
1
:!
a
n
_
= 0
which fiom lho oolnilion of a soiios implios lhal 1ho ollipsis al
lho ono of an
oxpiossion inoi-
calos a limil as :
appioachos inln-
ily.
c
i
= 1 a
1
2!
a
2
. . .
1
:!
a
n
. . . (0.81)
foi all ioal numLois a.
Moioovoi, in lho samo fashion, wo can show lhal lho iomainoois foi lho sino
ano cosino funclions also appioach 0 foi all a, so lhal as a iosull, wo can also show
lhal
sin(a) = a
a
3
8!

a
5
!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
(2: 1)!
. . . (0.82)
cos (a) = 1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2n
(2:)!
. . . (0.88)
foi all ioal numLois a. Finally, wo call lho oxpansions (0.81), (0.82) ano (0.88) lho
`n|n&:.n` :. rnn.n of c
i
, sin(a), ano cos (a) , iospoclivoly.
Lxoicisos:
1.nn h ::: .n n:r.nn.nj ) (a) hj 1
(a) : h .n:n| j.n. G:nh

J (a) nnJ 1
(a) : h j.n .n:n| :.Jj h ::: .nn. ;A: 1
(a)
. h nn n T
l
(a) n:J n j).
1. ) (a) = a
2
Ly 1
l
(a) = 2a 1 2. ) (a) = a
d
Ly 1
l
(a) = 4a 8
ovoi [0.0, 1.1[ ovoi [0.0, 1.1[
8. ) (a) =
_
a Ly 1
l
(a) =
l
2
a
l
2
4. ) (a) =

_
a Ly 1
l
(a) =
l
3
a
2
3
ovoi [0.00, 1.01[ ovoi [0.000, 1.001[
. ) (a) = a
l
Ly 1
l
(a) = 2 a 6. ) (a) = a
2
Ly 1
l
(a) = 8 2a
ovoi [0.0000, 1.0001[ ovoi [0.0000, 1.0001[
7. ) (a) = c
i
Ly 1
0
(a) = 1 a 8. ) (a) = ln(a) Ly 1
l
(a) = a 1
ovoi [0.1, 0.1[ ovoi [0.0, 1.1[
0. ) (a) = lan(a) Ly 1
0
(a) = a 10. ) (a) = sinh(a) Ly 1
0
(a) = a
ovoi [0.1, 0.1[ ovoi [0.01, 0.01[
11. ) (a) = lanh(a) Ly 1
0
(a) = a 12. ) (a) = lan
l
(a) Ly 1
0
(a) = a
ovoi [0.01, 0.01[ ovoi [0.01, 0.01[
1 ;:..:), ;:.u) nnJ ;:..7) J:n.n nn ::: :n J: :
18. c
l
= 1 1
1
2
2!

1
3
8!

1
d
4!

1
5
!

1
6
6!

1
7
7!

14. c
2
= 1 2
2
2
2!

2
3
8!

2
d
4!

2
5
!

2
6
6!

2
7
7!

1. c
3
= 1 8
8
2
2!

8
3
8!

8
d
4!

8
5
!

8
6
6!

8
7
7!

16. c
3
= 1 8
8
2
2!

8
3
8!
. . .
8
l5
1!

17. sin(0.1) = 0.1
(0.1)
3
8!

(0.1)
5
!

(0.1)
7
7!

(0.1)
9
0!

18. sin(0.) = 0.
(0.)
3
8!

(0.)
5
!
. . .
(0.)
l3
18!

10. cos
_
t
6
_
= 1
_
t
6
_
2
2!

_
t
6
_
d
4!

_
t
6
_
6
6!

_
t
6
_
S
8!

20. cos
_
t
6
_
= 1
_
t
6
_
2
2!

_
t
6
_
d
4!
. . .
_
t
6
_
l2
12!

1 ;:..) .nn h ::: h&nJ J: h j.n J&n.n : h j.n .n:n|
J: h j.n n|& J n. &n h Jnj|: |jnn.n| n: n:J n n .n
.n h j.n .n:n|.
21.

a
5
T
3
(a)
_ ovoi [1, 1[ 22.

c
2i
T
d
(a)
_ ovoi [0, 1[
28. [
_
a T
2
(a)[ _ ovoi [1, 8[ 24. [sin(a) T
5
(a)[ _ ovoi
_
0,
t
6
2.

lan
l
(a) T
2
(a)
_ ovoi [0, 1[ 26. [sinh(a) T

3
(a)[ _ ovoi [1, 1[
27. In lhis oxoiciso, wo pioouco a iomainooi oslimalion lhooiom ano a Maclau-
iin`s soiios oxpansion of ) (a) = cosh(a) .
(a) Show lhal lho family of 1ayloi polynomials conloioo al j = 0 is
T
2n
(a) = 1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!
. . .
a
2n
(2:)!
(L) 1ho :
||
ooiivalivo of cosh(a) will Lo oilhoi cosh(a) oi sinh(a) .
Giaph 2c
i
, [cosh(a)[ ano [sinh(a)[ on [2, 2[ . Lxplain why[cosh(a)[
ano [sinh(a)[ aio loss lhan 2c
i
.ovoi any inloival of lho foim [0, a[ .
680 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
(c) Doiivo lho iomainooi oslimalion lhooiom
cosh(a)
_
1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!
. . .
a
2n
(2:)!
_
_
2c
i
(2: 1)!
[a[
2nl
(o) Lxplain why
cosh(a) = 1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!
. . .
a
2n
(2:)!
. . .
28. In lhis oxoiciso, wo pioouco a iomainooi oslimalion lhooiom ano a Maclau-
iin`s soiios oxpansion of ) (a) = sinh(a) .
(a) Show lhal lho gonoial foim of lho 1ayloi polynomials is
T
2nl
(a) = a
a
3
2!

a
3
4!
. . .
a
2nl
(2: 1)!
(L) 1ho :
||
ooiivalivo of cosh(a) will Lo oilhoi cosh(a) oi sinh(a) .
Giaph 2c
i
, [cosh(a)[ ano [sinh(a)[ on [2, 2[ . Lxplain why[cosh(a)[
ano [sinh(a)[ aio loss lhan 2c
i
ovoi any inloival of lho foim [0, a[ .
(c) Doiivo lho iomainooi oslimalion lhooiom
sinh(a)
_
a
a
3
2!

a
3
4!
. . .
a
2nl
(2: 1)!
_
_
2c
i
(2: 2)!
[a[
2n2
(o) Lxplain why
sinh(a) = a
a
3
2!

a
3
4!
. . .
a
2nl
(2: 1)!
. . .
29. If a is conslanl, lhon lho family of 1ayloi polynomials of ) (a) = c
io
T
n
(a) = c
o
c
o
a c
o
a
2
2!
. . . c
o
a
n
:!
Uso 1ayloi`s lhooiom ano lho facl lhal )
(nl)
(a) = c
io
lo ooiivo lho
Iomainooi oslimalion foimula foi ) (a) = c
io
.
30. Show lhal lho iomainooi oslimalo in oxoiciso 20 appioachos 0 as : appioachos
, ano lhon oxplain why lhis allows us lo wiilo
c
io
= c
o
c
o
a c
o
a
2
2!
. . . c
o
a
n
:!
. . .
Finally, facloi oul c
o
fiom lho soiios ano piovo lhal c
io
= c
i
c
o
.
31. In compuloi scionco, oach aiilhmolic calculalion is calloo a n.nj .n
:n.n oi . How many lops aio ioquiioo lo compulo
T
l0
(a) = 1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!

a
6
6!

a
S
8!

a
l0
10!
if lho numLois 2!, 8!, 4!, . . . , 10! aio sloioo in momoiy ano aio lhus nol com-
puloo
32. A lypical poisonal compuloi ioquiios 10
S
soconos foi oach lop. How long
ooos il lako lo compulo T
l0
(a) in oxoiciso 81
33. Lach loim in T
l0
(a) afloi lho lisl conlains a facloi of a
2
. 1hus, wo can wiilo
T
l0
(a) = 1 a
2
_
1
2!

a
2
4!

a
d
6!

a
6
8!

a
S
10!
_
(0.84)
How many lops lo compulo (0.84) if a
2
is compuloo only ono limo ano lhon
suLsliluloo whon nocossaiy
34. 1ho moio wo facloi, lho fasloi T
l0
(a) can Lo compuloo. Show lhal wo can
facloi T
l0
(a) inlo lho oplimal foim
T
l0
(a) = 1 a
2
_
1
2!
a
2
_
1
4!
a
2
_
1
6!
a
2
_
1
8!

a
2
10!
____
(0.8)
How many lops lo compulo (0.8) if a
2
is compuloo only ono limo ano lhon
suLsliluloo whon nocossaiy
35. Apply inlogialion Ly pails lo lho inlogial in
) (a) T
2
(a) =
_
i
(a t)
2
2!
)
ttt
(t) dt
ano lhon uso (0.24) lo show lhal
) (a) T
3
(a) =
_
i
(a t)
3
8!
)
(d)
(t) dt
36. Apply inlogialion Ly pails lo lho inlogial in
) (a) T
n
(a) =
_
i
(a t)
n
:!
)
(nl)
(t) dt
ano lhon uso (0.24) lo show lhal
) (a) T
nl
(a) =
_
i
(a t)
nl
(: 1)!
)
(n2)
(t) dt
37. HenaInder EstInatIon TLeoren: Supposo lhal lhoio oxisls a conslanl
` such lhal )
(nl)
(t) _ ` foi all t in [j, a[ . Uso 1ayloi`s lhooiom lo show
lhal
[) (a) T
n
(a)[ _
`
(: 1)!
(a j)
nl
38. Supposo lhal lhoio oxisls a c in [j, a[ such lhal
_
i
(a t)
n
:!
)
(nl)
(t) dt = )
(nl)
(c)
_
i
(a t)
n
:!
dt
Uso lhis ano 1ayloi`s lhooiom lo show lhal foi lxoo a, wo havo
) (a) = T
n
(a)
)
(nl)
(c)
(: 1)!
(a j)
nl
682 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
39. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you uso lho iomainooi
oslimalo in (0.20) lo piovo lhal
sin(a) = a
a
3
8!

a
5
!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
(2: 1)!
. . .
40. VrIte to Learn: Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you uso lho iomainooi
oslimalo in (0.80) lo piovo lhal
cos (a) = 1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2n
(2:)!
. . .
9.4 Algebra and CounLing
Four Inortant AacLaurIn`s SerIes
In lho lasl soclion, wo usoo 1ayloi`s lhooiom lo oslaLlish lho MacLauiin`s soiios
of c
i
, sin(a) ano cos (a). 1hoso lhioo comLinoo wilh lho goomoliic soiios aio foui
of lho moio fioquonlly occuiiing soiios in calculus: Momoiizo lhoso.
1hoy will appoai
fioquonlly fiom
lhis poinl foi-
waio.
c
i
= 1 a
a
2
2!
. . .
a
n
:!
. . . , < a <
sin(a) = a
a
3
8!

a
5
!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
(2: 1)!
. . . , < a <
cos (a) = 1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2n
(2:)!
. . . , < a <
1
1 a
= 1 a a
2
. . . a
n
. . . , 1 < a < 1
Inoooo, many olhoi MacLauiin soiios ano many ioonlilios in malhomalics aio
ooiivoo using lhoso soiios.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho MacLauiin soiios oxpansion of ) (a) = c
i
.
SoIutIon: Wo Login wilh lho soiios oxpansion of c
i
c
i
= 1 a
a
2
2!
. . .
a
n
:!
. . .
ano lhon wo ioplaco lho inpul vaiiaLlo a Ly lho oxpiossion a
2
, which
iosulls in
c
i
= 1 a
2
_
a
2
_
2
2!
. . .
_
a
2
_
n
:!
. . .
= 1 a
2
a
d
2!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2n
:!
. . .
ALCLBRA AND COUNTlNC 688
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho MacLauiin`s soiios oxpansion of
a
1 a
2
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo ioplaco a Ly a in lho goomoliic soiios lo
oLlain
1
1 (a)
= 1 (a) (a)
2
(a)
3
. . . (a)
n
. . .
1hus, foi a in (1, 1) , wo havo
1
1 a
= 1 a a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . . (1)
n
a
n
. . . (0.86)
Wo now ioplaco a Ly a
2
lo oLlain
1
1 a
2
= 1 a
2
_
a
2
_
2
_
a
2
_
3
_
a
2
_
d
. . . (1)
n
_
a
2
_
n
. . .
= 1 a
2
a
d
a
6
. . . (1)
n
a
2n
. . .
ano lnally, wo mulliply Ly a lo oLlain
a
1 a
2
= a
_
1 a
2
a
d
a
6
. . . (1)
n
a
2n
. . .
_
which simplilos lo
a
1 a
2
= a a
3
a
5
a
7
. . . (1)
n
a
2nl
. . . (0.87)
1hj . ;:.7) :& n|j &hn a . .n (1, 1) Chock youi Ioaoing
AacLaurIn SerIes oI OtLer EIenentary FunctIons
Wo can uso known Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansions lo lno MacLauiin`s soiios ox-
pansions of olhoi olomonlaiy funclions.
IXAMIII J Fino lho MacLauiin`s soiios oxpansion foi cosh(a) us-
ing lho facl lhal
cosh(a) =
c
i
c
i
2
SoIutIon: If wo ioplaco a Ly a in lho Maclauiin`s soiios foi c
i
, lhon
wo oLlain
c
i
= 1 (a)
(a)
2
2!

(a)
3
8!

(a)
d
4!

(a)
5
!

(a)
6
6!
. . .
= 1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!

a
d
4!

a
5
!

a
6
6!
. . .
Wo lhon compulo c
i
c
i
Ly aligning similai powois of a ano com-
Lining voilically:
c
i
= 1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!

a
d
4!

a
5
!
. . .
c
i
= 1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!

a
d
4!

a
5
!
. . .
c
i
c
i
= 2 2
a
2
2!
2
a
d
4!
. . .
684 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
Divioing lho sum c
i
c
i
Ly 2 lhus yiolos
c
i
c
i
2
=
1
2
_
2 2
a
2
2!
2
a
d
4!
2
a
6
6!
. . .
_
= 1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!

a
6
6!
. . .
As a iosull, lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansion of cosh(a) is
cosh(a) = 1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!
. . .
a
2n
(2:)!
. . . (0.88)
Moioovoi, lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansions foi c
i
, sin(a), ano cos (a) allow us lo
oxlono calculus lo any solling whoio aooilion, mulliplicalion ano oivision Ly an
inlogoi aio oolnoo.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansion foi c
Ii
, whoio i
is lho imaginaiy unil.
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, sinco i
2
= 1, wo havo i
3
= i
2
i = i ano
i
d
=
_
i
2
_
2
= (1)
2
= 1. 1hus,
c
Ii
= 1 (ia)
(ia)
2
2!

(ia)
3
8!

(ia)
d
4!

(ia)
5
!

(ia)
6
6!

(ia)
7
7!
. . .
= 1 ia
i
2
a
2
2!

i
3
a
3
8!

i
d
a
d
4!

i
5
a
5
!

i
6
a
6
6!

i
7
a
7
7!
. . .
= 1 ia
a
2
2!
i
a
3
8!

a
d
4!
i
a
5
!

a
6
6!
i
a
7
7!
. . .
sinco also i
5
= i
d
i = i ano i
6
= i
d
i
2
= 1. Iogiouping lho soiios
inlo ils ioal ano imaginaiy pails iosulls in
c
Ii
= 1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!

a
6
6!
. . . ia i
a
3
8!
i
a
5
!
i
a
7
7!
. . .
Moioovoi, facloiing oul lho i fiom lho ooo loims yiolos
c
Ii
= 1
a
2
2!

a
d
4!
. . . i
_
a
a
3
8!

a
5
!

a
7
7!
. . .
_
Howovoi, lho ioal ano imaginaiy pails aio lho Maclauiin`s soiios ox-
pansions of cos (a) ano sin(a) , iospoclivoly. 1hus, wo havo piovon
1&|:` J:n&|n, which says lhal
c
Ii
= cos (a) i sin(a) (0.80)
1 ;:.:) h& hn c
It
1 = 0.
Chock youi Ioaoing

Iroducts oI AacLaurIn SerIes
Iiooucls of soiios also loao lo now MacLauiin`s soiios oxpansions. In pailiculai,
lho oisliiLulivo law is usoo lo compulo piooucls of soiios, ano il is impoilanl lo 1ho koys lo
mulliplying
soiios aio oiga-
nizalion ano lho
oisliiLulivo law.
koop lho compulalion oiganizoo Ly aligning similai loims.
1ho ioonlily c
1 = 0 is inloiosling Locauso il involvos all of lho lvo olomonlaiy conslanls

0, 1, t, c, ano i.
IXAMIII Fino lho MacLauiin`s soiios oxpansion of
1 a a
2
1 a
(0.40)
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo wiilo sovoial loims of lho goomoliic soiios ano
omil lho gonoial loim:
1
1 a
= 1 a a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
1hus, (0.40) is lho samo as
_
1 a a
2
_ _
1 a a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
_
Applying lho oisliiLulivo law ano oiganizing lho compulalion wilh a
laLlo yiolos
1
_
1 a a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
_
= 1 a a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
a
_
1 a a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
_
= a a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
a
2
_
1 a a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
_
= a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
Wo lhon aoo voilically lo oLlain
1 a a
2
1 a
= 1 2a 8a
2
8a
3
8a
d
8a
5
. . .
IXAMIII 0 Uso Maclauiin Soiios lo piovo lhal c
i
c
i
= 1.
SoIutIon: Sinco
c
i
= 1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . . ano c
i
= 1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
lhoii piooucl is
c
i
c
i
=
_
1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
__
1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
_
Wo lhon apply lho oisliiLulivo law ano oiganizo lho compulalion inlo
a laLlo. Howovoi, sinco c
i
ano c
i
aio oxpanooo only lo lho lhiio
loim, wo only oxpano lhoii piooucl lo lho lhiio loim. Lxpano a pioo-
ucl lo lho samo
numLoi of loims
as lho faclois aio
oxpanooo lo.
1
_
1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
_
= 1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
a
_
1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
_
= a a
2
a
3
2!
. . .
a
2
2!
_
1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
_
=
a
2
2!

a
3
2!
. . .
a
3
8!
_
1 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
_
=
a
3
8!
. . .
1ho sum of lho socono column afloi lho oqual`s signs is a a = 0.
1ho sum of lho lhiio column is
a
2
2
a
2
a
2
2
= 0
Likowiso, lho sum of lho fouilh column is 0, so lhal wo havo shown
lhal
c
i
c
i
= 1 0 0 0 . . .
686 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
5h& hn h &n J h J&:h |&nn nJ: h j&n| .jn . n| u. Chock youi Ioaoing
AIIcatIon to ConLInatorIcs
Iiooucls of soiios can also Lo usoo lo &n lho numLoi of oLjocls in a givon sol.
Inoooo, lho uso of soiios as a lool foi counling is ono of lho conlial lhomos of a
lolo of malhomalics known as nh.nn:..
1o illuslialo, lol us nolico lhal if askoo lo chooso 1 lolloi fiom lho gioup
a, /, c , lhoio aio oxaclly 8 possiLlo oulcomosi.o., a, /, ano c. Moioovoi, if askoo Whon lho oiooi
of soloclion ooos
nol malloii.o.,
whon a/ is lho
samo as /a
oach soloclion
is calloo a n-
h.nn.n of lho
lollois.
lo chooso 2 lollois fiom a, /, c whon lho oiooi of lho soloclion ooos nol malloi,
wo woulo oiscovoi 8 possiLlo nh.nn.na/, ac, ano /c. Howovoi, lhoio is only
1 comLinalion of all lhioo lollois, namoly a/c.
Suipiisingly, lho infoimalion aLovo can also Lo oLlainoo fiom lho piooucl
(1 aa) (1 /a) (1 ca)
Inoooo, applicalion of lho oisliiLulivo law iovoals lhal lho piooucl is
1 (a / c) a (a/ ac /c) a
2
a/c a
3
1ho coomcionl of a iopiosonls lho 8 ways of choosing 1 lolloi fiom a, /, c , lho
coomcionl of a
2
iopiosonls lho 8 ways of choosing 2 lollois fiom a, /, c , ano lho
coomcionl of a
3
is lho only way of choosing all 8 lollois fiom a, /, c .
If wo aio only inloiosloo in counling lho numLoi of ways of choosing : lollois
fiom a gioup of lhioo, wo lol a = / = c = 1, which yiolos
(1 a)
3
= 1 8a 8a
2
a
3
1hal is, lho polynomial 1 a iopiosonls lho acl of choosing oi nol choosing a
singlo lolloi, so lhal (1 a)
3
iopiosonls lho numLoi of ways of choosing oi nol
choosing fiom 8 lollois. As a iosull, lho oxpansion
1 8a 8a
2
a
3
lolls us lhal lhoio is ono way of choosing no lollois, 8 ways of choosing only ono
lolloi, 8 ways of choosing lwo lollois ano ono way of choosing all lhioo lollois.
1o counl whon soloclions liko aa/c oi ///c aio possiLlo, wo musl uso highoi
oogioo polynomials. 1hal is, 1 a a
2
allows up lo lwo iopolilions of a lolloi,
1 a a
2
a
3
allows up lo lhioo iopolilions of a lolloi, ano
1 a a
2
. . . a
n
. . .
allows an aiLiliaiy numLoi of iopolilions of a lolloi. (i.o., lhoio is no limil on lho
numLoi of limos lho lolloi can Lo iopoaloo). Convoisoly, lho inlnilo soiios
a a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
. . .
implios lho lolloi n& &: al loasl onco, lho inlnilo soiios
a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
. . .
implios lho lolloi n& &: al loasl lwico, ano so on.
IXAMIII 7 How many ways aio lhoio of choosing lollois fiom
lho sol a, /, c whon a ano / can appoai al mosl onco, Lul c musl
appoai al loasl lwico.
SoIutIon: 1ho polynomial 1 a iopiosonls lho acl of choosing a ano
il also iopiosonls lho acl of choosing /. Howovoi,
a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
iopiosonls lho acl of choosing c sinco c musl occui al loasl lwico. As
a iosull, lho piooucl
(1 a) (1 a)
_
a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
_
counls lho numLoi of ways of choosing a, /, ano c. Sinco (1 a) (1 a) =
1 2a a
2
, wo musl compulo
_
1 2a a
2
_ _
a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
_
Applying lho oisliiLulivo law ano oiganizing lho compulalion wilh a
laLlo yiolos
1
_
a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
_
= a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
2a
_
a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
_
= 2a
3
2a
d
2a
5
. . .
a
2
_
a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
_
= a
d
a
5
. . .
ComLining along oach column yiolos
_
1 2a a
2
_ _
a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
_
= a
2
8a
3
4a
d
4a
5
. . .
1ho coomcionl of a
5
lhus lolls us lhal lhoio aio 4 ways of choosing
lollois fiom a, /, c if a ano / can occui al mosl onco ano c musl
occui al loasl lwico.
Lxoicisos:
Ohn.n h `n|n&:.n` :. J h j.n J&n.n J:n h `n1n&:.n` :.
J c
i
, sin(a), cos (a) nnJ
l
li
.
1. ) (a) = c
i
2. ) (a) = sin
_
a
2
_
8. ) (a) =
a
1 a
4. ) (a) =
a
1 a
2
. ) (a) = cos (
_
a) 6. ) (a) =
sin(a)
a
7. ) (a) =
1 cos (a)
a
2
8. ) (a) =
c
i
1
a
0. ) (a) = sinh(a)
10. ) (a) = sinh(2a) 11. ) (a) = c
Ii
12. ) (a) = cos (ia)
18. ) (a) = 2 cos
2
(a) 14. ) (a) = 2 sin
2
(a) 1. ) (a) =
1 a
1 a
16. ) (a) =
2 a
1 a
17. ) (a) = (a 1) c
i
18. ) (a) =
1 a
2
1 a
2
10. ) (a) =
1
(1 a)
2
20. ) (a) =
1
(1 a) (1 a
2
)
688 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
1 `n1n&:.n` :. rnn.n : h J||&.nj .Jn... `& &.|| nJ
h rnn.n .n ;:.) nnJ .n r:. :.
21. cosh(ia) = cos (a) 22. sinh(ia) = i sin(ia)
28. cos (ia) = cosh(a) 24. sin(ia) = i sinh(a)
2.
1
1 a

1
1 a
=
2
1 a
2
26.
1
1 a

1
1 a
=
2a
1 a
2
27. c
Ii
c
Ii
= 1 28. c
i
c
i
= c
2i
20. 2 sin(a) cos (a) = sin(2a) 80. 2 cos
2
(a) = cos (2a) 1
31. How many ways aio lhoio of choosing lollois fiom a, /, c if a ano / can
occui al mosl onco ano c musl occui al loasl onco Can you lisl all lho
oiloionl ways
32. How many ways aio lhoio of choosing lollois fiom a, /, c if a can occui al
mosl onco, / can occui al mosl lwico, ano c can occui an aiLiliaiy numLoi
of limos Can you lisl all lho oiloionl ways
33. How many ways aio lhoio of choosing 100 lollois fiom a, /, c if a ano / can
occui al mosl onco ano c can occui any numLoi of limos
34. Doloimino how many ways lhoio aio of choosing 7 lollois fiom a lhioo lolloi
sol a, /, c if a can appoai al mosl ono limo, Lul / ano c can appoai an
aiLiliaiy numLoi of limos. (Hinl: lho Maclauiin`s soiios
1
(1 a)
2
= 1 2a 8a
2
. . . (: 1) a
n
. . .
iopiosonls lho numLoi of ways lwo lollois can appoai an aiLiliaiy numLoi
of limos).
35. Conuter AIgeLra Systen: Uso a compuloi algoLia syslom lo oxpano
lho piooucl which iosulls fiom lho following: A ooan appoinls a 0 momLoi
commilloo compiisoo of sluoonls, facully, ano slal. Ho oocioos lhal al
loasl foui of lho commilloo momLois shoulo Lo sluoonls, Lul no moio lhan
2 of lho commilloo momLois shoulo Lo slal ano no moio lhan 4 of lho
commilloo momLois shoulo Lo facully. How many oiloionl sluoonl-facully-
slal composilions of lho commilloo aio possiLlo.
36. Conuter AIgeLra Systen: Uso a compuloi algoLia syslom lo oxpano
lho piooucl which iosulls fiom lho following: Acmo
37. Uso ioonlily (0.80) lo show lhal
c
Ii
= cos (a) i sin(a) (0.41)
1hon uso (0.80) ano (0.41) lo show lhal
cos (a) =
c
Ii
c
Ii
2
ano sin(a) =
c
Ii
c
Ii
2i
38. Uso (0.80) lo show lhal
c
(oIb)i
= c
oi
[cos (/a) i sin(/a)[
1hon show lhal
d
da
c
(oIb)i
= (a i/) c
(oIb)i
How ooos lhis iolalo lo lho facl lhal j = c
|i
is a solulion lo j
t
= /j
39. Maliicos can Lo mulliplioo, aoooo, ano oiviooo Ly an inlogoi. In pailiculai,
_
a
l
a
2
/
l
/
2
_ _
c
l
d
l
c
2
d
2
_
=
ano lho sum of lwo maliicos is lho sum of lho coiiosponoing coomcionls.
Uso lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansion lo compulo c
.|
whon
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
ano whon t is a vaiiaLlo.
40. Uso lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansion lo compulo c
.|
whon
=
_
0 1
0 0
_
ano whon t is a vaiiaLlo.
1hn h :J: J |.n . .n:nn..., &hn nh . n n.J:J h nn
n hnhn n |.n J |: . n||J n :n&n.n nnJ &n.nj . :J:nJ
&.h |jnn.n| J h J:n
a
0
a
l
a a
2
a
2
2!
a
3
a
3
8!
. . . a
n
a
n
:!
(0.42)
&h: a
l
. h n&nh: J &nj J nn|.nj n h., a
2
. h n&nh: J &nj
J nn|.nj & h., nnJ n. 1r:. 1 .n:J& nhJ &J
&n :n&n.n.
41. VrIte to Learn: In a shoil ossay, oxplain why
_
1 a
a
2
2!
_
(1 a) = 1 2a 8
a
2
2!
8
a
3
8!
lolls us lhal lhoio aio 8 ways of choosing 8 lollois fiom a gioup of lwo lollois
whon lho oiooi is impoilanl.
42. VrIte to Learn: In a shoil ossay, ooloimino lho numLoi of ways of choosing
lollois fiom a sol of lhioo lollois whon lwo lollois can appoai al mosl onco
ano lho lhiio lolloi can appoai an aiLiliaiy numLoi of limos, assuming lhal
lho oiooi of soloclion is impoilanl. 1hon lisl lhoso lvo ways.
43. DooxyiiLonucloic acio, oi DNA foi shoil, is a chain in which oach link is
ono of foui possiLlo chomicals: lhymino, T; cylosino, C; aoonino, ; ano
guanino, G. Assuming oach can iopoal an aiLiliaiy numLoi of limos moans
oxpanoing
_
1 a
a
2
2!
. . .
__
1 a
a
2
2!
. . .
__
1 a
a
2
2!
. . .
__
1 a
a
2
2!
. . .
_
How many ways aio lhoio of consliucling such a DNA chain wilh : links
600 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
Jh Ar 5... 1& 1 n n|&|n: 1:|
Whal happons whon lho cos" Lullon on a calculaloi is oopiossoo How ooos
a compuloi compulo c
i
foi a givon valuo of a Oui noxl slop is lo oomonslialo
how 1ayloi polynomials can Lo convoiloo inlo compuloi piogiams.
Compulois iopiosonl ioal numLois in scionlilc nolalion, so lhal a numLoi liko
2,488,674 is known lo lho compuloi as
2.488674 10
6
1ho oocimal 2.488674 is lho nnn.n ano is saio lo havo 7 .jn.]nn J.j.. 1ho
inlogoi 6 is lho rnn of 2,488,674.
1ho Inslilulo foi Lloclionics ano Llocliical Lnginooiing (ILLL) 74 oouLlo-
piocision spocilcalion spocilos lhal a ioal numLoi is lo Lo iopiosonloo Ly a 64
Lil sliing of onos ano zoioos insioo lho compuloi. 1ho lisl 2 Lils is calloo lho
nnn.n of lho numLoi, ano sinco
2
52
- 4. 10
l5
,
oouLlo-piocision numLois havo lfloon signilcanl oigils. 1hus, lho goal of any
algoiilhm is lo pioouco an appioximalion in which lho lisl lfloon oigils of lho
manlissa aio coiiocl.
Unfoilunaloly, lho iomainooi oslimalion lhooioms ooal wilh aclual oiiois ialhoi
lhan numLoi of coiiocl oigils. Moioovoi, 1ayloi polynomials of lho olomonlaiy
funclions oo nol convoigo all lhal woll unloss a is closo lo 0. Consoquonlly, almosl
all numoiical algoiilhms involvo somo concopl of scaling.
Foi oxamplo, lol`s oovolop a numoiical algoiilhm foi oslimaling c
i
lo 1 signif-
icanl oigils of accuiacy whon a 0. 1o Login wilh, wo chooso a posilivo inlogoi
: such lhal
2
n
_ c
i
< 2
nl
1o inoicalo how lhis is oono, lol us apply ln(a) lhioughoul:
ln(2
n
) _ a _ ln
_
2
nl
_
Sinco ln(2
n
) = :ln(2) ano ln
_
2
nl
_
= (: 1) ln(2) , wo musl chooso a such
lhal
: _
a
ln(2)
_ : 1
1hal is, : is lho inlogoi pail of a ln(2) . Wo lhon lol t = a :ln(2) , so lhal
a = :ln(2) t
As a iosull, t is in [0.7, 0.7[ ano
c
i
= c
nIn(2)|
= c
nIn(2)
c
|
= 2
n
c
|
1hus, lo compulo c
i
foi a 0, wo compulo 2
n
foi a posilivo inlogoi :, which is
quilo oasy on a compuloi sinco il usos Linaiy aiilhmolic. Wo lhon appioximalo c
|
foi t in [0.7, 0.7[ using a 1ayloi polynomial.
Moioovoi, sinco c
|
is in [0.7, 0.7[ , oslimaling c
|
lo lfloon signilcanl oigils
moans choosing : such lhal
c
|
_
1 t
t
2
2!

t
3
8!
. . .
t
n
:!
_
_ 10
l5
Howovoi, lho iomainooi oslimalion lhooiom says lhal
c
|
_
1 t
t
2
2!

t
3
8!
. . .
t
n
:!
_
_
(0.7)
n
:!
c
0.7
Lxpoiimonling wilh oiloionl valuos of : iovoals lhal
(0.7)
l6
(16)!
c
0.7
< 10
l5
As a iosull, wo uso lho sixloonlh 1ayloi polynomial
T
l6
(t) = 1 t
t
2
2!

t
3
8!
. . .
t
n
:!
lo appioximalo c
|
ovoi [0.7, 0.7[ .
In summaiy, oui algoiilhm foi oslimaling c
i
foi a 0 is lo
+ Lol : Lo lho inlogoi pail of a ln(2)
+ Lol t = a :ln(2)
+ Lslimalo T
l6
(t)
+ Compulo lho piooucl 2
n
c
|
.
VrIte to Learn Wiilo a piogiam oi psouoocooo which compulos c
i
foi a 0.
How woulo you hanolo lho caso of a < 0 Wiilo a shoil papoi oosciiLing
youi piogiam.
VrIte to Learn Dovolop a molhoo foi oslimaling sin(a) lo lfloon signilcanl
oigils. Youi lisl slop in ooing so will Lo lo chooso : ano t such lhal
a = 2: t
sinco Ly poiiooicily, sin(a) = sin(t) . Youi lasl slop will Lo lo lno : such
lhal
sin(a)
_
a
a
3
8!

a
5
!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
(2: 1)!
_
_
(2)
2n2
(2: 1)!
_ 10
l5
VrIte to Learn Soaich lho liLiaiy ano lho inloinol foi implomonlalions of nu-
moiical algoiilhms lo oslimalo c
i
ano sin(a) . Wiilo a shoil papoi iopoiling
lho iosulls of youi iosoaich.
Crou LearnIng Soaich lho liLiaiy ano lho inloinol foi implomonlalions of nu-
moiical algoiilhms lo oslimalo c
i
, sin(a) , cos (a), ano ln(a) . Givo a gioup
piosonlalion in which oach momLoi of lho gioup piosonls ono of lho algo-
iilhms.
JnnJ nr:
Funclions which can Lo appioximaloo Ly 1ayloi polynomials oflon can also Lo
appioximaloo Ly ialional funclions as woll. In pailiculai, a ialional funclion
1(a) =
a
0
a
l
a a
2
a
2
. . . a
n
a
n
1 /
l
a /
2
a
2
. . . /
n
a
n
602 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
is calloo a 1nJ` n:r.nnn of a funclion ) (a) if
1(0) = ) (0) , 1
t
(0) = )
t
(0) , 1
tt
(0) = )
tt
(0) , . . . , 1
(nn)
(0) = )
(nn)
(0)
Iaoo` appioximanls oflon convoigo moio quickly lhan 1ayloi`s soiios, ano lhus,
lhoy aio oflon usoo in numoiical algoiilhms in placo of 1ayloi polynomials.
Sinco lho lisl : ooiivalivos of ) (a) al a = 0 aio lho samo as lho lisl :
ooiivalivos of T
n
(a) conloioo al 0, 1ayloi polynomials aio oflon usoo lo gonoialo
Iaoo` appioximanls. Foi oxamplo, a quaoialic appioximalion
T
3
(a) = c
0
c
l
a c
2
a
2
has a coiiosponoing Iaoo` appioximanl of
1(a) =
1 a
l
a a
2
a
2
1 /
l
a /
2
a
2
whoio a
0
= c
0
ano whoio
c
l
= 1
t
(0) , c
2
= 1
tt
(0)
Likowiso, a fouilh oiooi 1ayloi polynomial conloioo al a = 0
T
d
(a) = c
0
c
l
a c
2
a
2
c
3
a
3
c
d
a
d
has a Iaoo` appioximanl of
1(a) =
a
0
a
l
a a
2
a
2
1 /
l
a /
2
a
2
whoio a
0
= c
0
ano whoio
c
l
= 1
t
(0) , c
2
= 1
tt
(0) , c
3
= 1
ttt
(0) , c
d
= 1
tttt
(0)
1. 1ho fouilh 1ayloi polynomial of
) (a) =
1
1 a
2
is T
d
(a) = 1 a
2
a
d
, ano a coiiosponoing Iaoo` appioximanl is
1(a) =
1 a
2
12
1 a
2
12
Giaph ) (a) , T
d
(a) ano 1(a) ovoi lho inloival [2, 2[ . Whal oo you nolico
2. * Fino lho Iaoo` appioximanl of lho quaoialic appioximalion of
) (a) =
1
1 a
3. * 1ho fouilh 1ayloi polynomial of
) (a) =
1
1 a
2
is T
d
(a) = 1a
2
a
d
. Doloimino lho coomcionls foi lho coiiosponoing Iaoo`
appioximanl
1(a) =
a
0
a
l
a a
2
a
2
1 /
l
a /
2
a
2
9.5 Power Series
TLe HatIo Test Ior Iover SerIes
MacLauiin`s soiios aio oxamplos of whal aio known as powoi soiios, whoio a &: A MacLauiin`s
soiios is a powoi
soiios conloioo
al j = 0.
:. n:J n j is a soiios of lho foim
a
0
a
l
(a j) a
2
(a j)
2
. . . a
n
(a j)
n
. . .
ano whoio lho numLois a
0
, a
l
, . . . , a
n
, . . . aio calloo lho .n of lho soiios.
Inoooo, a Maclauiin`s soiios is simply a powoi soiios conloioo al j = 0.
Wo usually oolno (a j)
0
= 1 foi all a ano also oolno 0! = 1. As a iosull, a
powoi soiios can Lo wiillon in sigma nolalion as
o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
1hal is, wo havo lwo ways of oxpiossing a powoi soiios:
o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
= a
0
a
l
(a j) a
2
(a j)
2
. . . a
n
(a j)
n
. . .
Foi oxamplo, lho powoi soiios
1
1
2
(a 1)
1
4
(a 1)
2
. . .
1
2
n
(a 1)
n
. . .
can also Lo wiillon in lho foim
o
n=0
1
2
n
(a 1)
n
Likowiso, a powoi soiios in sigma nolalion can also Lo wiillon in oxpanooo foim:
o
n=0
1
:!
(a 8)
n
=
1
0!
(a 8)
0
1
1!
(a 8)
l
1
2!
(a 8)
2
. . .
Il is nol uncommon foi a powoi soiios lo convoigo foi somo a`s ano oivoigo foi
olhois. Inoooo, lho puiposo of lhis soclion is lo inlioouco a lool foi ooloimining
whon a soiios convoigos ano whon il ooos nol. In pailiculai, wo will soo al lho
ono of lhis soclion lhal whon powoi soiios aio compaioo lo goomoliic soiios, lho
iosull is lho following lhooiom:
HatIo Test: Givon
o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
, lol j, pionouncoo iho," Lo oo-
lnoo Ly
j = lim
no
a
nl
(a j)
nl
a
n
(a j)
n
(0.48)
1hon lho powoi soiios
o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
convoigos aLsoluloly whon j < 1
ano oivoigos whon j 1.
604 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
Honco, lo ooloimino lho valuos of a foi which a powoi soiios convoigos, wo ovalualo
(0.48), sol lho iosull loss lhan 1, ano solvo foi a. 1ho iosull is calloo lho n
.n:n| J n:jn of lho powoi soiios, ano lho oislanco 1 fiom j lo an
onopoinl of lho inloival of convoigonco is calloo lho :nJ.& J n:jn.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho opon inloival of convoigonco of lho soiios
o
n=l
:2
n
(a 8)
n
SoIutIon: Sinco a
n
= :2
n
, wo havo a
nl
= (: 1) 2
nl
. 1hus, (0.48)
implios lhal
j = lim
no
(: 1) 2
nl
(a 8)
nl
:2
n
(a 8)
n
Sinco 2
nl
2
n
= 2 ano (a 8)
nl
(a 8)
n
= (a 8) , cancollalion
yiolos
j = lim
no
2 (a 8)
: 1
:
= 2 [a 8[ lim
no
: 1
:
Sinco lim
no
nl
n
= 1, wo lno lhal j = 2 [a 8[ . Solling j < 1 lhus

yiolos
2 [a 8[ < 1
Division Ly 2 ano lho oolnilion of aLsolulo valuos lhon yiolos
[a 8[ <
1
2
ano
1
2
< a 8 <
1
2
Finally, aooing 8 lhioughoul yiolos
1
2
8 < a <
1
2
8 oi 2. < a < 8.
1hus, lho opon inloival of convoigonco is (2., 8.) , ano lho iaoius
of convoigonco, which is lho oislanco fiom j = 8 lo an onopoinl of
(2., 8.), is 1 = 0..
1r|n.n &hj lim
no
nl
n
= 1. Chock youi Ioaoing

An AIternatIve HeresentatIon Ior tLe HatIo Test
Whon lho coomcionls a
n
aio fiaclions, wo oflon wiilo (0.48) in lho foim
j = lim
no
a
nl
(a j)
nl
1
a
n
(a j)
n
(0.44)
1hal is, (0.44) is lho limil of lho piooucl of lho numoialoi ano lho :.:n| of
lho oonominaloi. Moioovoi, lho phiaso inloival of convoigonco" iofois lo lho
opon inloival of convoigonco foi lho iomainooi of lhis soclion.
POWLR SLRlLS 60
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho inloival ano iaoius of convoigonco of
o
n=l
(a 1)
n
:
2
(0.4)
SoIutIon: Sinco
n
(il)
r is lho iocipiocal of
(il)
r
n
, wo inloipiol (0.44)
in lho foim
j = lim
no
(a 1)
nl
(: 1)
2
:
2
(a 1)
n
Collocling common loims lhon yiolos

j = lim
no
(a 1)
nl
(a 1)
n
:
2
(: 1)
2
= lim
no
(a 1)
1
_
:
: 1
_
2
Facloiing oul [a 1[ ano ovalualing lho limil using L`hopilal`s iulo

yiolos
j = [a 1[ lim
no
_
:
: 1
_
2
= [a 1[
_
lim
no
:
: 1
_
2
= [a 1[ (1)
2
= [a 1[
Wo now sol j < 1, which givos us [a 1[ < 1. Solving foi a iosulls in
1 < a 1 < 1
0 < a < 2
1hus, (0, 2) is lho inloival of convoigonco of (0.4), ano lho iaoius of
convoigonco is 1. Inoooo, lho ialio losl implios lhal lho soiios oivoigos
if a < 0 oi a 2.
1ho ialio losl is lho lool of choico foi lnoing inloivals of convoigonco of powoi
soiios Locauso il woiks woll wilh lho facloiials lhal aio fioquonlly oncounloioo.
Moioovoi, in woiking wilh facloiials, wo oflon uso lho piopoily
(: 1)! = (: 1) :!
Foi oxamplo, ! = 4! sinco Lolh iopiosonl lho piooucl 4 8 2 1.
IXAMIII J Doloimino lho inloival of convoigonco of
o
n=0
: 1
:!
a
n
(0.46)
SoIutIon: Wo Login Ly compuling j:
j = lim
no
n I~ Inc:to~tJ b l
..
(: 2) a
nl
(: 1)!
:tcI:ocol
..
:!
(: 1) a
n
Collocling similai loims yiolos

j = lim
no
a
nl
a
n
: 2
: 1
:!
(: 1)!
606 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS

Sinco (: 1)! = (: 1) :!, wo can simplify lo
j = lim
no
a
1
: 2
: 1
:!
(: 1) :!
= lim
no
a
1
: 2
: 1
1
: 1
j = [a[
_
lim
no
: 2
(: 1)
2
_
= [a[ 0 = 0
1hus, j = 0 foi all a, ano sinco 0 < 1, lho soiios (0.46) musl convoigo
foi all a. 1hal is, lho inloival of convoigonco is (, ) .
1hn . h :nJ.& J n:jn J ;:.) Chock youi Ioaoing
Aore vItL FactorIaIs
Whon lho coomcionls of soiios conlain oxpiossions liko (2:)!, lhon lho : 1 loim
will conlain lho facloiial (2: 2)!, which has lho piopoily
(2: 2)! = (2: 2) (2: 1) (2:)! (0.47)
IXAMIII ! Doloimino lho inloival of convoigonco of lho soiios
1
1
2
a
4!
2!2!
_
a
4
_
2
6!
8!8!
_
a
4
_
3
. . . (1)
n
(2:)!
(:!)
2
_
a
4
_
n
. . . (0.48)
SoIutIon: Fiisl wo compulo j, which is givon Ly
j = lim
no
(1)
nl
(2: 2)! a
nl
[(: 1)![
2
4
nl
(:!)
2
4
n
(1)
n
(2:)! a
n
ano which immooialoly simplilos lo

j = lim
no
a
nl
a
n
4
n
4
nl
(2: 2)!
(2:)!
_
:!
(: 1)!
_
2
Using (: 1)! = (: 1) :! ano (0.47), wo oLlain

j = lim
no
a
4
(2: 2) (2: 1) (2:)!
(2:)!
_
:!
(: 1) :!
_
2
=
[a[
4
lim
no
(2: 2) (2: 1)
1
1
(: 1)
2
Sinco 2: 2 = 2 (: 1) , wo lhon oLlain
j =
[a[
4
lim
no
2 (: 1) (2: 1)
(: 1)
2
=
[a[
4
lim
no
2 (2: 1)
: 1
(0.40)
ano afloi ovalualing lho limil, wo oLlain j = [a[ . Solling j < 1 yiolos
[a[ < 1 oi
1 < a < 1
1hus, lho inloival of convoigonco of (0.48) is (1, 1) , ano lho iaoius
of convoigonco is 1 = 1.
POWLR SLRlLS 607
1n|&n h |.n. .n ;:.:). Chock youi Ioaoing
JustIhcatIon Ior tLe HatIo Test
Finally, lol us show lhal lho ialio losl is ossonlially lho compaiison losl in which
a powoi soiios is compaioo lo a goomoliic soiios. If j < 1, lhon il follows lhal
lhoio is a numLoi r < 1 such lhal j < r. 1hus, lho oolnilion of j implios lhal
a
nl
(a j)
nl
a
n
(a j)
n
< r
foi all : _ ` foi somo `. Mulliplicalion lhon yiolos
a
nl
(a j)
nl
< r [a
n
(a j)
n
[ (0.0)
1hal is, lho noxl" loim is smalloi lhan r limos lho piovious" loim.
Moioovoi, lho :
||
loim musl Lo smalloi lhan r limos lho piovious" loim,
which is lho : 1 loim, lhus implying lhal
a
nl
(a j)
nl
< r [a
n
(a j)
n
[ < r r
a
nl
(a j)
nl
Assuming lhal ` = 0, wo can conlinuo lhis palloin as follows:
a
nl
(a j)
nl
< r [a
n
(a j)
n
[ < r
2
a
nl
(a j)
nl
< r
3
a
n2
(a j)
n2
.
.
.
< r
nl
a
nn
(a j)
nn
1hal is,

a
nl
(a j)
nl
< r
nl
[a
0
[ , which wo ioinoox inlo lho foim
[a
n
(a j)
n
[ < r
n
[a
0
[
o
n=0
[a
n
(a j)
n
[ <
o
n=0
r
n
[a
0
[ (0.1)
ano sinco lho lalloi is a goomoliic soiios wilh common ialio r < 1, il convoigos
ano lhus, so also ooos lho soiios of aLsolulo valuos of lho powoi soiios. 1hal is, if
j < 1, lhon lho powoi soiios

o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
convoigos aLsoluloly.
Moioovoi, whon j 1, lhon wo musl havo
a
nl
(a j)
nl
a
n
(a j)
n
1
foi all : _ `. 1his, in luin, implios lhal
a
nl
(a j)
nl
[a
n
(a j)
n
[
foi all : _ `. Howovoi, a soiios cannol convoigo unloss ils inoivioual loims Locomo
aiLiliaiily closo lo 0, which implios lhal lho soiios oivoigos whon j 1.
608 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
1hus, lho ialio losl implios aLsolulo convoigonco whon j < 1 ano oivoigonco
whon j 1, wilh no infoimalion whon j = 1. Moioovoi, whon applioo lo a powoi
soiios, lho ialio losl iovoals lhal a powoi soiios always convoigos oilhoi al a singlo
poinl, in a lnilo inloival oi foi all ioal numLois.
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h .n:n| nnJ :nJ.& J n:jn J h J||&.nj &: :..
1.
o
n=0
a
n
2.
o
n=0
:a
n
8.
o
n=0
:(a 1)
n
4.
o
n=0
(a 2)
n
:
.
o
n=0
(a 1)
n
2
n
6.
o
n=0
(1)
n
a
n
8
n
7.
o
n=0
2
n
(a 8)
n
:!
8.
o
n=0
(a 1)
n
2
n
:
0.
o
n=0
: (a 2)
n
10
n
10.
o
n=0
(a 1)
n
:
2
1
11.
o
n=0
(1)
n
a
2nl
(2: 1)!
12.
o
n=0
(1)
n
a
2n
(2:)!
18.
o
n=0
(2:)! a
n
(2: 1)!
14.
o
n=0
(:!) (: 1)! a
n
(2:)!
1.
o
n=0
(2:)!
(:!)
2
a
n
2
n
1nh J h J||&.nj . n jn:. :.. 1:n.n h .n:n| J n:jn
J nh &.nj ;n) h :n. nnJ hn ;h) h jn:. :. .
16. 1 a
2
a
d
. . . a
2n
. . .
17. 1 2 (a 8) 4 (a 8)
2
. . . 2
n
(a 8)
n
. . .
18. 1
1
2
(a 1)
1
4
(a 1)
2
. . .
(1)
n
2
n
(a 1)
n
. . .
10. 1
2
8
(a 8)
4
0
(a 8)
2
. . .
2
n
8
n
(a 8)
n
. . .
20. 8
8
(a )
8
2
(a )
2
. . .
8
n
(a )
n
. . .
21. EndoInts: Uso lho ialio losl lo show lhal lho opon inloival of convoigonco
of
o
n=0
(a 8)
n
:
is (2, 4) . 1hon answoi lho following:
(a) Doos lho soiios convoigo whon a = 4 Lxplain.
(L) Doos lho soiios convoigo whon a = 2 Lxplain.
of
o
n=0
(a 4)
n
:
2
is (, 8) . 1hon answoi lho following:
POWLR SLRlLS 600
(a) Doos lho soiios convoigo whon a = Lxplain.
of
o
n=0
(a 1)
n
2
n
of
o
n=0
(a 4)
n
2
n
:
2
25. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxploio lho goomoliic soiios
1
a 1
2

_
a 1
2
_
2
. . .
_
a 1
2
_
n
. . .
(a) Uso lho ialio losl lo lno lho inloival of convoigonco of lho soiios.
(L) Uso lho goomoliic soiios losl lo ooloimino whal lho soiios convoigos
lo whon il convoigos.
(c) How fai is il fiom lho conloi of lho soiios lo lho clososl voilical
asymplolo How is lhis iolaloo lo lho inloival of convoigonco.
(o) Giaph lho funclion in (L) along wilh lho funclions
T
2
(a) = 1
a 1
2

_
a 1
2
_
2
T
3
(a) = 1
a 1
2

_
a 1
2
_
2
_
a 1
2
_
3
T
d
(a) = 1
a 1
2

_
a 1
2
_
2
_
a 1
2
_
3
_
a 1
2
_
d
26. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxploio lho goomoliic soiios
1 2a 4a
2
8a
3
. . . 2
n
a
n
. . .
(a) Uso lho ialio losl lo lno lho inloival of convoigonco of lho soiios.
(L) Uso lho goomoliic soiios losl lo ooloimino whal lho soiios convoigos
lo whon il convoigos.
(c) How fai is il fiom lho conloi of lho soiios lo lho clososl voilical
asymplolo How is lhis iolaloo lo lho inloival of convoigonco.
(o) Giaph lho funclion in (L) along wilh lho funclions
T
2
(a) = 1 2a 4a
2
T
3
(a) = 1 2a 4a
2
8a
3
T
d
(a) = 1 2a 4a
2
8a
3
16a
d
700 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
27. Givon lho powoi soiios

o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
, lho iaoius of convoigonco is givon
Ly lho limil
1 = lim
no
a
n
a
nl
(a) Show lhal whon 0 < 1 < , lhon

o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
convoigos foi all a such lhal [a j[ < 1.
(L) Show lhal whon 1 = , lhon
o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
convoigos foi all a.
(c) Show lhal whon 1 = 0, lhon
o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
convoigos only whon a = j.
28. Uso lho oolnilion of lho limil of a soquonco as : appioachos lo piovo lhal
if j < r, lhon lhoio oxisls ` such lhal
a
nl
(a j)
nl
a
n
(a j)
n
< r
foi all : _ `. (Hinl: Lol = (r j) 2 )
29. Show lhal

o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
ano

o
n=0
:a
n
(a j)
n
havo lho samo opon in-
loival of convoigonco.
30. Show lhal

o
n=l
a
n
(a j)
n
ano
o
n=l
a
n
:
(a j)
n
havo lho samo opon inloival of convoigonco.
31. Hoot Test: Show lhal if
_
[a
n
(a j)
n
[ _ r, : = 0, 1, 2, . . .
lhon

o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
salislos (0.1). If r < 1, whal ooos lhal loll us aLoul
lho soiios
32. Uso lho iool losl lo show lhal

o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
ano

o
n=0
:a
n
(a j)
n
havo
lho samo opon inloival of convoigonco.
Hoot Test: Jh 1 J nj hn .J
j = lim
no
_
[a
n
(a j)
n
[
POWLR SLRlLS 701
hn

o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
n:j .J j < 1 nnJ J.:j .J j 1. 1 h :
J: h n:jn J h J||&.nj:
88.
o
n=0
a
n
8
n
84.
o
n=0
2
n
(a 1)
n
4
n
8.
o
n=0
:
n
a
n
86.
o
n=0
a
n
:
n
87.
o
n=0
(a 2)
n
(: 1)
n
88.
o
n=0
a
n
:
nl
9.6 Taylor Series
AnaIytIc FunctIons
If a funclion ) (a) can Lo wiillon as a powoi soiios conloioo al j ovoi somo opon
inloival of convoigonco aLoul j, lhon ) (a) is saio lo Lo nnn|j. n j. 1hal is,
) (a) is analylic al j if lhoio is an opon inloival (a, /) conlaining j such lhal
) (a) = a
0
a
l
(a j) a
2
(a j)
2
a
3
(a j)
3
a
d
(a j)
d
. . . (0.2)
foi all a in (a, /) .
Lol`s now ooloimino lho coomcionls a
n
. 1o Login wilh, nolico lhal
) (j) = a
0
a
l
(j j) a
2
(j j)
2
a
3
(j j)
3
a
d
(j j)
d
. . .
1hal is, ) (j) = a
0
. Diloionlialing (0.2) lhon yiolos
)
t
(a) = a
l
2a
2
(a j) 8a
3
(a j)
2
4a
d
(a j)
3
a
5
(a 4)
d
. . .
t
(j) = a
l
. Moioovoi, if wo conlinuo oiloionlialing, lhon wo
oLlain
)
tt
(a) = 2a
2
8 2a
3
(a j) 4 8a
d
(a j)
2
4a
5
(a 4)
3
. . .
)
ttt
(a) = 8 2a
3
4 8 2a
d
(a j) 4 8a
5
(a j)
2
. . .
)
(d)
(a) = 4 8 2a
d
4 8 2a
5
(a j) 6 4 8a
6
(a j)
2
. . .
tt
(j) = 2a
2
, )
ttt
(j) = 8!a
3
, ano )
(d)
(j) = 4!a
d
. 1hus, il
follows lhal in gonoial, )
(n)
(j) = :!a
n
, so lhal
a
n
=
)
(n)
(j)
:!
1hus, wo havo lho following:
TLeoren 6.1 : If ) (a) is analylic al a poinl j, lhon
) (a) = ) (j))
t
(j) (a j)
)
tt
(j)
2!
(a j)
2
. . .
)
(n)
(j)
:!
(a j)
n
. . .
foi all a in somo opon inloival (a, /) conlaining j.
702 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
Wo call lho powoi soiios iopiosonlalion of ) (a) conloioo al j lho Jnj|:` :. J
) (a) n:J n j. If wo oolno 0! = 1, lhon lho 1ayloi`s soiios of ) (a) conloioo
al j can Lo wiillon
) (a) =
o
n=0
)
(n)
(j)
:!
(a j)
n
Moioovoi, whon j = 0, lho 1ayloi`s soiios is a `n1n&:.n` :.. Foi oxamplo,
in soclion 8-8, wo consliucloo lho MacLauiin`s soiios of c
i
:
c
i
= 1 a
a
2
2!
. . .
a
n
:!
. . . =
o
n=0
a
n
:!
1hn . h Jnj|:` :. n:J n j = 0 J h J&n.n Chock youi Ioaoing
) (a) =
1
1 a
TayIor`s SerIes oI AnaIytIc FunctIons
Oui goal in lhis soclion is lo oovolop 1ayloi`s soiios iopiosonlalions of analylic
funclions. 1his ioquiios lhal wo comLino lho molhoos foi lnoing familios of 1ayloi
polynomials fiom soclion 8-2 wilh lho ooloiminalion of inloivals of convoigonco
fiom 8-.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho 1ayloi`s soiios oxpansion ano inloival of con-
voigonco of ) (a) = ln(a) conloioo al a = 1.
SoIutIon: Wo Login wilh a laLlo of ooiivalivos:
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(1)
0 ln(a) 0
1 a
l
1
2 1a
2
(1) 1!
8 (1) (2) a
3
(1)
2
2!
4 (1) (2) (8) a
d
(1)
3
8!
(1) (2) (8) (4) a
5
(1)
d
4!
fiom which il follows lhal lho gonoial foim of )
(n)
(1) is
)
(n)
(1) = (1)
nl
(1 2 8 . . . (: 1)) = (1)
nl
(: 1)!
As a iosull, lho 1ayloi`s soiios oxpansion of ln(a) conloioo al a = 1 is
o
n=l
(1)
nl
(: 1)!
:!
(a 1)
n
1hus, lho 1ayloi`s soiios conloioo al a = 1 gonoialoo Ly ln(a) is
o
n=l
(1)
nl
:
(a 1)
n
(0.8)
TAYLOR SLRlLS 708
Now wo musl ooloimino lho inloival of convoigonco of (0.8). 1ho
ialio losl implios lhal
j = lim
no
(1)
n
(a 1)
nl
: 1
:
(1)
nl
(a 1)
n
Iogiouping lho loims ano simplifying yiolos

j = lim
no
(a 1)
nl
(a 1)
n
:
: 1
= [a 1[ lim
no
:
: 1
= [a 1[
Solling j < 1 lhus yiolos
[a 1[ < 1
1 < a 1 < 1
0 < a < 2
so lhal lho inloival of convoigonco is (0, 2) . 1hal is, wo havo shown
lhal
o
n=l
(1)
nl
:
(a 1)
n
convoigos foi all a in (0, 2) .
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho 1ayloi`s soiios oxpansion of ln(a) conloioo al
j = 2.
SoIutIon: Wo Login wilh lho laLlo of ooiivalivo infoimalion:
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
(2)
0 lna ln(2)
1 a
l
2
l
2 a
2
2
2
8 1 2a
3
1 2 2
3
4 1 2 8a
d
1 2 8 2
d
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
: (1)
nl
(: 1)! a
n
(1)
nl
(: 1)! 2
n
As a iosull, lho palloin is lhal )
(n)
(2) = (1)
nl
(: 1)! 2
n
whon
: _ 1. Howovoi, lho palloin ooos nol holo foi lho lisl loim, which is
) (2) = ln(2) . 1hus, wo wiilo lho lisl loim sopaialoly lo oLlain
ln(2)
o
n=l
(1)
nl
(: 1)! 2
n
:!
(a 2)
n
which simplilos lo
ln(2)
o
n=l
(1)
nl
: 2
n
(a 2)
n
704 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
1o lno lho inloival of convoigonco, wo lisl compulo
j = lim
no
(1)
n
(a 2)
nl
(: 1) 2
nl
: 2
n
(1)
nl
(a 2)
n
Ioaiianging ano simplifying yiolos

j = lim
no
(a 2)
nl
(a 2)
n
2
n
2
nl
:
: 1
=
[a 2[
2
lim
no
:
: 1
=
1
2
[a 2[
Solling j < 1 ano solving foi a yiolos
1
2
[a 2[ < 1
[a 2[ < 2
2 < a 2 < 2
0 < a < 4
so lhal wo can concluoo lhal
ln(2)
o
n=l
(1)
nl
: 2
n
(a 2)
n
convoigos foi all a in (0, 4) .
1hj &&|J & n r n &: :. ::nn.n J ln(a) n:j Chock youi Ioaoing
&hn a = 0 :jn:J| J &h: . . n:J Jhn ., &hn . .jn.]nn nh&
ln(a) &hn a = 0
AIternatIng Iattern In tLe TayIor CoecIents
Il is nol unusual foi lho ovon ano ooo loims of a soiios lo salisfy oiloionl pal-
loins. Moioovoi, in such inslancos il is impoilanl lo lioal lho ovon ano ooo loims
sopaialoly Ly using 2: foi lho ovon inoicos ano 2: 1 foi lho ooo inoicos.
IXAMIII J Fino lho 1ayloi`s soiios oxpansion of ) (a) = cos (a)
conloioo al j = , along wilh ils inloival of convoigonco.
SoIutIon: Wo Login wilh lho laLlo of ooiivalivo infoimalion
: )
(n)
(a) )
(n)
()
0 cos (a) 1 = (1)
l
1 sin(a) 0
2 cos (a) 1 = (1)
2
8 sin(a) 0
4 cos (a) 1 = (1)
3
sin(a) 0
6 cos (a) 1 = (1)
d
TAYLOR SLRlLS 70
Sinco lho ooo loims aio all 0, so lhal wo nooo only consiooi lho ovon
loims. Howovoi,
) (2 0) = (1)
l
, ) (2 1) = (1)
2
, ) (2 2) = (1)
3
, ) (2 8) = (1)
d
1hus, oui palloin is lhal )
(2n)
() = (1)
nl
ano lhal lho ooo co-
omcionls aio 0. As a iosull, lho 1ayloi`s soiios oxpansion of cos (a)
conloioo al j = is
o
n=0
)
(2n)
()
(2:)!
(a )
2n
=
o
n=0
(1)
nl
(2:)!
(a )
2n
1o lno ils inloival of convoigonco, wo ovalualo lho limil
j = lim
no
(1)
n2
(a )
2n2
(2: 2)!
(2:)!
(1)
nl
(a )
2n
Collocling loims ano simplifying yiolos

j = lim
no
(a )
2n2
(a )
2n
(2:)!
(2: 2)!
= [a [
2
lim
no
(2:)!
(2: 2) (2: 1) (2:!)
= [a [
2
lim
no
1
(2: 2) (2: 1)
= 0
1hal is, lho limil is oqual lo 0 iogaioloss of lho valuo of a, so lhal
o
n=0
(1)
nl
(2:)!
(a )
2n
(0.4)
convoigos foi all ioal numLois a.
1hn . h :nJ.& J n:jn J h :. ;:.) Chock youi Ioaoing
InhnIteIy DIerentIaLIe Does ot InIy AnaIytIc
A funclion is saio lo Lo .n]n.|j J.]:n.nh| al a poinl j if il ano all of ils
ooiivalivos oxisl al j. In lhis lasl oxamplo, wo show lhal a funclion can Lo inl-
niloly oiloionliaLlo al j wilhoul Loing analylic al j. In pailiculai, lho 1ayloi`s
soiios oxpansion conloioo al j may convoigo lo a funclion olhoi lhan lho ono lhal
gonoialoo il.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho 1ayloi`s soiios oxpansion conloioo al 0 of
) (a) =
_
c
l/i
i) a ,= 0
0 i) a = 0
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, nolico lhal lho lisl ooiivalivo al a = 0 is
givon Ly
)
t
(0) = lim
|0
) (/) ) (0)
/
= lim
|0
c
l/|
/
706 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
Howovoi, if wo lol / = 11, lhon as / appioachos 0, 1 appioachos ,
so lhal wo havo
)
t
(0) = lim
1o
c
1
11
= lim
1o
1c
1
= 0
Similaily, il can Lo shown lhal )
(n)
(0) = 0 foi all posilivo inlogois :.
1hal is, ) (a) is inlniloly lal" al lho oiigin:
x
2 1 0 -1 -2
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
6-1: A funclion lhal is inlniloly lal" al lho oiigin
Ano sinco )
(n)
(0) = 0, lho MacLauiin soiios of ) (a) is
0 0 (a 0)
0
2!
(a 0)
2
. . .
0
:!
(a 0)
n
. . . = 0
Consoquonlly, ) (a) is not analylic on any opon inloival conlaining lho
oiigin, ovon lhough ovoiy ooiivalivo of ) (a) oxisls al lho oiigin.
If a funclion can Lo inlniloly oiloionliaLlo al a poinl wilhoul Loing analylic al
lhal poinl, how lhon oo wo ooloimino whon a funclion is aclually analylic al a
givon valuo Foi oxamplo, how oo wo know lhal lho 1ayloi`s soiios oxpansion of
) (a) = c
i
conloioo al j = 2 aclually convoigos lo ) (a) = c
i
Foilunaloly, lho lasl soclion in lhis chaploi will givo us a molhoo foi ooloimin-
ing whon a funclion is analylic. In pailiculai, if a funclion ) (a) is lho solulion lo
a linoai oiloionlial oqualion wilh polynomial coomcionls, ano if lho inilial valuos
al a poinl j guaianloo only ono solulion, lhon ) (a) is analylic al j. Foi oxamplo,
j = c
i
is lho only solulion lo j
t
= j, j (2) = c
2
, so lhal c
i
is inoooo analylic al
j = 2.
Lxoicisos:
1n .n -., j& J&nJ h Jnn.|j J Jnj|: |jnn.n| J: nh J h J||&.nj.
A& &:. J&n h Jnj|:` :. rnn.n J nh n h j.n n|& J j nnJ
]nJ h .n:n| J n:jn J h :..
1. ) (a) = c
2i
, j = 0 2. ) (a) = c
i
, j = 1
8. ) (a) = ln(1 a) , j = 0 4. ) (a) = ln(2 a) , j = 1
. ) (a) = a
l
, j = 1 6. ) (a) = a
l
, j = 1
7. ) (a) = a
2
, j = 1 8. ) (a) = a
2
, j = 1
0. ) (a) = cosh(a) , j = 0 10. ) (a) = sinh(a) , j = 0
11. ) (a) = sin(a) , j = 12. ) (a) = cos (a) , j = 2
18. ) (a) = sin(a) , j =
t
d
14. ) (a) = cos (a) , j =
t
d
TAYLOR SLRlLS 707
1.nJ h jn:n| J:n J h Jnj|:` :. n:J n h j.n n|& J j J
nh J h J&n.n j.n h|&, nnJ hn J:n.n h .n:n| J n:jn
J nh :..
1. ) (a) = a
l
, j = 2 16. ) (a) = a
l
, j = 8
17. ) (a) = ln(a) , j = 8 18. ) (a) = ln(a) , j = 4
10. ) (a) = ac
i
j = 1 20. ) (a) = c
2i
, j = 1
21. ) (a) = (1 a)
2
, j = 1 22. ) (a) = a
2
, j = 8
28. ) (a) = cosh(a) , j = ln(2) 24. ) (a) = sinh(a) , j = ln(2)
1 n n&: n|jh:n jn jn:n ) (0) , )
t
(0) , )
tt
(0) , )
ttt
(0) , nnJ
n. 1 h :&| J:n.n h jn:n| :n )
(n)
(0) , & h jn:n| :n
jn:n h `n|n&:.n` :. J h J&n.n nnJ hn ]nJ . .n:n| J
n:jn.
2. ) (a) = ln[1 2a[ 26. ) (a) = ln[1 8a[
27. ) (a) = lan
l
(a) 28. ) (a) = lan
l
(2a)
20. ) (a) = ln
1 a
2
80. ) (a) = ln
1 a
1 a
31. If a = is lho voilical asymplolo of ) (a) clososl lo a poinl j in lho oomain

of ) (a) , lho inloival of convoigonco is ([ j[ , [ j[) . Uso lhis iooa lo
ooloimino lho inloival of convoigonco of lhoso funclions in oxoicisos 1-24
lhal havo a voilical asymplolo.
32. Wo can manipulalo a goomoliic soiios lo show lhal
1
a
2
1
=
o
n=0
(1)
n
a
2n
Doos
l
i
l
havo a voilical asymplolo Doos ils MacLauiin soiios convoigo
foi all a Lxplain.
33. In lhis oxoiciso, wo uso lho facl (soo (0.8) aLovo) lhal
n(a) =
o
n=l
(1)
n
:
(a 1)
n
is lho 1ayloi`s soiios conloioo al j = 1 gonoialoo Ly (a) = ln(a) .
(a) Show lhal n
t
(a) =
t
(a) foi all a in (0, 2). (Hinl: apply goomoliic
soiios foimula lo n
t
(a) ).
(L) Lxplain why wo can concluoo lhal lho alloinaling haimonic soiios
convoigos lo ln(2) . 1hal is, oxplain why
ln(2) =
o
n=l
(1)
nl
:
foi lho slanoaio aiiangomonl of lho alloinaling haimonic soiios.
34. In lhis oxoiciso, wo uso 1ayloi`s soiios lo piovo lhal
c
ob
= c
o
c
b
708 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
(a) Show lhal lho 1ayloi`s soiios oxpansion of c
i
conloioo al a = / is
c
i
= c
b
_
1 (a /)
(a /)
2
2!

(a /)
3
8!
. . .
(a /)
n
:!
. . .
_
(L) Lol a = a/ ano uso lho iosull fiom (a) lo show lhal c
ob
= c
o
c
b
.
(c) Nolico lhal lho iosull in (a) is liuo only if lho inilial valuo pioLlom
which implicilly oolnos lho oxpononlial funclion,
j
t
= j, j (0) = 1
has only ono solulion. Wo showoo lhal is ooos inoooo havo ono
solulion on pago ?? of lho loxl.
35. Iiovo lho following: If ) (a) is ovon ano analylic al 0, lhon ils MacLauiin`s
soiios is an inlnilo soiios of ovon powois of a. (Hinl: lisl show lhal if ) (a)
is ooo, lhon )
t
(0) = 0 ).
36. Iiovo lho following: If ) (a) is ooo ano analylic al 0, lhon ils MacLauiin`s
soiios is an inlnilo soiios of ooo powois of a.
37. evton`s AetLod: Supposo lhal ) (a) is analylic al j, lhal )
t
(j) ,= 0,
ano lhal ) (r) = 0.
(a) Lxplain why
0 = ) (j))
t
(j) (r j)
)
tt
(j)
2!
(r j)
2
. . .
)
(n)
(j)
:!
(r j)
n
. . .
(L) Show lhal
r = j
) (j)
)
t
(j)

)
tt
(j)
2!)
t
(j)
(r j)
2
. . .
)
(n)
(j)
:!)
t
(j)
(r j)
n
. . .
(c) Lxplain why Nowlon`s molhoo yiolos a gooo appioximalion of r
whon (r j) is sumcionlly small.
38. FIxed IoInts: Lol ) (a) Lo analylic al j wilh )
t
(j) ,= 1.
(a) Lxplain why if r is a lxoo poinl of ) (a) , lhon
r = ) (j))
t
(j) (r j)
)
tt
(j)
2!
(r j)
2
. . .
)
(n)
(j)
:!
(r j)
n
. . .
(L) Show lhal
r =
) (j) j)
t
(j)
1 )
t
(j)

)
tt
(j)
1 )
t
(j)
(r j)
2
2!
. . .
)
(n)
(j)
1 )
t
(j)
(r j)
n
:!
. . .
(c) Lxplain why if (r j) is sumcionlly small, lhon
) (j) j)
t
(j)
1 )
t
(j)
is a gooo appioximalion of lho lxoo poinl r.
39. VrIte to Learn: Lxplain in a shoil ossay why if wo oolno
) (a) =
_
c
l/i
i) a 0
0 i) a _ 0
lhon lho 1ayloi`s soiios of ) (a) conloioo al 0 ooos nol convoigo lo ) (a) on
any opon inloival conlaining 0.
TAYLOR SLRlLS 700
40. VrIte to Learn: Lxplain in a shoil ossay why if wo oolno
) (a) =
_
a 1 c
l/i
i) a 0
0 i) a _ 0
lhon lho MacLauiin`s soiios of ) (a) ooos nol convoigo lo ) (a) on any opon
inloival conlaining 0.
9.1 Calculus wiLh Power Series
Tern Ly Tern IntegratIon and DIerentIatIon
In lhis soclion, wo sluoy ooiivalivos ano inlogials of powoi soiios, Lolh foi com-
pulalional puiposos ano also lo oLlain now powoi soiios oxpansions fiom known Now soiios can
Lo oLlainoo
fiom ooiivalivos
ano inlogials of
known soiios.
powoi soiios iopiosonlalions. 1o oo so, howovoi, ioquiios lho following lhooiom:
TLeoren 7.1: If lhoio is a numLoi c 0 such lhal
) (a) =
o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
foi all a in lho inloival (j c, j c) , lhon lho powoi soiios iopioson-
lalion of ) (a) can Lo inlogialoo :n hj :n, which is lo say lhal
_
) (a) da = C
o
n=0
a
n
: 1
(a j)
nl
foi all a in (j c, j c) . Likowiso, lho powoi soiios iopiosonlalion of
) (a) can Lo oiloionlialoo :n hj :n, which is lo say lhal
)
t
(a) =
o
n=0
a
n
:(a j)
nl
foi all a in (j c, j c) .
Allhough wo cannol piovo lhooiom 7.1, wo will uso il in lhis soclion lo ooiivo
1ayloi`s soiios iopiosonlalions of coilain analylic funclions.
6
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho MacLauiin`s soiios oxpansion of ln(1 a).
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo lisl nolico
ln(1 a) =
_
1
1 a
da
6
Nol all soiios can Lo oiloionlialoo loim Ly loim. 1hus, assuming lhal lhooiom 7.1 is liuo
is a ialhoi laigo assumplion ano will nooo lo Lo jusliloo in a laloi couiso.
710 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
Inlogialing Lolh sioos of lho goomoliic soiios lhus yiolos
_
1
1 a
da =
_
_
1 a a
2
. . . a
n
. . .
_
da
fiom which wo oLlain
ln(1 a) = C a
a
2
2

a
3
8
. . .
a
nl
: 1
. . .
1o ooloimino C, wo lol a = 0 :
ln(1) = C 0 0 . . . 0 . . .
Sinco ln(1) = 0, wo also havo C = 0 ano lhus
ln(1 a) = a
a
2
2

a
3
8
. . .
a
nl
: 1
. . . , 1 < a < 1
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho Maclauiin`s soiios of (1 a)
2
.
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo lisl nolico lhal
d
da
1
1 a
=
1
(1 a)
2
(0.)
1hus, wo apply lho ooiivalivo opoialoi lo Lolh sioos of lho goomoliic
soiios:
d
da
1
1 a
=
d
da
_
1 a a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
. . .
which iosulls in
1
(1 a)
2
= 0 1 2a 8a
2
. . . :a
nl
. . . (0.6)
Moioovoi, sinco lho goomoliic soiios convoigos foi a in (1, 1) , lho
soiios (0.6) also convoigos in (1, 1) .
5h& hn ;:.) . :&. Chock youi Ioaoing
DehnIte IntegraIs oI Iover SerIes
Sinco a powoi soiios can Lo anlioiloionlialoo loim Ly loim, lho funoamonlal
lhooiom implios lhal oolnilo inlogials of powoi soiios can also Lo ovalualoo loim
Ly loim.
IXAMIII J Fino lho MacLauiin`s soiios of lan
l
(a) using lho facl
lhal
lan
l
(a) =
_
i
0
1
1 t
2
dt
CALCULUS WlTH POWLR SLRlLS 711
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, if wo ioplaco a wilh t
2
in lho goomoliic
soiios, wo oLlain
1
1 (t
2
)
= 1 t
2
t
d
. . . (1)
n
t
2n
. . . , 1 < t < 1
If wo compulo lho oolnilo inlogial fiom 0 lo a on oach sioo, wo oLlain
_
i
0
1
1 t
2
da =
_
i
0
_
1 t
2
t
d
. . . (1)
n
t
2n
. . .
dt
=
_
i
0
1dt
_
i
0
t
2
dt
_
i
0
t
d
dt . . . (1)
n
_
i
0
t
2n
dt . . .
lan
l
(a) = t[
i
0

t
3
8
i
0

t
5
i
0
. . . (1)
n
t
2nl
2: 1
i
0
. . .
= a
a
3
8

a
5
. . . (1)
n
a
2nl
2: 1
. . .
lan
l
(a) = a
a
3
8

a
5
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
2: 1
. . . , 1 < a < 1
IXAMIII ! Fino an inlnilo soiios iopiosonlalion of lho oolnilo
inlogial
_
t/d
0
cos
_
a
2
_
da
SoIutIon: 1ho Maclauiin`s soiios of cos (a) implios lhal
cos
_
a
2
_
= 1
_
a
2
_
2
2!

_
a
2
_
d
4!
. . .
(1)
n
_
a
2
_
2n
(2:)!
. . .
= 1
a
d
2!

a
S
4!
. . .
(1)
n
a
dn
(2:)!
. . .
foi all a. As a iosull, wo havo
_
t/d
0
cos
_
a
2
_
da =
_
t/d
0
_
1
a
d
2!

a
S
4!
. . .
(1)
n
a
dn
(2:)!
. . .
_
da
Inlogialing loim Ly loim lhon oxpiossos lho oolnilo inlogial as an
inlnilo soiios:
_
t/d
0
cos
_
a
2
_
da =

4

(4)
5
2!

(4)
9
0 4!
. . .
(1)
n
(4)
dnl
(4: 1) (2:)!
. . .
1n|&n
_
t/d
0
cos
_
a
2
_
da n&n:.n||j, nnJ hn nn: h n:.n| &n Chock youi Ioaoing
4

(4)
5
2!

(4)
9
0 4!
712 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
HesseI FunctIons
In many applicalions, now funclions aio oolnoo using powoi soiios. Inoooo, lho
viLialion of an aiiplano wing oi lho lop of a oium aio nol sinusoioal ano musl
insloao Lo moooloo wilh 1| 1&n.n, whoio lho 0
||
Lossol funclion is oolnoo
J
0
(a) = 1
a
2
2
2

a
d
2
d
(2!)
2

a
6
2
6
(8!)
2
. . .
(1)
n
a
2n
2
2n
(:!)
2
. . . (0.7)
ano lho 1
~|
Lossol funclion is oolnoo
J
l
(a) =
a
2

a
3
2
3
1! 2!

a
5
2
5
2! 8!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
2
2nl
:! (: 1)!
. . . (0.8)
1hoso soiios convoigo foi all a, as will Lo shown in lho oxoicisos.
IXAMIII Uso (0.7) lo lno a soiios iopiosonlalion foi
_
l
0
aJ
0
(a) da
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo lisl mulliply (0.7) Ly a lo oLlain
aJ
0
(a) = a
a
3
2
2

a
5
2
d
(2!)
2

a
7
2
6
(8!)
2
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
2
2n
(:!)
2
. . .
1oim Ly loim inlogialion lhon yiolos
_
l
0
aJ
0
(a) da =
_
l
0
_
a
a
3
2
2

a
5
2
d
(2!)
2
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
2
2n
(:!)
2
. . .
_
da
=
a
2
2

a
d
4 4

a
6
6 16 4
. . .
(1)
n
a
2n2
(2: 2) 2
2n
(:!)
2
. . .
l
0
_
l
0
aJ
0
(a) da =
1
2

1
16

1
884
. . .
(1)
n
(2: 2) 2
2n
(:!)
2
. . .
IXAMIII 0 Uso (0.7) lo lno J
t
0
(a) .
SoIutIon: Diloionlialing loim Ly loim yiolos
J
t
0
(a) = 0
2a
2
2

4a
3
2
d
(2!)
2

6a
5
2
6
(8!)
2
. . .
(1)
n
2:a
2nl
2
2n
(:!)
2
. . .
which simplilos lo
J
t
0
(a) =
a
2

2 2a
3
2
d
2!2!

8 2a
5
2
6
8!8!
. . .
(1)
n
2:a
2nl
2
2n
:!:!
. . .
If wo now facloi oul lho nogalivo ano cancol, wo oLlain
J
t
0
(a) =
_
a
2

a
3
2
3
1! 2!

a
5
2
5
2! 8!
. . .
(1)
n
a
2nl
2
2nl
(: 1)! :!
. . .
_
Compaiison wilh (0.8) iovoals lhal wo havo jusl shown lhal
J
t
0
(a) = J
l
(a) .
1 ;:.7) nnJ ;:.) J:n.n &h.h J h j:nh h|& . h j:nh J Chock youi Ioaoing
J
0
(a) nnJ &h.h . h j:nh J J
l
(a) .
x
10 8 6 4 2 0
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
7-1: Giaphs of J
0
ano J
l
LInIt EvaIuatIon vItL Iover SerIes
Finally, lol us nolico lhal 1ayloi`s ano MacLauiin`s soiios can also Lo usoo lo
ovalualo limils. Inoooo, powoi soiios aio oflon usoo as an alloinalivo lo L`hopilal`s
iulo.
IXAMIII 7 Uso MacLauiin`s soiios oxpansions lo compulo
lim
i0
sin
_
a
2
_
sin
2
(a)
a
d
(0.0)
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, suLsliluling a
2
inlo lho MacLauiin`s soiios
foi sin(a) yiolos
sin
_
a
2
_
= a
2
a
6
8!

a
l0
!
. . .
Moioovoi, sin
2
(a) =
l
2

l
2
cos (2a) ano sinco
1
2
cos (2a) =
1
2
_
1
(2a)
2
2!

(2a)
d
4!

(2a)
6
6!
. . .
_
=
1
2

4a
2
2 2!

16a
d
2 4!

64a
6
2 6!
. . .
wo havo lhal
sin
2
(a) =
1
2

_
1
2

4a
2
2 2!

16a
d
2 4!

64a
6
2 6!
. . .
_
=
4a
2
2 2

16a
d
2 24

64a
6
2 720
. . .
= a
2
a
3
8

2a
6
4
. . .
1hus, lho Maclauiin`s soiios of lho numoialoi of (0.0) is
sin
_
a
2
_
sin
2
(a) =
_
a
2
a
6
8!

a
l0
!
. . .
_
_
a
2
a
d
8

2a
6
4
. . .
_
=
a
d
8

11
00
a
6
. . .
714 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
Division Ly a
d
lhon yiolos
sin
_
a
2
_
sin
2
(a)
a
d
=
1
8

11
00
a
2
. . .
so lhal
lim
i0
sin
_
a
2
_
sin
2
(a)
a
d
= lim
i0
_
1
8

11
00
a
2
. . .
_
=
1
8
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h Jnj|:` :. rnn.n J nh J h J||&.nj hj J.]:n.n.nj :
.nj:n.nj n |n&n :.. 5n h .n:n| J n:jn J h :&|.
1.
_
sin
_
a
2
_
da 2.
_
cos
_
a
2
_
da 8. ln(1 a)
4. ln(1 2a) .
1
(1 a)
2
6.
2a
(1 a
2
)
2
7.
1
(1 a)
3
8.
1
(1 a)
3
0. ln
_
1 a
1 a
_
10. ln
_
1 a
2
_
11. ln
_
1 a
2
_
12. lan
l
_
a
2
_
18.
_
J
0
(a) da 14.
_
J
l
(a) da 1. J
t
l
(a)
16.
J
Ji
(aJ
0
(a)) 17.
_
aJ
l
(a) da 18.
_
a
2
J
0
(a) da
1 n |n&n Jnj|:` :. ;: h j.n Jnj|:` :.) ]nJ n :. ::-
nn.n J h j.n J]n. .nj:n|.
10.
_
2
0
c
i
da 20.
_
_
t
0
sin
_
a
2
_
da 21.
_
l
0
da
1 a
22.
_
0
l
da
1 a
28.
_
l
0
sin(a)
a
da 24.
_
l
l
c
i
1
a
da
2.
_
2
l
ln(a) da using ln(a) =
o
n=l
(1)
nl
:
(a 1)
n
foi a in (0, 2)
26.
_
2
l
ln(a) da using ln(a) = ln(2)
o
n=l
(1)
nl
:2
n
(a 2)
n
ln(2) foi a in (0, 2)
27. Uso a MacLauiin`s soiios oxpansion lo ovalualo lho limil
lim
i0
sin
_
a
2
_
a
2
a
6
28. Uso a Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansion lo ovalualo lho limil
lim
i0
2 cos (a) 2 a
2
a
d
lim
i0
cos
_
a
2
_
cos
2
(a)
a
2
(a) Fino lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansions of sin
_
a
2
_
ano sin
2
(a) .
(L) Uso (a) ano lho Maclauiin`s soiios foi sin(a) lo lno lho Maclauiin`s
soiios of
sin
_
a
2
_
sin
2
(a)
(c) Divioo lho iosulling soiios in (L) Ly a
d
ano lhon lol a appioach 0.
lim
i0
4 sin
_
a
3
_
8 sin(a) sin(8a)
a
5
(a) Fino lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansion of sin
_
a
3
_
ano sin(8a) .
(L) Uso (a) ano lho Maclauiin`s soiios foi sin(a) lo lno lho Maclauiin`s
soiios of
4 sin
_
a
3
_
8 sin(a) sin(8a)
(c) Divioo lho iosulling soiios in (L) Ly a
5
ano lhon lol a appioach 0.
31. SIne IntegraI: 1ho sino inlogial is oolnoo lo Lo
Si (a) =
_
i
0
sin(t)
t
dt
Fino lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansion of Si (a) .
32. 1ho ::: J&n.n is oolnoo lo Lo
oif (a) =
_
i
0
c
|
dt
(a) Fino lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansion of lho oiioi funclion.
(L) Uso T
9
(a) lo appioximalo oif (0.) . How closo is lhis lo lho ap-
pioximalion oLlainoo Ly applying numoiical inlogialion lo
_
0.5
0
c
i
da
33. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxploio lho 1:n| .n 1nj:n|
C (a) =
i
_
0
cos
_
t
2
2
_
dt
(a) Fino lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansion of C (a) .
(L) Giaph T
l3
(a) ovoi lho inloival [8, 8[ .
(c) Compulo T
l3
(1) lo oslimalo lho inlogial
l
_
0
cos
_
t
2
2
_
dt
How closo is lhis lo lho iosull oLlainoo wilh numoiical inlogialion
716 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
34. In lhis oxoiciso, wo oxploio lho 1:n| 5.n 1nj:n|
o (a) =
i
_
0
sin
_
t
2
2
_
dt
(a) Fino lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansion of C (a) .
(L) Giaph T
l3
(a) ovoi lho inloival [8, 8[ .
(c) Compulo T
l3
(1) lo oslimalo lho inlogial
l
_
0
sin
_
t
2
2
_
dt
How closo is lhis lo lho iosull oLlainoo wilh numoiical inlogialion
35. Show lhal lho ooiivalivo of lho Maclauiin`s soiios of c
i
is lho Maclauiin`s
soiios of c
i
36. Show lhal lho ooiivalivo of lho Maclauiin`s soiios of sin(a) is lho Maclauiin`s
soiios of cos (a)
37. Show lhal
J
t
l
(a) = J
0
(a)
1
a
J
l
(a)
38. Show lhal
J
tt
0
(a) =
1
a
J
l
(a) J
0
(a)
39. VrIte to Learn: Supposo lho powoi soiios

o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
convoigos on
lho closoo inloival [j r, j r[ . In a shoil ossay, oxplain why [a j[ _ r
foi all a in [j r, j r[ ano lhus why
o
n=0
[a
n
(a j)
n
[ _
o
n=0
[a
n
[ r
n
implios lhal lho powoi soiios

o
n=0
a
n
(a j)
n
convoigos aLsoluloly ano
unifoimly in a ovoi [j r, j r[.
9.8 DiferenLial LquaLions
FIrst Order LInear DIerentIaI EquatIons
Whon a lisl oiooi oiloionlial oqualion has only ono solulion foi a givon inilial
valuo, lhon ils solulion is an analylic funclion ano a powoi soiios can Lo usoo
lo iopiosonl lhal solulion. In lhis soclion, oui inilial valuos will Lo of lho foim
j (0) = a
0
, lhus allowing us lo solvo a oiloionlial oqualion wilh a powoi soiios of
lho foim
j = a
0
a
l
a a
2
a
2
. . . a
n
a
n
. . . (0.60)
Wo Login Ly wiiling lho solulion as
j = a
0
a
l
a a
2
a
2
a
3
a
3
a
d
a
d
a
5
a
5
. . .
whoio a
0
, a
l
, a
2
, . . . aio lo Lo ooloiminoo. Sinco lho ooiivalivo j
t
is
j
t
= a
l
2a
2
a 8a
3
a
2
4a
d
a
3
a
5
a
d
6a
6
a
5
. . .
wo can suLslilulo j ano j
t
inlo lho oiloionlial oqualion ano lhon ooloimino a
funclion ) (:) such lhal
a
n
= ) (:)
1hal is, wo sook lho gonoial loim of lho powoi soiios solulion (0.60).
IXAMIII 1 Fino a powoi soiios solulion lo lho inilial valuo pioLlom
j
t
= 2j, j (0) = 1
SoIutIon: 1o oLlain a solulion of lho foim (0.60), wo suLslilulo foi j
ano j
t
:
a
l
2a
2
a 8a
3
a
2
4a
d
a
3
a
5
a
d
. . . = 2
_
a
0
a
l
a a
2
a
2
a
3
a
3
a
d
a
d
. . .
_
a
l
2a
2
a 8a
3
a
2
4a
d
a
3
a
5
a
d
. . . = 2a
0
2a
l
a 2a
2
a
2
2a
3
a
3
2a
d
a
d
. . .
In oiooi lo oiganizo oui woik, wo wiilo lho oqualion voilically so lhal
wo can malch up lho coomcionls of coiiosponoing powois of a:
a
l
2a
2
a 8a
3
a
2
4a
d
a
3
a
5
a
d
. . .
= 2a
0
2a
l
a 2a
2
a
2
2a
3
a
3
2a
d
a
d
. . .
Ly oqualing lho coomcionl aLovo lho oouLlo lino wilh lho ono Lolow,
wo oLlain Do nol simplify
calculalions
whon looking foi
a palloin.
a
l
= 2a
0
, 2a
2
= 2a
l
, 8a
3
= 2a
2
, 4a
d
= 2a
3
, a
5
= 2a
d
,
Sinco a
0
= 1, wo musl havo a
l
= 2a
0
= 2 1. 1ho noxl oqualion implios
lhal 2a
2
= 2a
l
= 2 2, which givos us a
2
= 2 (2) 2. Conlinuing in lhis
fashion givos us
a
l
= 2a
0
= 2 1, a
l
= 2
2a
2
= 2a
l
= 2 2, a
2
=
2 2
2
=
2
2
2!
8a
3
= 2a
2
= 2
2 2
2
, a
3
=
2 2 2
8 2
=
2
3
8!
4a
d
= 2a
3
= 2
2 2 2
8 2
, a
d
=
2 2 2 2
4 8 2
=
2
d
4!
a
5
= 2a
d
= 2
2 2 2 2
4 8 2
, a
5
=
2 2 2 2 2
4 8 2
=
2
5
!
so lhal cloaily lho gonoial loim is
a
n
=
2
n
:!
SuLsliluling inlo (0.60) lhus yiolo lho powoi soiios of lho solulion
j = 1 2a
2
2
2!
a
2
. . .
2
n
:!
a
n
. . . (0.61)
718 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
1r|n.n &hj ;:.1) . h nn n j = c
2i
Iatterns HequIrIng SeveraI Terns
Oflon, lho palloin may nol holo foi lho lisl fow coomcionls, so lhal sovoial
coomcionls aio ioquiioo Lofoio a palloin is oLsoivoo.
IXAMIII 2 Fino a powoi soiios solulion lo
j
t
j = a, j (0) = 1 (0.62)
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo consliucl lho comLinalion j
t
j ano sol il
oqual lo a = 0 1 a0a
2
0a
3
. . . , which wo placo in lho lasl iow
Lolow lho oouLlo lino:
j
t
a
l
2a
2
a 8a
3
a
2
4a
d
a
3
a
5
a
d
. . .
j a
0
a
l
a a
2
a
2
a
3
a
3
a
d
a
d
. . .
a = 0 1 a 0 a
2
0 a
3
0 a
d
. . .
Sinco a
0
= j (0) = 1, lho lisl column afloi lho oquals sign lhus implios
lhal
a
l
a
0
= 0, a
l
1 = 0, a
l
= 1
1ho column of coomcionls of a implios lhal
2a
2
a
l
= 1, 2a
2
1 = 1, a
2
=
2
2
ano lho column of coomcionls of a
2
implios lhal
8a
3
a
2
= 0, 8a
3

2
2
= 0, a
3
=
2
8 2
Moioovoi, lho noxl lwo columns of coomcionls imply lhal
4a
d
= a
3
=
2
8 2
, a
d
=
2
4 8 2
=
2
4!
a
5
= a
d
=
2
4 8 2
, a
5
=
2
4 8 2
=
2
!
1hus, lho gonoial loim is a
n
=
2
n!
ano lho solulion lo (0.62) is
j = 1 a
2
2!
a
2
2
8!
a
3
. . .
2
:!
a
n
. . . (0.68)
Nolico howovoi, lhal lho lisl lwo loims oo nol ll lho palloin.
Whon lnoing a powoi soiios solulion lo a socono oiooi oqualion, il is nol al all
uncommon foi many loims lo Lo ioquiioo Lofoio lho palloin Locomos appaionl.
IXAMIII J Fino lho powoi soiios solulion lo
j
tt
2j
t
j = 1, j (0) = 2, j
t
(0) = 1 (0.64)
SoIutIon: Wo Login Ly wiiling lho solulion as
j = a
0
a
l
a a
2
a
2
a
3
a
3
a
d
a
d
a
5
a
5
. . .
whoio a
0
, a
l
, a
2
, . . . aio lo Lo ooloiminoo. 1ho lisl ano socono ooiiv-
alivos aio lhus
j
t
= a
l
2a
2
a 8a
3
a
2
4a
d
a
3
a
5
a
d
6a
6
a
5
. . .
j
tt
= 2a
2
8 2a
3
a 4 8a
d
a
2
4a
5
a
3
6 a
6
a
d
7 6a
7
a
5
. . .
Wo lhon consliucl lho comLinalion j
tt
2j
t
j ano sol il oqual lo
1 = 1 0a
2
0a
3
. . . , which is in lho lasl iow of lho laLlo.
j
tt
2a
2
8 2a
3
a 4 8a
d
a
2
4a
5
a
3
. . .
2j
t
2a
l
2 2a
2
a 2 8a
3
a
2
2 4a
d
a
3
. . .
j a
0
a
l
a a
2
a
2
a
3
a
3
. . .
1 = 1 0 a 0 a
2
0 a
3
. . .
1ho inilial conoilions j (0) = 2 ano j
t
(0) = 1 imply lhal a
0
= 2 ano
a
l
= 1. 1ho lisl column afloi lho oquals sign lhus implios lhal
2a
2
2a
l
a
0
= 1, 2a
2
2 2 = 1, a
2
=
1
2
1ho column of a coomcionls lhon implios lhal
8 2a
3
2 2a
2
a
l
= 0, 8 2a
3
2 2
1
2
1 = 0, a
3
=
1
8 2
ano lho column of a
2
coomcionls implios lhal
48a
d
28a
3
a
2
= 0, 48a
d
28
1
8 2
1
2
= 0, a
d
=
1
4 8 2
Il lhus appoais lhal a
n
= 1:!, which wo can voiify wilh lho column
of a
3
coomcionls:
4a
5
24a
d
a
3
= 0, 4a
5
2 4
4 8 2
1
8 2
= 0, a
5
=
1
4 8 2
1hal is, wo havo a
n
= 1:!, so lhal lho solulion lo (0.64) is
j = 2 a
a
2
2!

a
3
8!
. . .
a
n
:!
. . . (0.6)
Nolico, howovoi, lhal a
0
= 2 ooos nol ll oui gonoial palloin of a
n
=
1:!.
1r|n.n &hj ;:.) .n|. hn j = c
i
1 . n |&.n ;:.). Chock youi Ioaoing
HInonIaI ExansIons
If il is known lhal a coilain funclion j = ) (a) is lho only solulion lo a givon inilial
valuo pioLlom, lhon lho powoi soiios solulion of lho inilial valuo pioLlom will Lo
lho MacLauiin`s soiios of j = ) (a) . 1o illuslialo, consiooi lhal if j = (1 a)
o
,
lhon
j
t
= c(1 a)
ol
If wo now mulliply Lolh sioos Ly (1 a) , wo oLlain
(1 a) j
t
= c(1 a)
o
720 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
ano sinco (1 a)
o
= j, lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansion of (1 a)
o
is lho powoi
soiios solulion of
j
t
aj
t
= cj, j (0) = 1 (0.66)
In lho oxoicisos il is shown lhal (0.66) has only ono solulion foi oach c. Conso-
quonlly, lho solulion lo (0.66) is lho MacLauiin`s soiios oxpansion of (1 a)
o
ano
aio calloo 1.nn.n| :. oxpansions sinco lhoy gonoializo lho Linomial oxpansion
of (1 a)
n
whon : is an inlogoi.
IXAMIII ! Fino lho Linomial oxpansion of j = (1 a)
2
Ly con-
sliucling lho powoi soiios solulion lo lho oiloionlial oqualion
j
t
aj
t
= 2j, j (0) = 1 (0.67)
SoIutIon: 1o oo so, wo consliucl lho sum j
t
aj
t
, Loing caioful lo
placo liko powois in lho samo column, ano lhon sol il oqual lo 2j:
j
t
a
l
2a
2
a 8a
3
a
2
4a
d
a
3
a
5
a
d
. . .
aj
t
a
l
a 2a
2
a
2
8a
3
a
3
4a
d
a
d
. . .
2j = 2a
0
2a
l
a 2a
2
a
2
2a
3
a
3
2a
d
a
d
. . .
1ho columns of coomcionls lhon yiolo lho following oqualions:
a
l
= 2a
0
, 2a
2
a
l
= 2a
l
, 8a
3
2a
2
= 2a
2
, 4a
d
8a
3
= 2a
3
Sinco a
0
= 1, lho lisl oqualion lolls us lhal a
l
= 2a
0
= 2. In facl, wo
havo
a
l
= 2a
0
= 2, a
l
= 2
2a
2
a
l
= 2a
l
, 2a
2
= a
l
, a
2
= 1
8a
3
2a
2
= 2a
2
8a
3
= 0 a
3
= 0
4a
d
8a
3
= 2a
3
4a
d
= a
3
a
d
= 0
so lhal likowiso, a
5
= a
6
= . . . = 0. 1hus, lho solulion lo (0.67) is
j = 1 2a 1a
2
0 0 0 . . .
which is lho samo as
j = a
2
2a 1
1& . j = (1 a)
2
:|nJ h |&.n ;:.7). Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe HInonIaI SerIes
Lol`s lnish Ly oovoloping lho Linomial soiios foi aiLiliaiy c. 1o Login wilh, (0.66)
says lhal j = (1 a)
o
is lho solulion lo
j
t
aj
t
= cj, j (0) = 1
1o solvo lhis oqualion, wo sol j
t
aj
t
oqual lo cj ano malch coomcionls:
j
t
a
l
2a
2
a 8a
3
a
2
4a
d
a
3
a
5
a
d
. . .
aj
t
a
l
a 2a
2
a
2
8a
3
a
3
4a
d
a
d
. . .
cj = ca
0
ca
l
a ca
2
a
2
ca
3
a
3
ca
d
a
d
. . .
1ho columns of coomcionls lhus imply lho following oqualions:
a
l
= ca
0
, 2a
2
a
l
= ca
l
, 8a
3
2a
2
= ca
2
, 4a
d
8a
3
= ca
3
Sinco a
0
= 1, lho lisl oqualion lolls us lhal a
l
= ca
0
= c. In facl, wo havo
a
l
= ca
0
= c, a
l
= c
2a
2
a
l
= ca
l
, 2a
2
= (c 1) a
l
, a
2
=
c(c 1)
2
8a
3
2a
2
= ca
2
8a
3
= (c 2) a
2
, a
3
=
c(c 1) (c 2)
8 2
As a iosull, lho Linomial soiios oxpansion is givon Ly
(1 a)
o
= 1 ca
c(c 1)
2!
a
2
c(c 1) (c 2)
8!
a
3
. . . (0.68)
foi nnj ioal numLoi c ano foi all a in (1, 1) . Moioovoi, if wo lol
_
c
:
_
=
c(c 1) (c 2) . . . (c : 1)
:!
lhon lho Linomial soiios can Lo wiillon in lho foim
(1 a)
o
= 1
_
c
1
_
a
_
c
2
_
a
2
. . .
_
c
:
_
a
n
. . .
IXAMIII Uso (0.68) lo oxpano (1 a)
2
.
SoIutIon: If c = 2, lhon (0.68) Locomos
(1 a)
2
= 1 2a
2 (2 1)
2!
a
2
2 (2 1) (2 2)
8!
a
3
. . .
= 1 2a a
2
0 0 . . .
IXAMIII 0 Uso (0.68) lo oxpano (1 a)
l
.
SoIutIon: If c = 1, lhon (0.68) Locomos
(1 a)
l
= 1 a
1 (1 1)
2!
a
2
1 (1 1) (1 2)
8!
a
3
. . .
= 1 a
1 2
2!
a
2
1 2 8
8!
a
3
. . .
= 1 a a
2
a
3
. . .
In facl, lho Linomial lhooiom (0.68) was oiscovoioo Ly Sii Isaac Nowlon in his
quosl lo oxlono Linomial oxpansions wilh Iascal`s liianglo lo nogalivo ano fiac-
lional oxpononls. Inoooo, his oiscovoiy of lho Linomial lhooiom was ono of his
Lioaklhioughs on lho way lo oovoloping lho now lolo of calculus.
722 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ n &: :. |&.n J h j.n J.]:n.n| j&n.n.
1. j
t
= 8j, j (0) = 2 2. j
t
= j, j (0) = 8
8. j
t
= j 1, j (0) = 0 4. j
t
= 2j 2, j (0) = 2
. j
t
= a j, j (0) = 2 6. j
t
= a j, j (0) = 1
7. j
t
= 2aj, j (0) = 8 8. j
t
= a
2
j, j (0) = 2
0. j
t
= aj 1, j (0) = 2 10. j
t
= a
2
j 1, j (0) = 2
11. j
t
aj = j, j (0) = 1 12. j
t
aj = j, j (0) = 1
18. j
tt
j = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 1 14. j
tt
j = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0
1. j
tt
j = a, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0 16. j
tt
j = a, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0
17. j
tt
a
2
j = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0 18. j
tt
a
2
j = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0
1.nJ h h.nn.n| :. rnn.n J (1 a)
o
hj |.nj h j.n J.]:n.n|
j&n.n: Jhn :.Jj j&: nn&: &.nj h rnn.n ;:.).
19. Of (1 a)
3
Ly solving j
t
aj
t
= 8j, j (0) = 1
20. Of (1 a)
d
Ly solving j
t
aj
t
= 4j, j (0) = 1
21. Of (1 a)
l
Ly solving j
t
aj
t
= j, j (0) = 1
22. Of (1 a)
2
Ly solving j
t
aj
t
= 2j, j (0) = 1
23. Of (1 a)
l/2
Ly solving j
t
aj
t
=
l
2
j, j (0) = 1
24. Of (1 a)
l/2
Ly solving j
t
aj
t
=
l
2
j, j (0) = 1
25. Of (1 a)
l
Ly solving j
t
aj
t
= j, j (0) = 1
26. Of (1 a)
2
Ly solving j
t
aj
t
= 2j, j (0) = 1
27. Uso lho Linomial soiios lo lno lho lisl foui loims of lho MacLauiin`s soiios
oxpansion of
1
_
1 a
2
ano lhon inlogialo lo lno lho lisl foui loims of lho MacLauiin`s soiios
oxpansion of
sin
l
(a) =
_
i
0
dt
_
1 t
2
28. Uso a Linomial soiios lo lno lho lisl foui loims of Maclauiin`s soiios of
) (a) =
_
1
2
a
2
(Hinl: Fiisl show lhal
) (a) = 1
_
1
_
a
1
_
2
_
l/2
29. Fino lho powoi soiios solulion lo
j
t
= j a, j (0) = 1
ano lhon lno ils inloival of convoigonco.
j
t
= j a, j (0) = 1
ano lhon lno ils inloival of convoigonco.
31. Show lhal foi ovoiy numLoi /, lho funclion j = /a is a solulion lo
aj
t
= j, j (0) = 0
Which solulion ooos lho powoi soiios solulion iopiosonl
32. Show lhal foi ovoiy numLoi /, lho funclion j = /a
2
is a solulion lo
aj
t
= 2j, j (0) = 0
33. Show lhal foi ovoiy numLoi /, lho funclion j = /a
2
1 is a solulion lo
aj
t
= 2j 2, j (0) = 1
34. Show lhal foi ovoiy numLoi /, lho funclion j = a
3
/a
2
1 is a solulion lo
aj
tt
= j
t
8a
2
, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0
35. * 1ho Linomial coomcionls havo many inloiosling piopoilios. Foi oxamplo,
(a) Show lhal if c is a posilivo inlogoi ano : c, lhon
_
c
:
_
= 0
(L) In Iascal`s liianglo, a givon Linomial coomcionl in a givon iow is lho
sum of lwo Linomial coomcionls in lho piovious iow. SymLolically,
lhis is oquivalonl lo
_
c 1
: 1
_
=
_
c
:
_
_
c
: 1
_
(0.60)
sinco c is lho iow inoox in Iascal`s liianglo if il is a posilivo inlogoi.
Show lhal (0.60) is liuo ovon if c is nol a posilivo inlogoi (Hinl:
compulo
_
ol
nl
_
_
o
nl
_
)
36. Apply lho ialio losl lo (0.68) lo show lho following:
(a) If c is nol a posilivo inlogoi, lhon lho inloival of convoigonco foi
lho Linomial soiios is (1, 1) .
(L) If c is a posilivo inlogoi, lhon lho Linomial soiios convoigos foi all
a.
37. In lhis oxoiciso, wo show lhal if p (a) is conlinuous al a = 0, lhon
j
t
= cp (a) j, j (0) = 1 (0.70)
has only ono solulion:
724 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
(a) Supposo n, aio Lolh solulions lo (0.70) ano lol / =
u
u
. Compulo
/
t
using lho quolionl iulo ano lhon uso (0.70) lo show lhal /
t
= 0
(L) Lxplain why / is conslanl ano lhon uso lho inilial conoilion in
(0.70) lo ooloimino lho valuo of lhal conslanl. Why ooos lhis
imply lhal n =
38. Why ooos lho iosull in lho piovious oxoiciso imply lhal j = (1 a)
o
is lho
only solulion lo
aj
t
j
t
= cj, j (0) = 1
Why ooos lhis imply lhal (0.68) is liuo
1r:. :- r|: :hjnn| |jnn.n| nnJ .n| J&n.n
39. 1ho 1:n. |jnn.n|, which aio impoilanl in quanlum mochanics, aio
solulions lo
j
tt
2aj
t
2jj = 0, j (0) = 0, j
t
(0) = 1 (0.71)
whon j is a non-nogalivo inlogoi.
(a) Solvo (0.71) whon j = 2.
(L) Solvo (0.71) whon j =
40. 1ho hhjh` |jnn.n|, which aio impoilanl in numoiical analysis, aio
solulions lo
_
1 a
2
_
j
tt
aj
t
j
2
j = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0 (0.72)
(a) Solvo (0.72) whon j = 2
(L) Solvo (0.72) whon j = 8
41. 1ho 1jnJ: |jnn.n|, which aio impoilanl in sphoiical haimonics, aio
solulions lo
_
1 a
2
_
j
tt
2aj
t
j (j 1) j = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0 (0.78)
(a) Solvo (0.78) whon j = 1
(L) Solvo (0.78) whon j = 2
42. Uso a powoi soiios lo lno a solulion lo .:j` 1j&n.n
j
tt
aj = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0
43. 1ho n&n hj:jn:. J&n.n is lho solulion lo
aj
tt
( a) j
t
cj = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) =
c
Fino lho Maclauiin`s soiios oxpansion of lho conluonl hypoigoomoliic func-

lion Ly solving lho oiloionlial oqualion wilh a powoi soiios.
44. 1ho oscillalions of a viLialing momLiano (such as lho lop of a oium) aio
nol haimonic oscillalions, Lul aio insloao oscillalions which salisfy 1|`
j&n.n,
a
2
j
tt
aj
t

_
a
2
j
2
_
j = 0, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 0
foi a non-nogalivo conslanl j.
(a) Show lhal lho Lossol funclion J
0
(a) can Lo wiillon as
J
0
(a) = 1
a
2
2
2

a
d
2
2
4
2
a
6
2
2
4
2
6
2
. . .
(1)
n
a
2n
2
2
4
2
. . . (2:)
2
. . .
(L) Show lhal J
0
(a) as shown in (L) is a solulion lo Lossol`s oqualion
whon j = 0.
726 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
Solf 1osl
J h h|.
1. Answoi oach slalomonl as liuo oi falso. If lho slalomonl is falso, lhon supply
an appiopiialo counloioxamplo oi oxplanalion.
(a) In gonoial T
n
(a) foi a spocilc funclion )(a) oilois accoioing lo lho
numLoi j al which T
n
is conloioo.
(L) If )(a) = aa
3
/a 1, lhon T
3
(a) = ) (a) iogaioloss of lho numLoi j
al which T
3
is conloioo.
(c) 1ho socono 1ayloi appioximalion of )(a) = 4a
5
8a
3
2a
2
1 al
j = 0 is T
2
(a) = 2a
2
1.
(o) 1ho linoaiizalion 1
(a) of a funclion al an inpul j is a 1ayloi polyno-

mial appioximalion of lhal funclion al j.
(o) If T
n
(a) is a family of 1ayloi appioximalions lo ) (a) conloioo al a = j,
lhon ) (0) = T
n
(0) foi all posilivo inlogois :.
(f) 1ayloi`s lhooiom allows ono lo appioximalo a Louno foi lho oiioi in
appioximaling a funclion )(a) Ly ils 1ayloi polynomial T
n
(a) in an
inloival [a, /[.
(g) An oslimalo ooiivoo fiom a 1ayloi oxpansion foi
_
l
0
c
i
da is givon Ly
1
l
3

l
l2

l
d2
.
(h) If a powoi soiios has a lnilo inloival of convoigonco (a, /) lhon il will
oivoigo foi all a /.
(i) 1 2(a1) 8(a1)
2
... (:1)(a1)
n
... is a goomoliic soiios.
(j) If ovoiy ooiivalivo of ) (a) oxisls al a numLoi j, lhon lho powoi soiios
oxpansion of ) (a) al j musl lho samo as ) (a) on somo noighLoihooo
of j.
(k) Consiooiing lho Linomial soiios foi (1a)
3/2
, lho coomcionl in lho loim
foi a
3
is
l
l6
.
(l) Lvoiy powoi soiios convoigos foi al loasl al ono valuo of a.
2. If T
n
(a) oonolos lho :
||
1ayloi polynomial appioximalion of a funclion
) (a) al a numLoi j ano if
T
3
(a) = T
d
(a) = . . . = T
n
(a) = . . .
foi all numLois a, lhon which of lho following musl Lo liuo:
(a) ) (a) is a polynomial wilh oogioo no moio lhan 8.
(L) ) (a) is a polynomial wilh oogioo no loss lhan 8.
(c) T
ttt
(j) = 0.
(o) ) (a) is an oxpononlial funclion.
8. Fino lho MacLauiin soiios foi lho funclion ) (a) = cos (2a)
(a) 1 4a
2
16a
d
64a
6
. . . (L) 1 a
2
1
4!
a
d
1
6!
a
6
. . .
(c) 2 2a
2
2
4!
a
d
2
6!
a
6
. . . (o) 1 2a
2
2
8
a
d
4
4
a
6
. . .
4. Foi whal valuos of a ooos
o
n=0
a
2nl
:!
convoigo
(a) a in (1, 1) (L) a in (2, 2)
(c) a in (, ) (o) a = 0 only
. Fino lho 1ayloi soiios gonoialoo Ly ) (a) = c
i
al a = 1.
(a) c
l
c
l
(a 1)
c
l
2
(a 1)
2
. . . (L) c
l
c
l
(a 1)
c
l
2
(a 1)
2
. .
(c) c c (a 1)
c
2
(a 1)
2
. . . (o) c
l
c
l
(a 1) c
l
(a 1)
2
. . .
6. Fino T
2
(a) , lho quaoialic appioximalion, foi lho solulion lo
j
t
= j
2
c
i
, j (0) = 2
7. Fino T
3
(a) foi lho funclion )(a) = ln(a) conloioo al j = 1
8. Lslimalo lho oiioi Louno in appioximaling )(a) = a
3/2
Ly 1
l
(a) =
3
2
a
5
2
on [0.8, 1.2[.
0. Fino lho Maclauiin soiios ano inloival of convoigonco of lho funclion
1
a
1 a
10. Fino lho opon inloival of convoigonco foi lho soiios
o
n=0
2: 1
:!
a
n
11. Fino lho 1ayloi soiios oxpansion al j = 1 foi lho funclion
) (a) =
1
2 a
Whal is lho opon inloival of convoigonco of lho soiios
12. Fino lho powoi soiios iopiosonlalion foi lho solulion lo
j
t
= 2j 1, j(0) = 1
18. Fino lho lisl lvo loims in lho Linomial oxpansion of (1a)
5/3
using foimula
8..
14. Fino lho Maclauiin soiios oxpansion of lho funclion
) (a) =
1
1
l
li
(1 a)
2
j
tt
= 2j, j (0) = 1, j
t
(0) = 1
ano lhon iowiilo lho solulion in closoo foim.
728 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
Jh Ar 5... 1j:jn:. 1&n.n
Woulo you Loliovo lhal noaily ovoiy ono of lho Maclauiin`s soiios inliooucoo
lhus fai can Lo consiooioo a spocial caso of a singlo MacLauiin`s soiios Oui noxl
slop is lo inlioouco a powoi soiios foimula which can Lo usoo lo sluoy piaclically
all lho powoi soiios oxpansions of lho olomonlaiy funclions, ano lhon somo.
1o Login wilh, howovoi, lol us inlioouco somo now nolalion. Lol us lol (a)
n
oonolo
(a)
n
= a (a 1) . . . (a : 1)
Cloaily, (a)
n
is a gonoializalion of lho facloiial, sinco
(1)
n
= 1 2 . . . : = :!
Foi oxamplo, (2)
n
= 2 8 . . . (: 1) = (: 1)! ano in gonoial
(/)
n
= (: /)!
Sinco (a)
n
is a gonoializalion of lho facloiial, lho hj:jn:. :.
1 (a; a, /, c) = 1
a/
c
a
a (a 1) / (/ 1)
c (c 1)
a
2
2!
. . .
(a)
n
(/)
n
(c)
n
a
n
:!
. . . (0.74)
gonoializos many of lho soiios wo havo soon in lhis chaploi (nolo: c cannol Lo a
nogalivo inlogoi). Foi oxamplo, lho goomoliic soiios is iopiosonloo Ly 1 (a; 1, /, /)
foi any numLoi /, sinco
1 (a; 1, /, /) = 1
/
/
a
1 (2) / (/ 1)
/ (/ 1)
a
2
2!
. . .
(1)
n
(/)
n
(/)
n
a
n
:!
. . .
= 1 a
2!
1
a
2
2!
. . .
:!
1
a
n
:!
. . .
= 1 a a
2
. . . a
n
. . .
Similaily, if a = 2, lhon foi any numLoi / wo havo
1 (a; 2, /, /) = 1
2/
/
a
2 8
1
a
2
2!

2 8 4
1
a
3
8!

2 8 4
1
a
d
4!
. . .
= 1
2/
/
a
2! 8
1
a
2
2!

8! 4
1
a
3
8!

4!
1
a
d
4!
. . .
= 1 2a 8a
2
4a
3
a
d
. . .
Consoquonlly, 1 (a; 2, /, /) convoigos lo lho ooiivalivo of lho goomoliic soiios:
1 (a; 2, /, /) =
d
da
_
1 a a
2
a
3
a
d
a
5
. . .
_
= (1 a)
2
Inoooo, il is oasy lo show lhal
(1 a)
o
= 1 (a; c, /, /)
so lhal lho hypoigoomoliic soiios incluoos lho Linomial soiios.
In facl, il is sliaighlfoiwaio lo show lhal
ln(1 a) = a1 (a; 1, 1, 2)
sin
l
(a) = a1
_
a
2
;
1
2
, 1,
8
2
_
lan
l
(a) = a1
_
a
2
;
1
2
, 1,
8
2
_
Moioovoi, lho n&n hj:jn:. :. is ooiivoo fiom lho hypoigoomoliic
soiios ano is of lho foim
1(a; a, c) = 1
a
c
a
a (a 1)
c (c 1)
a
2
2!
. . .
(a)
n
(c)
n
a
n
:!
. . .
If wo lol a = c in 1(a; a, c) , lhon wo oLlain
1(a; a, a) = 1
a
a
a
a (a 1)
a (a 1)
a
2
2!
. . .
(a)
n
(a)
n
a
n
:!
. . .
= 1 a
a
2
2!
. . .
a
n
:!
. . .
1hal is, foi any nonzoio a, wo havo 1(a; a, a) = c
i
. Moioovoi, lho liigonomoliic
ano hypoiLolic funclions can also Lo iopiosonloo wilh conluonl hypoigoomoliic
soiios.
VrIte to Learn Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you show lhal applying lho ialio
losl lo lho hypoigoomoliic soiios iooucos lo
j = lim
no
(a :) (/ :)
(c :) (: 1)
a
ano lhon oxplains why lho opon inloival of convoigonco of lho hypoigoomoliic
soiios is (1, 1).
VrIte to Learn Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you uso lho ialio losl lo show lhal
1(a; a, c) convoigos foi all a.
VrIte to Learn Wiilo a shoil ossay in which you show lhal
d
da
1 (a; a, /, c) =
a/
c
1 (a; a 1, / 1, c 1)
ano lhon oxplain why
d
n
da
n
1 (a; a, /, c) =
(a)
n
(/)
n
(c)
n
1 (a; a :, / :, c :)
VrIte to Learn Soaich lho liLiaiy anooi lho inloinol foi infoimalion aLoul
lho hypoigoomoliic soiios. You mighl Lo ospocially inloiosloo in lhoii uso in
pioLaLilily ano slalislics. Wiilo a foimal iopoil in which you iopoil youi
iosulls.
Crou LearnIng 1ho Hypoigoomoliic ano conluonl hypoigoomoliic funclions
nol only gonoializo MacLauiin`s soiios of olomonlaiy funclions, Lul lhoy also
gonoializo Iascal`s liianglo. Havo oach momLoi of lho gioup ooloimino lho
hypoigoomoliic funclion 1 (a; :, 1, 1) foi a oiloionl valuo of : (o.g., : =
2, 8, 4, ). Iiosonl lhoso oxamplos lo youi class along wilh lho connoclion
Lolwoon hypoigoomoliic funclions ano Iascal`s liianglo.
JnnJ nr:
Finally, 1ayloi`s soiios aio nol lho only soiios usoo lo iopiosonl funclions.
1hoio aio many olhoi lypos of soiios which aio impoilanl in malhomalics ano
scionco. Foi oxamplo, iocall lhal lho Iiomann zola funclion is oolnoo lo Lo
(a) = 1
1
2
i

1
8
i
. . .
1
:
i
. . .
780 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
ano nolico lhal wo will sluoy 1&:.: :. in lho noxl soclion.
Inoooo, funclions wilh voilical asymplolos aio oflon Lolloi iopiosonloo Ly a
soiios of ialional funclions. Foi oxamplo, il can Lo shown lhal
col (a) =
1
a

o
n=l
2a
a
2
:
2
2
which is calloo lho n:.n| J:n.n :. oxpansion of col (a) . 1ho giaph of col (a)
in Llack ano
-
2
(a) =
1
a

2a
a
2
2

2a
a
2
4
2
in ioo aio giaphoo in lguio NS-1.
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
4
2
0
-2
-4
NS-1: Giaph of funclion ano a pailial fiaclion appioximalion
1. Giaph lho funclion
-
5
(a) =
8a
2
4a
2

8a
0
2
4a
2

8a
2
2
4a
2
ovoi lho inloival [, [. (You may wanl lo iosliicl lho j-iango lo [10, 10[)
Whal liigonomoliic funclion ooos il soom lo Lo appioximaling
2. * Il can Lo shown lhal lho sino funclion can Lo iopiosonloo Ly lho inlnilo
piooucl
sin(a) = a
_
1
a
2
2
__
1
a
2
4
2
__
1
a
2
0
2
__
1
a
2
16
2
_
. . .
(a) Show lhal lho inlnilo piooucl implios lhal
lim
i0
sin(a)
a
= 1
(L) Fino al loasl ono olhoi piopoily of lho inlnilo piooucl lhal con-
nocls il lo lho sino funclion.
3. * Uso lho inlnilo piooucl lo lno an inlnilo soiios iopiosonlalion of ln[sin(a)[ .
1hon compulo lho ooiivalivo of lho iosulling soiios lo iocovoi lho pailial
fiaclion soiios foi col (a) .
782 TAYLOR`S SLRlLS
10. FOURlLR SLRlLS
1his chaploi is oui nn hn: foi singlo vaiiaLlo calculus. Wo oo nol oovolop
any now concopls in calculus, Lul insloao, wo oovolop ano oxploio an applicalion of
calculus lhal is al lho hoail of moooin malhomalics ano scionco1&:.: nn|j.
(pionouncoo Fouiooay ). In pailiculai, wo will oxploio how a funclion oolnoo
on an inloival can Lo oocomposoo inlo an inlnilo soiios of sinos ano cosinos, ano
lhon wo will oxploio how such oocomposilions aio usoo in applicalions such as
signal piocossing, llloi oosign, ano oplics.
1hal is, in lhis oui capslono chaploi, wo will uso oui knowloogo of calculus as
a lool foi oiscovoiy, synlhosis, analysis, ano oosign. In lho piocoss, oui knowloogo
of calculus will Lo slonglhonoo as wo gain valuaLlo piaclico ano oxpoiioncos wilh
ils concopls, piocopls, ano lochniquos.
10.1 Fourier CoefcienLs
FourIer CosIne SerIes
Wavo molion can oflon Lo oocomposoo inlo a possiLly inlnilo comLinalion of
haimonic oscillalions. 1o illuslialo, consiooi lhal lho A" Lolow mioolo C" on
a piano coiiosponos lo a fioquoncy of 440 cyclos poi socono. Howovoi, whon
wo sliiko lho A" nolo, wo hoai nol only lho J&nJnnnn| oi ]: hn:nn. of
440 hz, Lul wo also hoai lho nJ hn:nn. of 880 hz, lho h.:J hn:nn. of
8 440 = 1820 hz, lho fouilh haimonic of 4 440 = 1760 hz, ano so on. 1hal
is, lho souno wavo is a comLinalion oi &:..n of ils inoivioual haimonics.
Similaily, whilo lighl is lho supoiposilion of sovoial oiloionl colois of lighl, as is
oviooncoo Ly a iainLow.
Malhomalically, lho oocomposilion of wavofoims is known as 1&:.: nn|j.,
in which wo oosiio lo oocomposo ) (a) oolnoo on [, [ inlo a 1&:.: 5:.,
which is an inlnilo soiios of lho foim
a
0
a
l
cos (a) a
2
cos (2a) . . . a
n
cos (:a) . . .
/
l
sin(a) /
2
sin(2a) . . . /
n
sin(:a) . . .
Howovoi, foi simplicily wo Login wilh lwo spocial classos of Fouiioi soiios. If ) (a)
is an ovon funclion which is inlogiaLlo on [, [ , lhon ils Fouiioi soiios iooucos
lo a 1&:.: .n :.
a
0
a
l
cos (a) a
2
cos (2a) . . . a
n
cos (:a) . . . (10.1)
whoio a
0
is calloo lho n:nj n|& of ) (a) ovoi [, [ , ano is oolnoo
a
0
=
1
2
_
t
t
) (a) da (10.2)
ano whoio lho numLois a
n
aio lho 1&:.: .n .n J ) (a) ano aio
oolnoo
a
n
=
1
_
t
t
) (a) cos (:a) da (10.8)
FOURlLR SLRlLS 788
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho Fouiioi cosino coomcionls of lho ovon funclion
) (a) = a
2
.
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, sinco ) (a) is ovon, wo can uso lho ioonlily
_

) (a) da = 2
_

0
) (a) da (10.4)
(soo pago 828 foi oolails). 1o compulo a
0
, wo uso (10.2) wilh ) (a) =
a
2
:
a
0
=
1
2
_
t
t
a
2
da =
2
2
_
t
0
a
2
da =
1
a
3
8
t
0
=

2
8
1o compulo a
n
, wo lisl iocognizo lhal ils inlogiano is ovon:
a
n
=
1
_
t
t
a
2
cos (:a) da =
2
_
t
0
a
2
cos (:a) da (10.)
Inlogialion Ly pails in lho foim of laLulai inlogialion lhon yiolos Inlogialion Ly
pails is oflon
usoo in ooloi-
mining Fouiioi
coomcionls.
n d
a
2
cos (:a)
2a
l
n
sin(:a)
2
l
n
cos (:a)
0
l
n
sin(:a)
As a iosull, lho ovalualion of lho oolnilo inlogial yiolos
2
_
t
0
a
2
cos (:a) da =
2
_
a
2
:
sin(:a)
2a
:
2
cos (:a)
2
:
3
sin(:a)
_
t
0
=
2
2
:
sin(:)
2
:
2
cos (:)
2
:
3
sin(:) (0 0 0)
_
Sinco sin(:) = 0 ano sinco cos (:) = (1)
n
, lho Fouiioi cosino
coomcionls aio
a
n
=
2
_
0
2
:
2
(1)
n
0
_
= (1)
n
4
:
2
1hal is, a
l
= (1)
l
d
l
, a
2
= (1)
2
d
2
, ano consoquonlly, lho Fouiioi

soiios gonoialoo Ly ) (a) = a
2
is
2
8

4
1
2
cos (a)
4
2
2
cos (2a) . . .
4 (1)
n
:
2
cos (:a) . . .
5h& hn h .nj:nnJ J a
n
.n ;1u.) . n. Chock youi Ioaoing
784 FOURlLR SLRlLS
FourIer SIne SerIes
Similaily, if ) (a) is an ooo funclion which is inlogiaLlo on [, [, lhon ils Fouiioi
soiios iooucos lo a 1&:.: .n :.
/
l
sin(a) /
2
sin(2a) . . . /
n
sin(:a) . . . (10.6)
whoio lho numLois /
n
aio calloo 1&:.: .n .n ano aio oolnoo
/
n
=
1
_
t
t
) (a) sin(:a) da (10.7)
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho Fouiioi sino coomcionls ano lho Fouiioi sino
soiios of
) (a) =
_
1 i) a < 0
1 i) a _ 0
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
SoIutIon: If ) (a) = 1, lhon ) (a) = 1 ano vico voisa, lhus imply-
ing lhal ) (a) is an ooo funclion. (Lquivalonlly, ) (a) is ooo Locauso
ils giaph is symmoliic aLoul lho oiigin). As a iosull, ils Fouiioi sino
coomcionls aio
/
n
=
1
_
t
t
) (a) sin(:a) da
Sinco lho piooucl of lwo ooo funclions is ovon, lho ioonlily (10.4)
implios lhal 1ho piooucl of
lwo ooo func-
lions is an ovon
funclion.
/
n
=
2
_
t
0
) (a) sin(:a) da
Sinco ) (a) = 1 if a is in [0, [ , wo lhus havo
/
n
=
2
_
t
0
sin(:a) da =
2
_
cos (:a)
:
t
0
_
=
2
_
cos (:)
:

cos (0)
:
_
Locauso cos (:) = (1)
n
foi ovoiy inlogoi :, lho Fouiioi sino coom-
cionls aio
/
n
=
2
1 (1)
n
:
1hus, /
l
=
d
t
, /
2
= 0, /
3
=
d
3t
, olcoloia, so lhal lho Fouiioi sino soiios
of ) (a) is
4
sin(a)
4
8
sin(8a) . . .
2 [1 (1)
n
[
:
sin(:a) . . .
IXAMIII J Fino lho Fouiioi sino coomcionls of sinh(a).
FOURlLR COLFFlClLNTS 78
SoIutIon: 1o Login wilh, sinh(a) ano sin(:a) aio Lolh ooo, so lhoii
piooucl is ovon ano lhus
/
n
=
2
_
t
0
sinh(a) sin(:a) da (10.8)
If wo uso laLulai inlogialion, lhon wo nolico lhal lho lhiio iow is also
a sinh(a) , sin(:a) comLinalion.
n d
sinh(a) sin(:a)
cosh(a)
l
n
cos (:a)
sinh(a)
l
n
sin(:a) samo as
l
n
_
t
0
sinh(a) sin(:a) da
Foilunaloly, a piooucl along a hoiizonlal in laLulai inlogialion implios
lho inlogial of lhal piooucl, so lhal
/
n
=
2
_
1
:
sinh(a) cos (:a)[
t
0

1
:
2
cosh(a) sin(:a)[
t
0

1
:
2
_
t
0
sinh(a) sin(:a) da
_
Sinco sinh(0) = 0 ano sinco sin(:) = 0 foi all inlogois :, /
n
simplilos
lo
/
n
=
2
:
sinh() cos (:)
1
:
2
2
_
t
0
sinh(a) sin(:a) da
Howovoi, (10.8) implios lhal /
n
=
2
t
_
t
0
sinh(a) sin(:a) da, so lhal
/
n
=
2
:
sinh() cos (:)
1
:
2
/
n
1o solvo foi /
n,
aoo lho lasl loim lo Lolh sioos,
/
n

1
:
2
/
n
=
2
:
sinh() cos (:)
facloi oul /
n
on lho lofl,
/
n
_
1
1
:
2
_
=
2
:
sinh() cos (:)
ano lhon oivioo Ly lho loim in lho paionlhosos:
/
n
=
1
_
1
l
n
_
2
:
sinh() cos (:) =
2: (1)
n
(:
2
1)
sinh()
1r|n.n &hj & nn n| &:. /
n
n Chock youi Ioaoing
/
n
=
2: (1)
nl
(:
2
1)
sinh()
FourIer SerIes Ior FunctIons tLat are eItLer Even nor Odd
If a funclion is noilhoi ovon noi ooo, lhon Lolh lho sino ano cosino coomcionls
musl Lo ooloiminoo. Locauso of lho amounl of compulalion involvoo, a compuloi
algoLia syslom is oflon usoo whon a funclions is noilhoi ovon noi ooo.
786 FOURlLR SLRlLS
IXAMIII ! Uso a compuloi algoLia syslomlo ooloimino lho Fouiioi
coomcionls of ) (a) = c
i
.
SoIutIon: 1ho conslanl coomcionl a
0
is sliaighlfoiwaio:
a
0
=
1
2
_
t
t
c
i
da =
c
i
2
t
t
=
c
t
c
t
2
1ho Fouiioi cosino coomcionls aio lhon givon Ly
a
n
=
1
_
t
t
c
i
cos (:a) da (10.0)
Lvalualing (10.0) wilh lho compuloi algoLia syslom Maplo c _ yiolos
a
n
=
1
c
t
cos : c
t
:sin: c
t
cos : c
t
:sin:
1 :
2
Wo musl now inloipiol lho iosull in lighl of lho facl lhal : is a posilivo
inlogoi.
1
In pailiculai, cos (:) = (1)
n
ano sin(:) = 0 whon : is a
posilivo inlogoi, so lhal
a
n
=
1
c
t
(1)
n
c
t
:( 0 ) c
t
(1)
n
c
t
:( 0 )
1 :
2
=
1
c
t
(1)
n
c
t
(1)
n
1 :
2
=
(1)
n
c
t
c
t
1 :
2
1 n n&: n|jh:n jn h& hn h 1&:.: .n .n J c
i
Chock youi Ioaoing
n:
/
n
=
(1)
n
:(c
t
c
t
)
1 :
2
FornaI DerIvatIon oI tLe CoecIent FornuIas
Finally, lol us piovioo somo juslilcalion foi oui oolnilion of lho Fouiioi sino ano
cosino coomcionls. 1o oo so, wo will uso lho facl lhal
_
t
t
cos (:a) cos (:a) da = 0 ano
_
t
t
sin(:a) sin(:a) da = 0 (10.10)
whon : ,= :, Lul lhal
_
t
t
cos
2
(:a) da = ano
_
t
t
sin
2
(:a) da = (10.11)
1hoso follow immooialoly fiom lho liig ioonlilios
2 cos (:a) cos (:a) = cos [(::) a[ cos [(::) a[ (10.12)
2 sin(:a) sin(:a) = cos [(::) a[ cos [(::) a[ (10.18)
1
1hoio aio ways of lolling Maplo lhal a is a posilivo inlogoi. Soo lho manual foi oolails.
1o Login wilh, lol us supposo lhal ) (a) is an ovon funclion which is inlogiaLlo
on [, [ ano which is aclually oqual lo ils Fouiioi cosino soiios:
) (a) = a
0
a
l
cos (a) a
2
cos (2a) . . . a
n
cos (:a) . . .
1o Login wilh, lol us mulliply ) (a) Ly cos (:a) foi somo lxoo valuo of ::
) (a) cos (:a) = a
0
cos (:a) a
l
cos (a) cos (:a) . . . a
n
cos (:a) cos (:a) . . .
If wo now inlogialo fiom lo , wo oLlain
_
t
t
) (a) cos (:a) da = a
0
_
t
t
cos (:a) da a
l
_
t
t
cos (a) cos (:a) da
. . . a
n
_
t
t
cos
2
(:a) da . . .
Lach of lho inlogials is 0 oxcopl foi lho ono coiiosponoing lo a
n
:
_
t
t
) (a) cos (:a) da = 0 0 . . . 0 a
n
0 . . .
As a iosull, wo havo a
n
=
_
t
t
) (a) cos (:a) da, which yiolos lho Fouiioi coom-
cionl (10.8). Likowiso, lho ioonlilios (10.4) ano (10.11) can Lo usoo lo lno a
0
ano
/
n
. Howovoi, wo loavo lhoso ooiivalions lo lho oxoicisos.
Lxoicisos:
1J h J&n.n . n : JJ, ]nJ . 1&:.: .n nnn|j.n||j &.h& h
n.J J n n&: n|jh:n jn. 1J h J&n.n . n.h: n n: JJ, & n
n&: n|jh:n jn J:n.n . 1&:.: .n. Jhn &:. J&n
h 1&:.: :. jn:nJ hj h .n.
1. ) (a) = a 2. ) (a) =
[a[
a
8. ) (a) = [a[ 4. ) (a) = a( [a[)
. ) (a) = 2 6. ) (a) = 0
7. ) (a) = a
2
1 8. ) (a) = a
2
1
0. ) (a) =
2
a
2
10. ) (a) =
t
2
[a[
11. ) (a) = a
3
12. ) (a) = a
d
18. ) (a) =
_
8 i) a < 0
8 i) a _ 0
14. ) (a) =
_
1 i)
t
2
_ a _
t
2
0 ot/crni-c
1. ) (a) =
_
a i)
t
2
_ a _
t
2
0 ot/crni-c
16. ) (a) =
_
0 i) a < 0
sin(a) i) a _ 0
17. ) (a) = c
i
18. ) (a) = c
2i
10. ) (a) = [sin(a)[ 20. ) (a) = [cos (a)[
21. ) (a) = cosh(a) 22. ) (a) = sinh(2a)
28. ) (a) = cos
_
l
2
a
_
24. ) (a) = sin(a)
2. ) (a) =
_
1 i)
t
2
_ a _
0 ot/crni-c
26. ) (a) =
_
a i) a < 0
a i) a _ 0
788 FOURlLR SLRlLS
27. Uso numoiical inlogialion lo oslimalo /
l
, /
2
ano /
3
foi ) (a) = lan(a4) .
28. Uso numoiical inlogialion lo oslimalo /
l
, /
2
ano /
3
foi ) (a) = lanh(a) .
29. 1ho 1n..J J&n.n is oolnoo
H (a) =
_
0 i) a _ 0
1 i) a 0
x
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
(a) Show lhal lho Fouiioi cosino coomcionls of H (a) aio
a
0
=
1
2
, a
n
= 0
(L) Lxplain why lho ovon sino coomcionls vanish. 1hal is, oxplain why
/
2n
= 0
(c) Lxplain why lho ooo sino coomcionls aio
/
2nl
=
2
(2: 1)
30. 1ho J|n J&n.n c (a) is oolnoo lo Lo lho funclion" which is oqual lo 0
ovoiywhoio oxcopl al a = 0, ano which salislos
_
b
o
c (a) ) (a) da = ) (0)
whon 0 is in [a, /[ . (Iomaik: c (a) is nol aclually a funclion. Il is a J.-
:.h&.n, which is a gonoializalion of lho funclion concopl.) Show lhal lho
Fouiioi coomcionls of c (a) aio
a
0
=
1
2
, a
n
=
1
, /
n
= 0
31. Il can Lo shown lhal if ) (a) is conlinuous on [, [ ano if ) () = ) (),
lhon ils Fouiioi coomcionls vanish. Inoooo, show lhal lho ampliluoos of
) (a) = [a[ on [, [ salisfy
lim
no
a
n
= 0
ano oxplain why wo woulo havo oxpocloo lhis iosull in lighl of lho commonl
aLovo.
32. Il can Lo shown lhal if ) (a) is oiloionliaLlo on [, [ ano if ) () = ) ()
ano )
t
() = )
t
(), lhon ils Fouiioi sino ano cosino coomcionls Lolh salisfy
lim
no
:a
n
= 0 lim
no
:/
n
= 0
Show lhal lhis ooos nol holo foi lho ampliluoos of ) (a) = [a[ ano oxplain
why nol.
33. Show lhal if a is nol an inlogoi, lhon lho Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) = sin(aa) is
2 sin(a)
(a
2
1)
sin(a)
4 sin(a)
(a
2
4)
sin(2a)
6 sin(a)
(a
2
0)
sin(8a)
8 sin(a)
(a
2
16)
sin(4a). . .
34. Conuter aIgeLra Systen: In lhis oxoiciso, wo ooiivo lho Fouiioi coom-
cionls of
) (a) = sin
2
(a)
(a) Show if : ,= 0 ano : ,= 2, lhon a
n
= 0.
(L) Whal is a
0
(c) Whal is a
2
(o) How is lhis iolaloo lo a liig ioonlily involving sin

2
(a) ano cos (2a)
cionls of
) (a) = cos
2
(a)
(a) Show if : ,= 0 ano : ,= 2, lhon a
n
= 0.
(L) Whal is a
0
(c) Whal is a
2
(o) How is lhis iolaloo lo a liig ioonlily involving sin

2
(a) ano cos (2a)
cionls of
) (a) = sin
3
(a)
(a) Show if : ,= 1 ano : ,= 8, lhon /
n
= 0.
(L) Whal is /
l
(c) Whal is /
3
(o) Uso youi compuloi algoLia syslomlo simplify sin

3
(a) lo an ioonlily
involving sin(a) ano sin(8a) How is lhis iolaloo lo (a)-(c)
cionls of
) (a) = cos (a c)
whoio c is a conslanl.
(a) Show lhal a
n
= 0 ano /
n
= 0 foi all : ,= 1.
(L) Whal is a
l
(c) Whal is /
l
(o) How is (a)-(c) iolaloo lo an ioonlily involving cos (a c)

38. Doiivo lho ioonlilios in (10.10) using (10.12) ano (10.18).
39. Doiivo lho ioonlilios in (10.11) Ly lolling : = : in (10.12) ano (10.18).
40. Assumo lhal ) (a) is inlogiaLlo on [, [ ano lhal
) (a) = a
0
a
l
cos (a) a
2
cos (2a) . . . a
n
cos (:a) . . .
foi all a in [, [ . Inlogialo Lolh sioos fiom lo lo ooiivo (10.2).
41. Assumo lhal ) (a) is inlogiaLlo on [, [ ano lhal
) (a) = /
l
sin(a) /
2
sin(2a) . . . /
n
sin(:a) . . .
foi all a in [, [ . Mulliply Lolh sioos Ly sin(:a) foi a lxoo inlogoi : ano
lhon inlogialo fiom lo lo ooiivo (10.7).
740 FOURlLR SLRlLS
10.2 Convergence of Fourier Series
IartIaI Suns oI FourIer SerIes
Fouiioi soiios oo nol always convoigo, ano ovon whon lhoy oo convoigo, lhoy oo
nol always convoigo lo lho funclion lhal gonoialoo lhom. In lhis soclion, wo
oxploio lho convoigonco of Fouiioi soiios so lhal wo can Lolloi unooislano how
ano whon lhoso soiios convoigo.
1o Login wilh, if ) (a) is an ovon funclion, lhon ils 1&:.: .n :. ovoi
[, [ is
a
0
a
l
cos (a) a
2
cos (2a) . . . a
n
cos (:a) . . . (10.14)
whoio a
n
is lho :
||
Fouiioi cosino coomcionl of ) (a) . 1ho :
||
pailial sum of lho
soiios is
-
n
(a) = a
0
a
l
cos (a) . . . a
n
cos (:a)
If lho soquonco of pailial sums convoigos lo ) (a) foi somo a in [, [lhal is, if
) (a) = lim
no
[a
0
a
l
cos (a) . . . a
n
cos (:a)[
lhon wo say lhal lho soiios n:j lo ) (a) al lhal valuo of a ano wo wiilo
) (a) = a
0
a
l
cos (a) . . . a
n
cos (:a) . . . (10.1)
IXAMIII 1 Whal aio lho pailial sums of lho Fouiioi soiios of
) (a) = a
2
ovoi [, [
SoIutIon: In lho lasl soclion, wo showoo lhal lho Fouiioi soiios of lho
funclion ) (a) = a
2
is
2
8

4
1
2
cos (a)
4
2
2
cos (2a) . . .
4 (1)
n
:
2
cos (:a) . . . (10.16)
Il follows lhal lho pailial sums aio funclions of a of lho foim
-
n
(a) =

2
8

4
1
2
cos (a)
4
2
2
cos (2a) . . .
4 (1)
n
:
2
cos (:a)
Likowiso, lho :
||
pailial sum of a 1&:.: .n :. is
-
n
(a) = /
l
sin(a) /
2
sin(2a) . . . /
n
sin(:a)
ano if lho soquonco of pailial sums convoigos lo an ooo funclion ) (a) foi somo a
in [, [lhal is, if
) (a) = lim
no
[/
l
sin(a) /
2
sin(2a) . . . /
n
sin(:a)[
lhon wo say lhal lho soiios n:j lo ) (a) al lhal valuo of a ano wo wiilo
) (a) = /
l
sin(a) /
2
sin(2a) . . . /
n
sin(:a) . . .
Moioovoi, Ly giaphing lho pailial sums of a Fouiioi soiios, wo can oflon ooloimino
visually which funclion lho Fouiioi soiios is convoiging lo.
CONVLRCLNCL OF FOURlLR SLRlLS 741
IXAMIII 2 Uso giaphs of lho pailial sums of ) (a) = a
2
lo ooloi-
mino whal ils Fouiioi soiios convoigos lo ovoi [, [ .
SoIutIon: 1ho socono ano fouilh pailial sums of ) (a) = a
2
aio
-
2
(a) =

2
8
4 cos (a) cos (2a)
-
d
(a) =

2
8
4 cos (a) cos (2a)
4
0
cos (8a)
1
4
cos (4a)
1hoy aio shown voisus ) (a) = a
2
in Llack, wilh -
d
(a) Loing lho Lolloi
appioximalion.
x
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
10
8
6
4
2
0
Inoooo, as : incioasos, lho giaph of -
n
(a) Locomos moio ano moio
oimcull lo oislinguish fiom lho giaph of ) (a) = a
2
. 1hus, lho Fouiioi
soiios of ) (a) = a
2
convoigos lo ) (a) = a
2
foi all a in [, [ .
IXAMIII J Uso giaphs of lho pailial sums of ) (a) = a
3
2
a lo
ooloimino whal ils Fouiioi soiios convoigos lo ovoi [, [.
SoIutIon: Il can Lo shown lhal lho Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) = a
3
2
a
is
12 sin(a)
12
2
3
sin(2a)
12
8
3
sin(8a)
12
4
3
sin(4a) . . .
1hus, lho socono pailial sum of ) (a) = a
3
2
a is
-
2
(a) = 12 sin(a)
12
2
3
sin(2a)
ano lho fouilh pailial sum is
-
d
(a) = 12 sin(a)
12
2
3
sin(2a)
12
8
3
sin(8a)
12
4
3
sin(4a) (10.17)
Shown Lolow is lho giaph of ) (a) voisus lho giaph of -
2
(a) in ioo.
x
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
10
5
0
-5
-10
742 FOURlLR SLRlLS
ano inoooo, il can Lo shown lhal lho Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) = a
3
2
a
ooos inoooo convoigo lo ) (a) = a
3
2
a ovoi [, [ .
G:nh ) (a) = a
3

2
a nnJ -
d
(a) n .n ;1u.17) : [8.14, 8.14[ . nn j& Chock youi Ioaoing
|| hn nn:
Statenent oI a FourIer TLeoren
In oiooi lo unooislano whon a Fouiioi soiios convoigos lo lho funclion lhal gon-
oialoo il, wo nooo somo aooilional oolnilions ano nolalions. 1o Login wilh, wo
oonolo lho limils fiom lho lofl ano iighl, iospoclivoly, Ly
) (j) = lim
i
) (a) ) (j) = lim

i
) (a)
Foi oxamplo, lho 1n..J J&n.n is givon Ly
H (a) =
_
0 i) a _ 0
1 i) a 0
1ho limil fiom lho lofl al j = 0 is 0 ano lho limil fiom lho iighl al j = 0 is 1.
1hal is,
lim
i0
H (a) = 0 ano lim

i0
H (a) = 1
In oui now nolalion, lhoso limils aio H (0) = 0 ano H (0) = 1, iospoclivoly.
Moioovoi, a funclion is saio lo havo a ]&n J.n.n&.j al a = j if ) (j) ano
) (j) oxisl, Lul ) (j) ,= ) (j) . Foi oxamplo, H (a) has a jump oisconlinuily
al j = 0. Finally, a funclion ) (a) is saio lo Lo .&. n.n&& on [, [ if
il is conlinuous al all Lul a lnilo numLoi of poinls in [, [ ano has only jump
oisconlinuilios. 1his loaos us lo lho following lhooiom:
FourIer TLeoren: If ) (a) is piocowiso conlinuous on [, [ wilh
a piocowiso conlinuous ooiivalivo, lhon ils Fouiioi soiios convoigos lo
) (a) ovoi [, [ oxcopl al jump oisconlinuilios, in which caso il con-
voigos lo lho miopoinl of lho jump.
Moioovoi, if ) () ,= ) () , lhon ils Fouiioi soiios convoigos lo lho avoiago of
lho onopoinls al Lolh onos.
IXAMIII ! Uso giaphs of lho pailial sums of lho Hoavisioo func-
lion H (a) lo ooloimino whal ils Fouiioi soiios convoigos lo ovoi [, [.
SoIutIon: 1ho Fouiioi soiios of lho Hoavisioo slop funclion is
2
1
2

2
sin(a)
2
8
sin(8a)
2
sin(a)
2
7
sin(7a) . . . (10.18)
1ho lhiio ano lflh pailial sums of lho Fouiioi soiios of H (a) aio
-
3
(a) =
1
2

2
sin(a)
2
8
sin(8a)
-
5
(a) =
1
2

2
sin(a)
2
8
sin(8a)
2
sin(a)
ano aio shown in ioo, gioon ano Lluo iospoclivoly voisus lho giaph of
H (a) Lolow:
x
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Lolh appioximalions havo a valuo of
l
2
whon a = 0. Inoooo, if a = 0
in (10.18), lhon cloaily lho Fouiioi soiios convoigos lo
l
2
, which is lho
miopoinl of lho jump oisconlinuily al j = 0.
IXAMIII Uso lho Fouiioi lhooiom lo oiscuss whal lho Fouiioi
soiios of lho following funclion convoigos lo
) (a) =
_
0 i) [a[ _ 1
2 i) [a[ 1
SoIutIon: Nolico lhal lho funclion has jump oisconlinuilios al a = 1
ano a = 1. 1ho Fouiioi lhooiom lolls us lhal lho Fouiioi cosino soiios
of ) (a) will convoigo lo 1 whon a = 1 ano lo 1 whon a = 1i.o., lo
lho miopoinl of lho jumps.
5|h h J&n.n hn h 1&:.: :. J ) (a) .n h rnn| nh n- Chock youi Ioaoing
:j .
IerIodIcIty oI a Convergent FourIer SerIes
1ho Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) convoigos lo lho avoiago of ) () ano ) () al lho
onopoinls Locauso a Fouiioi soiios convoigos lo a poiiooic funclion wilh poiioo
2. 1hal is, lho funclion il iopiosonls on [, [ is iopiooucoo ovoi ovoiy inloival
of longlh 2 on lho ioal lino.
2
1ho gonoial loim in 1 (a) is omilloo Locauso lho palloin is oasily iocognizoo.
744 FOURlLR SLRlLS
IXAMIII 0 Skolch lho giaph of lho funclion lho Fouiioi soiios of
) (a) = [a[ convoigos lo ovoi [8, 8[ .
SoIutIon: 1ho Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) = [a[ is
[a[ =

2

4 cos (a)
1
2

4 cos (8a)
8
2

4 cos (a)

2

4 cos (7a)
7
2
. . .
which convoigos quickly lo [a[ on [, [ . Howovoi, oulsioo of lho
inloival [, [ , lho soiios piooucos iopoaloo copios of [a[ ovoi [, [ .
x
8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
IXAMIII 7 Skolch lho giaph of lho funclion lhal lho Fouiioi soiios
of p (a) = 2a convoigos lo ovoi [8, 8[ .
SoIutIon: If p (a) = 2a, lhon p () = 2 ano p () = 2. 1hus,
ils Fouiioi soiios convoigos lo 0 al ano , which implios lhal lho
Fouiioi soiios of p (a) convoigos lo lho funclion giaphoo Lolow:
x
8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
1hal is, lho Fouiioi soiios of p (a) = 2a is convoiging lo a funclion
which is only piocowiso conlinuous ovoi lho wholo a-axis.
1hn J h 1&:.: :. J p (a) = 2a n:j n a = 8 Chock youi Ioaoing
TLe CILLs Eect
In lho noighLoihooo of a jump oisconlinuily, lho pailial sums -
n
(a) convoigo lo
lho funclion in a ialhoi uniquo way. In pailiculai, oach appioximalion ovoishools
lho jump, a phonomonon known as lho G.hh` ].
IomaikaLly, lho hoighl of lho ovoishool is aLoul lho samo foi ovoiy pailial sum.
1hal is, no malloi how laigo : Locomos, lho :
||
pailial sum appioximalion ovoi-
shools lho funclion Ly piaclically lho samo amounl.
IXAMIII 8 Lslimalo lho GiLL`s ovoishool of lho Fouiioi soiios of
lho Hoavisioo slop funclion H (a) .
SoIutIon: 1ho lhiio ano lflh pailial sums of lho Fouiioi soiios of lho
Hoavisioo slop funclion H (a) aio
-
3
(a) =
1
2

2
sin(a)
2
8
sin(8a)
-
5
(a) =
1
2

2
sin(a)
2
8
sin(8a)
2
sin(a)
1ho giaphs of -
3
(a), in ioo ano -
5
(a) , in Lluo, aio shown Lolow.
x
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Cloaily lhoy Lolh ovoishool H (a) Ly aLoul 0.1 unils. Moioovoi, lho
giaphs of -
7
(a) ano -
l5
(a) also ovoishool lho jump of 1 Ly aLoul 0.1
unils:
x
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1hus, lho GiLL`s ovoishool of lho Hoavisioo slop funclion H (a) is
aLoul 0.1 unils.
Lxoicisos:
746 FOURlLR SLRlLS
G:nh -
3
(a) nnJ -
7
(a) n|nj &.h h J&n.n .|J n [, [. Jhn j:nh
-
7
(a) : [8, 8[ . 1hn J&n.n J h j&n J n:.n| &n nn:
h n:j.nj
1.
[a[
a
=
4
sin(a)
4
8
sin(8a)
4
sin(a)
4
7
sin(7a) . . .
2. 2 [a[ =
8 cos (a)
1
2

8 cos (8a)
8
2

8 cos (a)

2

8 cos (7a)
7
2
. . .
8. a( [a[) =
8 sin(a)
1
3

8 sin(8a)
8
3

8 sin(a)

3

8 sin(7a)
7
3
. . .
4.
_
a
2
2
_
2
=
8
d
1

48 cos (a)
1
d

48 cos (2a)
2
d

48 cos (8a)
8
d
. . .
. a
3
2
a = 12 sin(a)
12
2
3
sin(2a)
12
8
3
sin(8a)
12
4
3
sin(4a) . . .
6.
cosh(a)
2 sinh()
=
1
2

1
2
cos (a)
1
cos (2a)
1
10
cos (8a)
1
17
cos (4a)
1
26
cos (a) . . .
7.
sinh(a)
2 sinh()
=
1
2
sin(a)
2
sin(2a)
8
10
sin(8a)
4
17
sin(4a)

26
sin(a) . . .
8.
l
2
lan
l
_
d
3
sin(a)
_
=
sin(a)
2
l
1

sin(8a)
2
3
2

sin(a)
2
5

sin(7a)
2
7
7
. . .
0. lan
l
__
8 cos (a)
_
=
2 cos (a)
_
8 1

2 cos (8a)
_
8
3
2

2 cos (a)
_
8
5

2 cos (7a)
_
8
7
7
. . .
10. ln
soc
_
i
2
_
= ln(2) cos (a)

1
2
cos (2a)
1
8
cos (8a)
1
4
cos (4a)
1
cos (a)
11. ln
csc
_
i
2
_
= ln(2) cos (a)

1
2
cos (2a)
1
8
cos (8a)
1
4
cos (4a)
1
cos (a)
12.
t
S
sin
_
a
2
_
=
sin(a)
4 1 1

2 sin(2a)
4 2
2
1

8 sin(8a)
4 8
2
1

4 sin(4a)
4 4
2
1
. . .
5|h h j:nh J h J&n.n n [8, 8[ hn h 1&:.: :. J ) (a) :
[, [ n:j .
14. ) (a) = a 1. ) (a) = a
16. ) (a) = a
2
17. ) (a) = c
i
18. ) (a) =
_
2 i) a < 0
4 i) a _ 0
10. ) (a) =
_
1 i) a < 0
4 i) a _ 0
20. ) (a) =
_
8 i) a < 0
4 i) a _ 0
21. ) (a) =
_
4 i) [a[ < 1
0 i) [a[ _ 1
22. ) (a) =
_
a i) a < 0
a i) a _ 0
28. ) (a) =
_
a
2
i) a < 0
a
2
i) a _ 0
24. 1ho Fouiioi sino soiios of [a[ a is
[a[
a
=
4 sin(a)
1

4 sin(8a)
8

4 sin(a)

4 sin(7a)
7
. . .
Giaph -
3
(a) , -
5
(a) ano -
7
(a) ano oslimalo numoiically lho magniluoo of
lho ovoishool al a = 0 ouo lo lho GiLL`s olocl.
25. 1ho Fouiioi sino soiios of 2 [a[ a is
2 [a[
a
=
8 sin(a)
1

8 sin(8a)
8

8 sin(a)

8 sin(7a)
7
. . .
Giaph -
3
(a) , -
5
(a) ano -
7
(a) ano oslimalo numoiically lho magniluoo of
lho ovoishool al a = 0 ouo lo lho GiLL`s olocl.
26. Lol ) (a) Lo lho funclion oolnoo Ly
) (a) =
_
_
_
1 i) _ a <
t
2
1 i)
t
2
_ a <
t
2
1 i)
t
2
_ a _
(a) Giaph ) (a) ano ooloimino if il is ovon oi ooo.
(L) Fino lho Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) Ly ooloimining ils Fouiioi coom-
cionls. (Hinl: uso lho facl lhal sin
_
nt
2
_
= 0 if : is ovon ).
(c) Whal ooos lho Fouiioi Soiios of ) (a) convoigo lo whon a =
t
2
1osl youi answoi Ly suLsliluling

t
2
foi a in lho Fouiioi soiios of
) (a) ano simplifying.
27. * Lol ) (a) Lo lho funclion oolnoo Ly
) (a) =
_
_
_
1 i) _ a <
t
2
0 i)
t
2
_ a <
t
2
1 i)
t
2
_ a _
(a) Giaph ) (a) ano ooloimino if il is ovon oi ooo.
(L) Fino lho Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) Ly ooloimining ils Fouiioi coom-
cionls. (Hinl: uso lho facl lhal cos
_
nt
2
_
= 0 if : is ooo ).
(c) Whal ooos lho Fouiioi Soiios of ) (a) convoigo lo whon a =
t
2
1osl youi answoi Ly suLsliluling

t
2
foi a in lho Fouiioi soiios of
) (a) ano simplifying.
28. Can an ovon funclion havo a jump oisconlinuily al lho oiigin Lxplain.
29. If a piocowiso conlinuous ooo funclion has a jump oisconlinuily al lho oiigin,
whal ooos ils Fouiioi soiios convoigo lo whon a = 0
30. Supposo lhal ) (a) is ovon. Whal ooos il moan foi
) (0) = a
0
a
l
a
2
. . . a
n
. . .
ano whal musl wo know aLoul ) (a) in oiooi foi lhis lo Lo liuo
1&:.: :. J h J:n
l/2
1
sin(a)

3/2
1
3
sin(8a)

5/2
1
5
sin(a)

7/2
1
7
sin(7a) . . . (10.10)
n: jn:nJ hj ||.. J&n.n. `& &.|| & h :. .n r:. 1-.
31. Doloimino lho Fouiioi soiios foi lho olliplic funclion foi which = 0.2 (i.o.,
= 14 ). 1hon giaph -
5
(a) , -
7
(a), ano -
9
(a) ovoi [8, 8[ .
748 FOURlLR SLRlLS
32. Doloimino lho Fouiioi soiios foi lho olliplic funclion foi which = 0.0801.
1hon giaph -
5
(a) , -
7
(a), ano -
9
(a) ovoi [8, 8[ .
33. Whon is closo lo 0, lho olliplic funclion iopiosonloo Ly (10.10) is piacli-
cally a sino wavo. Doloimino lho Fouiioi soiios foi lho olliplic funclion foi
which = 0.01. 1hon giaph -
7
(a) ovoi [, [. ALoul whoio ooos lho lisl
maximum of -
7
(a) occui How high is lhal maximum Foi whal valuo of
ooos -
7
(a) mosl iosomLlo lho sino wavo ) (a) = sin(a)
34. Iopoal oxoiciso 88 foi = 0.0001.
35. 1ho Fouiioi soiios Lolow convoigos lo a funclion which is conlinuous ovoiy-
whoio Lul oiloionliaLlo nowhoio.
2 sin(a)
1
2
sin(4a)
1
6
sin(86a)
1
24
sin
_
(24)
2
a
_
. . .
1
:!
sin
_
(:!)
2
a
_
. . .
whoio :! is lho Jn:.n| J&n.n, oolnoo :! = : (: 1) . . . 8 2 1.
Giaph lho pailial sums of lho soiios ano oxplain why wo mighl oxpocl lhal
il convoigos lo a conlinuous-ovoiywhoio, oiloionliaLlo nowhoio funclion.
36. Foi a noninlogoi numLoi a, lho Fouiioi soiios of lho funclion ) (a) = sin(aa)
is givon Ly lho oxpansion
2 sin(a)
(a
2
1)
sin(a)
4 sin(a)
(a
2
4)
sin(2a)
6 sin(a)
(a
2
0)
sin(8a)
8 sin(a)
(a
2
16)
sin(4a). . .
(a) Giaph -
d
(a) ano -
5
(a) foi a = 1.1.
(L) Giaph -
d
(a) ano -
5
(a) foi a = 2.01.
(c) Giaph -
d
(a) ano -
5
(a) foi a = 8.001.
37. VrIte to Learn: In a shoil ossay, oxplain why lho Fouiioi lhooiom implios
lho following:
If ) (a) is piocowiso conlinuous ano poiiooic wilh a poiioo 2, lhon lho
Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) convoigos lo
) (j) ) (j)
2
foi all ioal numLois j.
In pailiculai, oiscuss whal happons al lho onopoinls of lho inloival [, [ .
38. VrIte to Learn: In a lolloi lo lho jouinal An&: in 1800, J.W. GiLLs
showoo lhal lho :
||
pailial sum ovoishools lho jump Ly an amounl oqual
lo lho magniluoo of piooucl of lho jump ano lho inlogial
1
_
o
t
sin(-)
-
d- (10.20)
Howovoi, il can Lo shown lhal lho inlogial in (10.20) is lho samo as
1
_
t
0
sin(-)
-
d-
1
2
(10.21)
Appioximalo lho inlogial in (10.20) numoiically, suLliacl il fiom
l
2
, ano in
a shoil ossay oxplain how il iolalos lo lho GiLL`s ovoishool foi lho Hoavisioo
Slop funclion H (a) .
10.3 Fourier Series on OLher lnLervals
FourIer SerIes on IntervaIs oI tLe Iorn [1, 1[
All of oui woik wilh Fouiioi soiios has lo lhis poinl Loon wilh Fouiioi soiios ovoi
lho inloival [, [ . In lhis soclion, wo oxlono oui iosulls foi Fouiioi soiios ovoi
[, [ lo Fouiioi soiios lo Fouiioi soiios of funclions ovoi an inloival of lho foim
[1, 1[ .
1o Login wilh, if ) (a) is inlogiaLlo ovoi an inloival [1, 1[ , lhon lho Fouiioi
soiios of ) (a) is of lho foim
a
0
2

o
n=l
a
n
cos
_
:a
1
_
/
n
sin
_
:a
1
_
whoio lho Fouiioi cosino ano sino coomcionls, iospoclivoly, aio givon Ly
a
n
=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) cos
_
:a
1
_
da, /
n
=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) sin
_
:a
1
_
da
Moioovoi, if ) (a) is an ovon funclion, lhon all lho sino coomcionls /
n
aio oqual
lo zoio so lhal wo nooo only lno lho Fouiioi cosino coollcionls, a
n
. Likowiso, if
) (a) is ooo, lhon wo nooo only lno lho sino coomcionls, /
n
.
IXAMIII 1 Fino lho Fouiioi Coomcionls of ) (a) = a ovoi [2, 2[ .
SoIutIon: Sinco ) (a) = a is ooo, wo nooo only lno lho sino coomcionls
foi 1 = 2:
/
n
=
1
2
_
2
2
asin
_
:a
2
_
da =
2
2
_
2
0
asin
_
:a
2
_
da
1o oo so, wo uso inlogialion Ly pails wilh n = a ano d = sin
_
nti
2
_
da
n d
a sin
_
nti
2
_
1
2
nt
cos
_
nti
2
_
0
_
2
nt
_
2
sin
_
nti
2
_
As a iosull, laLulai inlogialion implios lhal
/
n
=
_
2a
:
cos
_
:a
2
_
_
2
:
_
2
sin
_
:a
2
_
_
2
0
=
_
2 2
:
cos
_
:2
2
_
_
2
:
_
2
sin
_
:2
2
_
0 0
_
=
4
:
(1)
n
70 FOURlLR SLRlLS
1hus, lho Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) = a ovoi [2, 2[ is
o
n=l
2 (1)
n
:
sin
_
:a
2
_
=
2
sin
_
a
2
_
2
2
sin
_
2a
2
_
2
8
sin
_
8a
2
_
. . .
IXAMIII 2 Fino lho Fouiioi Coomcionls ovoi [8, 8[ of lho func-
lion
) (a) =
_
1 i) [a[ 1
0 i) [a[ < 1
SoIutIon: Sinco ) (a) is an ovon funclion, wo nooo only ooloimino lho
Fouiioi cosino coomcionls a
n
.
a
n
=
1
8
_
3
3
) (a) cos
_
:a
8
_
da
Sinco lho inlogiano is an ovon funclion, wo can simplify lhis lo
a
n
=
2
8
_
3
0
) (a) cos
_
:a
8
_
da =
2
8
_
l
0
cos
_
:a
8
_
da
sinco ) (a) = 0 if a 1. As a iosull, wo havo
a
n
=
2
8
_
l
0
cos
_
:a
8
_
da
=
2
8
8
:
sin
_
:a
8
_
l
0
=
2
:
sin
_
:
8
_
1hn n: a
l
, a
2
, nnJ a
3
.n rnn| . Chock youi Ioaoing
Convergence oI FourIer SerIes on ArLItrary IntervaIs
Convoigonco of a Fouiioi Soiios on [1, 1[ is similai lo convoigonco of a Fouiioi
soiios on [, [ . In pailiculai, if ) (a) is piocowiso conlinuous on [1, 1[ wilh
a piocowiso conlinuous ooiivalivo, lhon ils Fouiioi soiios convoigos lo a funclion
wilh a poiioo of 21 whoso valuo al oach inpul a is
) (a) ) (a)
2
In aooilion, lho Fouiioi soiios convoigos lo ) (a) if lho funclion ) is conlinuous al
a.
Moioovoi, lhoio is a GiLL`s olocl in lho convoigonco of lho pailial sums of lho
Fouiioi soiios al oach jump oisconlinuily.
FOURlLR SLRlLS ON OTHLR lNTLRVALS 71
IXAMIII J 1ho Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) =
]i]
i
ovoi [1, 1[ is givon
Ly
4
sin(a)
4
8
sin(8a)
4
sin(a)
4
7
sin(7a) . . .
Whal funclion ooos il convoigo lo
SoIutIon: 1ho giaph of ) (a) =
]i]
i
ovoi [1, 1[ is givon Ly
x
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
1hus, ils Fouiioi soiios convoigos lo 1 if a is in (1, 0) , convoigos lo
1 if a is in (0, 1) , ano convoigos lo 0 al a = 1, a = 0, ano a = 1.
Moioovoi, lho Fouiioi soiios has a poiioo of 2, ano wo havo incluooo
lho giaph of -
7
(a) lo illuslialo lhis convoigonco:
x
4 2 0 -2 -4
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
Moioovoi, lho lisl fow pailial sums of ) (a) =
]i]
i
ovoi [1, 1[ aio givon Ly
-
3
(a) =
2
sin(a)
2
8
sin(8a)
-
5
(a) =
2
sin(a)
2
8
sin(8a)
2
sin(a)
-
7
(a) =
2
sin(a)
2
8
sin(8a)
2
sin(a)
2
7
sin(7a)
ano whon giaphoo voisus lho funclion ilsolf, il is cloai lhal lhoio is a GiLL`s olocl
al lho jump oisconlinuilios.
x
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
72 FOURlLR SLRlLS
1hn . h G.hh` ] .||&:nJ .n h ]j&: nh Chock youi Ioaoing
IarsevaIs` TLeoren
If ) (a) is an ooo funclion which is oqual lo ils Fouiioi soiios, lhon wo can wiilo
) (a) =
o
n=l
/
n
sin
_
:a
1
_
As a iosull, squaiing lho aLsolulo valuo of ) (a) yiolos
[) (a)[
2
= ) (a) ) (a) =
_
o
n=l
/
n
sin
_
:a
1
_
__
o
n=l
/
n
sin
_
:a
1
_
_
If wo assumo lhal lho Fouiioi soiios convoigos aLsoluloly, lho piooucl can Lo
ioaiiangoo inlo
[) (a)[
2
=
o
n=l
o
n=l
/
n
/
n
sin
_
:a
1
_
sin
_
:a
1
_
If wo allow lhal lho soiios can Lo inlogialoo loim Ly loim, lhon wo havo
_
1
1
[) (a)[
2
da =
o
n=l
o
n=l
/
n
/
n
_
1
1
sin
_
:a
1
_
sin
_
:a
1
_
da
If : ,= :, lhon lho inlogial is zoio, so lho only loims lhal iomain aio lhoso whoio
: = ::
_
1
1
[) (a)[
2
da =
o
n=l
/
2
n
_
1
1
sin
2
_
:a
1
_
da
Howovoi,
_
1
1
sin
2
_
nti
1
_
da = 1, which implios lhal
_
1
1
[) (a)[
2
da =
o
n=l
/
2
n
1 (10.22)
Aovancoo lochniquos can Lo usoo lo show lhal (10.22) holos in gonoial, ano liko-
wiso, lhal a similai ioonlily holos foi lho Fouiioi cosino coomcionls. Moioovoi, a
lilllo ioaiianging yiolos lho following
IarsevaI`s FornuIa: If ) (a) is ooo, lhon
1
1
_
1
1
[) (a)[
2
da =
o
n=l
/
2
n
(10.28)
Likowiso, if ) (a) is ovon, lhon
1
1
_
1
1
[) (a)[
2
da =
a
2
0
2

o
n=0
a
2
n
(10.24)
Moioovoi, Iaisoval`s foimula can Lo usoo lo ooloimino lho sum of many oiloionl
soiios.
IXAMIII ! Apply Iaisoval`s foimula lo lho Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) =
a ovoi [2, 2[ , which is givon Ly
o
n=l
4 (1)
n
:
sin
_
:a
2
_
SoIutIon: As was shown in oxamplo 1, lho Fouiioi sino coomcionls of
) (a) aio /
n
=
2(l)
r
nt
, so lhal Iaisoval`s foimula implios lhal
o
n=l
_
4 (1)
n
:
_
2
=
1
2
_
2
2
[a[
2
da
Sinco [a[
2
is an ovon funclion, wo can simplify lhis lo lho following:
o
n=l
16
:
2
2
=
2
2
_
2
0
a
2
da =
8
8
1hus, Iaisoval`s foimula yiolos
16
2
o
n=l
1
:
2
=
8
8
,
o
n=l
1
:
2
=

2
16
8
8
=

2
6
1hal is, lho j-soiios wilh j = 2 has a sum of
o
n=l
1
:
2
=

2
6
Inoooo, wo can uso Iaisoval`s foimula lo compulo lho sum of all of lho j-soiios
in which j is ovon. Howovoi, lho j-soiios wilh j ooo aio much moio complicaloo.
Inoooo, no ono has yol Loon aLlo lo lno a closoo foimiopiosonlalion of lho j-soiios
in which j = 8.
1 n n|&|n: n& h J.nn| ::nn.n J h &n J

o
n=l
1
:
2
Chock youi Ioaoing
FourIer SerIes on IntervaIs oI tLe Iorn [0, 1[
In many applicalions, wo aio givon ) (a) on an inloival of lho foim [0, 1[ ano askoo
lo lno ils Fouiioi Soiios iopiosonlalion. Wo can oo so in ono of lwo oquivalonl
ways. Fiisl, if wo oolno a now funclion )
t
(a) Ly
)
t
(a) =
_
) (a) i) 0 _ a _ 1
) (a) i) 1 _ a < 0
lhon )
t
(a) is calloo lho n rn.n of ) (a) lo [1, 1[ .
74 FOURlLR SLRlLS
Inoooo, )
t
(a) is an ovon funclion, so lhal ils Fouiioi soiios is givon Ly
a
0
2

o
n=l
a
n
cos
_
:a
1
_
whoio a
n
=
1
1
_
1
1
)
t
(a) cos
_
:a
1
_
da
Applying symmoliy lo lho inlogial lhon givos us lhal lho Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) is
a
0
2

o
n=l
a
n
cos
_
:a
1
_
whoio a
n
=
2
1
_
1
0
) (a) cos
_
:a
1
_
da
Likowiso, if wo oolno a funclion )
o
(a) Ly
)
o
(a) =
_
) (a) i) 0 _ a _ 1
) (a) i) 1 _ a < 0
lhon )
o
(a) is calloo lho JJ rn.n of ) (a) lo [1, 1[ .
Inoooo, )
o
(a) is an ovon funclion, so lhal ils Fouiioi soiios is givon Ly
o
n=l
/
n
cos
_
:a
1
_
whoio /
n
=
1
1
_
1
1
)
o
(a) sin
_
:a
1
_
da
Applying symmoliy lo lho inlogial lhon givos us lhal lho Fouiioi soiios of ) (a) is
o
n=l
/
n
cos
_
:a
1
_
whoio /
n
=
2
1
_
1
0
) (a) sin
_
:a
1
_
da
IXAMIII Fino lho ovon ano ooo oxlonsions of ) (a) = 1a ovoi
[0, 1[ .
SoIutIon: Ly oolnilion, lho ovon ano ooo oxlonsions aio
)
t
(a) =
_
1 a i) 0 _ a _ 1
1 a i) 1 _ a < 0
a:d )
o
(a) =
_
1 a i) 0 _ a _ 1
(1 a) i) 1 _ a < 0
which aio shown Lolow:
x
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
x
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
2
1
0
-1
-2
Lxoicisos:
1.nJ h 1&:.: .n nnJ .n .n J h j.n J&n.n : h j.n
.n:n|.
1. ) (a) = a ovoi [1, 1[ 2. ) (a) = a ovoi [8, 8[
8. ) (a) = [a[ ovoi [1, 1[ 4. ) (a) = [a[ ovoi [2, 2[
. ) (a) = a
2
ovoi [1, 1[ 6. ) (a) = a
2
ovoi [2, 2[
7. ) (a) = a
2
1 ovoi [1, 1[ 8. ) (a) = a
2
4 ovoi [2, 2[
0. ) (a) =
[a[
a
ovoi [1, 1[ 10. ) (a) =
[a[
a
ovoi [2, 2[
11. ) (a) =
_
1 i) [a[ _ 1
1 i) [a[ 1
12. ) (a) =
_
1 i) [a[ _ 1
1 i) [a[ 1
ovoi [2, 2[ ovoi [8, 8[
|j 1n:n|` J:n&|n nh J h J||&.nj 1&:.: :. : [, [ .
18. a
3
=
o
n=l
2:
2
2
12
:
3
sin(:a) 14.

2
8
a
2
=
o
n=l
4 (1)
nl
:
2
cos (:a)
1. a
3
2
a =
o
n=l
12 (1)
n
:
3
sin(:a) 16. 2 [a[ =
o
n=l
8 cos ((2: 1) a)
(2: 1)
2
17.
[a[
a
=
o
n=l
4
(2: 1)
sin[(2: 1) a[ 18.

8
sin
_
a
2
_
=
o
n=l
(1)
nl
:sin(:a)
4:
2
1
10.
_
a
2
2
_
2
=
8
d
1

o
n=l
48 cos (:a)
:
d
20.*
sinh(a)
2 sinh()
=
o
n=l
(1)
nl
:
:
2
1
sin(:a)
1.nJ h 1&:.: :. J: h n rn.n J h j.n J&n.n. Jhn ]nJ
h 1&:.: :. J: h JJ rn.n J h j.n J&n.n.
21. ) (a) = a on [0, [ 22. ) (a) = a on [0, 1[
28. ) (a) = 1 on [0, 1[ 24. ) (a) = a
2
on [0, 1[
25. Il can Lo shown lhal if [a[ < 1, lhon
1 acos (a)
1 2a cos (a) a
2
=
o
n=0
a
n
cos (:a)
Show lhal lho Fouiioi soiios iooucos lo lho goomoliic soiios foimula whon
a = 0.
26. Il can Lo shown lhal if [a[ < 1, lhon
a sin(a)
1 2acos (a) a
2
=
o
n=l
a
n
sin(:a)
Uso Iaisoval`s foimula lo iolalo lho inlogial
1
_
t
t
_
a sin(a)
1 2a cos (a) a
2
_
2
da
lo lho goomoliic soiios a
2
a
d
. . . a
2n
. . . . 1hon uso lho goomoliic
soiios foimula lo ovalualo lho inlogial.
76 FOURlLR SLRlLS
27. Il can Lo shown lhal
_
a
2
2
_
2
=
8
d
1

48 cos (a)
1
d

48 cos (2a)
2
d
. . .
48 cos (:a)
:
d
. . .
Lol a = 0 ano lhon simplify lho iosull lo lno lho sum of lho j-soiios whon
j = 4.
28. Lailioi in lhis chaploi, wo showoo lhal
[a[
a
=
4
sin(a)
4
8
sin(8a)
4
sin(a)
4
7
sin(7a) . . .
Lol a = 2 lo lno lho sum of lho soiios
1
1
8

1

1
7
. . .
29. 1ho ooiivalivo of a Fouiioi soiios nooo nol convoigo lo lho Fouiioi soiios of
lho funclion lhal gonoialoo il. Wo consiooi lhal in lhis pioLlom Ly nolicing
lhal
2a = 4 sin(a)
4
2
sin(2a)
4
8
sin(8a)
4
4
sin(4a) . . . (10.2)
foi all a in (, ) .
(a) Applicalion of lho ooiivalivo lo Lolh sioos of (??) yiolos
2
?
= 4 cos (a) 4 cos (2a) 4 cos (8a) 4 cos (4a) . . . (10.26)
(L) Lol a = 0 in (10.26) ano oxplain why (10.26) cannol possiLly Lo
liuo.
(c) Giaph -
3
(a) , -
d
(a), ano -
5
(a) foi (10.26). Do lho pailial sums
appoai lo Lo convoiging lo 2
(o) Givon lho infoimalion in (L) ano (c), woulo you concluoo lhal lho
ooiivalivo of lho Fouiioi soiios of 2a convoigos lo lho ooiivalivo of
2a
30. VrIte to Learn: 1ho Fouiioi soiios of lho funclion ) (a) = sinh(a) is
sinh(a) =
2 sinh()
n=l
(1)
n
:
:
2
1
sin(:a)
1ho socono ooiivalivo of sinh(a) is sinh(a) , Lul is lho socono ooiivalivo of
lho Fouiioi soiios of sinh(a) oqual lo lho Fouiioi soiios of sinh(a) Why oi
why nol Iiosonl youi conclusions in a shoil ossay.
31. Show lhal if : ,= :, lhon
_
1
1
sin
_
nti
1
_
sin
_
nti
1
_
da = 0.
32. Show lhal if : ,= :, lhon
_
1
1
cos
_
nti
1
_
cos
_
nti
1
_
da = 0
33. Show lhal
_
1
1
sin
2
_
nti
1
_
da = 1.
34. Hoio wo piovo Iaisoval`s foimula foi lho cosino coomcionls foi lho spocial caso
of a
0
= 0. Show lhal if

o
n=l
[a
n
[ convoigos ano if p (a) =

o
n=l
a
n
cos (:a) ,
lhon
1
_
t
t
[p (a)[
2
da = a
2
l
a
2
2
. . . a
2
n
. . .
Jh Ar 5... An. 5.jnn| 1:.nj
Why aio Fouiioi Soiios so impoilanl lo lwonliolh conluiy scionco Whal oo
Fouiioi soiios allow us lo oo lhal cannol Lo oono olhoiwiso Oui noxl slop is
lo oomonslialo lho impoilanco of Fouiioi soiios Ly illuslialing lhoii uso in .jnn|
:.nj.
1o Login wilh, a funclion - (t) is calloo a .jnn| if - is lho ampliluoo of a
wavo moasuioo al a coilain poinl in spaco ano t is limo. Signal piocossing moans
mooifying a wavo so lhal il has coilain oosiiaLlo piopoilios.
Inoooo, lho iomoval of noiso fiom a signal is an oxamplo of a lypo of signal
piocossing known as ]|:.nj. 1o oo lhis lypo of llloiing, n. :(t) is oolnoo lo
Lo a high fioquoncy, low ampliluoo signal, ano a ioal signal - (t) is lhon assumoo
lo Lo lho supoiposilion of an iooal, noisoloss signal ) (t) ano lho noiso :(t). 1hal
is,
- (t) = ) (t) :(t)
Foi oxamplo, - (t) mighl iopiosonl lho noisy" cos (2t) funclion shown Lolow:
t
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
2
1
0
-1
-2
1ho goal is lo iomovo lho noiso Ly ]|:.nj oul lho highoi fioquoncios.
1o oo so, wo mighl simply wiilo - (t) as a Fouiioi Soiios ovoi [1, 1[ as
- (t) =
a
0
2

o
n=l
a
n
cos
_
:a
1
_
/
n
sin
_
:a
1
_
Iomoving lho highoi fioquoncios moans liuncaling lho soiios foi - (t) al a lnilo
valuo :
- (t) -
a
0
2

n=l
a
n
cos
_
:a
1
_
/
n
sin
_
:a
1
_
Howovoi, wo musl chooso so lhal nol loo much of - (t) has Loon iomovoo. In
oiooi lo oo so, wo uso Iaisoval`s foimula, which says lhal
1
1
_
1
1
[- (t)[
2
dt =
a
2
0
2

o
n=l
a
2
n
/
2
n
In pailiculai, wo chooso so lhal Iaisoval`s foimula is appioximaloly liuolhal
is, wo chooso such lhal
1
1
_
1
1
[- (t)[
2
dt -
a
2
0
2

n=l
a
2
n
/
2
n
1his piocoss foi llloiing lho noiso oul of a signal is usually calloo An. 5.jnn|
1:.nj (Mosl signal piocossing algoiilhms omployoo Ly scionlisls ano onginoois
involvo lho 1&:.: J:nnJ:n ano a piocoss calloo n|&.nsoo lho JnnJ
nr Lolow).
78 FOURlLR SLRlLS
Foi oxamplo, consiooi lho signal"
- (t) = 2 cos (t) sin(2t) 0. cos (8t) 0.1 sin(0t)
If wo consiooi noiso lo Lo any pail of - (t) wilh a fioquoncy gioaloi lhan = 40,
lhon lho llloioo" cosino is givon Ly
) (t) = 2 cos (t) sin(2t) 0. cos (8t)
1ho iaw signal - (t) ano lho llloioo signal ) (t) aio shown Lolow:
t
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
2
1
0
-1
-2
- (t)
t
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
2
1
0
-1
-2
) (t)
Moioovoi, Iaisoval`s foimula says lhal lho inlogial
1
_
t
t
[- (t)[
2
dt
shoulo Lo appioximaloly lho samo as lho sum of lho squaios of lho Fouiioi coom-
cionls of lho llloioo wavo, ) (t). 1hal is,
1
_
t
t
[- (t)[
2
dt - 2
2
1
2
(0.)
2
Howovoi, 2
2
1
2
(0.)
2
= . 2 whilo lho inlogial is
1
_
t
t
[- (t)[
2
dt = .26
VrIte to Learn Uso a compuloi algoLia syslom lo ovalualo
1
_
t
t
(2 cos (t) sin(2t) 0. cos (8t) 0.1 sin(0t))
2
dt
ano lhon in a shoil ossay, oxplain how il is iolaloo lo lho llloiing of - (t)
aLovo inlo lho funclion
) (t) = 2 cos (t) sin(2t) 0. cos (8t)
VrIte to Learn
VrIte to Learn Go lo lho liLiaiy anooi soaich lho inloinol lo loain moio aLoul
llloiing ano signal piocossing. 1hon wiilo a shoil papoi oxplaining how
Fouiioi soiios can Lo usoo in signal piocossing.
Crou LearnIng Using a compuloi algoLia syslom such as Maplo oi Malhomal-
ica, a malhomalical onviionmonl such as MallaL oi MalhCao, oi a compuloi
piogiamming languago such as C oi Java, oosign ano oovolop an algo-
iilhm which accomplishos Naivo signal piocossing. In pailiculai, lho algo-
iilhm will consisl of 8 slops givon an aiLiliaiy signal - (t) on [1, 1[ ano a
maximum fioquoncy ".
Uso numoiical inlogialion lo compulo lho lisl Fouiioi Coomcionls
of - (t) .
Uso Fouiioi soiios lo consliucl lho llloioo foim of - (t)
Compaio
l
1
_
1
1
[- (t)[
2
dt lo lho sum of lho squaios of lho numoiically-
compuloo coomcionls.
JnnJ nr
Naivo signal piocossing is so calloo Locauso so many of lho paiamolois involvoo
aio choson aiLiliaiily. Foi oxamplo, in naivo signal piocossing, lho maximum
fioquoncy is choson almosl al ianoom, as is lho inloival [1, 1[. As a iosull,
lho signal piocossing lochniquos usoo in piaclico aio nol Lasoo on Fouiioi soiios poi
so, Lul aio insloao Lasoo on lho closoly iolaloo concopl of lho 1&:.: :nnJ:n
of a signal.
In pailiculai, if ) (a) is a funclion oolnoo on (, ) , lhon ils 1&:.: .n
J:nnJ:n is oonoloo Ly (.) ano is oolnoo
(.) =
_
o
o
) (a) cos (.a) da
whilo ils 1&:.: 5.n :nnJ:n is oonoloo Ly 1(.) ano is oolnoo
1(.) =
_
o
o
) (a) sin(.a) da
Moioovoi, lhoso liansfoims aio impoilanl Locauso lhoy aio closoo iolaloo lo lho
n|&.n of lwo funclions ) ano p, which is oolnoo
() + p) (a) =
_
o
o
) (a t) p (t) dt
whon lho inlogial oxisls.
ExercIse 1 1.nJ h 1&:.: .n :nnJ:n J
) (a) =
_
1 i) [a[ _ 1
0 i) [a[ 1
ExercIse 2 1r|n.n &hj .J ) (a) . JJ, hn . 1&:.: .n :nnJ:n . u.
ExercIse 3 5h& hn ) + p = p + ).
760 FOURlLR SLRlLS

Calculus - A Modern Approach - Knisley and Shirley

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Calculus - A Modern Approach - Knisley and Shirley

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Calculus: A Moooin Appioach

Jol Knisloy ano Kovin Shiiloy

Locomos aiLiliaiily laigo, as is shown in

has a voilical asymplolo of a = 0

has a voilical asymplolo of a = 0

ooos nol oxisl.

SoIutIon: Lqualion (1.16) wilh : = 4 is of lho foim

has a hoiizonlal asymplolo of j = 0.

8 LlMlTS, TANCLNTS, AND RATLS OF CHANCL

) (a) = , a:d lim

) (a) = ) (a) , lim

41. Conuter AIgeLra Systen. If you havo accoss lo a compuloi algoLia

anglo. Doos il malch lho iosull

L2: Dolnilion of cos (0) ano sin(0)

0 is lho Giook lolloi lhola," ano is oflon usoo lo oonolo anglos.

is lho oiloionlial nolalion foi lho socono ooiivalivo.

124 THL DLRlVATlVL

(L) Show lhal lho slopo of lho iaoius is

C, lhon il can Lo shown lhal

C, lhon il can Lo shown lhal

C ( which is consiooioo lo Lo ioom lompoialuio")

ano r is lho oislanco fiom lho conloi of lho oailh

(Mais has a moan iaoius of 2,106 milos).

Wo now uso lho chain iulo lo ovalualo

(soo (2.27) foi oolails):

, lho populalion incioasos Ly aLoul

.n|..|j oolnos j as a funclion of a. 1ho

is calloo lho nn&:n| |jn:.hn ano is oonoloo

implicilly oolnos j = ln(a) .

, ioplacing j Ly ln(a) yiolos a = c

, lhon ln(a) = a, ln(/) = j, ano

afloi which piopoilios of lho logaiilhm yiolo

O1Q is a socloi of lho unil ciiclo suLlonoing a

O1 is loss lhan lho aioa of liianglo ^O1Q, ano

cos (a) sin(a)

Wo lhon simplify ) (a) using lho ioonlily soc

18. Whal is lho ooiivalivo of ) (a) = a(a 1) (a 2) (a 8)

1. Whal is lho slopo ano oqualion of lho langonl lino lo j = lan

ln(a) ln(a 1) 84. lim

45. In lhis oxoiciso, wo ovalualo lho limil

is laigoi lhan p(a) = a

56. If o 0 is a conslanl, lhon whal is lho slanoaio oovialion (soo oxoiciso )

. 1: h h& .n rnn| , h. &&|J Chock youi Ioaoing

can Lo oilhoi posilivo oi nogalivo, which moans lho smallosl possiLlo

musl also Lo small in magni-

[ is lho voilical oislanco fiom lho lino lo lho

aio lho slanoaio oovialion of lho a-cooioinalos ano j-cooioinalos,

. Whal is lho valuo of c

`. Compaio lho iosull lo lho iosull piooucoo Ly

is lho pioLaLilily lhal a

of lho squaioo oiioi loim

aio oqually likoly.

1. 1iansfoim lho oala using

[ , = 1, . . . , :. 1his is known as n:..n.nj lho

fiom oach suLinloival [a

[ foi all = 1, . . . , :..

1 ovoi lho inloival [1, 2[ givon lho paililion

Jh : nnJ .|.nj J&n.n n: J]nJ hj

is lho lag ano ^a

is lho wiolh of lho suLinloival [a

1hal is, lho lisl ioclanglo has aioa ) (t

is calloo a 1.nnnn &n appioximalion of ) (a) : [a, /[.

lo lho laLulai calculalions of simplo funclion

1 0.0 0.8 0.8