NEOLITHIC AGE

The term Neolithic is used to designate a stage of cultural evolution or technological development characterized by the use of stone tools, the existence of settled villages largely dependent on domesticated plants and animals, and the presence of such crafts as pottery and weaving. The shift to agriculture coincided with advances in stone tool technology. The term Neolithic was coined by Sir John Lubbock in his book Prehistoric Times. He used this term to denote an Age in which the stone implements were more skilfully made, more varied in form and often polished. V. Gorden Childe defined the Neolithic culture as a self-sufficient food producing economy. His presumption is that farming was first invented in a single nuclear region the Fertile Crescent in Mesopotamia or the Near East from where it spread to other parts of the world. In addition, he designated the Neolithic phase as the Neolithic revolution, which was later argued by his critics that this phase should be viewed as a transformation or evolution, rather than a revolution. One of the first consequences of the Neolithic way of life was a radical change in human diet. In the Neolithic age, it was based primarily on cereals Wheat and corn in western Asia and Europe Rice in southern and eastern Asia Sorghum and millet in Africa Maize in America The development of the food producing economies took place in two stages: The first stage saw some farming and herding of animals and bulk of the diet came from game and wild vegetable foods. The second stage came about 8000 years ago when more productive cereal grains and cattle, sheep, goats and pigs were completely domesticated.

DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

The domestication of plants and animals usually distinguishes Neolithic culture from earlier Paleolithic or Mesolithic hunting, fishing, and food-gathering cultures. It has been considered as one of the main characteristic features of the Neolithic culture. It led to: Emergence of village communities based on sedentary life Beginnings of agriculture technology Greater control over nature by exploitation of natural resources It marked a special kind of human interference in nature and a new stage in the relationship between people, plants and animals. Domestication of animals led to the development of pastoral stage of life. The Neolithic way of life had considerable demographic consequences. Dogs, sheep, goats, and pigs were among the first

animals domesticated around 8500 B.C. Cattle, more aggressive and faster than the other animals, were added to the agricultural system around 6500 B.C.E. The central place of bull and cattle symbolism in the sacrificial and fertility cults of many early people has led some archaeologists to argue that their domestication was originally motivated by religious sentiments rather than a desire for new sources of food and clothing. Domesticated animals improved the supplies of available protein, provided hides and wool for clothing materials, and increased the manuring of agricultural land. Since crops required constant care from planting to harvest, Neolithic farmers built permanent dwellings. The invention of pottery enabled people to store, transport, and cook foods and liquids. People made cloth from flax and wool. Domesticated animals such as cattle and sheep provided New Stone Age humans with additional sources of protein-rich meat and in some cases milk. Animal hides and wool greatly expanded the materials from which clothes, containers, shelters, and crude boats could be crafted. Animal horns and bones could be carved or used for needles and other utensils. Because plows and wheels did not come into use until the Bronze Age (c. 4000-3500 B.C.), most Neolithic people made little use of animal power for farming, transportation, or travel. There is evidence, however, that people in northern areas used tamed reindeer to pull sledges, and those farther South used camels for transporting goods. The Neolithic people used domesticated herd animals as a steady source of manure to enrich the soil and thus improve the yield of the crops that were gradually becoming the basis of their livelihood. Houses in a Neolithic village were normally all the same size, suggesting that most Neolithic villagers had about the same level of wealth and social status. Stones and shells were traded long distance, but Neolithic villages tended to be self-sufficient.

THE SPREAD OF THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION

Neolithic culture spread through Europe, the Nile valley (Egypt), the Indus valley (India), and the Huang He valley (N China). The nomadic, herding way of life has tended to produce independent and hardy people, well-versed in the military skills needed not only for their survival but also to challenge more heavily populated agrarian societies. Horse-riding nomads who herd sheep or cattle have destroyed powerful kingdoms and laid the foundations for vast empires. In China, Neolithic agricultural societies developed a separate system of crops based on millet. American agricultural systems featured maize, manioc, and sweet potatoes. The cultivation of wheat and barley expanded from the Middle East to India and Europe. From Egypt the cultivation of grain crops spread southward along the Nile. Africa south of the Sahara desert developed an independent agricultural system around 2000 B.C.E. based on root and tree crops. The domestication of animals gave rise to pastoralism, which has proven the strongest competitor to sedentary agriculture throughout most of the world. Pastoralism has thrived in semiarid areas such as central Asia, the Sudanic belt south of the Sahara desert in Africa, and the savannah zone of East and South Africa.

NEOLITHIC SITES JERICHO

At an oasis near the Dead Sea, the town of Jericho was surrounded by a massive stonewall with at least one tower against the inner face. Jerichos site was favoured by access to water. The site extended to more than 10 acres by 7000 B.C.E. The later city consisted of many domestic dwellings built of brick and some religious shrines. A huge wall surrounded the entire settlement. Although Jericho was primarily an agricultural community, there is substantial evidence of both trade and hunting. The residents of Jericho traded their local supplies of salt, sulfur, and pitch for goods from Turkey, Sinai, and the Red Sea. Structures at Jericho reveal substantial social and economic stratification and the existence of governing elite.

CATAL HUYUK
atal Hyk, in a fertile agricultural region of present-day Turkey, was a large town with astonishingly diversified agriculture, arts, and crafts. Founded in 7000 B.C.E., atal Hyk was larger than Jericho and included a more diversified population. Houses were standardized throughout the community and served as fortifications as well as residences. Standardization implies a stronger ruling elite at atal Hyk than at Jericho. Numerous religious shrines also suggest a powerful priesthood. The economy of atal Hyk was more diverse than that of Jericho. Pastoralism and domesticated animals were more widely used. Trade in a variety of goods was widespread. Artifacts also suggest the existence of a skilled population of craftsmen making obsidian objects. The most important technological development ever to occur in human history was the domestication of plants (agriculture) and animals (pastoralism). Together these developments are called the Neolithic Revolution and they allowed the development of urban centers (towns and, later, cities), trade and most of the other things we consider to be components of civilization. The main reason the Neolithic Revolution was decisive to economic growth and development is that the food surplus that early farmers were able to generate made possible for the first time in human history the establishment of a non-food-producing sector (e.g. Diamond, 1997). Population growth has also been an important element in most accounts of agriculture origins. With the Neolithic Revolution, civilizations now began popping up in unsurprising locations - river valleys. These river valleys provided people with fertile soil due to their floods. These floods, combined with the newfound knowledge of farming and animal domestication, allowed for a stable food supply and so the Neolithic people settled down around these rivers.

THE TRANSFORMATION OF MATERIAL LIFE

With the shift toward sedentary communities typical of the Neolithic revolution, the human population rapidly expanded. Villages and cultivated fields became the dominant features of human society. The development of sedentary settlements accelerated the pace of technological development. Many of these innovations were directly connected to agriculture, including plows, implements, techniques of seed selection, and irrigation. The development of better tools led to better housing and systems for the storage of grain. More dependable food supplies and better housing created conditions conducive to population growth.