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FOREWORD
This publication was produced by the Reinforced Concrete Council (RCC). It was jointly funded by the
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) and the RCC under the Partners in
Technology Programme.
The Reinforced Concrete Council promotes better knowledge and understanding of reinforced concrete design
and building technology. Its members are Co-Steel Sheerness plc and Allied Steel & Wire, representing the
major suppliers of reinforcing steel in the UK; and the British Cement Association, representing the major
manufacturers of Portland cement in the UK.
The principal authors are: Martin Southcott, BSc, MBA, MICE. Project Director of the RCC.
Alan Tovey, CEng, FIStructE, ACIArb, MIFS. Formally an Associate Director with the
British Cement Association, and who now runs an independent consultancy,
Tecnicom. Production of the manual was managed by Tecnicom.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their thanks to the many organisations and individuals around the world who have
generously given both time and expertise in helping with the background material and contents of this
publication. The list is long and we apologise for any error or omission.
UK Jacqueline Glass and Ray Ogden, Oxford Brookes University; Jonathan Harrison, Tilt-Up Consulting
Services; Freddy Chalcroft, Chalcroft Construction Ltd; David Leach, Gatehouse Leach Training and
Development; Chris Ainge, International Bible Students Association; Mike Fuller, BRC-Square Grip; Surendra
Arora and Richard Moss, Building Research Establishment; Pal Chana, Sunday Popo-Ola and Naysan Khoylou,
Concrete Research and Innovation Centre (Imperial College); Tony Threlfall, Concrete Design and Detailing.
Republic of Ireland Kevin McLouglin and Andrew Dixon, KML Carl Bro.
USA Ed Sauter, Tilt-up Concrete Association (TCA); David Moses, Clayco; Bob Foley and Kimberley Kayler
Izenson, CON-STEEL Tilt-up Systems; Dan Doran, Composite Technologies Corporation; Joe Steinbicker,
Steinbicker & Associates.
Australia Bob Potter, Cement & Concrete Association (C&CA) of Australia; Mark Turner, Steel Reinforcing
Institute of Australia.
New Zealand David Barnard, Cement & Concrete Association (C&CA) of New Zealand.
Particular thanks go to the TCA, C&CA Australia and C&CA New Zealand for permission to make
comprehensive use of the technical material contained in their tilt-up guides and to Jacqueline Glass for the
material used in the historical overview and for cost details in Chapter 2. Also to Gillian Bond of Words &
Pages for production editing.
Note on diagrams
Throughout this publication the diagrams are illustrative only, and do not show all the detail of construction.
Many construction activities are potentially dangerous, so care is needed at all times. Current legislation requires all persons to consider the
effects of their actions or lack of action on the health and safety of themselves and others. Advice on safety legislation may be obtained from
any of the area offices of the Health and Safety Executive.
97.366
First published June 1998, version 1.1
ISBN 0 7210 1533 6
Price Group J
British Cement Association
Published by British Cement Association on behalf of the
Industry Sponsors of the Reinforced Concrete Council
British Cement Association
Century House, Telford Avenue
Crowthorne, Berks RG45 6YS
Telephone (01344) 762676 Fax (01344) 761214
All advice or information from the British Cement Association is intended for those who will evaluate the significance and limitations of its
contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss resulting from such
advice or information is accepted. Readers should note that all BCA publications are subject to revision from time to time and should
therefore ensure that they are in possession of the latest version.
Tilt-up design and construction
i
CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
The tilt-up technique 1-1
About this publication 1-1
2. OVERVIEW
Applications 2-1
The advantages of tilt-up 2-1
Costs 2-2
Cost modelling exercise
Building models
Results
The tilt-up method 2-4
Architectural considerations 2-5
Structural considerations 2-5
Construction considerations 2-6
Factory-cast panels 2-6
History and development 2-6
Project examples 2-7 to 2-26
References 2-7
3. PLANNING FOR TILT-UP
The design and construction team 3-1
Optimising tilt-up benefits 3-1
Layout of panels and erection sequence 3-3
Casting position of slabs
Cranage and crane movements
Panel sizes and tolerances 3-7
Sizing and shape
Tolerances
Types of panel joints 3-10
Prediction of strength development 3-10
Programme and speed of construction 3-11
Case study
References 3-13
4. FLOOR SLABS AND FOUNDATIONS
Floor slab design and construction 4-1
Construction method
Tolerances and finish (casting surface)
Weather conditions
Curing, compacting and finishing
Design loadings
Procedure for slab design
Construction programme
Foundation design and construction 4-3
Details
Column footings
Panel seating
Construction
References 4-5
ii
5. DESIGN OF PANELS IN SERVICE
Principles of design 5-1
Design loadings 5-1
In-service loading
Construction loading
Structural design 5-3
Typical structural form 5-3
Reinforcement 5-4
Purpose
Design
Detailing
Design of loadbearing panels 5-5
Suggestions for UK in-service design
Simplified design procedure for slender panels
Panels with openings
Design of outer leaf of a sandwich panel 5-11
Sandwich panels and ties
Factors affecting tie design
Load transfer through ties within a sandwich panel
Types of ties and anchors
Stainless steel ties
Composite fibre connectors
Leaf thickness and cover to reinforcement
Allowance for differential movements
Design checks for the outer leaf and its ties
Building stability 5-17
Shear walls
Fire resistance 5-18
Panel thickness and cover to reinforcement
Panel stability
Fire growth and spread
References 5-18
5A. APPENDIX DESIGN EXAMPLES
Example 1: Single-storey factory/warehouse 5A-1
General 5A-1
Expansion joints
Foundations
Erection
Perimeter berm
Building extension
Loadings 5A-2
Design for in-service loads of typical panel without openings 5A-3
Design assumptions
Loading
Eccentricities of loading
Load combinations
First order moments at ultimate limit state
Second order moments at ultimate limit state
Effects of wind suction
Cracking and deflection at serviceability limit state
External leaf reinforcement
Design of panel acting as a shear wall 5A-6
References Example 1 5A-9
Example 2 - two-storey hybrid structure 5A-10
General 5A-10
Loadings 5A-10
Contents
iii
Design for in-service loads of a typical panel 5A-11
Basis of design
Eccentricities
Effective dimensions
Design ultimate loading at critical section
Bending moment due to first floor load
Reinforcement
Panel between the window openings
Design of panel during erection 5A-12
References - Example 2 5A-12
6. DESIGN OF PANELS FOR LIFTING
General 6-1
Design 6-1
The general principles
Bending moments and flexural stresses
Reinforcement
Strongbacks
Lifting hardware and accessories 6-6
Lifting hardware
Lifting inserts
References 6-8
7. CONSTRUCTION OF PANELS
Formwork 7-1
Casting surface
Edge formwork
Blockouts for windows, doors, etc
Grooves, indents and rebates
Pilasters, columns, set-backs and curved forms
Mitred joints
Bond-breakers 7-4
Effect of surface
Bond-breaker types
Selection
Application
Summary - bond-breakers
Panel finishes 7-6
Procedure
Reinforcement 7-6
Fixing the reinforcement
Checklist
Embedments 7-7
Pick-up points and brace attachments
Weld-plates and other connections
Sandwich insulation 7-7
Installation of insulation and ties
Concreting, finishing and curing the panels 7-7
References 7-8
8. PANEL ERECTION
Panel strength 8-1
Preparations for erection 8-1
Erection sequence 8-1
Cranes 8-1
Rigging the panels 8-2
Strongbacks 8-3
iv
Lifting methods 8-3
Walking a panel
The walk-out panel
The lift 8-4
Lifting sequence 8-4
Safety precautions 8-5
Lifting problems 8-5
Panel sticks to the floor slab
Panel does not hang correctly
Positioning and levelling the panels 8-5
Adjustments and tolerances
Bracing 8-6
Braces - general conditions for use
Release of panel 8-7
Final grouting 8-7
References 8-7
9. NON-STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
Thermal design of a building 9-1
Air penetration
Thermal insulation
Thermal performance of sandwich panels
Thermal mass
Sound insulation 9-5
Mass law
Panel finishes 9-5
Surface treatments and finishes
Procedure
Grooves and relief
Exposed aggregate
Surface treatments
Trompe loeil
Brick finish
Combinations
Mock-ups and test panels
Examples of panel finishes
Achieving successful finishes
Painting tilt-up panels 9-9
Selection of paints
Paint materials
Achieving a successful paint-job
Application
Service life
Weather resistance of panels and joints 9-11
General
Joints
References 9-12
10. CONNECTION DETAILS
General criteria 10-1
Connection design 10-1
Conceptual design
Types 10-2
Details 10-3
Main roof and floor connections
Roof or floor diaphragm connections
Panel-to-panel connections
Contents
v
Panel-to-foundation connections
Connections for sandwich panels
Connection details - further information
References 10-14
11. SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
General 11-1
Safety checklist 11-1
1. Prior to construction
2. Prior to erection day
3. At the safety meeting
4. During the lift
5. After the lift
Individual responsibilities 11-3
Structural designer
Main contractor
Tilt-up sub-contractor
References 11-3
12. SPECIFICATIONS
References 12-1
13. SPECIALIST SUPPLIERS AND SERVICES
13-1
1-1
INTRODUCTION

THE TILT-UP TECHNIQUE
Tilt-up construction involves site casting the concrete
walls of a building on its floor slab or on a separate
casting bed and then tilting and lifting them into
position by crane (Figure 1.1). The result is rapid
construction arising from a well planned process
more akin to a factory production line but retaining
the flexibility of in-situ concrete work. Tilt-up is
widely used for one- and two-storey buildings in New
Zealand, Australia and particularly the United States,
where some 7000 of these are constructed every year.
The technique is also increasingly popular for three-
to five-storey structures, in particular for office and
residential buildings. It is also used for a whole range
of special building types as given in Chapter 2.
Figure 1.2 shows a typical example of a high quality
tilt-up building. In the UK many designers and
developers are seeking an alternative to metal
claddings, and tilt-up opens the opportunity for a
more robust panel at competitive cost.
Because tilt-up acts both as structure and cladding it
offers major benefits compared with other
constructional forms, including competitive costs,
rapid construction, inherent fire resistance, security,
durability, sound insulation, low air-penetration,
easily sealed washable surfaces, high thermal mass
and insulation, and scope for new architectural
expression. These benefits are looked at in more
detail in Chapter 2, which includes the results of
extensive cost modelling work demonstrating the
competitiveness of tilt-up construction.
ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION
This publication brings together worldwide
experience of tilt-up into a single document in a form
suitable for the UK. The examples and details shown
are selected to demonstrate the versality of tilt-up and
to provide the necessary information for its wider
adoption in the UK. Where necessary, additional
original work has been undertaken to ensure
compatibility with UK codes and practice.
The contents will appeal to all those involved with
the procurement of new low-rise buildings from
clients and their advisors through to contractors.
In particular, Chapter 2 gives all parties a non-
technical overview of the technique including
applications, benefits, costs, architectural
opportunities, historical development and typical
applications examined through real case studies. It
also includes a summary of detailed cost modelling
showing that tilt-up can be highly competitive in
many sectors in the UK.
1
Figure 1.1 The tilt-up technique
Figure 1.2 Example of high quality tilt-up building
External wall line
Tilt-up wall panel cast
face down on floor slab
Tilt-up panel
lifted by crane
Tilt-up panel in
position to form
structural wall
External face
External face
Introduction
1-2
The efficiency of tilt-up results from careful planning
and close co-operation between designers and
constructors, who should both carefully study
Chapter 3.
Chapter 4 describes the design and construction of
floor slabs and foundations, and Chapters 5 to 12
provide information on all aspects of the design,
construction and erection of tilt-up panels. These
chapters are intended for both designers and
constructors, to impart a common understanding of
their roles. However, Chapter 5 contains considerable
detailed technical material on the structural analysis
and design of tilt-up panels, mostly of use to the
structural engineer.
Chapter 13 provides additional information on
suppliers of goods and services.
Finally, it is worth emphasising that, although this
publication deals mainly with on-site tilt-up, much
of the material is equally relevant to factory-cast
panels, which may prove more suitable for a
particular project.
2-1
AN OVERVIEW

This chapter gives a non-technical overview of tilt-up construction covering applications, benefits, costs,
construction method, architectural opportunities, structural and constructional considerations, and factory-cast
alternatives. Finally, after a brief history of the development of tilt-up, some typical applications are examined
through real case studies. The costs section includes a summary of detailed cost modelling showing that tilt-up
can be highly competitive in many UK markets.
APPLICATIONS
Tilt-up is a construction method that allows great
design flexibility and encourages innovation. Walls
can be produced as solid panels for use with added
insulation or as sandwich panels where insulation is
installed during production. The use of concrete
offers the designer structural capacity, fire resistance,
sound insulation, thermal capacity, aesthetic qualities
and durability. Tilt-up panels commonly carry the
roof load and provide transverse load resistance in
shear, and thus may be used for both loadbearing and
non-loadbearing walls to a variety of structures (see
Figure 2.1 overleaf).
The following list illustrates just some of the
diversity of applications for which tilt-up has been
successfully used. A number of case studies showing
plans and other details are given later in this chapter
under the heading Project examples.
Commercial and industrial construction -
Warehouses, workshops, storage units, offices,
distribution centres, factories (including clean rooms,
controlled atmosphere, meat curing and timber
preservation), hotels, restaurants, shopping
complexes, auditoria, service buildings and cold
stores.
Recreational construction - Squash courts, indoor
cricket facilities, gymnasia and basketball courts.
Residential construction - Houses, two- to three-
storey flats, town houses and halls of residence.
Rural construction - Farm sheds, piggeries, dairies,
tanks, drainage systems, grain stores and settlement
tanks.
Other construction - Churches, community halls,
schools, colleges, sound barriers, retaining walls,
security walls, reservoirs, water treatment structures,
plant rooms, fuel tanks, prisons, and fire
compartment walls.
THE ADVANTAGES OF TILT-UP
For a building method to be chosen in the highly
competitive construction market it has to show that
its benefits outweigh those of the alternatives. As tilt-
up is so widely used for many different building
types it clearly has significant benefits to offer,
including:
Cost of construction - Extensive cost modelling
has shown tilt-up to be highly competitive with
traditional construction over a wide range of
building types and sizes (see the Costs heading
later in this chapter).
Speed of construction - This is often a major
reason for choosing tilt-up. After the floor slab is
placed, the typical elapsed time from starting to
form the panels until the building shell is
completed may be only four to five weeks.
Materials for wall panels are easily procured
with minimal lead times, allowing a fast start to a
near-factory assembly line process, which
progresses while any roof steel is fabricated.
Ease of construction - The uncomplicated
construction method simplifies and minimises on
site work and reduces labour costs.
Energy conservation - Tilt-up walls can be
economically insulated to give whatever
insulation values are required, from a normal
building through to highly insulated cold stores.
Sandwich tilt-up panels not only provide all
necessary insulation but, by incorporating the
insulation during panel production, minimise
follow-on trades and build in useful thermal
mass to moderate temperature extremes. Air
penetration is also minimised.
Durability - The strength of concrete coupled
with the uncomplicated method of construction
offers reliable durability, as attested by the
buildings dating back to the 1940s.
Sound reduction - Buildings in a noisy area,
such as near an airport or roads, can benefit from
the sound reduction properties of concrete. The
mass absorbs the sound rather than letting it
through as can occur with lighter forms of
construction. Alternatively, noisy processes
within buildings are more easily isolated.
Low maintenance costs Visual concrete
(fairfaced, textured, profiled, tooled and exposed
aggregate finishes) and cast applied facings
(inlaid stone etc.) require little specific attention
and modern paint systems have been shown to
have considerable life. The wider panel width
2
2-2
offered by tilt-up minimises the number of joints
and length of sealant, thus reducing the cost of
maintenance. Concrete walls are less subject to
mechanical damage, and are easily washed
down. Sandwich panels are particularly
beneficial in this respect since they offer both
insulation and two hard surfaces.
Fire resistance - Concrete is an obvious first
choice for fire resistance. Tilt-up panels can be
readily and economically designed for up to four
hours fire resistance and are particularly cost
effective as fire separation and compartment
walls. A 160 mm thick wall, for example, can
provide up to two hours fire resistance. Concrete
sandwich panels do not suffer the fire-spread
problems associated with some metal systems.
Lower insurance rates - The fire resistance of
tilt-up concrete walls and added security may
result in lower premiums.
Low air penetration and robust, easily sealed
surfaces - Tilt-up is easily sealed, making it
ideal for controlled environments such as fruit
storage, meat curing, timber preservation, high
Figure 2.1 Tilt-up panels used for loadbearing and
non-loadbearing walls
and low temperatures including freezers, and
clean rooms for food, drug and electronics
manufacture.
Architectural attractiveness - Tilt-up offers
exciting new architectural opportunities that
complement current building trends. There are
now many stunning examples of this in practice
worldwide.
Extendibility - By planning for the possibility of
expansion, building and panel connections can
be designed so that the panels can be removed,
relocated or added to.
Security - Unlike metal-clad buildings, forced
entry through concrete walls is very much more
difficult. Tilt-up is frequently used for security
walls and prisons.
Safety - With a tilt-up building, much of the
work is on the ground; there is no vertical
formwork, no scaffolding, and since the floor
slab is poured first, workers have a safer working
surface. The short and uncomplicated project
cycle presents less opportunity for accidents.
COSTS
Cost modelling exercise
This section is based on cost research
(1)
undertaken
by Jacqueline Glass in the School of Architecture at
Oxford Brookes University, as part of a broader PhD
study of tilt-up construction sponsored by the
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
(EPSRC) and Reinforced Concrete Council (RCC).
In established markets, tilt-up is often used for low-
rise buildings, and this will probably also be the case
in the UK. Research undertaken at Oxford Brookes
analysed costs for both tilt-up and conventional
construction methods for a generic building with a
storage/production space fronted by two-storey
offices (Figure 2.2 shows a typical building model).
Figure 2.2 Cost model building A
Internal perimeter frame
(b) Tilt-up panel designed as cladding panel
Strip footing
(a) Tilt-up panel designed as loadbearing wall
Tilt-up
cladding
panel
Tilt-up
claddng
panel
Tilt-up
panel
wall
Tilt-up
panel
wall
Tilt-up panel attached to
internal perimeter frame
Tilt-up panel may span
onto isolated pads
Loadbearing tilt-up
panel supporting roof
Plan
Section
Elevation
Office 576 m
2
Warehouse 2304 m
2
Office grid 6 x 6 m
Warehouse 24 x 12 m
An overview
2-3
Building models
A range of floor sizes from 2,304 m
2
to 18,090 m
2
was tested for each of eight wall options.
Loadbearing, decorated loadbearing, and sandwich
loadbearing tilt-up panels were compared with
varying qualities of conventional construction based
on steel portal frames. In addition, a fourth hybrid
system of non-loadbearing tilt-up panels on steel
portals was considered. Building designs and
specifications were of a basic standard with
allowances for services and external works, but not
for fit-out. For buildings C and D, fire compartment
walls were required in addition to a separation wall
between the warehouse and offices.
Results
The total building costs/m
2
ground floor area
including preliminaries, contingency and fees are
given in Table 2.1.
Analysis of results For buildings with an area
above 2304 m
2
, loadbearing tilt-up is consistently
within 4/m
2
of the cheapest metal cladding option,
and for building C, tilt-up is more economical for
both plain and decorated panels. For external walls,
all tilt-up options (see Table 2.2) cost between 39
and 72/m
2
, which makes them competitive with a
large range of cladding products. Tilt-up sandwich
panels cost about 15/m
2
more than normal panels,
which is a modest premium to pay for long-term
energy and durability benefits. The cost of tilt-up
panels typically increases with height due to
additional lifting and material costs for taller, heavier
panels, but this is offset by using tilt-up as fire-
protecting internal walls for 36/m
2
for tilt-up,
compared with 72/m
2
for proprietary fire partitions.
Construction programme The next paragraph
describes the programmes generated and used in the
cost model exercise, see Chapter 3 Programme and
speed of construction for more specific discussions
of these matters and actual programmes.
All cost data includes preliminaries and time-related
charges taken from construction programmes
Table 2.1 Total building costs/m
2
gross floor area
Type of external wall Building A
2,304 m
2
Eaves height
6 m
Building B
4,500 m
2
Eaves height
8 m
Building C
9,180 m
2
Eaves height
10 m
Building D
18,090 m
2
Eaves height
12 m
Loadbearing tilt-up panels TU 360 324 319 292
Tilt-up insulated sandwich panels TU 374 338 329 299
Decorated tilt-up panels TU 361 326 320 292
Tilt-up cladding panels Hybr 355 327 327 294
Built-up metal cladding system Trad 342 320 321 288
Composite cladding panels Trad 387 360 357 318
Aluminium cladding system Trad 421 391 384 339
Blockwork/built-up cladding Trad 354 328 327 292
Table 2.2 External wall costs/m
2
wall area, including plant-based preliminaries
Type of external wall Building A Building B Building C Building D
Loadbearing tilt-up panels TU 49 50 54 57
Tilt-up insulated sandwich panels TU 62 65 69 72
Decorated tilt-up panels TU 51 52 56 59
Tilt-up cladding panels Hybr 39 39 41 42
Built-up metal cladding system Trad 36 36 36 36
Composite cladding panels Trad 104 104 104 104
Aluminium cladding system Trad 155 155 155 155
Blockwork/built-up cladding Trad 48 45 43 43
2-4
developed for the cost model. Assuming normal site
conditions, published lead times and continuity of
work, loadbearing tilt-up is just four weeks behind
conventional construction methods for buildings A
and B, but runs exactly in parallel for building C and
D. Insulated sandwich panels incur a little more time,
but this is more than offset by benefits gained in the
long term (Table 2.3).
Conclusions
The results of the cost model show clearly that tilt-up
can out-perform several conventional UK methods,
and provides an economical alternative for internal
fire walls. There is also a definite indication that cost
competitiveness of the technique could at least rival
its performance in countries such as the USA,
Australia and New Zealand, although it is not easy to
compare UK costs data with that from established
tilt-up markets overseas. (All costs are current at
January 1998; data does not include landfill tax,
overheads, profit, variations or VAT.)
The kind assistance of the following UK companies
is gratefully acknowledged.
Curtins Consulting Engineers
Davis Langdon & Everest
Gazeley Properties
Hanscomb Partnership
Laing Special Projects
MACE Ltd
Slough Estates
Tilt-up Consulting Services
WH Stephens & Sons
and several other leading companies
THE TILT-UP METHOD
Tilt-up construction is the on-site precasting of the
walls of a building. In one method of construction,
the perimeter foundations and internal ground slab
are cast first, and then the wall panels are cast
individually, contiguously or continuously on the slab
(see Figure 7.2, Chapter 7). Alternatively, panels may
be cast one on top another, as stack-casting. After
panels have gained sufficient strength, they are tilted
up and positioned around the perimeter. The internal
frame is then constructed and the roof built. If
desired, stack-casting the panels on a separate
temporary casting bed enables the main building
ground slab to be cast later following erection of the
roof. Thus tilt-up offers more than one method of
construction programming.
A typical construction starts with the levelling of the
site before foundations are dug and cast. The ground
floor sub-base material is then rolled and accurately
levelled; a membrane is laid and simple edge
formwork fixed. This is typically laser-levelled for
extreme accuracy. The main floor slab (Figure 2.3 (a))
may be laid by the long-strip method, typically 4 m
wide by the full length, and finished by power float.
But, increasingly, the slab may be laid in wide pours
and finished by laser levelling and power float.
When the slab has gained sufficient strength, the tilt-
up wall panels are constructed upon it. The panels
may be cut to size after long-strip casting, or more
commonly are formed individually. The main floor
slab or previous panels act as the panel's casting face
and completing the formwork requires only simple
perimeter side forms. Climbing forms or full depth
formwork is used when the panels are stack-cast.
Before each is cast, a bond-breaker, form-liner or
other material is placed on the floor slab, or on top of
the previous panel in the case of stack-casting.
Finally, the panel reinforcement and fixings for the
roof are placed and the panel is then concreted and
finished (Figure 2.3 (b)). Careful attention is given to
the casting position of panels on the base slab in
order to minimise crane movement and achieve the
most efficient construction sequence.
After typically two to seven days, when a panel has
gained sufficient strength, props and lifting devices
are attached. The panel is then gradually lifted or
tilted up until it is upright (Figure 2.3 (c)). The
flexural stresses during the lifting reach a maximum
when the panels are at an angle of about 30 degrees.
At this point, the stresses are often greater than when
the panel is in place, which can give the designer
added assurance in the completed structure.
Particular economic benefits come from the methods
used to lift the panels. It is common to use a multi-
point lifting system so that the bending stresses are
kept below the flexural tensile strength of the
concrete thus minimising and often eliminating the
need to rely on reinforcement during lifting. This not
only enables savings in reinforcement to be made but
also allows thinner panels to be erected with
Table 2.3 Time on site from mobilisation to completion using published lead times (weeks)
Type of external wall Building A Building B Building C Building D
Loadbearing tilt-up panels * 17 23 29 33
Tilt-up insulated sandwich panels * 18 24 31 35
Metal cladding panels 13 19 29 33
* Later discussions with contractors experienced in tilt-up revealed reduced lead-in times over those published and used in this study. This
results in possible reductions of at least two weeks in the tilt-up times given above. Examples of faster programmes are given in Chapter 3.
An overview
2-5
consequential savings in concrete and final wall
thickness. Reinforcement is normally placed in a
single central mat.
When the panel is in an upright position it is carefully
swung to the perimeter where it is propped in place
(Figure 2.3 (d)). Multi-point lifting can enable larger
panels to be erected, so saving time in construction.
These larger panels require the use of appropriate
cranage but since they are rapidly erected it means
that heavy capacity cranage is often needed for only a
few days. For example, the entire external walls
covering an area of some 3000 m
2
to a building can
be erected in only a couple of days. Once the panels
are braced in position, the internal columns, if any,
are positioned, the roof trusses and purlins are
erected, and the roofing is finally fixed (Figure 2.3 (e)).
This short description demonstrates the uncomplicated
procedure for tilt-up construction that can be used to
create a variety of panel configurations for a wide
range of different building types.
ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
Until recently it was contended that tilt-up could not
compete with the quality of precast concrete, and
should retain its inherent simplicity rather than
seeking to become too sophisticated. However, the
advancement of tilt-up techniques is such that it is
now possible to attain consistent high quality
finishes. The improved appearance of tilt-up
buildings stems largely from the sensitive detailing of
panels and an almost limitless range of colours,
patterns and textures (see Chapter 9). The front cover
and projects examples at the end of this chapter
demonstrate the high quality of architecture now
routinely achieved.
Designers of industrial and low-specification
buildings tend to utilise simple, economical finishes,
whereas more prestigious commercial markets use
more flamboyant combinations of finishes and
materials. However, the change in manufacturing and
commercial markets from heavy industrial into
high-tech industries means that aesthetic
considerations seem to be more important to
designers and developers than in previous years.
Tilt-up construction is ideal to meet this new demand
because designers can take full advantage of
available colours, textures, surface finishes, and
architectural embellishments in varying degrees of
complexity to enhance the image of the tilt -up
building.
These additional features included stepped profiles,
trellises, polished stone or ribbon glazing. Thus the
modern tilt-up building is able to provide a quality,
economical, robust and durable structure that,
together with attractive landscaping, can achieve
spectacular results.
The technique of tilt-up construction was developed
especially for on-site use but it has also been extended
to off-site precast work. Many tilt-up projects now
make use of both site and factory components for
optimum design and construction flexibility and this
is likely to be the case within the UK.
STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
The design of panels and stability of tilt -up buildings
is well tested since their reliability has been proved in
the earthquake regions of the world. Tilt-up design
recommendations are fully developed in those
countries where it is widely used, with many having
specific national codes
(2)
and standards, and other
design guides
(3)
and
(4)
. There are no specific UK
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
External wall line
Wall foundation
Floor slab
External wall line
Temporary bracing
Roof members brace tilt-up walls
Structural tilt-up
panel
Tilt-up panel
lifted by crane
Tilt-up wall panel
cast on floor
Tilt-up panel
positioned onto
foundation
Figure 2.3 Typical tilt-up construction sequence
2-6
tilt-up codes or standards but Chapter 5 of this
publication presents design suggestions compatible
with the main British structural code for concrete,
BS 8110, and contains further references on design.
CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
In tilt-up construction, the floor is often cast before
the roof. It has been said that tilt-up may not, because
of weather conditions, be as suitable in this part of
the world as it is in other countries. This view is,
however, misguided since tilt-up has been successfully
used in Scotland, where one project was built to
programme during the worst weather conditions for
100 years. Tilt-up is also used in New Zealand, and
in parts of the USA and Canada, where the weather
conditions are similar to our own.
In Britain reliable short- and medium-term weather
forecasting services specifically for construction are
readily available from the Meteorological Office and
others and are commonly used for programming of
weather-dependent processes. Precautions such as
tented enclosures or temporary edge wind-breaks can
be used in the event of driving rain. Weather is not a
major factor with tilt-up since the problems are not
significantly different from those faced on any other
construction project involving the placing of concrete.
Contractors simply take precautions or adjust work to
cater for prevailing weather conditions.
The method of tilt-up is now so well developed and
proven that full design and construction expertise is
readily available. There are consultants, contractors
and material suppliers with experience of tilt-up in
both the UK and Ireland and throughout the world.
Thus the developer or designer can be assured that there
is sufficient availability of materials, equipment and
expertise to ensure competitive and reliable tilt-up
construction within the UK and in the rest of Europe.
FACTORY-CAST PANELS
Most of the material in this guide applies equally to
wall units produced in the factory and delivered to
site. However, with factory-cast panels there are
some obvious differences to be considered.
Road transportation limits overall sizes to around
12 m long by 3 to 4 m wide (depending on
whether delivered flat or upright on the lorry).
There is, therefore, a maximum width of opening
that can be incorporated into a single panel.
Different economics may apply, as many units
will be cast from a single mould, justifying more
complex shapes and costly formliners.
Transportation and handling may require extra
reinforcement and lifting fittings.
Construction programmes alter as casting is
independent of ground slabs, but lead times will
be longer.
Factory precast may be more appropriate where
there are special demands on tolerances, finishes,
quality or concrete mix (such as coloured
concrete or special aggregates).
Finally, it is worth noting that some buildings may
justify installing a temporary factory-casting
facility on site.
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
Tilt-up construction was first introduced in the early
1900s in the USA. However it was not until the
1950s with the introduction of mobile cranes and
ready-mixed concrete that its use really grew. At this
time the first design and construction guides
appeared in the USA, paving the way for pioneering
contractors to capitalise on the increased
sophistication of the technique in the following
decades.
From the late 1970s to the present day, tilt-ups use
has grown substantially, due partly to traditional
skills shortages but mainly to its speed, providing
more efficient construction to meet growing
economic pressures, and an increase in the real and
perceived quality of tilt-up buildings
(5)
.
Its established use has spread from the USA market,
to those of Australia and New Zealand. In each case,
its development followed a distinct pattern. The
technique began in low-rise industrial structures
where it developed a quality image. Whilst increasing
its share of the market in these building types, it
diversified into other commercial, leisure and
residential sectors.
The technology, expertise, and reliability of tilt-up
has improved due to improved structural engineering,
availability of products specifically developed to suit
tilt-up, achievement of better quality finishes, and
changes in procurement routes. Currently, in the
USA, some 13 million square metres of tilt-up walls
are built each year, the equivalent of around 7000
low-rise buildings. This increased at a rate of 12%
between 1995 and 1996. Of these buildings, around
65% are industrial or warehousing, 25% are offices,
and 10% are retail development and other
miscellaneous projects.
In Australia, tilt-ups use for the industrial market
took off in the 1970s because of a dramatic rise in
brick prices, and a crisis of confidence in low-rise
metal-clad structures, often referred to as sheds
(6)
.
Subsequently, it has also become popular for
speculative house building in the 1990s where it has
now been used for terraced houses, luxury
apartments, individual villas and housing association
developments.
Canada has an established tilt-up market and the
method has also been used in other countries such as
Malaysia, Argentina, Brazil, Hungary, Mexico and
South Africa.
An overview
2-7
In the UK and Ireland, tilt-up has been mainly used
for industrial and warehousing structures, some
incorporating office space. It is interesting that these
tilt-up structures remain quite distinct, standing out
from often very commonplace metal-clad 'sheds'.
In addition to advanced factory buildings in Scotland,
further buildings have been constructed by the
Watchtower organisation in London and in
Co.Wicklow, Ireland. The latter particularly have
achieved exceptional quality and appearance. The
Watchtower organisation is highly committed to tilt-
up and has a rolling programme of around 40 new
buildings under construction, throughout the world,
utilising tilt-up.
Recently a contractor specialising in design-build
cold store projects in the UK has adopted tilt-up for
its plant rooms in order to save time and reduce
construction problems.
There is a growing trend worldwide towards the use
of tilt-up concrete sandwich panels. One supplier is
now claiming that about 5 million square metres of
panels have been built using its system alone.
PROJECT EXAMPLES
The examples shown on pages 2-8 to 2-26 have been
selected from the UK and elsewhere to give an
indication of the scope and form of tilt -up
construction. They show tilt-up panels used for
loadbearing walls to carry vertical roof and floor
loads and lateral wind forces, panels used for earth-
retaining structures, and non-loadbearing cladding.
The examples also show panels used to create very
slender walls that provide economy by maximising
the nett-to-gross area of the building. The continuous
run of panels also means there are no intruding
columns as can occur with a portal frame.
The differing panel finishes and shapes provide an
insight to the architectural freedom available with
tilt-up construction. The examples also demonstrate
the ability of tilt-up to be used for both single- and
multi-storey buildings and to be designed to support
both floors and roofs. The opportunities for tilt -up
should become apparent from reviewing just these
few examples.
REFERENCES
1. Glass, J. Evaluation of tilt-up construction in
relation to selected UK building types. Post
Graduate Research School, School of
Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, UK.
(PhD thesis).
2. Standards Australia. Tilt-up concrete and
precast concrete elements for use in buildings.
Part 1: Safety requirements. Part 2: Guide to
design, casting and erection of tilt-up panels.
Standards Australia, North Sydney, NSW, 1990.
AS 3850. 16 pp, 24 pp.
3. Cement and Concrete Association of New
Zealand. Tilt-up technical manual. C&CA,
Porirua, New Zealand, 1991. TM 34. 32 pp.
4. Brookes, H. The tilt-up design and construction
manual. HBA Publications, Newport Beach,
Dayton, Ohio, USA, 1997. 292 pp.
5. Spears, R, E. Tilt-up construction and design
considerations. Concrete International, Vol. 2,
No. 4, 1980. pp 33 38.
6. OHagan, R. The incredible rise of tilt-up
construction. Australian Concrete Construction.
Vol. 1, No. 1, 1989.
2-8
GLENROTHES 2, SCOTLAND
Glenrothes 2 was the second major loadbearing
tilt-up panel system constructed in the UK. (The
first major structure was Glenrothes 1 built in 1984
as an advanced factory unit and is constructed with
165 mm thick solid panels, typically 7 m wide by
7.5 m high, weighing in the region of 20 tonnes
each.) The second building was erected in 1986 as
another advanced factory unit and is constructed
with a similar internal structure and panel size and
weight. The regulatory thermal standard was
achieved by the use of an insulated internal lining
in conjunction with external insulation provided by
an earth berm at ground level. The concrete panels
are decorated with a paint finish applied directly to a
textured surface created by casting against a formwork
lining sheet. The structure has a constructed area of
3743 m
2
but is designed to be sub-divided into two
1870 m
2
units and is also detailed to allow for
expansion to 7486 m
2
. The building has a main 5.5 m
clear height single-storey factory facility and a two-
storey office of 392 m
2
occupying one corner. Due to
delays experienced with the steelwork to the office on
Glenrothes I, the office elevation to this building has
double-glazed aluminium curtain walling units
supported by featured concrete structural tilt-up units.
Location - Glenrothes, Scotland
Contract period 22 weeks (see Chapter 3 for construction programme)
Total net floor area - 3743 m
2
+ 390 m
2
office
Typical panel size - 7 m wide by 7.5 m high
Typical panel weight - 20 tonnes
External finish Paint on textured surface
Thermal insulation - Internal insulated lining with external earth berm
View showing provision for an office at each end
Textured panel finish
An overview
Floor plan
North elevation
Typical cross section
7.5 m
45 m
90 m
2-9
Glenrothes 2, Scotland
2-10
OLD NAAS ROAD, DUBLIN
Built in 1990, this development consists of two
high-spec units in the heart of Ireland's premier
industrial location at Old Naas Road, Dublin. Both
units are designed to accommodate production,
warehouse and office use. The development
consists of one 967 m
2
unit and one of 816 m
2
, each
having a 100 m
2
office area over two storeys,
approached by a framed entrance for pedestrian
use. The walls are solid tilt-up panels internally
insulated and finished externally with paint
featuring a distinctive inset band, and incorporating
colour-coated aluminium windows. The roof
decking is a metal composite insulated system
incorporating translucent sheeting to 15% of the roof
area. There are no internal columns as the roof trusses
are designed to span 27 metres between the loadbearing
tilt-up perimeter walls.
Eccentricity of load is minimised by the use of recessed
steel connections within the supporting panels.
Container access is provided to the 6 metre high
warehouse production area by steel roller shutter
entrances. The development was promoted as a new
concept of building to image-conscious companies
seeking industrial and office accommodation of high
quality and finish.
Location - Old Naas Road, Dublin 12, Irish Republic
Total floor area - 1783 m
2
in two units
Contract period - 14 weeks
Typical panel size 7.88 m wide x 6.75 m high
External finish Paint with feature painted band
Thermal insulation - Internal insulation with protection boarding at lower levels

Inset band echoing stepped site
An overview
Roof bracing
Cross section
27 metre clear span
Floor plan
Typical elevation showing inset band
Truss support detail
Old Naas Road, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
27 m
32.5 m
27 m
27 m
15 m
6.75m
2-11
2-12
LABORATORY, QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA
This project, built in 1995, shows an example of site-
cast tilt-up concrete panels, incorporating a
considerable degree of refinement, used to clad a
two-storey reinforced concrete frame. Tilt-up panels
were selected because of their economy and speed of
construction. The laboratory facilities are on two
floors and have a total area of around 2750 m
2
. The
panels, which have an internal plasterboard finish,
are typically 6 m wide by up to 7.7 m high with a
concrete thickness of 150 mm. Externally the panels
have a combination of flat and horizontal ribbed
surfaces and were given a high-build paint finish.
The colour selection, together with the clean eaves
detail and design of sun screens and entrance awning,
combine to make this a stylish industrial building.
The roof is of conventional steel purlins with main
beams.
Location - Garnet Street, Carole Park, Queensland, Australia
2
Contract period - Construction time not known, but tilt-up used for speed
Typical panel size - 6 m wide x 6.9 - 7.7 m high
Interest provided by use of plain and ribbed panels
An overview
In-situ concrete
slab and edge
beam
In-situ
concrete
column
150 mm two
storey tilt-up
cladding panel
2-13
New laboratory, Queensland, Australia
First floor plan
Ground floor plan
2.70 m
2.70 m
0.85 m
0.25 m
Typical wall section
48.5 m
25.3 m
2-14
MARY MCKILLOP CATHOLIC CHURCH, QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA
This church was built in 1995. A limited budget and
a practical brief provided the ideal opportunity for the
architects to take advantage of the economies of
tilt-up construction, as well as to use the system
imaginatively to produce a memorable image for this
new Roman Catholic church. The panels are only
170 mm thick and weigh up to 18.45 tonnes. The
external panels contain an off-white cement and have
a vigorous ribbed surface, which has been
grit-blasted to reveal the light-coloured Pine River
stone aggregate. The tops of the exposed walls are
provided with channels discharging onto the roof to
reduce staining. The panels are butt jointed and
sealed with a thixotropic joint sealant on a
polyurethane base over a backing rod. Great care has
been taken with the acoustic performance of the
building: the ceiling is treated to absorb sound but no
special treatment was required for the walls as the
reflection of sound provided by the concrete gives
life to the church music, especially to choral works.
The designers were recipients of a Concrete Institute
of Australia Excellence in Concrete Award in 1995.
Location - Birkdale, Queensland, Australia
2
Contract period - Not known, but 22 panels erected in 8 hours
Typical panel size - 6 m wide x 4.0 - 7.5 m high
Typical panel weight - Up to 18.45 tonnes
External finish - Off-white cement, grit-blasted concrete with vigorous ribbed surface
Thermal insulation - Not required
Imaginative use of rugged grit-blasted ribbed panels
An overview
2-15
Ground floor plan
Section A - A
A
A
0 2 4 6 8 10 m
Mary McKillop Catholic Church, Queensland, Australia
2-16
COLD STORE PLANT ROOM, WOLVERHAMPTON
This project is the first of several cold store plant
rooms to be constructed in the UK. The plant room
is only about 22 m by 7 m but lies on the critical
path as it is vital to the installation of the complex
refrigeration plant. The use of tilt-up for this
project is estimated by the contractor to have saved
up to four weeks over other alternative forms of
construction. The panels are typically 7.9 m high
by 5.8 m wide and weigh in the order of 25 tonnes.
The panels are of sandwich construction (60 mm
outer leaf, 50 mm rigid insulation and a 150 mm
loadbearing inner) and thus provide the necessary
insulation and structural capacity as a single
constructed element. The two leaves of each panel are
joined together by composite ties to minimise thermal
bridging. The panels were stack cast on a separately
cast slab adjacent to the plant room. This method was
adopted as the plant room floor has limited dimensions
and is heavily troughed for service pipes. The tilt-up
panels support lateral wind loads and vertical loads
from roof and mezzanine floors. Externally the building
is clad with profiled steel sheets, but consideration is
being given to the use of ribbed-faced concrete tilt-up
panels for future projects.
Location - Wolverhampton
2
Contract period - Panel construction 10 days, erected in 1 day
Typical panel size - 5.8 m wide by 7.9 m high
External finish - Profiled metal cladding on insulated tilt-up panels
Thermal insulation - Sandwiched insulation in tilt-up panels
(Information by courtesy of Chalcroft Construction Ltd and Tilt-up
Construction Services)
Profiled steel
cladding
Alternative ribbed
concrete finish
Erection of insulated panels Finished building with metal cladding
2-17
An overview
Metal cladding
Ground floor plan of plant room
Elevation showing multiple panel openings
General plan of cold store complex
Plant room
Loading dock
Cold store
Cold store plant room, Wolverhampton
22 m
7 m
7.9 m
2-18
IBSA BURIED SERVICES BUILDING, MILL HILL, LONDON
The International Bible Students Association (IBSA)
has used tilt-up construction techniques for more than
40 projects worldwide. This project, constructed in
1996, is an example of the diversity of this form of
construction. The tilt-up panels are used for the
retaining walls of a buried services building. The
main panels are designed to carry both vertical loads
from the buried roof as well as the lateral loads from
the retained backfill. The project uses the structural
and economic benefits of tilt-up to the full. The
building is approximately 22 m x 20 m. The solid
tilt-up wall panels are typically 200 mm thick and
vary in size up to 5.2 m wide by 4.8 m high. The
main panels support the main internal concrete roof
beams carrying transverse in-situ floor slabs.
Thermal performance is achieved by utilising the
insulating properties of the retained soil. A
membrane waterproofing is applied to the perimeter
panels. A drainage layer is provided at the bottom of
the panels, and discharges to an outfall. The tilt-up
panels were stack cast on the basement slab which,
because of the confined site, was temporarily
extended locally to accommodate certain panels.
Only 1 m working space existed beyond the
perimeter walls.
Location - Mill Hill, London
2
Contract period - Not known but 13 panels
erected in one day
Typical panel size - 5.2 m wide by 4.8 m high
Typical panel weight - 12.8 tonnes
External finish - Plain finished panel with
installed water proofing
Thermal insulation - Provided by lightweight
aggregate and retained soil
(Information by courtesy of IBSA, and
Gatehouse Leach Training and Development)
Arial view showing panel erection on
confined site
Finished project, buried and laid to lawn
Basement construction being roofed
2-19
An overview
Underground plant room
Existing
building
19.73 m
18.12 m
Elevation (plant room at lower level)
Top soil
Subsoil
Geotextile
Lightweight agg.
Insulation
Membrane
Concrete roof slab
Tilt-up
Concrete raft
Infill strip
Typical section
retaining wall
IBSA, Watchtower House, London
Bentonite
membrane
Subsoil
drain
4.50 m
Gravel
2-20
H DENNERT DISTRIBUTING, OHIO, USA
The H Dennert Distributing complex is a modern
white building that incorporates an interesting
portico, which distinguishes it from other buildings
nearby. The building is designed as a mixed-use
distribution and maintenance centre and has an area
of around 14,285 m
2
of varying plan form based on a
15 m grid. In addition, the building is designed to
accommodate a 3800 m
2
expansion as business
grows. This was a design-build project, utilising a
local contractor licensed by CON-STEEL Tilt-up
Systems working directly with the owners, H Dennert
Distributing.
The building comprises seven function areas: office,
drive-through sales, maintenance shop, interior
staging, ambient case storage, keg draft drive-in
cooler, and special events catering. This project
shows the flexibility of tilt-up to meet varying wall
requirements by using three different types of wall
panels. The panels for the office are of single-leaf
construction with added internal insulation. The walls
in the staging area are of sandwich construction to
provide high strength, high insulation and low
maintenance. A newly developed, proprietary
insulated hollow-core panel, competitive with
insulated masonry, is used in the drive-through and
catering areas.
The solid tilt-up wall panels are typically 185 mm
thick and vary in size up to 5 m wide by 8.9 m high.
The hollow-core panels are 225 mm thick and
typically 5.9 m wide by 8.9 m. The sandwich panels
have a 90 mm outer leaf, 50 mm of insulation and a
165 mm loadbearing inner leaf. Panel dimensions are
up to 8.0 m wide by 10.2 m high and weigh up to
35 tonnes.
Location - Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
Total floor area - 14,285 m
2
Contract period - Unknown but fast-track construction
Typical panel size Varies, up to 8.0 m wide by 10.2 m high
Typical panel weight - Up to 35 tonnes
External finish - Painted
Thermal insulation - Provided by a combination of internal, sandwich or cored insulation
(Information by courtesy of CON-STEEL Tilt-up Systems)
Featured panels offset the curved portico
An overview
2-21
122 m 52 m
34 m
27 m
30 m
55 m
36 m
52 m 30 m 27 m 29 m 34 m
Plan
Elevation
Typical part section
H. Dennert Distributing Co, Ohio, USA
Project utilises panels of different
shapes and insulation methods
29 m
27 m
10.2 m
2-22
YMCA/YWCA, EASTERN REGIONAL CENTRE, ONTARIO, CANADA
The brick appearance of this building is created by
using a brick slip system incorporated during the
construction of the tilt-up panels. The brick slips
were placed onto a Brick Snap
TM
grid (Scott
Systems Inc. of Denver, Colorado) placed onto a
previously cast slab and backed by 75 mm of
concrete. (The use of brick slips is common
practice for works precast panels and has now been
developed for site use.) Preformed insulation,
50 mm thick, was placed on top of this and
composite ties inserted to provide a tie between the
outer leaf and a 165 mm inner leaf designed to carry
internal loads. The building project was let out to
alternative bids and tilt-up produced the best and most
committed fast-track schedule. The building has an area
of some 2860 m
2
and was constructed in just 16 weeks.
This project demonstrates the flexibility and
adaptability of tilt-up construction enabling rapid
construction for a building with restricted access on
two sides due to roadways and steep embankments. To
aid construction two temporary casting beds were
needed.
Location - Cumberland, Ontario
2
Contract period - 16 weeks.
Typical panel size Varies, up to 4 m wide by 10.2 m high
External finish - Brick surface
Thermal insulation - Provided by sandwich insulation
(Information courtesy of CON-STEEL Tilt-up Systems)
Brick-faced panels enhance the external appearance
(inset shows brick slips laid face down in Grid Snap
TM
system)
2-23
An overview
10.7 m
3.8 m
18 m
57 m
22 m
28 m
35 m
First floor plan
North elevation
YMCA/YWCA, Cumberland, Ontario, Canada
2-24
DY-4 SYSTEMS INC, KANTA, ONTARIO, CANADA
Speed of construction, energy efficiency and
flexibility for future expansion were the key factors
in DY-4's decision to go with the tilt-up design-
build proposal for their 6900 m
2
building in Ontario.
The result is an especially attractive building
completed in just 21 weeks with all 55 panels being
erected in only 4.5 days. The panels are of sandwich
construction consisting of a 75 mm outer leaf, 75
mm of preformed insulation and a 150 mm inner
leaf. This provides a U-value of 0.4 W/m
2
K in the
panels directly as constructed. The thermal capacity
of the concrete inner leaf is also utilised to enhance
the building's energy efficiency. The panels weigh
between 18 to 35 tonnes. Pouring and lifting schedules
allowed the structural steel to be erected on one wing of
the building while panels were lifted and positioned on
the other wing.
The concrete panels are of a high quality and have an
external exposed white marble aggregate textured
surface created by medium grit-blasting. Additional
site-cast reveals, horizontal accent bands, and unique
triangular columns on the 10 m high entrance are used
to break up the flat linear surface of the building and
reinforce the tower's identity as the building's signature
piece.
Location - Kanata, Ontario
2
Contract period - 21 weeks
Typical panel size - Sandwich panels typically 6 m wide by 8.8 m high
External finish - Exposed (grit-blasted) white marble aggregate
Thermal insulation - Provided by sandwich insulation
(Information by courtesy of CON-STEEL Tilt-up Systems)

General view of entrance area showing triangular columns
An overview
2-25
3
8

m
1
4
m
38 m
Floor plan
South elevation
North elevation
DY- 4 Systems, Kanta, Ontario, Canada
38 m
31 m
3
1

m
8.8 m
An overview
2-26
BALLARD POWER BUILDING, BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA
This research and development facility for hydrogen
fuel cell technology employs a creative combination
of concrete tilt-up wall panels, exposed structural
steel and glazing to achieve the high-tech look
required by the client. The building has a ground
floor area of some 7600 m
2
and incorporates a
3800 m
2
suspended first floor. There is a total of 75
tilt-up panels that support the roof and floor loads,
and serve as shear walls for both wind and seismic
loads.
Free-standing tilt-up panels dominate the entrance
area. Each wall panel is the region of 14 m high by
15 m wide and, in order to achieve a finished surface
on each side of the wall, it is constructed from two
190 mm thick panels separated by a 25 mm gap.
Connections between the leaves were possible only at
areas hidden by the suspended ceiling space or below
floor slab levels. The connections were achieved by
inserting steel studs through drilled holes and epoxy
grouting into place. The exposed edges of the walls
are finished with a 420 mm wide steel plate strip to
complete the concrete and steel high-tech image.
Location - Burnley, British Columbia
2
ground floor, 3800 m
2
first floor
Contract period - Unknown
Typical panel size - Up to 14 m high by 15 m wide
Typical panel weight - Up to 96 tonnes per leaf
External finish Fair-faced concrete
Thermal insulation - Unknown
Ballard Power Station, British Columbia, Canada
3-1
PLANNING FOR TILT-UP

This chapter examines the planning process vital to the effective design and construction of tilt-up structures. It
then discusses the need for effective communications between the design and construction functions. This is
followed by consideration of the economics of construction. Casting layout and erection sequence, cranage,
panel sizes and tolerances, and types of panel joints are then presented. Finally, following prediction of strength,
typical programmes and speed of construction are examined using real case studies.
THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
TEAM
The simplicity of tilt-up results from thorough
planning for construction during design. Planning for
tilt-up requires the involvement of every member of
the design/construction team if tilt-ups advantages
and versatility are to be fully exploited and its cost
and speed benefits are to be maximised. Co-operation
should begin at the planning stage and continue
through to the completion of the project.
Typically, the team comprises the architect, building
and panel designers, contractor, specialist sub-
contractor, lifting contractor and lifting accessories
supplier. The lifting operation is vital to any
successful job and the lifting contractor should be
consulted as early as possible in the planning process.
It is important that each member of the team is aware
of the constraints of the tilt-up method and of the
broad implications of any planning decision.
Compromise will often be necessary; the
participation of all members of the team in the
decision-making process is therefore required if the
best solution is to be found, particularly for the
casting and erection sequences.
Circumstances such as project location or tendering
procedures may dictate that the full team is not
known at the design stage. In such cases, the designer
should make every effort to compensate for missing
input by soliciting advice from specialists with local
knowledge. These could include equipment suppliers,
crane operators and specialist sub-contractors.
Changes made during construction must be very
carefully considered, since many decisions depend on
or affect other operations. As with other forms of
construction, reversing one decision may start a chain
reaction that could necessitate the reconsideration of
all subsequent decisions.
The above points reveal that tilt-up is ideally suited
to design and build contracts. However, other forms
of procurement are successfully employed. In all
cases it is important that the ground slab (and ideally
the foundations) are constructed by the same
contractor as the tilt-up panels to avoid problems
with finish and tolerance. In this way, tilt-up reduces
the number of trade packages and interfaces,
resulting in reduced risk of conflict and in increased
efficiency.
Using a franchised or licensed tilt-up contractor
belonging to one of several schemes run from the
United States and operating abroad may attain further
benefits. Finally it should be noted that a number of
individuals and suppliers are able to offer tilt-up
planning and consultancy in the UK through
experience gained both here and abroad (see
Chapter 13).
OPTIMISING TILT-UP BENEFITS
The most suitable configuration for tilt-up is a large
low-rise modest building with few openings,
allowing a near production-line process of forming
and erecting almost identical panels. Buildings such
as warehouses, distribution centres and some
industrial and retail buildings can come close to this
ideal. However, many other forms are also suitable
and the following criteria may be used to help
identify them.
Wall to floor ratio - Ideally this should not exceed
70 to 80% to allow walls to be cast individually on
the floor, with space for the crane to operate.
However, stack-casting of some panels or the use of
adjacent temporary casting beds is not uncommon,
permitting a higher ratio, or even removing the need
to use the ground slab. When the slab is used for the
construction of the panels it must be designed for
both in-service loads and for any cranage loads
during erection.
Configuration Construction efficiency will be
maximised by a building largely composed of walls
that permit a large number of similar sized wall
elements, but more variable building forms are also
viable.
Panel size - A typical site-cast panel for a low-rise
building can be around 7.5 to 9.0 m high and 7.5 m
wide and weigh between 25 to 35 tonnes. However,
between 15 and 25 tonnes is a more typical weight
for a tilt-up panel in order to make optimum use of
cranage. Economic construction of buildings of three
or more stories is not uncommon. However, these
may require a more sophisticated arrangement of
lifting rigging than for panels under around 9 m in
3
3-2
height, in order to keep lifting tensile stresses and
thus thickness low. Equally, weight for cranage can
be a restriction. Depending on panel and crane
layout, 35 tonnes is a sensible maximum but this is
often exceeded. In the USA, panels up to 28 m high
and up to 130 tonnes in weight have been
successfully lifted, using strongbacks and highly
specialised equipment.
Building size - Large buildings conforming to the
other criteria in this list particularly favour tilt-up, as
expensive crane hire and other fixed costs are
absorbed by the increased areas involved, and tilt-
ups speed advantage becomes most pronounced.
Additionally, on the largest projects, careful planning
can enable activities to be overlapped, with roof steel
erection concurrent with panel lifting and even
casting elsewhere.
Looking at the lower limits, consideration of a typical
low-rise wall height, the maximum wall to floor
ratios, and typical aspect ratios in plan leads to a
minimum size of around 2000 m floor area if stack-
casting is to be avoided. However, contractors abroad
are reporting economical construction at sizes down
to 400 m. One UK example in Chapter 2 describes
an ancillary building of only 200 m, where tilt-up
was viable because its speed saved around four
weeks on the main building programme.
Figure 3.1 Panel layout and construction sequence
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 N10
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
W14
W13
W12
W11
W10
W9
W8
W7
W6
W5
W4
W3
W2
W1
E1
E2
E3
E4
E5
E6
E7
E8
E9
E10
E11
E12
E13
E14
W13 W14 N1 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9
E3
E4
E5
E6
E7
E8
E9
E10
E11
E12
W12
W11
W10
W9
W8
S1
N2 N3
N10
E2
S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S8 S10 E13
S7 S9 E14
40 39 38 37 36 34 32 30 29
6 7 8 11 12 13 14 15 16
35 33 31
41
9 10
2
3
4
5
1
22
21
20
23
27
26
25
24
28
19
17
ACCESS LANE
Walk-out panel
Erection sequence
61.5 m
86.2 m
W5
W4
W3
W1
W7
W6
W2
42
44
45
46
43
47
48

Top of panels
positioned
towards edge
of building
Edge of initial
slab pour
Make-up
strip
E1 18
Planning for tilt-up
3-3
Alternatively, one days crane usage, with 15 to 30
panels at 5 m to 7 m width, gives a sensible minimum
enclosed floor area of between 700 and 1400 m.
Confined sites - Contrary to common belief, tilt-up
can prove ideal for confined sites where access
around the building is limited. An excellent example
of this is the basement structure in Chapter 2
(page 2-18) where careful planning and stack-casting
allowed all panels to be cast and erected from the
slab with only a metre or so of working space beyond
this.
LAYOUT OF PANELS AND
ERECTION SEQUENCE
To optimise crane capacity and usage, wall panels are
usually cast face down on the floor slab, as close as
possible to their final erected position. Their tops will
generally be close to the perimeter slab make-up strip
with sides touching neighbouring panels. This allows
the crane driver to have full sight of the lifting
rigging whilst proceeding down the line of panels. It
is essential, therefore, that the layout and casting
order should be planned around the proposed erection
procedure with access for concreting and finishing in
a production-line process. Occasionally the lifting
position is different, resulting in reverse pick or
blind lifting and increased crane capacity for the
longer reach required, eg. from a set-up outside the
slab.
Panels are normally cast face-down to allow easy
lifting, with inserts hidden from sight on the inside
face. This permits easy formation of an architectural
finish on the outer face, using form-liners or fe ature
strips placed on the floor slab.
Casting position of slabs
Figure 3.1 shows a typical casting layout of wall
panels before erection on a building with sufficient
floor area to accommodate panels without stack
casting. Panel location is best decided by trial and
error using a physical model of the building and the
wall panels. This might take the form of a plan of the
ground floor slab, including movement joints,
column box-outs, perimeter make-up strip and any
other features affecting the slab surface forming the
casting bed. Wall panels can be formed to scale in
card or even thin plywood and marked up with all
features and inserts relevant to the casting and
erection procedure. A plan of the crane on transparent
film, with its outriggers and capacity at varying radii
(Figure 3.2) completes the model.
Panel sizes and weight, crane capacity and reach,
wall and slab configuration, and wall features such as
openings, are all inter-related. Panel size is often
determined by the availability and cost of cranage.
Thickness and height are the next most important
parameters, which affect both in-service and lifting
design as well as cranage. Panel width should also
co-ordinate with doors and architectural features and
with pad foundations, when used. A decision must be
taken early in the design process, taking into account
the above factors, and optimising the crane size and
number of crane set-up positions. Some buildings,
otherwise suitable for tilt-up, may have a wall to
floor area greater than the economic maximum of 70
to 80%. There are several methods for overcoming
this:
Stack-casting up to six panels deep releases space
for crane access. The upper faces of box-outs for
openings are often set low to contain a thin
sacrificial layer of concrete. This facilitates float
finishing of the whole surface giving a good
finish for forming the next layer. Careful planning
and execution is necessary to maintain tolerances
and finishes.
Temporary casting beds, typically of 75 mm
concrete, can be used outside the building
footprint. After the construction of the panels they
may be broken-out, buried, or incorporated in
permanent works.
Multi-stage casting and lifting allows the floor to
be used several times.
External crane positioning may release sufficient
floor space for casting.
Figure 3.2 Crane capacities at different lifting radii
Several of these options may be combined, but all
must be considered carefully as they can affect speed,
economics (especially crane time and capacity), and
finish quality.
To ensure efficient operation and to minimise errors,
drawings should clearly present all the necessary
information in a form to suit site operations. The
panel layout (Figure 3.1) provides a unique
numbering system reflecting the erection sequence,
R
a
d
iu
s
1
1
1
0
9
8
7
11.4
13.5
16.5
20.0
22.6
9.5 tonne
5.4 m
3
.
7

m
1
2
m
Max. panel
weight
3-4
and shows both casting and final positions of the
walls in relation to the slab and foundations.
Each panel will have its own drawing (Figure 3.3).
To suit face-down construction these also show the
view from the inside, with details of all openings,
features, fittings and inserts to allow construction of
the panel. Reinforcement may be shown on a
separate sheet or view.
Good dimensional control (Figure 3.4) is best
achieved using a setting-out drawing with both panel
diagonals and running chainages, making minor
variations self-compensating and providing checks
for squareness.
Cranage and crane movements
Ideally, planning should involve the crane contractor
and should mock-up all operations including
Figure 3.4 Typical panel setting-out information
Figure 3.3 Drawing showing opening, thickness and position of inserts and fixings
6.14 m
1.54 1.54 1.54 0.76 0.76
10.36
0.2
1.85
1.23
7.28
1.23
1.84 2.46 1.84
1.0
0.3
0.18 panel thickness
1.59
2.31
2.92
3.54
1.30 3.54 1.30
Internal elevation External elevation
Lifting inserts
6.90
Bracing
inserts
0.1 0.1
12 mm coil inserts
for reinforcement
connection to slab
12 x 90 mm
reveal at door
head
Joist seating
embedments
0.19 panel
thickness
3.14
4413
1314
3404
6045
6452
9093
9500
2642
2260
2920
305
3099 2642
660
2920
4258
3-5
bracing. A key objective is to optimise crane hook
time and set-up time with lifting capacity. To
illustrate this point the reader should imagine the
crane locations and reach necessary to erect and
brace the panels illustrated in Figure 3.1, whilst
minimising the crane capacity.
During planning it must be decided whether panels
will be contiguous, share side forms, or be spaced
apart. Having chosen an erection sequence and panel
numbering to suit, panel casting positions will
loosely reflect erection, with adjustment to suit
corners and bracing (Figures 3.5 and 3.6). Provision
must be made for crane access and exit. The last
panel is often set vertically in a temporary position
next to the exit whilst the crane moves outside before
completing the envelope.
Where floor space dictates that stack-casting is
necessary, the order (Figure 3.7) and number of
panels per stack should reflect the maximum that can
be handled by the crane without relocating, and the
constraints of placing and finishing the concrete to
tolerance.
Figure 3.5 Influence of corner detail on casting
layout and erection sequence
Figure 3.6 Influence of bracing on casting layout
The rating of a crane is the maximum load that can
be lifted at its minimum radius. The radius is
measured from the centre of rotation of the crane.
The greater the radius, the lesser the load. For
example a crane rated at 40 tonnes will carry 40
tonnes at its shortest reach, but at 6 metres radius will
lift only about 18 tonnes (Figure 3.8). For this size
crane, the lowest operational radius is around 6
metres but this will increase for larger cranes.
Many factors come into the selection of crane size,
and this should have been determined at the planning
stage along with panel sizes and casting layout. The
crane operator should be involved at this early stage,
and should visit the site before the day of lifting to
inspect access, restrictions and ground conditions
below the crane and outrigger positions.
When assessing panel working radius, 1.5 metres
should be added to the final panel position to allow
for the tilt of the panel when on the hook. Also when
evaluating crane capacity the weight of rigging gear
Corner panel can oversail
Opening
Erecting towards opening
permits absorption of
tolerances
1
2 3
4
5
6
2 1
4
5
6
1 3 2
(a) All panels cast on floor slab
4
5
6
1 3 2
3
4
5
6
2 1
4
5
6
1 3 2
6
2 1
3
4
5
Stack-cast panels
Panels cast on
external slab
Bracing affects casting location
(particularly at corners) see
alternative solutions below
Panels cast on floor
and stack-cast on
adjacent panels
(b) Panels cast on floor and
on external casting slab
(c)
6 + 5
+ 4 + 3
3-6
and any strongbacks plus an allowance for suction
(see Chapter 8, The lifting sequence, item 3) need
to be added to the weight of the panel.
The use of a larger crane with fewer panels of greater
size will not always be economical. The additional
crane costs need to be balanced against the reduced
casting costs. A larger crane will take longer to set up
and move between lifts. Also, a large crane will
generally not be able to get as close to a panel, and
rigging of large panels will be more complicated.
Certainly a larger crane required for only a few larger
panels in a contract is an uneconomical solution.
Whatever size crane is used, a check is necessary to
ensure it can get onto site and can manoeuvre into all
the set-up positions required.
High point loads will be imposed on a slab from the
outriggers of a mobile crane. This load should be
spread over the slab by using timber bearers to keep
bearing stress to a reasonable level (The rule of
thumb sometimes used in the USA is 10 t/m for a
125 mm thick slab.) Crawler-mounted cranes impose
lower bearing stresses on the ground and can be
useful when erection from outside the building is
possible.
The lifting limitations (height, reach and load
capacity) of the chosen crane should be carefully
examined. As a rough rule of thumb, crane capacity
should be two or three times the maximum panel
weight, rising to as much as ten times where external
casting beds are used. Dismantling, moving and
setting up in a fresh location takes considerable time
and is completely unproductive. Therefore, the more
panels that a crane can erect from a given position the
more efficient the operation. It may sometimes be
necessary to move the crane on cast walls still to be
lifted, and this can result in tyre marks that are
difficult to remove. If this is critical, the running
surface should be protected with paper, hardboard or
tarpaulins. (Note that some tilt-up advocates will not
contemplate heavy plant running on wall panels.)
Figure 3.8 Practical crane working radius
Figure 3.7 Stack-casting sequence
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
4
3
2
1
8
7
6
5
1
Stack-casting
sequence
Stack-casting
sequence
Crane
position 1
Crane
position 1
Direction of
placing
Radius for erected panel
True radius whilst placing panel
Minimum of 1.5 m extra to be allowed
when assessing project
3-7
Figure 3.9 Example of use of strongbacks
The availability of all rigging, lifting beams,
shackles, etc. should be confirmed from specialist
hire companies or tilt-up specialists. With modern
quick-release inserts it is common to use only one set
of rigging/lifting gear and there seems to be no great
speed advantage in using multiple sets.
Rate of erection will vary with the size of the panels,
layout, complexity of bracing, etc. As a guide,
competent contractors aim to erect one panel every
half hour and frequently achieve a cycle time as low
as 15 to 20 minutes.
PANEL SIZES AND TOLERANCES
Sizing and shape
The preceding sections have illustrated how panel
size and weight are inter-related with layout and
erection. The following points are worth considering
when sizing panels:
Shape - Rectangular panels are most economical and
where openings, such as doors, start at floor level, a
bottom tie is best used to close the opening in the
buried portion of wall (Figure 3.30 Separate
spandrel/lintel panels are time consuming to set on
columns, tying up the crane. It is worth considering
combining these panels with their supports despite
the need for more complex reinforcement or even
thickening the inner face. L-shaped panels with
narrow legs are best avoided as they may require
strongbacks for strength at lifting (Figure 3.9). Where
used they should be stable laterally.
Weight - 25 to 35 tonnes per panel is a good working
weight, requiring a crane capacity in the region of 80
or 100 tonnes for a working radius of around 8
metres (see previous section). Up to 55 tonnes is
feasible, but will involve more complex rigging and
the penalty of a larger crane and longer set -up times.
However, placing a larger panel usually takes no
more crane time than placing a smaller one.
Thickness - Typical ratios of panel thickness to
height (slenderness ratios) between effective points
of support in service vary between 1 to 30 and 1 to 50
or even 60 occasionally. The panel must resist the
(a) Examples of use of strongbacks
Bolt with
plate-washer
Steel channel
Insert in panel
(b) Detail of heavy-duty steel strongback
Blocked-out for panel
thickness and height of
opening
3-8
stresses not only in service but also at lifting, which
is often the most critical case (see Chapter 5 for panel
in-service design and Chapter 6 for lifting design).
Too thin a section will require complex lifting
arrangements, which may make tilt-up uneconomic.
Too thick will make panels overly heavy and produce
cost penalties in cranage and foundations. For
planning purposes, a thickness equal to the panels
effective height divided by 50 is often used. Other
factors to consider are cover to double-layer or, more
normally, single-layer reinforcement, and the size
and location of any rebates that reduce the effective
section size.
Rebates - Rebates are used architecturally to break
up panels, to hide joints, to demarcate areas for
painting and texturing, or for other aesthetic devices.
They are a powerful way to modify the look of wall
panels but effectively reduce the section thickness
available for structural use. Where possible, it is best
to avoid horizontal rebates within the centre third of a
panels effective length for slenderness so as to
prevent the need for increased section thickness or
reinforcement to compensate.
Rigging - Rigging arrangements should be kept as
similar as possible to avoid time lost in changing
rigging, even where this means fittings are under-
used structurally.
Width - This should be decided by considering
foremost building geometry and roof truss spacing
and then weight, wall height, lifting fittings, and
architectural requirements. A width of 7.0 m is not
unusual for wall panels and up to 12.0 m for
spandrel/lintel panels.
Tolerances
It is of the utmost importance that the specified panel
and joint tolerances are realistic. Once established
they must be maintained. In general, variations in
size have a tendency to increase overall wall length.
Depending on their size, joint details may be used to
absorb these variations either progressively at each
joint or collectively at one location, eg. at an oversail
corner or doorway (Figure 3.10). If tilt-up panels are
being used in conjunction with in-situ construction,
then the tolerances for tilt-up panels should not be
used to absorb the construction errors of the in-situ
work
(1)
.
Construction tolerances - There are no British
Standards that deal specifically with tilt-up
construction, although BS 5606
(2)
provides guidance
on tolerances and deviations for both precast concrete
and in-situ concrete which might be used as a guide
to assess suitable tolerances for tilt-up panels.
Alternatively it would perhaps be better to adopt the
tolerances used in those countries where tilt-up is
more prevalent. The Australian Standard AS 3850.2-
1990
(3)
gives the tolerances shown in Table 3.1.
Those recommended by the Tilt-up Concrete
Association
(4)
are shown in Table 3.3. If panels are
carefully formed, their foundation pads checked
thoroughly, and all elements properly checked, it is
straightforward to attain these tolerances.
Joint width between panels (tolerance) - The design
joint width between two panels will depend upon the
panels width, the specified joint tolerance and on the
shape and strain capacity of the sealant to be used.
Figure 3.10 Absorption of tolerances at joints
OPTION 1 (Not preferred)
OPTION 2 (Preferred)
Correct panel
start position
Designed joint
width and position
Designed joint
width and position
Variation absorbed
in reduced joint
Variation absorbed
in enlarged joint
Each panel starts on
designed position
Designed joint width
maintained
Designed joint width
maintained
All variations taken
up at this point
Oversail corner or opening
3-9
Table 3.1 Recommended tolerances
(3)
Panel size(m) Tolerances (mm)
Width Height Planeness
1
Squareness
2
Edge
straightness
3
Thickness
3
< 3.0 +0, -5 t5 t5 t5 t5 t10
> 3.0 < 6.0 +0, -
10
t10 t5 t15 t7 t10
> 6.0 +0, -
12
t10 t5 t15 t10 t10
1. Deviation of any point on the face from the intended line.
2. Measured as tolerance in length of diagonal.
3. Provided that in any 3 m, the deviation from the intended line does not exceed 5 mm.
Table 3.2 Panel and erection tolerances
(4)
Type of
tolerance
Item and details
Tolerance
(mm)
Height and width of
basic panel
Up to 6 m
6 m to 9 m
Each additional 1m
t6
t8
t3
Thickness
1
t5
Skew of panel
or opening
2
Per 1.8 m
Maximum difference
t3
t12
Openings cast into
panel
Size of openings
Location of opening
t6
t6
Casting
Location/placement of
embedded items
Inserts, bolts, pipe sleeves
Lifting and bracing inserts
Weld plate embedments (lateral bracing)
Weld plate embedments (tipping and flushness)
t10
t12
t25
t6
Joint width variation
3
Panels up to 6 m tall t6
Each additional 3 m height t3
Joint taper
4
Maximum for entire length t10
Panels up to 6 m tall t6
Each additional 3 m height t3
Panel alignment Alignment of horizontal and vertical joints t6
Erection
Offset in exterior face of adjacent panels t6
1. The average variation of panel thickness through any horizontal or vertical cross-section of the panel.
2. Measured difference in length of the two diagonals.
3. Measured between panels at the exterior face of the panels at the joint.
4. The measured differences in joint width indicating panel edges are not parallel.
3-10
This width may be in the order of 12 to 15 mm for a
narrow panel (3 m wide) with a high transverse
movement sealant or 25 mm or greater for larger
panels (6 to 7 m wide) with a less accommodating
sealant. Joint tolerances are important for the
performance of the joint sealants (most of which have
movement capabilities of around 25%) and are critical
for weatherproofing.
Information on the application of joint sealants is
given in Reference 5. Maintenance of the designed
joint width as shown on Figure 3.10 is the preferred
option
(3)
, with dimension variations taken out at
doorways and/or oversail corners. Also the joints
must allow the panels to move relative to each other
as the temperature or humidity changes.
TYPES OF PANEL JOINTS
The joint detailing is very important when considering
the cost, appearance and performance of a tilt-up
building. The detail must be compatible with the:
Structural design assumptions
Forming and placing methods
Erection procedure
Fixing detail
Construction tolerances
Proper detailing of vertical and horizontal joints
between panels is important because this is where the
wall is most susceptible to rain penetration. There are
three basic types of weather-resistant joints used for
tilt-up panels: the one-stage sealant joint, the
multiple-stage sealant joint and the dry-baffle joint.
In each case the top of the panels is normally finished
with a capping to prevent rain entering the joint at the
head of the panel.
The one-stage joint - This is economical and the
most common joint used in North America (Figure
3.11 (a)). It performs satisfactorily in most climates.
Typically, a foam backer rod is placed in the joint
from the exterior and a field-moulded joint sealant is
then installed. Because this joint provides only a
single line of defence against weather, and is exposed
to the deteriorating effects of weather and ultr aviolet
light, it requires the following:
A good overall wall design
Proper site installation
High quality materials
Regular maintenance
The sealant must provide a completely airtight and
water-tight seal. Poor adhesion of the sealant may
allow water penetration. The design of the seal for
the joint is complex and involves the consideration of
a number of factors, eg. expected movement, width
of the joint, type of sealant, and width-to-depth ratio
of the sealant. In general, for a given width-to-depth
ratio, wider joints are preferable as they are better
able to accommodate both movement in-service and
tolerances in panels and erection. Alternatively, a
one-stage joint can be formed using a preformed
gasket (Figure 3.11(b)).
The multiple-stage joint - (Figure 3.11(c)) one-stage
joint and should be used in severe climate conditions,
as may occur in some parts of the UK. Because this
joint makes use of a minimum of two lines of sealant,
a minimum panel thickness of 100 mm is
recommended. The interior line of sealant is usually
applied from the inside surface of the wall and acts as
the continuous air seal between the interior and
exterior. The exterior sealant acts as the rain barrier
and prevents direct entry of most airborne water. A
third inner sealant is sometimes used on panels with a
permeable external layer. Any water that does enter
the joint is drained in the airspace and out through
drainage holes at the bottom of vertical joints.
Special care should also be taken when designing and
detailing interfaces between different building
materials such as window-frames, door-frames,
roofing and flashing. To ensure satisfactory
performance, details must account for differential
movement between materials caused by temperature
changes or structural loading. If necessary, special
grooves, dovetail slots, and embedded items can be
cast into the concrete to attach window frame
assemblies or roof flashing.
The dry baffle joint - (Figure 3.11 (d)) by a
continuous sheet of elastomeric material slotted
between rebates in faces of vertical joints. Although
it requires a more complex side form to panels, the
joint has proved effective in some precast panels in
the UK with no maintenance over a 20 year span,
although it would be prudent to provide access at the
top for replacement. The difficulty of producing such
an edge profile on site should be considered
carefully.
A variation to joint details shown in Figure 3.11 (a)
to (d) is where the gasket or sealant is substituted by
a precompressed impregnated sealing tape. The
resulting seal is achieved by a precompressed foam
which is less sensitive to joint construction
tolerances, widths and movements. Chapter 9 -
Weather resistance of panels and joints - considers
joints in greater detail.
PREDICTION OF STRENGTH
DEVELOPMENT
The speed of construction of tilt-up is affected by the
time taken for the cast panels to reach sufficient
flexural tensile strength to resist the lifting stresses
(this is dealt with in more detail in Chapter 6).
Typically this will be achieved in between two to
seven days, depending on weather and concrete grade
used. Insulating blankets can be used to speed up the
curing process if critical. The prediction of the
strength development of the concrete can be obtained
from Reference 6. Although intended primarily for
3-11
Figure 3.11 Basic types of weather resisting joints
used on tilt-up panels
concrete in suspended formwork, predictions should
be generally applicable for slabs cast on the ground.
PROGRAMME AND SPEED OF
CONSTRUCTION
Speed of construction is a key benefit of tilt-up
construction. To make best advantage of this, the
design and construction team need to be aware of all
the major activities, their precedence and the scope
for overlaps and parallel processing. In the United
States, contractors specialising in tilt-up are able to
strip the site, form foundations and slab, and cast and
erect the tilt-up walls to a 9,300 m warehouse in
only five to six weeks.
Figures 3.12 and 3.13 show two construction
programmes for buildings in the USA, and Figure
3.14 shows one for a project built in the UK. Note the
overlap of main activities in Figure 3.13 and that tilt-
up panels are mostly completed during the roof steel
fabrication period. In considering the three sites,
some differences in approach are evident, but by
combining these with experience of other sites the
following guidelines are obtained:
Tilt-up allows a rapid start on site, due to the
short lead-time for reinforced concrete cast on the
ground.
Because wall panels are formed on the ground
floor slab, for fast construction the earliest
possible start on the slab is required, consistent
with achieving a casting quality finish.
Figure 3.11 Basic types of weather resisting joints used on tilt-up panels
Baffle strip
Continuous sealant
and backing strip
15 - 25 mm
Rain drainage zone
Flashing
(d) Dry baffle joint
Continuous sealant
and backing
INTERIOR
Flashing
Neoprene cruciform
gasket
Flashing
(a) One-stage face-sealed joint
(b) One-stage gasket joint
Continuous sealant
and backing
Flashing
(c) Multiple-stage sealed
joint (shown two stage)
INTERIOR
INTERIOR INTERIOR
3-12
Figure 3.12 Construction programme for a 19,000 m
2
warehouse in the USA
Figure 3.13 Construction programme for a 11,000 m
2
warehouse in the USA
Figure 3.14 Construction programme for Glenrothes 2, Scotland (3743 m
2
)
WEEKS
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Site layout
Substructure and slab
Ground slab cured
Cast tilt-up panels
Crane on site
Tilt and brace panels
Erection of steelwork
Roof surfacing
Caulk joints/remove bracing
Internal finishes
External works
Hand-over to client
ACTIVITY
Procure
reinforcement
Allocate steel
subcontract
Steel fabricated
off site
Strip site/cast foundations
Cast floor bays
Cast tilt-up panels
Tilt panels and brace
Services
Steel frame / roofing
Joinery / windows
Wall / floor finishes
Earth berms / landscaping
Panitwork
Cleaning / hand-over
ACTIVITY
WEEKS
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
1 8 15 22 29 6 13 20 27 3 10 17 24 1 8 15 22 29 5 12 19 26 2 9 16 23 30
Design
coordination with
Grading Ground slab Erect steel Snagging
Building M & E
Roofing
27 Aug
30 July 24 Sept
Exterior doors
and overhead
Erect tilt-up panels
External works
04 June
Pour tilt-up concrete
Lay out tilt-up panels
Steel fabrication
02 Jul
22 May
Footings and foundations
21 May
18 Jun
Structural
steel shop
07 May
Permit review
07 May
Design development
09 Apr
APRIL 1996 MAY JUNE JULY
AUGUST
Project completed 01 Oct
09 Jul
02 Apr 30 Apr
20 Aug
SEPTEMBER
3-13
Panel preparation may start as little as 24 to 48
hours after sufficient slab is cast. Typical average
rates for forming and casting vary between three
and 15 panels/day, increasing with size of
building. Sandwich panels will add only one to
two days to the total panel casting period.
Typical average panel erection rates vary between
five and 14 panels/day, but the fastest rates can
apply equally to smaller buildings.
For a large site, tilting-up of panels may be
scheduled to take several weeks and the first
panels may start to be erected before the final
panels are cast, provided that the panels have
gained sufficient strength at lifting. This allows
an early start on the roof steel, but increases crane
time.
For fast construction, roof steelwork fabrication
may well be a critical activity. However, with tilt-
up, erection of the walls is nearly complete
before roof steel is required (unlike with a
traditional portal frame), so allowing a shorter
programme.
Roof steel erection is made easier by the firm
working platform of the floor slab and may be
started as soon as there are sufficient load-bearing
wall panels in place. Roofing can follow on close
behind.
As a mature floor slab already exists before
roofing is completed, M&E and other fit-out
activities, such as racking, can start early and
proceed unhindered. A fast finish is achievable.
In general, the larger the building, the greater the
scope for overlapping sequential activities to
speed construction.
Case study
The following case study outlines details of two quite
complex buildings in the USA, including reasons for
the choice of tilt-up.
Table 3.3 provides details of two large low-rise mail
sorting buildings requiring reception, dispatch areas
and a workroom for sorting, with special fire rating
and separation requirements. The roof is metal deck
on a truss and joist system. The application of value
engineering resulted in the choice of tilt-up over
concrete masonry, steel frame and metal cladding,
and factory precast options. Criteria considered for
this fast-track project included winter working, fire,
risk of programme slippage, security, ease of
modification, architectural scope and cost.
Tilt-up was the cheapest alternative and the fastest by
approximately six weeks. Fast construction was
achieved by careful co-ordination of the slab
castings, and the casting and erection schedules for
tilt-up panels. The crew for tilt-up panels was able to
start on preliminary work for panels within 24 to 48
hours of slab casting. As soon as a further slab was
cast the process continued.
Slab construction and roof erection followed on in a
phased manner. Erection of panels to the workroom
proceeded the rest of the walls to allow early fit-out.
Further information on tilt-up projects in America is
given Reference 7.
Table 3.3 Project data for mail sorting buildings
Item Building 1 Building 2
Total building area (m
2
) 19,881 23,550
Construction start date Jan 1992 Feb 1992
Substantial completion
date
May 1992 Sept. 1992
Total number of tilt-up
wall panels
195 156
Average/maximum
number of panels cast
daily
15/19 12/17
Average/maximum
number of panels
erected daily
12/16 14/18
REFERENCES
Zealand. Tilt-up technical manual. C&CA,
Porirua, New Zealand. TM 34, 1990. 32 pp.
2. British Standards Institution. BS 5606, Guide
to accuracy in building. BSI, Milton Keynes,
1990. 56 pp.
3. Standards Australia. AS 3850.2, Tilt-up
concrete and precast concrete elements for use in
buildings, Part 2: Guide to design, casting and
erection of tilt-up panels. Standards Australia,
North Sydney, 1990. 24 pp.
4. Tilt-up Concrete Association. Tolerances for
tilt-up panels. TCA Newsletter, USA, Vol. 3,
No. 4, December 1995. pp 1-2.
5. CIRIA. Manual of good practice in sealant
application. CIRIA, London. Special
publication 80, 1991. 58 pp.
6. Harrison, T, A. Formwork striking times -
criteria, prediction and methods of assessment.
CIRIA, London, 1995. Report 136. 71 pp.
7. Tilt-up Concrete Association. Video: Tilt-up
concrete construction. Published in the UK by the
Reinforced Concrete Council, Crowthorne, 1996.
Panel preparation may start as little as 24 to 48
hours after sufficient slab is cast. Typical average
rates for forming and casting vary between three
and 15 panels/day, increasing with size of
building. Sandwich panels will add only one to
two days to the total panel casting period.
3-14
4-1
FLOOR SLABS AND
FOUNDATIONS
This chapter presents those aspects of the design and construction of floor slabs and foundations particularly
relevant to tilt-up. For floor slabs, the inter-related issues of construction method, tolerance and finish are
examined, followed by weather, curing, compacting and finishing. Then design loading, design procedure and
the construction programme are discussed. Finally, the chapter covers foundation design and construction
issues, including details, column footings, panel seating and construction.
FLOOR SLAB DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION
The detailed design and construction of ground-
supported concrete floor slabs are specialised
activities beyond the scope of this publication. The
sector has undergone major efficiency changes over
the last few years with trends towards capital
intensive mechanisation, fewer joints in the slab, and
the use of steel fibre reinforcement. However, recent
publications by the Concrete Society
(1)
and the
Institution of Civil Engineers
(2)
are standard works
giving detailed guidance on the subject. The scope of
this Chapter is therefore confined to specific items
related to the special requirements of tilt-up
construction on the ground floor slab
Construction method
The intended or predicted final use of the floor will
give in-service tolerances and joint requirements
suggesting the likely method of construction. This
then needs to be examined for any additional
requirements for forming the panels. Reference 1
outlines a variety of UK floor slab construction
methods generally characterised by increasing bay
width and hence speed and economy of construction,
balanced by decreasing constructional accuracy in
terms of surface flatness.
However, experience abroad is that it generally
requires very little extra effort to ensure that the
normal floor finish will form a suitable casting
surface for tilt-up. But bay width, joint spacing and
flatness can influence the visual quality of the
finished tilt-up panels, and co-ordination of the tilt-up
panel dimensions to avoid floor joints may influence
the chosen method of floor slab construction. (See
Reference 1 for typical floor construction details, bay
sizes, surface flatness, etc.) Bay widths and floor
joint spacing will normally co-ordinate with column
grid lines. Where co-ordination of panels with slab
joints is not possible, the joint may be flush filled
with, for example, a silicone sealant, or hidden by a
feature rebate designed into the panels.
Tolerances and finish (casting surface)
It is important to note that the commonly used
measurements of flatness in Reference 1 have been
developed to predict the effects on the performance
of pallet handling equipment rather than on the visual
quality of the finish or the dimensional accuracy of
components cast in contact with floor slabs.
However, inspection of the recommended tolerances
in Chapter 3 suggests that tolerances suitable for tilt-
up may be achievable with several of the floor
classifications given in Reference 1, depending on
the relative casting position of adjacent panels on the
slab and the attention paid to the particular
requirements of a casting-bed.
Brookes
(3)
cites a US tolerance of 6 mm in 3 m,
which loosely translates to FM2 in Reference 1. UK
industrial floor contractors may consider FM3 more
realistic for forming slabs in the open. Experienced
US and Australian contractors producing high quality
tilt-up buildings report that modern slipform pavers
and laser levellers can produce a floor slab with
consistently high quality suitable for tilt-up.
Finishing is normally by power float, possibly with
hand finishing at edges
(4)
. It is important that the slab
surface finish is free of visible float marks or other
blemishes likely to affect the chosen panel finish.
When openings must be left in the floor for pipes,
utilities, or the erection of interior columns or walls
at a later date, a 20 to 40 mm coat of concrete over a
sand fill can be used to close the opening
temporarily. The concrete can be knocked out after
the panels have been tilted. An alternative system is
to form up the opening using form-ply or polystyrene
and place a 20 mm coat of concrete over the formed
surface.
Formwork to provide recessed areas in the panel face
should be robust enough to remain plane under the
application of concrete and associated construction
loading.
Since the panel will reflect imperfections in the
casting surface, any pre-located floor bracing points
or floor joints in the casting area will need to be
masked out before the panels are cast. Suitable
materials for patching and joint filling include
silicone sealants and hot wax.
Weather conditions
Both the floor slab and the tilt-up panels are normally
cast in the open, and weather conditions such as
4
4-2
wind, rain and heat must be taken into account. Tilt-
up is popular in the USA, Canada and New Zealand
where all weather conditions met in the UK are
routinely catered for, especially in New Zealands
climate which is very similar to our own. Whilst
respectful of the weather, both designers and
contractors abroad do not consider it to be a
significant problem
(4)
.
In addition, detailed, localised weather reports are
readily available in the UK, allowing contractors to
plan concreting activities around extremes and take
sensible precautions. Generally, apart from normal
good practice under usual weather conditions (see
Reference 5), only two conditions require extra care
when not constructing under cover:
Hot windy weather - Ensure that the fresh concrete
does not dry out during finishing and apply the
curing membrane as soon as possible. Fog spraying
is successfully used in the USA.
Heavy rain - Avoid concreting in standing water and
protect the surface from excessive water by sheeting
over if necessary.
Curing, compacting and finishing
Ground floor slabs and tilt-up panels require careful
attention to curing. This ensures high quality
concrete, without drying shrinkage cracks, which
performs well as a casting bed for panels formed on
top. Additionally, panels rely on developing good
tensile strength of concrete at lifting. This requires
strong crack-free concrete and hence good curing.
The normal way to ensure good curing is to apply a
special spray curing agent immediately after float
finishing. This will also act as a bond-breaker
between slab and panel (see Chapter 7). General
guidance on curing of concrete is given in Reference 5.
It is essential to review and confirm the compatibility
and suitability of chemicals for curing and bond-
breakers, which must also take account of any
requirement for subsequent paint finishes to panels.
A few general tips on compacting and finishing are
given below.
Do not wait until all the concrete is placed before
starting vibration.
Use a poker vibrator at the sides and ends of
floor.
Start using the vibrating screed as soon as
possible, ensuring that the fat does not creep
under it where it rests on the form, thus
increasing the thickness of the floor.
Magnesium floats are best to for bringing up the
fat prior to a steel float finish.
Use the bull float in both directions for the best
finish and use it before the bleed water starts to
rise.
Do not attempt to power float until the concrete
is hard enough to walk on (footprint indentations
of 6 mm or less) and any bleed-water has
dissipated.
The power float operator should ensure that flat-
soled footwear is used as treads will cause
indentations that are difficult to remove. Ride-on
operators should avoid sharp turns which reduce
flatness.
The first float pass should be at right angles to
screeding ridges and subsequent ones at right
angles to the previous pass.
When hand trowelling at edges, use a straight
edge to ensure that the concrete is flat, as it is
easy at this stage to hump it at the edges.
Do not use a steel trowel too early; this will slow
the drying, as it seals the surface of the concrete.
Where joints are sawn remove slurry before it
can dry.
In the USA, there is a move towards pan floats on
power trowels, with reports of better tolerances and
increased productivity. (Reference 6 gives detailed
guidance on the use of pan floats and on achieving a
high degree of flatness.)
Design loadings
Slabs on ground are subject to stresses arising from
three sources
(1)
Bending stresses due to applied loads.
Bending due to differential horizontal
movements due to moisture and thermal
gradients through the slab.
Tension due to moisture and thermal contraction
being restrained by sub-base friction.
These aspects are covered fully in Reference 1, but
for tilt-up, the key difference for slab design is the
loading imposed on it during construction. Table
4.1gives the typical tilt-up constructional loads which
may be compared with maximum in-service loads for
a typical warehouse. Whilst the loads are not all
directly comparable due to the differences in loaded
area, it can be seen that crane loads for large tilt-up
panels may govern slab design. In many cases,
however, timber bearers can be used to reduce
construction loads to that for which the main floor
slab is designed in-service. It is essential that the
maturity and hence strength of the slab is taken into
account when considering constructional loadings.
Procedure for slab design
The typical approach for the design of the main slab
design is as follows.
Fix tilt-up panel sizes and weights in accordance
with Chapter 3.
Determine crane size and maximum
outrigger/axle loading in discussion with the
lifting contractor
Floor slab and foundations
4-3
Determine the maximum in-service loading
applied to the slab.
Choose a suitable slab thickness to suit the worst
loading case, allowing for slab maturity.
After final co-ordination of panel casting layout
and slab joint positions, design reinforcement to
suit shrinkage requirements.
Tilt-up floor slab experience is summarised by
Brookes
(3)
who recommends a minimum thickness of
150 mm where the crane loads the floor slab and
125 mm where it is placed outside the slab.
References 7 and 8 give guidance on the design of
floors that takes into the effect of point loads such as
high bay storage and cranes. Where plastic fibres are
incorporated, temporary casting beds may be as thin
as 50 mm. In this case a blowtorch should be used
before applying the bond-breaker to burn off any
protruding fibres which could increase lifting
suction forces.
Construction programme
The floor slab of a tilt-up building is normally on the
critical path for construction (see Chapter 3). Where
speed is important, the slab should be laid as early as
is compatible with economic operations and
achievement of the desired quality of finish. Unlike
conventional framed low-rise buildings, the slab will
normally be constructed in advance of the structure
unless alternative casting beds are used. However,
one benefit is that this allows earlier unhindered
access for fitting-out and M & E later in the
programme.
FOUNDATION DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION
Foundations to tilt-up panels are generally of
continuous strip form although isolated pad
foundations have been used (Figure 4.1). Continuous
footings simplify excavation and minimise the
encroachment of excavation into the floor slab. This
then reduces the size of slab make-up strip, releasing
space for panel casting and reducing crane lift radii
reinforcement is also minimised. Pad footings may be
justified where circumstances dictate, such as to
allow buried services to pass under the panel, or
where tilt-up is used for cladding a portal frame and
combined footings are suitable. In poor ground, piles
may be necessary to support footings.
Figure 4.1 Continuous and isolated foundations
Details
Foundation details will vary, depending on the degree
of base fixity required for the tilt-up panel, whether
the panel forms an internal or external wall, relative
ground and floor levels, and the proximity of any
boundaries. In general, footings will be placed
symmetrically under the panel except at boundaries.
Bearing friction should not be considered to carry
significant horizontal forces.
Table 4.1 Typical loadings on ground slabs
Period Loading type Load onto slab Notes
Concrete mixer truck 2 x 9.5 t axles Full truck
Tilt-up crane capacity
140 tonnes
Outrigger load
60 tonnes
25 t panel @ 10 m radius
During tilt-up
construction
200 tonnes 70 tonnes 28 t panel @ 16 m radius
Forklift wheel (max) 6.6 tonnes Dynamic wheel loads Warehouse in-service
operations
Mezzanine stanchion
footing
6.5 tonnes
Narrow isle racking
stanchion footing
Up to 30 tonnes Racking bases are not normally
designed to distribute vertical load
Floor line
Floor line
Grout setting pads
Grouted after panels
erected
(b) Isolated pad foundations
(a) Continuous strip foundation
Continuous
foundation
Pad
foundation
4-4
Figure 4.3 Footing for cantilevered party, boundary
and free-standing walls
Figure 4.2 suggests methods for transfer where
moment fixity is not required. Figure 4.3 gives details
of various forms of cantilevered panels with moment
fixity from the USA
(3)
and New Zealand
(9)
. It should
be noted that Figure 4.3 (c) provides restraint only
against outward panel rotation. Base restraint may be
required to cater for the effects of fire (see
Chapter 5).
Column footings
Column footings are generally cast before the ground
floor slab. They are set with their upper surface
below the underside of the slab (Figure 4.4). A
diagonal box-out in the slab co-ordinates with floor
slab joints and allows later fixing and concreting over
the column base bolts. Where tilt-up panels are to be
temporarily cast over the column box-out, a thin
layer of sacrificial concrete can be placed on a sand
bed and finished flush with the floor slab for
breaking out later.
Figure 4.2 Seating arrangement for simple support
Grouted
anchor
dowel
Grouted
recess
Shims for initial
support and l evel i ng
50 mm
nomi nal
300
400
300
600
Polystyrene
block cast-in to
form cavity
Temporary concrete
topping cut away and
polystyrene removed.
Tilt-up panel positioned
and gap filled with
non-shrink grout
Bolts screwed
into cast-in
inserts at 600 crs
Shims
This section of slab
completed after
erection of panels
Cast-in continuity strips or bolts
in cast-in anchors at 600 crs
Shims
This part of the
foundation poured
after erection of
panel
Floor slab
Continuous
foundation
(a1) Cantilevered party wall
(a2) Cantilevered party wall
(b) Cantilevered boundary footing
(c) Simple boundary footing
Tilt-up panel with bars
projecting from base
Footing poured
last
Concrete pad placed each
end before placing panel
and main footing
(d) Free-standing wall footing
Cast in continuity strip
Cast-in continuity strip
Shims
Temporary
concrete topping
Piles as necessary
Figure 4.3 Footing for cantilevered party, boundary and free-standing walls
Floor slab and foundations
4-5
Figure 4.4 Interior column footing
Panel seating
To speed panel erection, the tops of foundations are
set slightly lower than the installed base level of the
panels. This allows bearing pads of around 40 mm
depth and 600 mm length to be formed in grout prior
to erection. Panel setting out and identifying marks
are then transferred to the pads, which generally
support the ends of two adjacent panels. High impact
plastic shims are then used to support the panels as
steel shims can result in hard spots, causing diagonal
cracking in panel ends due to shrinkage frictional
forces
(3, 9)
. Later, the entire length of panel is grouted
underneath to distribute forces evenly.
Construction
Placement of foundation concrete to strip footings is
simple, as mixer trucks can generally place concrete
directly from their chutes. The typical construction
sequence of slab and footings is shown below (see
also Chapter 2).
1. Services under the slab and footings are laid and
backfilled.
2. Column footings are cast.
3. The slab sub-base is placed and compacted.
4. The floor slab is cast, finished and cured.
5. Exterior footings are excavated and cast, and
bearing pads are subsequently formed on them.
6. Tilt-up panels are formed and cast on the floor
slab (possibly in parallel with operation 5).
7. Wall panels are erected and grouted under their
bases.
8. Once the roof structure is sufficiently advanced
to allow removal of panel-bracing, the make-up
strip of the floor slab is cast.
9. Column bases and the boxed-out floor slab are
completed.
REFERENCES
1. Concrete Society. Concrete industrial ground
floors. A guide to their design and construction,
Concrete Society, Slough, Technical Report
No. 34, 1994. 148 pp. Plus supplement to TR 34,
Specification and control of surface regularity of
free movement areas. 1997. 32 pp.
2. Institution of Civil Engineers. Concrete
industrial ground floors, design and practice
guides. ICE, London,1996. 56 pp
3. Brooks, H. The tilt-up design and construction
manual. HBA publications, Newport Beach,
USA, 1997. 229 pp.
4. Glass, J. Ph.D. Thesis. Evaluation of tilt-up
construction in relation to selected UK building
types. Post Graduate Research School, School of
Architecture, Oxford Brooks University, 550 pp.
5. British Cement Association. Concrete on site:
No.6. Curing, No. 11. Winter working. BCA,
Wexham Springs (now Crowthorne), 1993.
6 Surprenant, B and Simonelli, B. Using pan
floats. Concrete Construction, Oct 1997. pp 781-
787.
7. Chandler, J. W. E. Design of floors on ground.
Cement and Concrete Association (now British
Cement Association), Wexham Springs (now
Crowthorne), 1982. Technical Report 550. 22 pp.
8. Chandler, J. W. E. and Neal, F.R. The design of
ground-supported concrete industrial floor slabs.
British Cement Association, Wexham Springs
(now Crowthorne), 1988. Interim Technical Note
11. 17 pp
9. Cement & Concrete Association of New
Zealand. Tilt-up technical manual. C&CA New
Zealand. Porirua. 1991. TM 34. 32 pp.
Floor slab
Foundation
Column
Base plate
and anchor
bolts
Diamond pattern
opening, filled with
sand and topped with
thin concrete to form
casting surface for
panel forming.
Removed and filled
afterwards
4-6
5-1
DESIGN OF PANELS IN SERVICE

This chapter provides guidance on the design of tilt-up panels in service. Prior to this it considers overall
structural design, including erection conditions - which are often critical and are covered more fully in Chapter 6.
Typical structural form and the use of a central layer of reinforcement are examined. A method for the design of
loadbearing panels is presented and then illustrated in a design example in Appendix 5A. The design principles
of sandwich panels are presented for information, as this aspect of design will normally be undertaken by the
sandwich tie system manufacturer free of charge. Finally, overall building stability and fire design are
considered.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
This chapter gives information on the design of tilt-
up panels that are commonly provided with only a
single central layer of reinforcement. Tilt-up panels
are used typically in tall single-storey buildings,
where vertical loading is limited to roof loads plus
self-weight. The panels are normally slender
(height/thickness between 30 and 50) and lightly
loaded.
Design of such highly slender panels is not
specifically covered by BS 8110 but a compatible
approach is suggested later in this chapter under
Design of loadbearing panels. These panels are
analysed for first order and second order moments,
resulting from vertical and lateral loads, but typically
by using a simplified procedure.
Tilt-up panels may also be used for domestic or
office buildings where they support intermediate
floors in addition to roof loads and self-weight. Thus
they are more heavily loaded, particularly in the
sections between window openings. Since the panels
are laterally supported by the floors at a normal
domestic/office storey height, the slenderness ratio
will usually be less than 30. In this case the normal
design procedures for loadbearing walls in BS 8110
will be appropriate.
DESIGN LOADINGS
Tilt-up wall panels are not only designed for the
loading and conditions to be experienced in the final
structure (in-service loading), but also for loads
during erection and when temporarily braced
(1,2)
(construction loading). Typically, the engineer and
contractor respectively will assess these aspects
although the engineer may assume responsibility for
both. In many cases the construction loadings are
more dominant and actually govern panel design.
The effects of concrete shrinkage and temperature
should also be taken into account as indicated later in
this chapter. The following types of loading are to be
considered during the design and analysis of tilt-up
panels.
In-service loading
The design loading for the erected situation will
depend on the building type, how the element is used,
the support and fixings used, and other conditions. In
general the design loading requirements of BS 8110
Part 1
(3)
will be appropriate for tilt-up construction.
However, BS 8110 does not specifically cover tilt-up
walls and therefore this chapter sets out more specific
suggestions for design that have been developed
following an assessment of international practice
(6)
.
Vertical loads - By incorporating connections to
either the top, face or within the panel as shown in
Figure 5.1, tilt-up panels can be designed to carry
roofs, intermediate floors, gantry cranage loads and
building services loads
(1)
.
More comprehensive construction details are given in
Chapter 10, Figures 10.4 to 10.8. In some situations
with tilt-up the greatest vertical load can be the
weight of the panel itself.
Lateral (wind) loads - The wind loads should be
considered as acting laterally to the plane of the
panel. It is important that the walls provide a
sufficient resistance to the lateral loads applied. For
panels up to approximately 6 m high, loads can be
taken at ground level by cantilever action alone
(Figure 5.2 (a)).
However, it is more common to design the panels as
propped cantilevers (Figure 5.2 (b)) or simply
supported members (Figure 5.2 (c)) with the roof
designed to function as a diaphragm to carry the
lateral load applied on one set of panels to those at
right angles (Figure 5.2 (d and e)). The latter can act
as a shear wall to resist the applied load (Figure 5.2 (d)).
The connections and fixings between any interacting
units and between the units and the foundation must
be designed to carry the induced forces. Further
construction details are shown in Chapter 10.
Volumetric movements - To avoid cracking due to
concrete shrinkage and thermal movements, wall
panels should not be rigidly fixed together to form a
long wall
(1,2)
. Long walls should be broken up by the
introduction of movement joints and/or connections
5
5-2
that will permit some movement to occur (see
Allowance for differential movements later in this
chapter on page 5-16).
Construction loading
In considering the load encountered during the
construction stage, both lifting and bracing are
examined. Design for lifting can be the most critical
design state, and in some situations may dictate the
design of the panel. It is normally based on an
uncracked section using the concretes tensile
capacity to develop flexural strength, whereas design
for in-service loadings uses normal reinforced
concrete concepts.
Lifting - The loading experienced by a panel during
the lifting process is influenced by a number of
Figure 5.2 Transverse load resistance Figure 5.1 Methods of supporting vertical loads on a
panel
Anchor plate
cast in panel
Angle seat welded or
bolted to cast-in plate
Roof truss bearing onto
plate cast into panel
(a) Flush roof
Intermediate floor
slab
(c) Floor slab
Note: A similar detail can
be used to support a floor
(b) Parapet
Panel
Angle seat welded or
bolted to cast-in plate
Straight cantilever Propped cantilever
Roof designed to transfer
wind load to end panels
End panels act as
shear walls to
resist wind loads
Wind load acting on
side wall of building
(d) Principle
(e) General arrangement
Roof trusses
Trusses in roof plane to transfer
lateral loads to end panels (may
be in top or bottom chord of roof
Simply supported
(a) (b) (c)
Wind load
Stability in case (a) is by straight cantilever action.
For cases (b) and (c) see below
Note:
Design of panels in service
5-3
factors that must be allowed for in design. The main
factors are:
Self-weight of the panel
The suction between the panel and the casting
surface
The dynamic loading which occurs when the
panel is separated from the casting surface and
lifted by the crane.
The effect of these forces must be considered firstly
on the panel and secondly on the lifting system over a
range of inclinations for tilt-up lifting operations. The
flexural tensile strength of the concrete itself is used
to resist the load, with reinforcement being utilised
only when absolutely necessary. The stresses
imposed during lifting will depend on the panel
thickness and the lifting configuration. The concrete
strength and panel thickness are generally chosen so
that the section remains uncracked during lifting.
The design of panels for lifting is explained in more
detail in Chapter 6.
Although reinforcement is not generally relied upon
for lifting it is provided to control shrinkage and
temperature effects and to resist in-service loads. The
size and thickness of typical panels ensure that early
thermal cracking does not occur.
In a typical tilt-up panel, such reinforcement is often
placed centrally in the thickness of the panel. This is
different from normal reinforced concrete design,
where the reinforcement is placed near to the outside
surface to carry the tensile force due to bending.
Bracing - Braces are attached to the panel to provide
temporary support during erection. The temporary
bracing loading needs to be determined so that the
bracing and inserts can be checked for adequacy, thus
ensuring stability of the panel. Also, the braces
themselves may require support to prevent buckling,
and so knee braces may be required for very tall
panels. Bracing is covered in more detail in Chapter 8.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Tilt-up concrete panels are commonly used as
loadbearing walls. These can be designed to carry all
vertical loads, such as roof and floor loads, along
with lateral loads including wind, earthquake and
earth loads. Because of their inherent in-plane
stiffness, some of the tilt-up panels are normally
designed to act as shear walls for the overall lateral
stability of the building (Figure 5.3).
The elimination of external roof supporting columns
and beams around the buildings periphery
(4)
increases the nett usable area, with a resulting
reduction in costs.
There are two separate design stages. These are:
In-service: the in-service design provides for the
performance of the element as part of the
complete structure.
Figure 5.3 Lateral shear resistance mechanism
Construction: the design for erection of the
element provides for the temporary forces to
which the panel is subjected during lifting and
bracing
It is desirable, but not essential, that the structural
design of the load panel meets the requirements of
BS 8110, Structural use of concrete, Parts 1 and 2.
A rational method of analysis must be used to
determine axial forces, bending moments and shear
forces in the wall. The effect of lateral deflection
should be considered, with due allowance for
cracking and creep. A suitable method is described
under Design of loadbearing panels later in this
chapter.
Lateral deflections, resulting from the combined
effects of lateral loading and eccentric vertical
loading, cause additional bending moments. This is
sometimes referred to as the P- (P-delta) effect
where P is the vertical load and is the lateral
deflection (Figure 5.4).
TYPICAL STRUCTURAL FORM
A typical one-storey warehouse building with
included offices will often have a floor-to-roof height
of 6.5 to 9.0 m. Tilt-up loadbearing panels for
buildings of this type typically have a wall panel
thickness of 140 to 200 mm.
End section of panel
acts as column to
carry induced
compression.
Shims (not less
than 300 mm from
end of panel)
Shear carried to floor
through bars cast in
panel or to footing
through dowels
H
W
Area between
panel and
footing must be
fully grouted L
h
V
V =
H x h
L
W
2
+
-
+
V
5-4
Figure 5.4 Forces, moments and deflections
The effective height-to-thickness ratio is generally 45
to 50 for simply supported panels, though they have
been designed and tested up to a value of 60
(5)
.
Panels of this thickness typically will have one layer
of reinforcement with vertical reinforcement on the
panel centre line and horizontal reinforcement fixed
to it, towards the outside face (Figure 5.5). In a solid
panel, 6.5 to 9 m high, the vertical reinforcement may
be only T10 or T12 bars at 300 to 400 mm centres.
Horizontal reinforcement, which acts as the shrinkage
and temperature reinforcement, varies with panel size
and location.
Figure 5.5 Typical single-leaf panel section
REINFORCEMENT
The correct quantity of reinforcement, properly
located and securely tied, is an important ingredient
in successful tilt-up structures. Whilst it is rarely
needed to cater for stresses during lifting of a panel,
reinforcement is required to resist the varying
environmental stresses imposed on a wall in its final
position. The bulk of the reinforcement is normally
placed in the centre of the section. Properly designed,
detailed and fixed, the reinforcement will maintain
structural integrity for the life of the building.
Purpose
Reinforcement is provided in tilt-up wall panels to
resist bending and axial stresses in the panel in
service and to control temperature and shrinkage
cracking.
It is not normally used to resist bending stresses
during lifting of the panel, as these are usually kept
within the tensile capacity of the concrete alone
(however, see Chapter 6). Although not often
required for strength at this stage, the reinforcement
provided for in-service design will prevent the panel
breaking up if it is accidentally cracked during
handling.
Extra reinforcement should be provided around panel
edges and openings and across re-entrant corners.
This will resist shrinkage stresses and control
cracking in such vulnerable areas.
Suitably placed reinforcement can also improve shear
capacity around lifting points, but the reinforcement
itself should not normally be used as a lifting point.
However, some designers have successfully
developed reinforcement details to act as end lifting
points for smaller panels.
Design
The design loading for the erected panel will depend
on the building type, how the panel is used, the
restraint conditions and the type of fixings adopted.
P
M = Pe
l
u
q
lat
P
l
u
q
lat
P
Moment taken as zero when it
is beneficial, ie. when it would
reduce the wind moment
(b) Wind negative
(a) Wind positive
e
P
M = Pe e
Outer face Inner face
A
s
Reinforcement often
placed centrally in panel
5-5
While the general design requirements of BS 8110
must be satisfied, some specific situations
encountered in tilt-up panels are not covered by the
code. A variety of design approaches from abroad for
these situations are reviewed in Reference 6 and a
panel design method consistent with BS 8110 is
developed later in this chapter, together with a
worked example.
A minimum area of reinforcement should be
provided for the control of shrinkage and temperature
cracking, depending on the panel thickness and the
grade of reinforcement used.
Detailing
A single layer of reinforcement placed at the mid-
depth of the panel will usually meet the design
requirements. Two layers may be necessary in panels
over 200 mm thick, or to cater for concentrated loads
from elements such as beams or alongside openings,
or to increase shear capacity around lifting inserts.
Placing a single layer of reinforcement off-centre to
resist the bending moments during lifting is not
recommended, as the resulting non-uniform restraint
of shrinkage may induce warping of the panel.
Draping of the reinforcement should also be avoided,
as it is difficult to maintain the draped profile.
Either fabric or bar reinforcement may be used. Bars
give greater flexibility in providing the required
cross-sectional area, especially in irregularly shaped
panels. On the other hand, fabric costs less to place
and fix and is generally the preferred option.
The extra reinforcement required at edges and
corners to control cracking can most conveniently be
provided typically in the form of T16 bars (Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.6 Reinforcement at edges and openings
These can be accommodated easily in most panel
sections and can be cut and bent on site if required.
Some panels may incorporate relatively highly
stressed elements, such as mullions beside door
openings. These may require extra reinforcement in
the form of bars and links both for the lifting and
service conditions. Such areas should be detailed and
checked carefully, as congestion of the reinforcement
can cause difficulties with the placing of concrete.
Adequate cover must be provided over the
reinforcement to meet the requirements of BS 8110
for durability and for fire resistance. Centrally placed
reinforcement will usually have sufficient cover
except in very thin panels or when deep rebates are
formed in one face. In such cases, cover must be
measured from the bottom of the rebate and it may be
necessary to increase the panel thickness.
A five-layer system of reinforcement notation may be
used to deal with most requirements, with layer three
being the central vertical bars most often used and layer
two being the minimum horizontal steel (Figure 5.7).
This simplifies reinforcement, as it requires chairs to
one layer of reinforcement only with other layers
fixed directly to this layer.
Figure 5.7 Layering of reinforcement
DESIGN OF LOADBEARING PANELS
Tilt-up panels may be used structurally as well as
architecturally in loadbearing and non-loadbearing
(or curtain) walls, both externally and internally.
They may also have to be designed to resist earthquake
and other natural forces. The loadbearing element
may be either a single leaf or one of the leaves,
typically the inner, of a sandwich panel.
Perimeter bars used
to control shrinkage
Diagonal bars used to
control stresses at
openings and internal
corners
Optional layer 1
Optional layer 2
Optional layer 4
Optional layer 5
Optional layer 3
(Normally central)
Note: Bars are continuous and reinforcement
chairs normally support layer 2 from the
casting slab
5-6
The following design method, which is used in a
Design Example in Appendix 5A, has been
developed from consideration and observation of the
various international design methods
(6)
and test
results for tilt-up wall panels, together with
consideration of the current UK design codes of
practice for concrete.
Suggestions for UK in-service design
In general a tilt-up panel should be designed to
follow the recommendation of BS 8110 in respect of
materials, specifications and construction, and design
and detailing (eg. concrete quality, cover etc.).
However, assessment of the design practices of other
countries where tilt-up has been used for many years,
shows there are areas where some departure is
necessary. These are discussed below in relation to
braced walls.
Slenderness limits - BS 8110 Part 1 imposes
slenderness limits for loadbearing walls (30 for plain
walls and 40 to 45 for reinforced walls) that are
unduly restrictive for tilt-up construction. Tilt-up
panels are commonly elements that are subjected to
small axial thrusts but where the dominant action is
lateral loading.
Investigations by the ACI-SEAOSC task committee,
on walls with height/thickness ratios up to 60, have
shown that arbitrary slenderness limits are
unnecessary provided that P- effects are properly
assessed and taken into account.
Tilt-up wall test results
(5)
(further examined in
Reference 6) show that walls with height to thickness
ratios up to 60 can continue to sustain combined axial
and lateral loads at stages well beyond cracking and
first yield of the reinforcement.
Therefore, a slenderness limit of 60 is proposed for
tilt-up wall panels, which is the same as that applied
to columns in BS 8110. However, this would require
appropriate checks for cracking and deflection at the
serviceability limit state (SLS), and may require the
use of two layers of reinforcement.
Such checks are considered generally unnecessary
provided that the height-to-thickness ratio does not
exceed 50 (see Cracking and deflection under
service loads on page 5-7).
Distribution of vertical loads - Vertical loads
applied at the top of a panel may be concentrated at
the position of a roof truss or effectively distributed
where the panel supports several equally spaced
purlins.
Concentrated loads are sometimes taken to be spread
through an angle of 30
o
to the vertical. This approach
may be necessary in the case of a very heavy load on
a continuous wall in order to cater for the possibility
of a localised failure. However, in the case of slender
tilt-up panels, the vertical load is not normally
dominant and design is controlled primarily by
bending due to lateral wind forces.
Also failure could not realistically occur without
involving the whole of the panels reinforced width.
Since the distribution of such loads is not specifically
covered by BS 8110, it is suggested that the
recommendations of BS 5628
(7)
for masonry are
adopted, which allow the vertical point loads to be
distributed through an angle of 45
o
. In most cases
this will mean that the vertical loading at the mid-
height of the panel may be assumed to be fully
distributed.
Horizontal load may also be applied at the top of the
wall where the panel acts as a shear wall to resist the
effect of wind load on the building as a whole. This
will affect the eccentricity of the vertical load.
The distribution of vertical loading in the plane of the
wall may generally be assumed to vary linearly along
the length. If N is the vertical load and M is the in-
plane bending moment for all loads above the mid-
height of the panel, the maximum and minimum load
intensities at the ends of the panel are given by ( N/L
t 6M/L
2
) where L is the panel length.
Transverse eccentricity of vertical loads - Vertical
loads at the top of the wall tend to be applied
eccentrically either by design or due to construction
irregularities
(3)
. These eccentricities must be assessed
by the designer and allowed for in design. They may
be considered to reduce linearly to zero at the lateral
support below.
It should be noted that deflections due to lateral loads
and buckling can act either inwards or outwards. In
this respect adverse eccentricities must be fully
accounted for, but any beneficial eccentricities should
normally be taken as zero (Figure 5.8 )
The load due to the weight of the outer leaf of a
sandwich panel may be transferred to the inner leaf
entirely at the mid-point of the panel or distributed
over the whole area of the panel depending on the
installation details of the ties used.
The eccentricity of the load due to the weight of the
outer layer of a sandwich panel should be taken as
the distance between the centrelines of the leaves.
When the load is concentrated at the mid-height of
the panel, the maximum bending moment is Ne/2 (see
Figure 5.9 (a)) where N is the weight of the outer leaf
and e is the distance between the centrelines of the
leaves. When the load is distributed over the height
of the panel at n equally spaced positions, the
maximum bending moment is Ne/2n (see Figure 5.9
(b)), and may be ignored as very small.
Panels on isolated footings - The use of isolated
footings at each end of the panel rather than
continuous footings will increase the vertical
compressive stresses and induce horizontal tensile
stresses in the bottom of the panel. The reinforcement
provided should satisfy the requirements of an
appropriate deep beam analysis.
5-7
Figure 5.8 Applied moments on panel
The design of deep beams in reinforced concrete is
e xa mined in C IR IA Guide 2
( 8)
and s tres s dis tributions
are given for various panel geometries and load
arrangements. Using this, effective bandwidths at the
mid-height of the panel for a uniformly distributed
vertical load applied at the top may be derived from
Figure 5.10.
Cracking and deflection under service loads It
may be assumed that visible cracking is unlikely if
the flexural tensile stress in the concrete is no greater
than is allowed for a Class 2 prestressed member in
BS 8110. In this case, no special measures are needed
for crack control and the properties of the uncracked
section may be used in deflection calculations. The
limiting flexural tensile stress given in clause 4.3.4.3
of BS 8110 is 0.36f
cu
for post-tensioned members.
The maximum bending moment at the mid-height of
a wall is almost entirely due to the wind load, and the
cracking criterion may be conservatively checked by
ignoring the vertical load. Apart from panels at
corners of buildings, the nett pressure due to wind,
inwards or outwards, is typically 1.0 kN/m
2
.
Figure 5.9 Bending moments due to outer leaf
If the flexural tensile strength of concrete is taken
conservatively as 2.0 N/mm
2
, the moment at mid-
height of a simply supported panel will be less than
the cracking moment if 1.0 (L
2
/8) < 2.0x10
3
(h
2
/6) or
L/h < 51.6. The deflection at mid-height =
(5/384)1.0(12L
4
/Eh
3
) which gives = L/1250, when
E = 27 kN/mm
2
.
Thus, it is reasonable to assume that neither cracking
nor deflection need be checked where the nett
pressure due to wind does not exceed 1.0 kN/m
2
and
L/h 50, which is the basis of the suggested
simplified design procedure below.
In other cases, the nett flexural tensile stress in the
concrete due to both lateral and vertical loads should
be determined. If the maximum stress exceeds
0.36f
cu
, the crack width and deflection should be
calculated. The calculated values should be limited to
0.3 mm and panel height/250 respectively.
The BS 8110 calculation methods are inappropriate
for centrally reinforced sections, and the methods
P
e
p
Take e = 0 in this case since it would
otherwise reduce the total moment
e
e
p
P Take e = e
p
in this case since it will
increase the total moment
e
p
e
p
Wind Buckling Eccentricity Combined
Wind Buckling Eccentricity Combined
(a) Where eccentricity of load reduces moment
(b) Where eccentricity of load increases moment
e
Ne
l
N
e
Ne
2
+
-
Loads Moments
Ne
l
(a) Load concentrated at mid-height of panel
Ne
l
e
Ne
2n
+
-
Ne
l
(b) Load distributed over height of panel
N
n
l
2n
l
n
l
n
l
n
l
n
l
n
l
2n
N
n
N
n
N
n
N
n
5-8
given in EC 2: Part 1
(9)
, 4.4.2.4 and Appendix 4, are
recommended. In these calculations
2
= 1 is used for
a single short-term loading and 0.5 for sustained
loa ds or ma ny c ycles of re pe ate d loa ding. The dura tion
or frequency of the maximum design wind loading
would be likely to lie between these two conditions
and a coefficient
2
= 0.75 might reasonably be taken
when assessing wind dominated deflections
Minimum percentage of reinforcement - The
values given in Table 3.25 of BS 8110 for sections
subjected to flexure were derived for a section with a
lever arm of (5/6) h on the basis that flexural
cracking is likely at a tensile stress in the concrete of
3.0 N/mm
2
. This leads to the relationship l00 A
s
/bh >
60/f
y
for a rectangular section. Where a single layer
of reinforcement is placed centrally in the section, the
lever arm is nearer to (5/12) h and the minimum
percentage should be doubled to 120/f
y
giving
0.26% for grade 460 steel.
Effective height of panel - Panels should normally
be considered as pinned at the lateral supports
provided by a roof or a footing. Where a panel is
adequately tied to a ground slab, the effective height
may be taken as the distance between the ground slab
and the lowest effective connection with the roof.
Simplified design procedure for slender
panels
The follow ing s ugges ted de sign proc e dure is ba se d on
the s lende rne ss limits and othe r fa c tors as give n a bove .
1. Determine height of wall panel between lateral
supports at top (roof) and bottom (footing or
ground slab). Select a panel thickness not less
than height /60 in general, or height/50 where the
serviceability checks in 8 opposite are omitted.
2. Determine characteristic values of dead, imposed
and wind loads in accordance with BS 6399: Parts
1, 2 and 3
(10)
. When determining wind loads, the
worst possible combinations of externa l and inte rnal
pre ss ure c oeffic ie nts s hould be c ons idere d, taking
due a c count of funne lling be tw e en buildings and
the effects of openings in the walls. Panels at the
corners of buildings ma y nee d spe cial consideration.
Figure 5.10 Idealised stress pattern in walls on isolated footings with UDL at top
0.3H
a
0.3H
a
0.2H
a
0.2H
a
C1 C2
Compression
band
Centre of
horizontal
compression
Effective support
width C
1
or 0.2L
o

whichever is the
lesser
Tension band
L
o
Uniformly distributed load
5-9
Determine, where necessary, either representative
or mobilised values of earth pressures in
accordance with BS 8002
(11).
Sandwich panels should be designed as non-
composite with either all loads supported by the
inner leaf or with the vertical loads supported by
the inner leaf and lateral loads proportioned
between the leaves according to their stiffness.
Allowance should be made for any increase of
axial load intensity resulting from the distribution
of vertical loads and where the wall is supported
on isolated footings. The eccentricity of loads
applied at the top of the wall may be considered
to reduce linearly to zero at the bottom.
3. Determine the ultimate limit state (ULS) design
loads for all necessary load combinations in
accordance with BS 8110: Part 1, except that the
value of
f
to be applied to mobilised earth
pressures may be taken from BS 8110: Part 2.
4. Determine the maximum co-existent values of
axial load and bending moment for all necessary
load arrangements. For a simply supported panel
this would normally be determined at mid-height
of the wall. Walls will generally be required to resist
lateral loads due to wind acting inwards or outwards.
Care should be taken over the relative directions
of the bending moments when combining the
effects of lateral loads and eccentric vertical loads.
5. Determine reinforcement to resist the bending
moments only, in accordance with BS 8110: Part
1, clause 3.4.4. Walls may be provided with
reinforcement at each face or with a single layer
placed centrally in the section. The minimum area
of reinforcement to be provided for a grade 460
steel as a proportion of the concrete section is
0.13% at each face or 0.26% at the centre.
6. Analyse the section in accordance with one of the
procedures given under Analysis to determine
second order moments at ULS which follows, to
determine the resulting moment of resistance and
the second order moments due to the vertical
loads, for all necessary combinations of axial load
and first order bending moment.
7. Combine the first and second order moments and
compare with the moment of resistance. Where
necessary, modify the reinforcement and repeat
the analysis of the section until the moment of
resistance is adequate.
8. Where the height to thickness ratio has been
chosen to be between 50 and 60, check cracking
and deflection under service loads in accordance
with the procedures in EC 2: Part 1
(9)
, Clause
4.4.2.4 and Appendix 4, with
2
taken as 0.75,
say, for infrequent applications of the maximum
wind load. The cracking moment should be based
on a concrete flexural tensile stress of 0.36f
cu
and where this is exceeded the calculated crack
width and deflection should be limited to 0.3 mm
and panel height/250 respectively.
Analysis to determine second order moments at
ULS - The following analysis is valid where the
strain at the outermost compression fibre, due to the
application of the ultimate loads, does not exceed the
value at the end of the parabolic portion of the stress-
strain relationship given in BS 8110 or EC2. If this
condition is satisfied at the stage when the tension
reinforcement reaches yield, compression-type
buckling is not a consideration. In this respect the BS
8110 relationship imposes a more conservative limit
than EC2.
1. The strain and stress in the tension reinforcement
are taken as the values at the end of the inclined
portion of the bilinear stress-strain curve in BS
8110 with
m
= 1.05 or EC 2 with
m
= 1.15. The
BS 8110 values are
s
= 0.0022 and f
s

= 438 N/mm
2
for grade 460 steel.
2. The strain distribution in the concrete in
compression is derived from the assumption that
plane sections remain plane.
3. The stresses in the concrete in compression may
be derived from the parabolic portion of the
stress-strain curves in BS 8110 or EC 2, with
m
= 1.5. The parabolic relationships and simplified
linear relationships for both Codes of Practice
are shown in Figures 5.11 (a) and (b). The
simplified linear relationships are obtained by
putting E
c,1
= (2/3) E
o
, where E
o
is the initial
tangent modulus to the parabola, so that when
c
=
o
the triangular area is the same as the
parabolic area.
4. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored
Relationships derived from
Figure 2.1 of BS 8110: Part 1
c cu c
o c o c cu c
2
cu c,1
2
cu o
cu o
3000 Linear
) / 2 )( / ( 45 . 0 Parabolic
kN/mm 3.0
kN/mm 4.5
0.0002

f f
f f
f E
f E
f
Figure 5.11 (a) Stress-strain relationship, BS 8110
0.60 fcu
Eo
Ec
0.45 fcu
o
5-10
Relationships derived from
Figure 4.2 of EC 2: Part 1
c ck
375
c
Linear
)
c
250 1 (
c ck
567
c
Parabolic
)
c
250 (1
c ck
0.375
c,1
2
kN/mm
ck
0.567
o
0.002
o
f f
f f
f E
f E
Figure 5.11(b) Stress-strain relationship, EC 2

Equilibrium of the forces acting on the section, as
shown in Figure 5.12 provides the following
equation:
( ) { }
(1) /
d /
dx
m y s
0
s c c
0
c c
c
c
+

f A N
d d bf
bf F
d
Where:
)
c
/(
s c c
d d d
The following equations are based on the stress-strain
relationships derived from the curves in BS 8110.
Similar equations may be derived for EC 2.
(a) Parabolic stress-strain relationship
{ } ) 2 ( ) ( 3 / 1
} ) /( { 45 . 0
) / 2 )( / ( 45 . 0
o c s c
o c s c c cu c
o c o c cu c
a d d d
d d d bd f F
f f

Equating (1) and (2a) simultaneously provides a
cubic equation in d
c
that requires a trial and error
solution. The moment of resistance is given
approximately by:
) 3 ( ) 2 / ( ) 375 . 0 (
c c u
a h d N d d F M
Figure 5.12 Strains and forces acting on section
(b) Linear stress-strain relationship
{ } ) 2 ( )
c
/(
s
2
c cu
1500
c
c cu
3000
c
b d d bd f F
f f

Equating (1) and (2b) simultaneously provides a

quadratic equation in d
c
giving:
) 3000 /( ) / (
where
2
s cu m y s
2
c
+
'
+
bd f f A N
d d
The moment of resistance is given by:
) (3 /2) ( /3) (
c c u
b h d N d d F M
In cases where the reinforcement is placed centrally
in the section, the second term in equations (3a) and
(3b) becomes zero.
The lateral deflection at mid-height of the wall may
be calculated as KL
2
times the curvature, where K
may be conservatively taken as 5/48 for a wall with
pinned ends. In this case the second order moment at
the mid-height of the wall is given approximately by:
(4) /3) )}( /( (5/48){
2
2 1 c s
L N N d d M +
Where:
N
1
is the design load applied at the top of the wall
N
2
is due to the self-weight of the wall between the
top and the mid-height
L

is the height of the wall between lateral supports
The foregoing analysis is valid for values of:
{ }d d or ) /(
s o o c o c
+
which for a grade 30 concrete and grade 460 steel
gives d d
c
0.33
0.75 fck
Eo
Ec
0.567 fck
o
d
d
c
Fc
N
h /2
e
c
e
s
A
s
f
y
/ g
m
5-11
Panels with openings
Openings in panels impose secondary loads and
concentration of stresses. Full account would involve
the use of finite element methods or other complex
calculations which are rarely justified. Indications are
that a simplified analysis as proposed by Brooks
(12)
gives results that are sufficiently accurate for most
designs.
By this method, such panels are subdivided into
vertical strips, spanning between the lateral supports
(Figure 5.13). The width of each strip is limited to 12
times the panel thickness. The strips are then
designed to support all the lateral and vertical loads
transferred to them. Due to the increased loading on
the strip, reinforcement will generally be required at
each face to provide adequate strength and stiffness.
In exceptional cases, the panel thickness could be
increased adjacent to the opening to provide
stiffening piers.
An example of a panel with openings is shown in
Figure 5.13 where the strips are designated A, B and
C. It is usual to assume that doors span horizontally
so that the wind load on the vertical strip may be
taken as uniform over the height of the opening. For
example, the characteristic wind load on strip B
could be taken as (3.0/2 + 0.6 + 1.0/2)w
k
= 2.6 w
k
per
unit length over the full height of the panel.
The distribution of vertical loading may be derived
on the assumption that the stress pattern above the
opening is similar to that on a wall on isolated
footings as discussed earlier in this section.
Further detailing reinforcement may be used to
control stresses around openings (Figure 5.6).
DESIGN OF THE OUTER LEAF OF A
SANDWICH PANEL
Sandwich panels and ties
Sandwich panels are tilt-up panels cast in two leaves
with rigid or semi-rigid insulation between them
(Figure 5.14). This makes concrete buildings energy
efficient while retaining the economy and structural
advantages of tilt-up.
Sandwich panels are generally classified as either
composite, where both leaves act compositely to
contribute to the structural resistance of the panel; or
non-composite, where the inner leaf carries the
vertical loads and where the lateral loads are
distributed to each leaf in proportion to their stiffness
or where all loads are carried only by the inner leaf.
Generally non-composite action, rather than
composite, is assumed because of the unequal
thermal movements between the two leaves that can
occur on large panels
(13)
.
Thus tilt-up sandwich panels usually consist of an
inner layer that is the primary loadbearing leaf, a
layer of insulation and the outer leaf which is
restrained and supported by the inner leaf. However,
the outer leaf may be designed to carry a proportion
of the lateral wind load. Freedom of movement of the
inner and outer leaves is important, so as to avoid
induced stresses due to creep, shrinkage and
temperature effects that would otherwise occur.
The ties, which connect the two layers, can be made
of the following:
Stainless steel
Composite fibre rods
Other non-corrodible materials.
These ties transfer the loads from the outer leaf onto
the structural leaf whilst allowing the outer supported
leaf to move independently in response to
temperature and moisture changes.
Figure 5.13 Panels with openings - division of panel
into strips
Figure 5.14 Typical sandwich (double-leaf) panel
600 3000 600 1000 2040
A B C
Roof line
Door
Outer face Inner face
Reinforcement often
placed centrally in panel
Insulation
Panel tie
5-12
Factors affecting tie design
Most manufacturers are able to provide a free design
and advisory service in respect to sandwich panel ties
(see Chapter 13), but it is worth noting the factors
affecting tie design and performance. The static
checks required in a typical sandwich panel design,
are as follows.
Tensile and compression loading within the
panel plane caused by different temperatures in
the facing and loadbearing layers and the mutual
restraint to movement.
Bending loading of the facing layer from wind
load and temperature gradient.
Hence spacing, depth, and position of ties within the
panel typically need to take account of the following
factors:
Self-weight of the panel
Adhesion to mould
Wind pressure and suction
Eccentricities for asymmetrical elements
Temperature gradient within the facing layer
Temperature difference between the middle
layers of the facing and the loadbearing layer
Transport and erection
Shrinkage
Stiffness and orientation.
Load transfer through ties within a
sandwich panel
As mentioned earlier, connections are made within a
sandwich panel that ensure transfer of loads from the
outer leaf onto the inner structural leaf. These include:
Compressive forces - Compressive forces acting at
right angles to the panel are caused by:
Wind
Live loads at right angles to the panel.
These compressive forces are transferred, via the
connecting anchors and the thermal insulation,
according to their compressive strength.
Tensile forces - Tensile forces acting at right angles
to the panel are caused by:
Wind
Lifting the sandwich panel from the casting bed.
Negative pressure or suction forces at right angles to
the panel plane are transferred solely via the connector
anchors from the facing layer to the loadbearing layer.
Shear forces - Shear forces occurring within the
panel plane are caused by:
Permanent loading, and temporary forces during
lifting, from the facing layer
Different mean temperatures of the facing layer
and the loadbearing layer.
The distribution of the shear forces onto the anchors
and the insulation layer is time and load dependent. It
is considered in manufacturers catalogues, and needs
to be taken into account in the design of the outer leaf.
Types of ties and anchors
The connectors used for sandwich panels may be
stainless steel ties, glass fibre rods or other non-
corrodible materials (Table 5.1). This part describes
some of the sandwich ties and their claimed
advantages in use.
Stainless steel ties
High strength sandwich panel tie/anchor The
Frimeda/Burke panel ties
(14)
are used to hold the two
layers of a sandwich panel firmly together during
lifting and placement of the panel. The highly
effective insulating layer is encased and protected on
both sides by strong, low-maintenance concrete.
Burke sandwich panel anchors (Figure 5.15) tie all
three components into an integrated unit that is as
safe and easy to lift and effectively behaves as a
monolithic concrete panel during construction.
Round or sleeve connector anchor - The anchor is a
round metal tube fabricated from grade 304 or 316
stainless steel. This material provides the long-term
corrosion resistance required for the anchor. Both
ends of the anchor are provided with round and oval
holes (Figure 5.16). The round holes are for inserting
Table 5.1 Sandwich panel ties
Material type Manufacturer/supplier Types of ties/anchors
Frimeda /Burke High-strength sandwich panel tie/anchor Stainless steel ties, grade
304/316
DEHA/Dayton Superior Round anchor or sleeve connector anchor
Flat anchor
Retaining ties such as: L-type connector pin,
clip-on pin, clip-on stirrup
Torsion anchor such as crossed connector pin
Composite fibre connectors Thermomass Thermomass PC connector
5-13
Figure 5.15 Burke sandwich panel anchors and ties
Figure 5.16 DEHA sleeve connector anchor
special rods which tie the anchor into each layer of
reinforcing mesh, while the oval holes are provided
to assist in bonding the anchor with the concrete
(15)
.
The depth and diameter of the sleeve connector
anchors are determined by the particular construction
requirement. The element depth is selected according
to the thickness of the thermal insulation or
additional air layer and the thickness of the external
layer. The diameter is determined by the weight of
the external leaf.
Sizing is carried out quite easily using the tables
provided by the manufacturer. Sleeve connector
anchors are generally positioned on the centroidal
axis of the external leaf.
The circular connector has uniform loadbearing
properties in all directions. Out of balance forces or
extra overloads are transferred to the inner leaf by
non-rigid connections (see below). This ensures that
not only are static equilibrium conditions retained,
but also constraining forces induced by the bending
stiffness of the ties are minimised.
Flat anchor - The flat anchor (Figure 5.17) is a 1.5, 2
or 3 mm thick plate fabricated from grade 304 or 316
stainless steel. Holes are provided along each long
end for use as described above for the sleeve (round)
anchor. The anchor is used in conjunction with the
round anchor to carry the load from the outer panel.
It can also be used as a torsion anchor to resist
eccentric loads between the round anchor and the
outer leaf of a sandwich panel. The anchor offers
vertical load carrying capacity along its length, but
when correctly positioned and orientated, its thin
section does not restrain the outer layer from
horizontal movement caused by environmental
changes.
DEHAs design manual
(15)
gives information for
determining the anchors minimum embedding depth,
its dimensions, permissible load, maximum spacing
and installation method.
Figure 5.17 Flat anchor
Retaining tie - Retaining ties such as connector pins,
clip-on pins and clip-on stirrups
(15)
(Figure 5.18) are
used to tie the two concrete layers of a sandwich panel
together, and prevent bowing and separation of the
layers. The pins work both in tension and compression
to resist wind pressure or suction. They are fabricated
from grade 304 or 316 stainless steel and are available
in bar diameters of 2.8, 4.0 and 5.0 mm. The ties are
Sandwich panel
anchor 4710
Sandwich panel
anchor 4700
Sandwich panel
connector tie
4000, 4600, 4610
Used to prevent
curvature of outer leaf
and to resist wind
forces whilst allowing
lateral movement
Used singly or in
multiples close to
centre of gravity to
support the
deadweight of the
outer leaf
Used to stiffen narrow
areas and to cater for
eccenticity in the
loading of the outer
leaf during panel
handling
Sleeve anchor
Internal
loadbearing
leaf
Outer
facing leaf
Insulation
Flat anchor
5-14
flexible due to their small diameter, and do not offer
significant resistance to movement from thermal
stresses or shrinkage that may build up in the tilt-up
panel. Connector pins, with a maximum spacing
between of 1200 mm, are arranged in a square, or
rectangular grid typically with a side ratio of 3:4.
DEHAs design manual
(15)
gives information for
determining pin size and loading capacity, etc.
Figure 5.18 Sandwich fixing pins
Torsion anchor (crossed connector pin) - The
crossed connector pin
(15)
consists of two connector
pins set at 45
o
, and inserted crosswise through the
layers of sandwich panels (Figure 5.19). They are
fabricated from grade 304 or 316 stainless steel. The
pins take up forces from the eccentricity and prevent
a rotation of the facing layer around the supporting
anchor. They provide additional protection against
external leaf warping.
Provision of steel ties in panel - The various ties
indicated above are combined to carry the self-weight
and to prevent twisting of the outer leaf, and to cater
for shrinkage and other stresses occurring in the
sandwich panel. In Figure 5.20 (a) the sleeve anchor
is positioned in the centre of the panel and carries the
major vertical load (self-weight) of the outer leaf,
while additional pin ties and torsion anchors cater for
rotation and other likely movements. Figure 5.20 (b)
and Figure 5.20 (c) are similar but use is made of
supplementary anchor plates to cater for out-of-
balance forces due to asymmetry of the panel. The
anchor plates are positioned with their flexible axis
on a plane normal to a radial line through the sleeve
anchor. This minimises restraint against shrinkage
and thermal movements but enables the plates to
carry vertical or rotational forces.
Composite fibre connectors
The Thermomass building system uses the unique
properties of composite materials to create an
efficient method of sandwich wall construction
(16)
.
The Thermomass fibre composite connectors
(Figure 5.21) are said to be non-corrodible, extremely
resistant to aggressive chemical exposure, three times
as elastic with twice the tensile strength of mild steel,
and offer minimal heat loss.
Figure 5.21 Thermomass fibre composite connector
Figure 5.19 Crossed connector pins
(b) Clip-on pins
(a) Connector pin
(c) Clip-on stirrup
Fibre composite
Long angular cut each
side for retention
Seal Moulded collar
5-15
Figure 5.20 Typical usage of sleeves, flat anchors and connector pins
100
1200
2500
1200
100
2500
1200 1200
5000
1
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
6
0
0
1
3
0
0
1
3
0
0
1
2
0
0
140
60
50
120
1100
2320
1190 300
2680
1190 1100
5000
2
5
0
1
2
0
0
2
6
0
0
1
0
5
0
160
70
60
1
2
0
0
2
5
0
5
0
0
9
0
0
1
2
0
0
3
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
2
0
0
0
2
5
0
1
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
3010 1200 600
120
1200
720
1200
120
720
960
120
3840
120
2400
140
70
60
Sandwich panel and sleeve
connector anchor with
hairpin as the torsion anchor
and connector pins in the
outer area
Sandwich panel with a
window opening with sleeve
connector, flat anchor and
connector pins
Sandwich panel with a door
opening with sleeve connector
anchor, flat anchor and
connector pins
Key
Sleeve anchor Flat anchor connector pins torsion anchor
(b)
(a)
(c)
5-16
An indication of the properties of this composite
material is given here as the material is not as well
known as steel. This information is given for
guidance only and the manufacturer should be
consulted to confirm or provide precise values for
design. The claimed properties of the connector are
given in Table 5.2
Table 5.2 Properties of Thermomass fibre
composite connector
Manufacturer Composite Technology
Corporation
Connector
material
Glass fibre in chemical
resistant thermal set polymer.
Keyed for maximum
retention in concrete.
Effective
sectional area
47.6 mm
2
Tensile strength 840 N/mm
2
(minimum)
Flexural strength 840 N/mm
2
(minimum)
Coefficient of
expansion
(8.6 t 1.7) 10
-6
/
o
C
Thermal
conductivity
0.1192 W/m
2
/K
Pull-out tests carried out on the fibre composite
connector show that, when embedded to the
manufacturers requirements, the connectors have a
capacity of 8.0 kN for a Series 15 connector and
11.34 kN for a Series 20 connector. The shear
capacity of each connector is approximately 4.04 kN.
The ultimate strength of the connector can exceed
that of other materials commonly used.
Fire tests carried out on a sandwich panel constructed
with fibre composite connectors showed no
degradation after the inside leaf was subjected to
1090
o
C for 4 hours
(16)
.
The connectors are typically distributed uniformly
over the area of the panel and are strong enough to
cater for vertical loads and out of balance forces
(Figure 5.22).
Leaf thickness and cover to reinforcement
To satisfy durability requirements, which should
meet the recommendations of BS 8110, the thickness
of the outer layer is generally in the range of 65 to 75
mm in order to provide sufficient cover to the
centrally placed reinforcement. (See design example
in Appendix 5A at the end of this chapter.)
Allowance for differential movements
Differential movements caused by shrinkage and
temperature should be allowed for in the design of
sandwich panels. Shrinkage is mainly dependent on
the drying out of the concrete and becomes more
apparent on large panels of more than 5 m in height
or width. This drying proceeds from the exterior
inwards and thus creates opposing curvatures strains
in the two leaves; these are controlled by tension in
the sandwich ties. Rapid drying of the concrete in the
first few days must be prevented by keeping it damp.
A low water-cement ratio should be used. The
maximum size of the aggregate is chosen according
to the workability, reinforcement and dimensions of
the sandwich panel.
American experience suggests that the use of
concrete additives, especially wetting agents, air-
entraining agents, damp-proofing, permeability
reducing agents and retarders can have a detrimental
effect on the shrinkage behaviour of the concrete
(15)
.
However, admixtures have been successfully used
with many concrete construction projects in the UK,
and advice should be sought from UK suppliers and
designers. The provision of reinforcement and the
effect of panel ties will help to control the effects of
shrinkage, particularly in large panels.
With increasing external temperature, especially with
direct solar radiation, the external leaf moves more
than the internal leaf.
Choice of positioning of the connectors, anchorages,
geometrical shape of the panel and, most of all, the
dimensions of the panel, have a great influence on the
applied loads and the effects of moisture and thermal
movements. The connector supplier normally
assesses this.
The outer leaf is normally assumed to be permanently
supported by the panel tie system, which is usually
required to limit vertical displacement to about 2.0 mm
relative to the inner leaf.
Figure 5.22 Typical layout of composite connectors
400 mm centres
200
200
200
400 mm
centres
5-17
Design checks for the outer leaf
and its ties
The responsibility for the design of the panel, both
inner and outer leaves, rests with the project
structural engineer, but the supplier usually carries
out the design of the tie system.
The design checks typically carried out for the outer
leaf are given below.
The project engineer determines:
The concrete grade and thickness from durability
requirements, assuming reinforcement sizes
The required reinforcement size and spacing for
crack control and checks this with the assumed
sizes
The required insulation thickness
The permitted vertical displacement of the outer
leaf.
The supplier of the tie system determines:
The tie/anchor size and spacing
Whether the vertical displacement of the outer
leaf is within criteria set by the project engineer
That the tie system has sufficient strength to
carry vertical and any asymmetrical loads (leaf
dead load) and lateral loads (wind loads and
suction forces during tilting)
That the tie system can withstand temperature
and displacement strains in the outer leaf.
BUILDING STABILITY
The general loadings and strategies for ensuring the
stability of the tilt-up panels were described earlier in
this chapter. The following design assumptions are
made when designing for overall stability of the
building (see also In-service loading on page 5-1).
For most buildings the roof is designed to
transfer wind load to end walls
In such cases the end walls act as shear walls to
resist wind loads
Roof trusses (and roof bracing) in the roof plane
are designed as diaphragms to transfer lateral
loads to shear walls
In multi-storey buildings, the floor slabs are
designed to act as diaphragms (plate action) to
transfer lateral loads to shear walls.
Temporary bracing is also needed during the
construction stage and this needs to be designed to
resist both lateral and accidental or unexpected
construction loading. The effects of fire on the
stability of the panels must also be considered.
Shear walls
The tilt-up panels are used to carry vertical and
lateral loads applied to the face of the panels and also
to provide shear walls for building stability.
The combined stiffness of these walls is usually far
greater than is needed to provide stability and only
some of the panels are used to carry the wind forces.
A couple or so panels at each of corner of a building
is often sufficient for this purpose (Figure 5.23) thus
providing scope for removal of sections of the
external walls for future extensions.
Figure 5.23 Shear walls
The wind loading carried by each shear wall is
normally taken to be in proportion to its in-plane
stiffness. The distribution of additional stresses
within the panel can often be determined from a
simple elastic analysis of the form:
I
MY
A
N
f t
u
As in the design procedure given earlier, the capacity
of the wall is then checked for the prevailing
combination of loads. The walls must also be
checked for overturning.
These shear walls are thus designed to resist in-plane
loads transmitted to them by the floors and roof and,
consequently, transfer these forces to the foundations.
The connections between the panels at the floor and
roof levels must be sufficient to transfer shear forces
between panels.
These shear forces are usually transferred directly
into the foundations by dowel action or friction.
Alternatively the shear forces can be transferred from
the panel by dowel action into the floor slab, which is
then used to transfers the forces into the ground by
friction between the slab and the earth.
It may be necessary to tie panels together so that they
act as a group to resist the overturning moments.
Holding-down anchors at the ends may also be
required, for example, on single panels.
B B
B B
A A
A A
Corner walls 'B'
resist lateral load
Y direction
Corner walls 'A'
resist lateral load
X direction
Y
X
5-18
Some shear walls may be isolated, such as those in
the interior of the building. In addition to checking
for overturning moment these will require appropriate
bracing to transfer lateral forces into them.
FIRE RESISTANCE
The fire resistance of tilt-up buildings has been
extensively studied and reviewed. Tilt-up panels have
been shown to perform well when designed and
detailed to comply with accepted specifications and
practice developed in the major tilt-up-using
countries, notably the USA, Canada, Australia and
New Zealand. There are some variations, but each
country essentially sets out the same principal
requirements.
Panel thickness and cover to reinforcement
The thickness of a panel to provide a given nominal
fire resistance period may be determined by reference
to basic concrete codes (eg. BS 8110 Parts 1 or 2
(3)
in
the UK). The requirements of BS 8110: Part 2 are
summarised in Table 5.3 for elements with 0.4 to
1.0% reinforcement, which would be typical for
many tilt-up panels. BS 8110: Part 2 also provides
alternative recommendations for thickness and cover
in respect to aggregate type and reinforcement
percentage.
However, these Code recommendations apply to
heavily loaded single-leaf walls and some relaxation
of thickness may be possible to take account of the
greater stiffness of sandwich panels, where used, and
because of the relatively light vertical loads carried
by tilt-up panels. The requirements for thickness and
cover differ somewhat in EC 2
(9)
.
Table 5.3 Fire rating requirements
Fire
rating
(hour)
Minimum
panel thickness
(mm)
Minimum cover to
reinforcement
(mm)
0.5 100 25
1.0 120 25
1.5 140 25
2.0 160 25
3.0 200 25
4.0 240 25
In addition to setting minimum covers, BS 8110 also
has certain recommendations to cater for the effects
of spalling when the cover to the main reinforcement
exceeds 40 mm. This poses some conflict with tilt-up
panels that traditionally contain one layer of
reinforcement thereby invoking requirements for
supplementary protection. This matter was evaluated
in a report
(17)
submitted to and accepted by the Fire
Research Station, which concludes that spalling is
unlikely to cause a problem with tilt-up construction
and that there is no need to provide additional
protection against spalling in cases where the cover
to the reinforcement in a tilt-up panel exceeds
40 mm.
Panel stability
A notable paper by Potter
(18)
, of Cement and
Concrete Association of Australia, reviews the
Australian Code requirements and illustrates a series
of details used to meet these requirements. The
essence of this review may be considered when
developing fire resistance requirements for a tilt-up
project in the UK.
Fire growth and spread
There has recently been concern over the possible
fire spread through certain lightweight metal
sandwich cladding panels and in particular in those
systems that incorporate air gaps between the
insulation and the structural element. Even those
systems that contain no air gaps can create problems
when fire breaches the outer skin. This has been was
highlighted by reported failures in these systems.
Such fire spread is not a problem with tilt-up
sandwich panels. Consultation with the Fire Research
Station has confirmed that concrete tilt-up panels, in
which the insulation is sandwiched between and in
close contact with two concrete leaves, pose no
significant risk either to fire growth or spread of fire.
Care should, however, be taken in detailing if there
are services within or penetrating the wall.
APPENDIX TO THIS CHAPTER
Appendix A - Design examples (see page 5A.1).
REFERENCES
1. Cement and Concrete Association of Australia.
Tilt-up technical manual. C&CA Australia,
Sydney, 1990. 24 pp. (Amended to a series of
data sheets 1997).
Zealand. Tilt-up technical manual, C&CA New
Zealand, Porirua, 1990. TM34. 32 pp.
3. British Standards Institution. BS 8110,
Structural use of concrete. Parts 1 and 2. BSI,
Milton Keynes, Part 1, 1997 121 pp. Part 2, 1985,
52 pp.
4. Spears, R. E. Tilt-up construction - design
considerations. - An overview. Concrete
International, Vol. 2, No. 4, April 1980. pp 33-
38.
5. Azizinamini, A, Glikin, J. D, Oesterle, R. G.
Tilt-up wall test results. PCA, Skokie, USA,1994.
16 pp.
5-19
6. Reinforced Concrete Council. A review of
international tilt-up design methods. RCC,
Crowthorne. To be published 1998. C/27.
7 British Standards Institution. BS 5628.
Structural use of masonry. Part 1, Structural use
of unreinforced masonry. British Standards
Institution, Milton Keynes, 1992. 57 pp.
8. CIRIA. The design of deep beams in reinforced
concrete. CIRIA, London, 1977. Guide 2. 131 pp.
9. British Standards Institution. DD ENV 1992-1-
1: 1992. Eurocode 2. Design of concrete
structures. Part 1. General rules and rules for
buildings (together with United Kingdom
National Application Document). British
Standards Institution, Milton Keynes, 1992. xvi,
254 pp.
10. British Standards Institution. BS 6399.
Loadings for buildings. Part 1, Code of Practice
for dead and imposed loads. Part 2, Code of
Practice for wind loads. Part 3, Code of Practice
for imposed roof loads. British Standards
Association, Milton Keynes, BSI, 1992. Part 1,
16 pp, 1997, Part 2, 102 pp, 1988, Part 3, 32 pp.
11. British Standards Institution. BS 8002. Code of
Practice for earth retaining structures. British
Standards Association, Milton Keynes, BSI,
Milton Keynes, 1994. 116 pp.
manual. HBA Publications, Newport Beach,
USA. 4th edition 1997. 360 pp.
13. Portland Cement Association. Tilt-up concrete
building. PCA, Skokie, USA, 1989. 16 pp.
14. The Burke Group. Burke sandwich panel
system. Burke, San Mateo, USA, 1983. 37 pp.
15. DEHA. Connector design manual and catalogue,
DEHA. Square Grip Ltd.
16. Composite Technology Corporation.
Thermomass architectural/engineering manual.
CTC, Ames, USA, undated. Various inclusions.
17. Reinforced Concrete Council. Evaluation report
- Fire resistance of tilt-up panels with one layer
of reinforcement. RCC, Crowthorne,1997. 9 pp.
C/29.
18. Potter, R. J. Behaviour of precast walls in fire.
Constructional review, Feb 1996. pp 50-55.
5-20
5A - 1
APPENDIX -
DESIGN EXAMPLES
This Appendix gives two design examples. The first gives the basic design and analysis of a typical slender
single-storey loadbearing panel for a 3500 m
2
high-bay building, with a two-storey office space, designed for
light factory or warehouse use. A fuller version including calculations for wind forces, shear wall analysis and
foundation design may be found in Reference 1. The second example is of a two-storey loadbearing tilt-up panel
suitable for a two-storey hybrid office building with long-span floors.
Example 1: Single-storey factory/warehouse
GENERAL
The single-storey structure for this design example
consists of steel roof trusses supported on
loadbearing tilt-up concrete perimeter walls, with
internal steel beams and columns. The tilt-up panels
are typically 7.5 m high 6.98 m wide, some with
openings (Figure 5A.1). The panels are taken down
onto the foundations and the internal concrete floor
slab abuts the walls on the inside face. An insulated
concrete sandwich panel construction is used (75 mm
outer concrete leaf, 75 mm - insulation, 150 mm -
inner concrete leaf). The panels for this example are
designed to retain 1.5 m of soil to emphasise the
structural capability of tilt-up.
Lateral stability is provided by portal frame action of
the internal steelwork in the E - W direction and by
the internal office walls where they coincide with the
frame (Figure 5A.2). Internal tilt-up walls are
designed as permanent elements of the building. In
the N - S direction, stability is provided by roof
bracing spanning onto the tilt-up walls at the corners
of the building, which act as shear walls. These wall
panels have a reduced width of 3.5 m. A system of
secondary bracing is provided in the roof on the
perimeter of the building so as to ensure effective
lateral restraint to the top of the panels. As requested
by the client the walls are thus braced about their
minor axis. The use of portal frames allows for future
east-west extension of the building without detriment
to the stability of the present structure. The junction
between panel and foundations is grouted after panel
erection and the aggregate was exposed on this
interface so that maximum advantage is taken of
shear friction restraint arising from the weight of the
panel.
Expansion joints
An expansion joint has been introduced on the
centreline of the roof and caters for temperature
effects in the roof steel. A 20 mm joint separates the
tilt-up panels and a polysulphide sealant is provided,
designed to accommodate the environmental
movements of the panels.
Foundations
The tilt-up panels are supported on concrete strip
foundations and the steel columns are supported on
reinforced concrete pads.
Erection
The sequence of construction assumes casting of the
floor slab followed by panel casting and erection.
The panels will be temporarily braced to resist
wind/construction loading. Erection of the steel frame
starts with the the central portal frames, which are key
locational and stabilizing elements of the building.
5 A
Figure 5A.1 Typical part elevation
6980 6980 6980 20 20 20 20 20
1300
500
1300
500
3 4
5
Roof soffitt Parapet
Top of foundation
300
2500
PART EAST ELEVATION
6980
6980 6980
7500
6500
1000
Finished floor level
5A - 2
Perimeter beams and trusses will be erected and a
site-welded connection made to the bearing pockets
in the panels. These pockets are designed to
accommodate the dimensional tolerances required
between the concrete and steel-framed systems.
Perimeter berm
A 1.5 m earth berm surrounds the building. A filter
membrane is fixed to the wall to act as a drainage
zone and is linked to a drainage system at the base of
the wall which traverses the perimeter of the building.
The filter includes a backing layer of PVC, which
acts as a waterproofing membrane.
Building extension
Provision for extension is included on the rear wall of
the building. End panels (3.5 m wide) will be
retained to act as permanent shear walls. These
particular walls are tied at their ends to the foundation
by a reinforced in-situ connection. Columns will be
erected to support beams on this elevation and
expansion can take place in modules of 42 m x 42 m.
An expansion joint will separate the existing building
from all new structures.
LOADINGS
The loadings for the building were calculated as
follows.
1. Roof
G
k
= 0.65 kN/m
2
Q
k
= 0.75 kN/m
2
First floor office
G
k
= 4.3 kN/m
2
Q
k
= 3.5 kN/m
2
2. Lateral earth pressure
Perimeter walls are taken as being backfilled to
a maximum height of 1.5 m above foundation
level (Figure 5A.3).
It is assumed that there is free-draining granular
material against the face of the wall panel with a
perforated drain at low level. Therefore, assume pore
water pressure is nominal and pressure distribution is
triangular.
Maximum lateral pressure (at base of triangle)
= 8.1 kN/m
2
Figure 5A.3 Panel retaining earth berm
Figure 5A.2 Plan view of building
1500 max
300
1000
6500
14000 14000 14000 14000 14000 14000
Portal frames at
14 m centres
Trusses at 7 m centres Note: Shaded area indicates two-storey office space, all other
areas are high-bay production space
3 4 5 6 7 1 2
A
B
C
D
Purlins at 1.2 m
centres
Tilt-up wall
panels
N S
W
E
Shear wall panel
Area for future extension
Roof bracing carrying lateral
(N-S) forces to shear walls
14000
14000
14000
Design example 1
5A - 3
Wind loading to BS 6399: Part 2 (standard method)
Typical maximum positive wind pressure:
p
max
= 0.75 kN/m
2
Typical maximum negative pressure (suction) on
wall panel:
p
min
= 0.86 kN/m
2
DESIGN FOR IN-SERVICE LOADS OF
TYPICAL PANEL WITHOUT
OPENINGS
A typical sandwich panel has dimensions of 6.98 m
wide by 7.5 m high. For practical reasons and to tie
in with design for lifting, a panel with an inner leaf
thickness of 150 mm will be used. This example
continues with this thickness but further refinement
could be carried out to determine the optimum
thickness to carry design loads; this is likely to be
somewhat less than 150 mm.
Therefore, try panel with 75 mm outer leaf, 75 mm
insulation and 150 mm inner leaf.
Height of panels above foundation = 7.5 m
Floor slab not taken as propping the panel.
Roof designed to prop panel 1.0 m from the top of
the panel.
Panel taken as being simply supported at foundation
and roof.
Therefore effective height = 7.5 1.0 = 6.5 m
Design assumptions
1. The sandwich panel is assumed to act non-
compositely, with the outer leaf attached to the
inner leaf by a central sleeve anchor. All vertical
and lateral loads are assumed supported by the
inner leaf. (Alternatively, the wind load may be
shared between inner and outer leaves in
proportion to stiffness 8:1)
2. Requirements for erection process are considered
elsewhere.
3. Panels are designed in accordance with BS 8110:
Part 1 and using the recommendations for design
contained in Chapter 5 of this publication,
including second order moments.
4. Concrete cover requirements are to BS 8110
Tables 3.2 and 3.3, and are summarised in Table
5A.1 below.
Loading
a) Roof (N
1
)
The loadings are as shown on page 5A.2
From rafter: G
k
= 0.65 x 14 x 3.5 = 31.9 kN
Q
k
= 0.75 x 14 x 3.5 = 36.8 kN
From purlins: G
k
= 0.65 x 3.5 = 2.3 kN/m
Q
k
= 0.75 x 3.5 = 2.6 kN/m
Assume dispersion of rafter reaction into wall panel
produces a uniform stress at mid-height of the panel
Figure 5A.4 (BS 8110, clause 3.9.4.13).
G
k
= 31.9 6.98 = 4.6 kN/m
Q
k
= 36.8 6.98 = 5.3 kN/m
Therefore total roof load
(taken as uniformly distributed):
G
k
= 4.6 + 2.3 = 6.9 kN/m
Q
k
= 5.3 + 2.6 = 7.9 kN/m
b) Suspended first floor
Assume this panel does not support first floor office
units for simplicity. However, such support is likely
to be cost effective.
Figure 5A.4 Distribution of loads on panel
Table 5A.1 Cover requirements
Panel Environment Cover
(mm)
Concrete
grade
Outer leaf external face
Outer leaf internal face
Inner leaf external face
Inner leaf internal face
Severe
Moderate (possible condensation)
Moderate (possible condensation)
Moderate (contact with soil)
30
25
35
35
C45
C45
C35
C35
Reaction from portal rafter
Purlin UDL
6980
Portal rafter load uniformly
distributed at mid-height
0.5 h
h = 6500
5A - 4
c) Wall panel self weight
Weight of inner leaf at mid height (N
2
)
Weight of outer leaf (full height) (N
3
)
(Ignore nominal weight of insulation layer)
It should be noted that the concentrated load due to
the outer leaf self weight is assumed to be
immediately dispersed and, as such, is applied as a
line load over the entire width of the inner panel.
Design of the sleeve anchor is to ensure that stress in
concrete directly under the anchor does not exceed
0.6 f
cu
(BS 8110, clause 3.9.4.13).
d) Wind loading
The wind load has been determined as + 0.75 kN/m
2
and 0.86 kN/m
2
and has been applied as shown in
Figure 5A.5.
e) Earth pressure (E
k
) as item 3 on page 5A-2.
Eccentricities of loading (Figure 5A.6)
1) Roof loads
e
1
= 75mm (adverse)
e
1
= 0mm (beneficial, ie. positive wind)
2) Outer leaf
e
3
= distance between centrelines of leaves
= 187.5 mm
Figure 5A.5 Wind load on panel
Load combinations
C1 : 1.4G
k
+1.6Q
k
+1.4E
k
C2 : 1.0G
k
+1.4W
kp
+1.4E
k
C3 : 1.2G
k
+1.2Q
k
+1.2W
kp
+1.2E
k
(Note: combinations with W
ks
less onerous
than W
kp

when earth pressure is present.)
First order moments at ultimate limit
state (M
1
)
The loadings and first order moments M
1
are given
in Table 5A.2.
Maximum first order moment
M
1
= 8.6 kNm/m width
Assume reinforcement is placed centrally within
panel
d = h 2 = 75 mm
f
cu
= 35 N/mm
2
kN/m 5 . 13 2 5 . 7 24 15 . 0
k
G
kN/m 5 . 13 5 . 7 24 075 . 0
k
G
0437 . 0
35 75 1000
10 6 . 8
, Therefore
2
6
K
mm 2 . 71 949 . 0 d z
width m per mm 276
2 . 71 438
10 6 . 8
2
6
s

A
width m per mm 390
100
1000 150 26 . 0
2
min s,

A
Therefore, adopt T10 @ 200c/c or A393 mesh fabric
W
kp
= 0.75 kN/m
2
W
ks
= - 0.86 kN/m
2
(a) Positive (b) Negative (suction)
Panel supported by beam or truss
depending on position
Design example 1
5A - 5
Figure 5A.6 Eccentricities of load
Second order moments at ultimate limit
state
Using the method given in Chapter 5 (analysis to
determine second order effects).
The above is valid if, and only if:
( )
adequate panel
3
0.104
3 /
1500
2
3000
mm 6500 6500 1.0
2 1
2 2
1
c
2
c
c
s
2
c cu u
2
s cu
s
e
+
,
_
'
,
_
'
+

M M M
l
N
N
d d
M
d d
d d
bd f M
d d
bd f
f A N
l
u
e
s
c
m y
0012 . 0 35 0002 . 0 0002 . 0
00219 . 0 Now
s o
o
c

,
_
cu o
s
f
d d
d d 375 . 0
c

Table 5A.2 First order effects at ULS (load cases C1, C2 and C3)
d d
c

,
_
+

00219 . 0 0012 . 0
0012 . 0
22.2
37.8
11.3
0.0
6.9
27.0
11.3
1.1
17.7
37.8
9.7
0.9
Load combination
Loading (kN/m)
N
1
N
2
N
3
+
N
T Moments (kNm/m)
Lateral
loads
N
3
e3
2
Total
M1
22.2 37.8 60.0
6.9 27.0 33.9
17.7 32.4 50.1
2.1 1.8 3.9
7.3 1.3 8.6
6.1 1.5 7.6
1.4Gk + 1.6Qk + 1.4Ek C1:
1.0Gk + 1.4Wkp + 1.4Ek C2:
1.2 (Gk + Qk + Wkp + Ek ) C3:
1. Moment due to roof load ignored (beneficial).
2. Critical moment at mid height.
3. Ignore parapet cantilever
Notes:
e
1
N
1 M = N
1
e
1
e
3
N
3
M =
N
3
e
3
2
(a) Roof loads
(b) Outer leaf loads via sleeve anchor
5A - 6
For combination C1:
For other loads see Table 5A.3
Effects of wind suction
Consider two further load combinations (Tables
5A.4, 5A.5) in the event of removal of retained earth.
C4: 1.2 (G
k
+Q
k
+W
ks
)
C5: 1.0G
k
+1.4W
ks
where W
ks
= wind suction = -0.86 kN/m
2
applied to
full height of wall panel
Cracking and deflection at serviceability
limit state
Pressure due to wind = +0.75 or 0.86 kN/m
2
As this is less than 50, and as wind pressure does not
exceed 1.0 kN/m
2
, cracking and deflection need not
be checked (see Chapter 5, Cracking and deflection
under service load, and Recommended simplified
design procedure).
External leaf reinforcement
Provide central layer of reinforcement
Note: With reinforcement placed centrally in panel,
internal and external cover is nominally 30 mm.
Using C45 concrete, this complies with
durability requirements.
DESIGN OF PANEL ACTING AS A
SHEAR WALL
Lateral stability in N-S direction is achieved by roof
bracing spanning onto the tilt-up wall panels at each
corner which act as cantilever shear walls (Figure 5A .7
and Figure 5A.8).
Note: Cl.3.9.2.1, of BS 8110 allows design of shear
wall panel to exclude all forces other than static
reactions due to horizontal forces. However corner
panels should be checked for enhanced wind suction
as a separate load case.
( ) mm 24.6 0.08 0.08 2
2
0.08 75
c
0.080
0.00219 75 1000 35 3000
05 . 1 / 460 393
3
10 60
'
OK 1 . 28 375 . 0
c
> d d
( )
kNm/m 5.4
5 . 6 10
3
18.9
22.2
24.6 75
0.00219
0.104
2 3
2
,
_
+
,
_
M
kNm/m 15.6
6
10
24.6 75
3
6 . 24
75
0.00219
2
24.6 1000 35 1500
u
,
_
M
u 2 1
kNm/m 9.4 5.5 3.9 M M M + +
43.3
150
6500
ratio, s Slendernes
h
l
/m mm 195
100
1000 75 0.26
2
min s,

A
Therefore, adopt T6 @ 150 c/c or A193 mesh fabric
Table 5A.3 Combination of first and second order effects (load combinations C1, C2 and C3)
Load combinations M 2
3.9 60.0
8.6 33.9
7.6 50.1
5.4 9.3 15.6
2.1 10.7 13.9
4.4 12.0 14.9
< 0.375d dc
0.080
0.071
0.076
24.6
23.4
24.1
Yes
Yes
Yes
M total M u M 1 N T

1.4Gk + 1.6Qk + 1.4Ek C1:
1.0Gk + 1.4Wkp + 1.4Ek C2:
1.2 (Gk + Qk + Wkp + Ek ) C3:
d
c
Design example 1
5A - 7
Figure 5A.7 Shear walls to building
Loading
Two critical load combinations
(i) 1.0 G
k

+ 1.4 W
k
+ 1.4 E
k
(ii) 1.4 (G
k
+ W
k
+ E
k
)
Figure 5A.8 Shear wall tied to foundation
a) Roof loading (purlins only)
G
k
= 2.3 kN/m
Q
k
= 2.6 kN/m
b) Panel self weight (full height)
G
k
= (0.15 + 0.075) 24 x 7.5 = 40.5 kN/m
Table 5A.4 First order effects (load combinations C4 and C5)
Moments (kNm) Load combinations N
1
N
2
+ N
3
N
T
M
lateral
2
3 3
e
N
2
1 1
e
N
M
1
C4: 1.2 (G
k
+Q
k
+W
ks
) 17.7 32.4 50.1 5.5 1.5 0.66 7.7
C5: 1.0G
k
+1.4W
ks
6.9 27.0 33.9 6.4 1.3 0.26 8.0
Table 5A.5 Combination of first and second order effects (load combinations C4 and C5)
Load combinations M
1
N
T
d
c
d
c
<0.375d M
2
M
total
M
u
C4: 1.2 (G
k
+Q
k
+W
ks
) 7.7 50.1 0.076 24.1 Yes 4.4 12.1 14.9
C5: 1.0G
k
+1.4W
ks
8.0 33.9 0.071 23.4 Yes 2.1 10.1 13.9
N
E - W stability provided by
portal frame action
Corner panels provide
stability in N-S direction
3500
1000
6500
H
S
Panel acting as shear wall
Expansion joint
3500
400
1250
Reinforced concrete base to
shear wall
In-situ portion of
panel with starter
bars lapped with
panel reinforcement
Panel reinforcement
lapped with starter
bars
Corner panel
provides stability
20
7500
5A - 8
c) Wind load and earth pressure
Reactions at roof and base
due to W
k
and E
k
(Figure 5A.9)
* h
k1
= 3.6 kN/m
h
k2
= 7.0 kN/m
* Note: Reaction at roof due to wind suction
load case is also 3.6 kN/m
Figure.5A.9 Lateral loads on panel
Shear wall supports 42 2 metres of elevation
(See Figure 5A.2).
Therefore reaction at roof due to wind and earth
pressure.
Shear wall acts as a cantilever beam: span/depth = 1.86.
As span/depth ratio exceeds 1.0, the wall may be
designed using simple beam theory.
Alternatively the approach proposed by Section
4.6.4. of the ISE/ICE Manual
(2)
can be adopted.
L = 3500mm; h = 150mm
C1: 1.0G
k
+ 1.4 W
k
+ 1.4E
k
:
N = 1.0 (2.3 + 40.5) 3.5 = 150 kN
M= 1.4 x 75.6 x 6.5 = 688 kNm
C2: 1.4 (G
k
+ W
k
+ E
k
) :
N = 1.4 (2.3 + 40.5) 3.5 = 210 kN
M = 1.4 x 75.6 x 6.5 = 688 kNm
Check compressive stress for C2:
Therefore, OK by inspection.
Check tensile stress for C1:
Total tensile force = 0.5 f
t
L
t
h
From stress diagram (Figure 5A.10).
Figure 5A.10 Stress diagram
Reinforcement to be placed within 0.51520 of end
of wall = 760 mm
Therefore, provide 2T20 anchorage bars
(A
s
= 628 mm
2
) centrally within panel at each end
@ 150 c/c and provide B385 structural fabric each
face (A
s
= 770 mm
2
) (Figures 5A.11 and 5A.12).
Tension lap with starter bars 20 x 38 = 760 mm
kN 6 75
2
42
6 3 . . H
k

6 /
; stress fibre Extreme
2
hL
M
hL
N
f
t
t
cu
2
2
6 3
t
35 . 0 N/mm 2.7
/6 3500 150
10 688
150 3500
10 210
f
f

2
2
3 3
t
N/mm 2.0
/6 3500 150
10 688
150 3500
10 150

f
kN 228
10 150 1520 2.0 0.5
3

T
/m mm 675
100
10 150 45 . 0
member Tension
2
3
min s,

A
2
3
reqd s,
mm 521
460
05 . 1 10 228

A
0.75 kN/m
2
h
k1
h
k2
8.1 kN/m
2
C
T
1980 1520
2.6
N/mm
2
2.0
N/mm
2
Design example 1
5A - 9
Figure 5A.11 Reinforcement in panel
acting as shear wall
Figure 5A 12 Shear wall starter bars
This completes the design example for a typical tilt-
up panel for the high-bay building. A more detailed
version including calculations for wind forces, shear
wall analysis and foundation design may be found in
Reference 1.
REFERENCES EXAMPLE 1
1. Reinforced Concrete Council. Detailed design
example for high-bay tilt-up building. RCC,
Crowthorne, 1998. C/28.
2. Institution of Structural
Engineers/Institution of Civil Engineers.
Manual for the design of reinforced concrete
building structures. ISE, London, 1985. 88pp.
B385 structural
fabric each face
4 T20 @ 150
B385
75 75 150
T20 bar
from panel
T20 starter bars
alternately positioned
5A - 10
Example 2: Three-storey hybrid structure
GENERAL
The three-storey structure for this design example
consists of hollow-core floors spanning onto three
storey tilt-up panels (Figure 5A.13). The roof is of
steelwork and also spans onto the tilt-up panels. The
inner leaf of the panel is 175 mm thick and the clear
height between floors is 2.8 m; thus the panel is
stocky rather than slender. The hollow-core units are
supported on angles attached to an embedded weld
plate. Unlike Example 1, the tilt-up panels in this
example carry significant vertical load and will be
designed directly in accordance with BS 8110. The
building is 37.5 m long by 15 m wide and two stories
high. The panels are 10.15 m high by 7.5 m wide,
with a 175 mm inner leaf plus 50 mm insulation and a
75 mm outer leaf incorporating 12 mm brick slips
(Figure 5A.14).
LOADINGS
1. Roof
G
k
= 1.2 kN/m
2
Q
k
= 1.5 kN/m
2
2. Floors (composite slab)
G
k
= 8.6 kN/m
2
Q
k
= 5.0 kN/m
2
3. Panels
G
k
= 6.0 kN/m
2
4. Wind loading to BS 6399
i) Panel in-service
Worst positive pressure: p = + 0.98 kN/m
2
Worst negative pressure: p = - 0.90 kN/m
2
Figure 5A.14 Typical section through panel
Figure 5A.13 Building plan and typical panel
175 mm inner leaf
450 mm
hollow-core slab
50 mm
insulation
Embedded weld
plate and attached
angle
50 mm composite
topping
75 mm outer leaf
incorporating
12 mm brick slips
7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m
450 mm hollow-core units
with 75 mm topping
7.5 m
7.5 m
Typical structural floor plan
Brick facing
Panel elevation
10.15 m
7.5 m
2.70 2.70
0.90
1.50
1.80
1.80
1.50
1.50
1.15
0.90
Continuous glazing
6.3 m
5.4 m
6.3 m
0.60
Design example 2
5A - 11
ii) Panel during erection
Considered as an open lattice allowing for
window openings.
Net surface pressure (applied to gross area)
p = 0.77 kN/m
2
DESIGN FOR IN-SERVICE LOADS OF
A TYPICAL PANEL
Basis of design
The panel may be considered as braced by the wall
structures surrounding the stairs and lift shafts with
lateral support provided by the floors and roof. These
may be considered initially as props, resisting lateral
movement at the level of the support angles welded
to the embedded wall plates. The floors and roof may
be considered to be simply supported on the ledger
angles at this stage. After the walls have been tied
into the structural screed, the floors may be considered
to resist both rotation and lateral movement.
Eccentricities
The eccentricities of the loads applied at roof and
floor levels may be considered to reduce linearly to
zero at the next level below (BS 8110, Clause 3.9.4.12).
If the outer leaf of the wall panel is supported
uniformly over the whole area of the inner leaf, no
bending moments are caused in the inner leaf due to
the self-weight of the outer leaf. The bending
moments due to the wind load are very small
compared with those due to the eccentric vertical
loads, so that the critical load combination is dead
and imposed (Figure 5A.15).
Consider the horizontal cross-section between the
window openings where a 3.6 m width of panel is
supported by a 900 mm wide pillar. Assess the
bottom storey, where the total load is greatest, and a
position at the top of the window openings, where the
reduction in the eccentricity of the floor load is
negligible. Take the eccentricity of the floor load to
be 200 mm, corresponding to a uniform bearing of
75 mm on the ledger angle.
Effective dimensions
From the Basis of design given earlier, the effective
height of the wall panel may be determined as for a
plain wall (BS 8110, Clause 3.9.3.2.2).
Clear height between top of ground floor and
underside of first floor l = 2800 mm
Effective height l
e
= 0.75 x 2800 = 2100 mm
(BS 8110, Clause 3.9.4.3)
Effective thickness h = 175
Effective height / thickness
l
e
/h = 2100 / 175 = 12 < 15
(stocky wall, BS 8110, clause 1.3.4.8))
Figure 5A.15 Loads and moments on panel in-service
Design ultimate loading at critical section
Roof (1.4 x 1.2 + 1.6 x 1.5) x 7.5 x 3.6 = 110
2nd. floor (1.4 x 8.6 + 1.6 x 5.0) x 7.5 x 3.6 = 541
1st. floor (As second floor) = 541
Wall 1.4 x 6.0 x (3.6 x 4.5 + 0.9 x 3.0) = 159
N = 1351 kN
Bending moment due to first floor load
Eccentricity of load = 200 mm
M = 541 x 0.2 = 108 kNm
Reinforcement
Determine reinforcement conservatively using charts
in BS 8110:1985: Part 3: Chart 36
d = 175 - (20 + 8 + 20/2) = 137 mm
d/h = 137/175 = 0.78
N/bh = 1351 x 10
3
/ 900 x 175 = 8.6 N/mm
2
M/bh
2
= 108 x 10
6
/ 900 x 175
2
= 3.9 N/mm
2
100A
sc
/bh = 2.0, A
sc
= 0.02 x 900 x 175 = 3150 mm
2

Consider panel between the window
openings as a two-span continuous beam
(BS 8110, Clause 3.4.1.1(deep beam))
Clear span / effective depth
l/d = 2700 / 1760 = 1.5 < 2.0
Provide 5T20 - 200 (each face) with T8 - 240 as
links (panel designed as a column with
reinforcement in compression on inner face ). (See
Figure 5A.16.)
0.10
0.15
3.30
3.30
3.30
kN/m
Loads Moments due
to vertical load
Moments due
to wind load
0.10 wl
2
0.10 wl
2
2.80
0.50
0.15
w
Design example 2
5A - 12
Take effective span as 1.2 x clear span
l
e
= 1.2 x 2700 = 3240 mm
and lever arm as 0.5 x overall height
Then
A
s
= M / (0.95f
y
) (0.5h)
Dead load
1.4 x (6.0 x 1.8 + 8.6 x 7.5) = 105 kN/m
Imposed load
1.6 x (5.0 x 7.5) = 60 kN/m
Maximum sagging moment
M = (0.07 x 105 + 0.096 x 60) x 3.24
2
= 138 kNm
A
s
= 138 x 10
6
/ 0.95 x 460 x 0.5 x 1800
= 351 mm
2
Maximum hogging moment

M = 0.125 x 165 x 3.24
2
= 217 kNm
A
s
= 217 x 10
6
/ 0.95 x 460 x 0.5 x 1800
= 552 mm
2
DESIGN OF PANEL DURING
ERECTION
The load due to the self-weight of the panel is very
small and may be ignored (BS 8110, Clause 3.4.4.1).
Consider the panel to be propped at a position 8.5 m
above the ground slab (Figure 5A.17). Maximum
vertical moment due to design ultimate wind load on
a 3.6 m wide panel area is
M = 0.085 x 1.4 x 0.77 x 3.6 x 8.5
2
= 24 kNm
This is much less than the moment due the floor load
in the completed building. Therefore in-service load
design governs.
This completes the design example for a typical two-
storey tilt-up panel carrying a dominant vertical load.
A more detailed version including calculations for
wind forces may be found in Reference 1.
REFERENCES EXAMPLE 2
1. Webster, R, Chang, P, S, and Vollum, R.
Hybrid concrete structures for the UK market:
Outline designs for six hybrid schemes.
Reinforced Concrete Council, Crowthorne. To be
published, 1998. C/25. 58pp.
Provide 8T8 - 240 (each face) plus 1T20 (bottom)
(see Figure 5A.16).
Figure 5A.16 Typical main reinforcement for panels
Figure 5A.17 Loads and moments after propping
0.15
w kN/m
Loads and
bracing
Moments due
to wind load
0.085 wl
2
1.50
8.50
5T20 - 200 (each face)
[proportional for other column strips]
8T8 - 240
(each face)
plus 1T20
(bottom)
[prpoortional
for other
beam strips]
T8 - 240 as links
6-1
DESIGN OF PANELS
FOR LIFTING
This chapter provides guidance on the design of panels to cover the temporary lifting condition, which often is
the worst load case. Much of the material is presented for information only, as detailed lifting design will be
carried out by lifting specialists using bespoke software. Lifting design principles, the number of lifting points
and their locations are examined, as are their effects on panel concrete stresses at lifting. The need for additional
reinforcement or strongbacks to cater for lifting forces is considered. Finally, lifting hardware and inserts are
discussed with further reference to Chapter 10.
GENERAL
In most tilt-up projects, design of the panel lifting,
and indeed the bracing, is carried out by the hardware
accessory suppliers in conjunction with the
contractor. The reason for this is that, although the
contractor could carry out analysis for lifting, it is a
complicated process and most accessory suppliers
have computer programs to analyse the panels for
lifting stresses, enabling them to keep the design
economical and efficient. They may also offer other
engineering services (eg. panel bracing) for the tilt-up
contractor. These services deal primarily with safe
construction of tilt-up panels and have nothing to do
with the structural integrity of the wall, which is
normally the responsibility of the design engineer
(1)
.
However, engineers are encouraged to evaluate the
expertise of the accessory supplier and, if
appropriate, agree that they will bear the
responsibility, in conjunction with the contractor, for
safe lifting and bracing during construction. Even if
such responsibility is delegated, the design engineer
should be familiar with the lifting process and the
possible problems (see Chapter 10, Safety
requirements).
Accordingly, this chapter explains the engineering
principles of lifting tilt-up panels, giving guidance on
the lifting points and selection of inserts/fixings and
the use of strongbacks.
DESIGN
The general principles
As a first step in the lifting design, it is useful to have
a sketch of each type of panel involved in the project
(see Chapter 3, Figure 3.3). The weight of each type
of panel will need to be computed, taking account of
openings and varying panel thickness. Also, the
vertical and horizontal centres of gravity of the panel
should be found by taking the moment about one
corner of the panel. This information is necessary in
order to determine the design procedure for lifting
(and for bracing, see Chapter 8).
The contractor would normally provide the fixing
supplier with a set of drawings giving information
about each panel (width, height, thickness, openings,
etc.). This information is needed in order to enable
the fixing supplier to determine an insert layout. A
panel that would require only a few inserts, based on
purely the load of the panel, may need more inserts
because of its width or height or openings.
The lifting inserts need to be placed symmetrically
about the centre of gravity in the horizontal direction
so that the initial panel lift will be level, and above
the centre of gravity in the vertical direction in order
to enable the panel to tilt during erection (Figure 6.1).
If the inserts are placed symmetrically about the
centre of gravity in the vertical direction, the panel
will not tilt but will lift flat.
A tentative insert layout is assumed and the panel
dimensions and insert locations are entered into a
computer program to carry out an insert loading
check and a flexural stress analysis. If the flexural
tensile stress in the concrete in any part of the panel
exceeds its flexural tensile strength, the lifting inserts
may be repositioned or increased in number, and
again entered into the computer for another analysis.
If the tensile stress in the concrete is again too high
and another redesign is not possible, extra reinforcing
steel or some type of strongback may be used to
control the flexural stress in the concrete. If extra
reinforcing bars are required, the amount needed can
be determined by applying normal reinforced
concrete design techniques as given in BS 8110
(2)
.
Flexural strength of concrete - A permissible
flexural strength of concrete of 0.4f
cu
(where f
cu
is
the compressive strength at the time of lifting) is
typically taken when assessing design for lifting.
Determining the number of lift points required -
The number of inserts required depends upon the panel
size and the panels strength to span between lift points
as it is raised. Some panels require only two inserts,
most require four and some eight (four pairs). Very
large panels sometimes use as many as 16. Figure 6.1
illustrates the nomenclature for describing the number
of lift points. For example, a 2 x 4 arrangement
means two points per vertical row and four per
horizontal row. Likewise, 4 x 4 means four high and
four wide. The required number of lifting inserts will
also depend on their type. A general approach for
determining the number of lifting points is as follows:
6
6-2
Figure 6.1 Principles of lifting set-up
The dead weight of the panel is typically
increased by about 40% to make allowance for
sticking or initial suction when the panel is lifted
from the floor. For simplicity, this load is often
taken to apply throughout the lift but sometimes
is reduced to a 20% increase after release, when
only dynamic and impact loads need to be
considered.
This weight is divided by the suppliers
recommended capacity of the pick-up inserts in
tension or shear, as applicable, to determine the
number and type of lifting inserts.
The lifting arrangement will generally be
determined to have a nearly equal load on each
fixing but, because of the manner in which load
is distributed, the load may vary by about t 15%.
The lifting and bracing inserts and systems
should be designed to provide a factor of safety
of between 2.0 to 2.5 against failure.
The number of lifting fixings may also be affected by
the limitations on their position.
Positioning the pick-up points on the panel - The
location of the inserts is determined by the need to
control both panel stability and stresses during the
lifting operation. The main points for determining
this are:
Judgement is initially used to determine the
general pattern of lifting inserts (for example, 2
high by 2 wide Figure 6.1 (d)).
As indicated earlier, the pick-up points centre of
gravity must coincide with the panels horizontal
centre of gravity (Figure 6.2).
Also, in the vertical direction, the centre of
gravity of the lifting points is positioned slightly
higher than the panels centre of gravity to allow
the tilting action about the lower edge to occur
during lifting (Figure 6.2).
When a preferred pick-up point is located in an
opening, it will need to be shifted together with
its twin so that their centre of lift remains the
same.
The lifting inserts are adjusted to achieve, as far
as practicable, equal positive and negative
bending moments in the panel during lifting.
The flexural stresses caused by the moments are
checked against a specified allowable value
(typically about 0.4f
cu
).
Inserts should generally not be positioned closer
than about 300 mm to the edge of a panel or an
opening.
If possible, the contractor will seek to use the
same lift arrangement throughout the job since
switching rigging between, say, a 2 x 4
arrangement and a 4 x 2 arrangement can be
disruptive.
EDGE LIFT
0.21
0.58
0.21
0.21
0.58
0.21
SINGLE ROW (2 pt)
0.29
0.71
0.26
0.28
0.26
SINGLE ROW (4 pt)
0.29
0.71
0.10
0.10
0.21
0.58
0.21
DOUBLE ROW
0.18
0.42
0.40
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Design of panels for lifting
6-3
Further guidance on design for lifting and on lifting
accessories and equipment can be found in
manufacturers catalogues
(3, 4, 5)
.
These catalogues will recommend pick-up points for
various lifting configurations that will minimise
bending stresses in the panel during lifting.
For a simple rectangular panel, the position can be
determined from tables obtained from the supplier.
For complicated panels, a computer program can be
used to determine the position of pitch-up points
(6)
.
When the locations of the lifting points have been
finalised they must be fully marked on the panel
production drawings, which should also specify the
position of inserts, braces etc.
Figure 6.2 Lifting gear centralised over panels
centre of gravity
Bending moments and flexural stresses
The bending moments and flexural stresses in a panel
are constantly changing as the panel rotates from zero
degrees (horizontal) to approximately 90
0
(vertical).
As the cable changes its angle during rotation, the
force components on the insert will vary.
When the tensile load on one insert increases, the
tensile load on the other may decrease: this is what
causes the bending moments and flexural stresses to
vary throughout rotation of the panel
(1)
.
It is this variation in forces that needs to be properly
determined in order to produce the most efficient
panel design.
Forces in rigging cables - Stresses need to be
checked at various degrees of rotation with respect to
the horizontal
(1)
. The most critical stress during
lifting will normally occur somewhere between 20
o
and 50
o
rotation (Figure 6.3). The forces in the cables
change as the panel is rotated.
However, the calculations for determining the
stresses at varying angles of rotation are extremely
complex due to the cable geometry and the method of
structural analysis required, and can best be
accomplished by utilising the accuracy and speed of a
computer
(6)
.
Figure 6.3 Critical position for maximum bending
moments and stresses
However, the following example, for a 2 x 2
arrangement (two points per vertical row and two
points per horizontal row (Figure 6.1 (d)), is included
here to show the mathematics involved, which need
to be solved in order to determine the forces in the
rigging cables.
It will be seen from this why it helps to make use of
a computer program, which is normally available
through the supplier of the lifting accessories.
Figure 6.4 (next page) shows the general lifting
conditions through one vertical set of rigging cables,
and can be used to illustrate an approach to
determining the forces in the cables and lifting
inserts.
If the equilibrium at the top pulley is considered it
can be seen that the angles
1
and

2
formed between
the cable and the centre of lift must be equal since the
horizontal component of T
1
and T
2
are equal and
opposite.
A A
B B C C
Centre line of pick must be
directly in line with the centre
of gravity of panel
Centre of gravity
of panel
50
0
20
0
-
6-4
Figure 6.4 Lifting conditions through one set of
cables
Considering the panel rotated through an angle
For vertical equilibrium at the pulley
But from properties of triangles
Which rearranged gives
Therefore
Substituting the values of a and b into the expression
for T above gives:
The values of ,
1
,
2
, T and b can be determined
from the above equations, from which the values of
R, P and the forces on the insert forces, both normal
and parallel to the panel, are readily calculated. The
equations for more complicated rigging become
much more complex, hence the advice to use
computer programs.
Determining bending stresses - The determination
of stresses during lifting of an uncracked panel section
is a fairly complex procedure since the analysis is
complicated by the changing reactions at the pick-up
points as the panel rotates to a vertical position
during lifting
(7)
. Also the number and position of the
lifting inserts affect the actual distribution of the total
bending moment and a rigorous analysis would be even
more complex. However, when determining bending
moments and stresses, it is usually sufficient to
assume that the panel is divided into vertical and
horizontal strips passing through the pick-up points.
A single central layer of reinforcing, which is often
sufficient for the in-service loads, is not enough to
resist bending stresses for lifting. As a result, the lifting
design is based on the assumption that the panel is
uncracked and therefore the flexural stress controls
the design. During lifting of the tilt-up panel, the
allowable flexural tensile stress is limited to about
0.4 f
cu
. To avoid cracking of the panel during lifting
and to save time during construction, the contractors
engineer must specify the concrete strength required
for construction. The bending moments in the panel
change significantly from those obtained when the panel
is horizontal. The forces and moments outlined above
are computed as shown in Figure 6.5 (opposite page).
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) b a
WY
P
b a P WY
L
B
B L
L L L
B c b
L c
L b
+
+
+
+
,
_

+
+

cos
Therefore
cos
2 180
90
cos sin Therefore
cos sin Thus
cable of length
cos
sin
sin
1
0
2
0
1
1
2 1
2
1
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]

+

sin
cos
cos 2 cos
cos 2
1
L b
A a
b a WY T
T P
2 sin sin
2
1
B L
os 2
2
sin
sin
2 sin
2
sin
b
c
B
B
,
_
( )
( )
2
2
sin cos . cos 2 cos
cos 2
cos 2
sin
cos cos
+
1
]
1
+
B A WY
B
A WY T
2 sin
sin B
2
1 1
L L
A
B
C
b c
P
1

2
L
1
L
2
2
W
R
Y
T T
P
1

2
T T
a
6-5
n n n
n
n
n
cos
P W R
F C
Y W
P
W W

+

( ) ( )
an n bn
n n
an
P P P
D
R D C W Y D C
P

+ +
Figur 6.5 Tilt up stress analysis

Initial analysis procedure (Figure 6.5 (a))
1. Draw load diagram
2. Calculate vertical C.G. from panel bottom ( Y )
3. Calculate the panel weight (allowing for
suction/impact) = W
4. Select trial lift-point quantity and location
5. Calculate X (line of action of force P)
6. P = W X
7. Draw shear diagram
8. Draw moment diagram
Having determined the moment diagram the stresses
may be computed from f = M 1000ht
2
, where M is
the moment in kNm, and the panel width and t, the
panel thickness, are in metres.
Analysis at rotation(Figure 6.5 (b))
Due to cable movement, the stresses will change as
the panel rotates, and P
a
and P
b
will not remain equal
so must solve for line of action of P (dimension F).
1. Assume critical angle from movement diagram
2. Assume cable length (2D or greater).
3. Calculate D = D cos
4. Calculate E = D sin
5. Solve for in (sin = D cable length)
6. Solve for L
a
in (L
a
- L
b
= E cos ) Note: L
a
+
L
b
= cable length
7. F = L
a
sin , then F = F cos
8. Using cable = 2D this reduces to
Analyse the perpendicular components of loads only,
which means the weight is reduced by cos . Lengths
are the same as 0
o
except centreline of lift = C+F

9.
10.

11. Draw shear diagram
,
_
+
4
cos
1
sin
2
4 2
D
F
C
b c
P
a a
L
a
L
b
R
n
a
Y
_
D
D'
F'
F
Cable
Y
_
C D
h
R P
a
P
b
O
W
J
(a) Tilt-up analysis procedure
Y
_
C D
R
n
P
an
P
bn
W
n
(c) Horizontal analysis
Lift
C
(b) Analysis at rotation
P/2 P/2
W - R = P
E
X
6-6
Having determined the moment diagram the vertical
tensile stresses in the concrete may be computed
from:
Where M is the moment in kNm, and the panel width
and t, the panel thickness, is in metres.
Assume uniform over full panel length.
In addition to moments and stresses developing in the
vertical plane they will also occur simultaneously in
the horizontal plane. These are determined in a
similar manner as shown below.
Horizontal analysis (Figure 6.5 (c))
1. Disregard all panel weight below zero shear
between R and P
a
(dimension J in 0
o
analysis)
2. Select trial horizontal lift-point locations
3. Draw load diagram
Having determined the moment diagram, the
horizontal tensile stresses in the concrete may be
computed from:
Where again M is the moment in kNm, and the panel
height and t, the panel thickness, is in metres.
Stresses are assumed uniform over full panel height.
Reinforcement
When the panels uncracked strength is insufficient,
additional reinforcement above that required to
control in-service stresses and to control stresses due
to shrinkage and thermal movements might be
necessary. In such circumstances reinforcement can
be provided in one or both faces to control the
bending stresses (Figure 6.6 (a)). Alternatively the
panel may be strengthened for the purpose of lifting
by use of strongbacks.
Strongbacks
A strengthening element (a strongback, see Figure
6.6 (b) also Figure 3.9 in Chapter 3 and Figure 8.2 in
Chapter 8) can be used to resist the forces during
lifting in place of the additional reinforcement
mentioned above, and when the panels are odd-
shaped or contain large openings. Strongbacks are
generally steel or aluminium channels. The
strongback must have sufficient stiffness to ensure
that the stresses in the concrete section to which they
are attached do not exceed the concretes permissible
flexural strength, otherwise the panel may crack. The
connections attaching the strongback to the panel
must be capable of transferring the stresses set up
during lifting.
Figure 6.6 Tilt-up panels strengthened with
reinforcement and strongbacks
LIFTING HARDWARE AND
ACCESSORIES
Lifting hardware
Lifting hardware
(3,4,5)
includes items embedded in or
attached to the panel to allow connection of lifting
cables or attachment of braces. Rigging components
include spreader beams, bars and cables. The crane or
tilt-up contractor customarily provides the latter,
whereas the hardware supplier provides the lifting
hardware.
Lifting inserts
Lifting inserts are used as indicated earlier to reduce
the bending in the panel as it is being lifted because
excessive bending could cause cracking or failure of
the panel. The lifting inserts are always paired: one
cable will be attached to two inserts and looped
through a sheave (or pulley) at the top to ensure equal
pull on each insert.
( ) ( ) 1000 width panel
6
2
t
M
( ) ( ) 1000 height panel
6
2
t
M
Additional
reinforcing
bars in bottom
face
Lifting insert
Bracing
insert
Lifting insert
Bracing
insert
Strong-back
(a) Panel with extra reinforcement
(b) Panel with strong-backs
6-7
Figure 6.7 Modern quick-release anchors
Figure 6.8 Loads on inserts
The embedded hardware for cable attachment has
developed since the time when the standard insert
was a large sleeve nut, filled with paraffin to keep
concrete out of the threaded hole, and with
reinforcement welded to the nut to anchor it into the
concrete. Modern attachments (Figure 6.7) are
designed to minimise the time needed to attach and
detach the cables. A quick release lanyard cable
tugged from ground level eliminates the previous
requirement for workers to climb ladders to detach
cables. Plastic caps on the inserts prevent concrete
entering the attachment and plastic antennae indicate
the cable attachments location after the concrete
pour.
Attachments for braces can also be embedded in the
panel. These too are supplied by the hardware
supplier, and are generally of the coil or socket type
(see Chapter 10) so that a bolt can be screwed into
them. The critical loading condition for the insert
may occur when the panel is either horizontal or
tilted at some angle. The loading on the insert will be
direct tension, shear or a combination of the two
(Figure 6.8). Any failure may occur in either the steel
anchor or in the concrete base: both should be
checked to ensure adequacy during lifting. The
fixings are also linked or lapped with reinforcing bars
so that if failure occurs it will be ductile.
The factors that will be taken into account when the
supplier of the lifting sockets is determining the
required size and location of sockets are given below.
Size and weight of panel
Concrete strength at lift
Plastic cap box-out for
lifting clutch. Set flush
with surface
(a) Examples of anchors
DEHA
FRIMEDA
(b) Examples of quick release mechanisims
P P
P
T
W
P
T
Insert in tension. Full
shear cone developed.
Only partial shear cone
developed, hence lower
capacity
Insert in combination of
tension and shear
Lower capacity than face-
lifting arrangement. Also
need to consider bending
effects
Possible spalling
(a)
(b)
(d) (c)
6-8
Type of concrete (lightweight, etc.)
Size and location of openings
Configuration of preferred rigging
Panels cast face-up or face-down
Size of crane
Presence of architectural treatment such as
exposed aggregate, form-liners, etc.
Presence of recesses, etc
Position of panel on the job
Potential obstructions.
The placing of the lifting inserts is a very important
step in the construction of the tilt-up panel. Although
this small item is used only for the short time of
lifting the panel into the vertical position, its location
is critical. If a lifting insert cannot be placed in its
exact position, the person who designed its location
should be notified so that another location can be
found that will not over-stress the insert or panel.
REFERENCES
1. McKinney, S. A. Certain details of tilt-up wall
panel construction. Concrete International, Vol.
2, No. 4, April 1980. pp 52-57.
2. British Standards Institution. BS 8110 Parts 1
and 2: Structural Use of Concrete, 1985. Milton
Keynes, BSI.
3. The Burke Group. Burke sandwich panel
system. Burke, San Mateo, USA, 1983. 37 pp.
4. Dayton Superior. Tilt-up construction handbook,
1983. TU-5.
5. Conac Ltd (Now Halfen). Frimeda fastening
technology manual. Halfen, Harlow, Essex.
6. Payne, E. H. Computer assisted flexural stress
analysis of site cast reinforced concrete tilt-up
wall panels during erection. Concrete
International, Vol 2, No. 4, April 1980. pp. 64-
70.
data sheets 1997).
7-1
CONSTRUCTION OF PANELS

This chapter gives practical guidance on the construction of tilt-up panels. It covers formwork - including
architectural features - in some detail, as well as bond-breakers and their specification, selection and application.
The installation of reinforcing steel, embedments (for panel lifting, structural connection and bracing), and
sandwich panel insulation is then presented. Finally, concreting, finishing and curing of the panels are discussed
with further reference to Chapter 4.
FORMWORK
Formwork for tilt-up construction is, at its simplest,
limited to perimeter formimg of the panel. However,
the extent and sophistication of the formwork and
any form-lining will depend on the amount of
modelling or texturing of the external surface, the
requirements of panel joints and head and toe details,
whether panels are cast contiguously, and whether
they are stack-cast. The choice of materials for
formwork and the accuracy of its construction play a
vital part in ensuring that the erection process goes
smoothly and efficiently, and that construction
quality is adequate.
Casting surface
The ground slab normally acts as formwork to the
visible outer surface of the tilt-up panel and therefore
needs to be of a suitable finish (see Chapter 4)
Figure 7.1 High quality cast surface
Prior to the construction of the panels, the casting
surface must be checked to ensure that any slab
joints, and predrilled or cast-in fixings within the
casting area are masked out. The method of slab
construction will have been selected previously to
obtain appropriate tolerances.
The finished casting surface must be well cured to
make it sound and impermeable. If the curing agent is
not the same as the bond-breaker to be applied later,
it must be checked for compatibility before use.
When cast directly on the floor slab with the correct
attention to detail and quality, the resulting panel
finish is virtually unrivalled by any other cladding
material (Figure 7.1).
Edge formwork
Timber formwork robust enough to withstand the
rigours of construction is normally used. The size of
7
7-2
edge-formwork members and the spacing of the
supports need to be related to the tolerances of
construction, to construction methods, to the thickness
required for structural loading and, ideally, to
standard timber sizes. The type of edge formwork
used for floor casting will depend upon whether the
units are cast individually, contiguously or
continuously (Figure 7.2).
Figure 7.2 Edge formwork for single casting
A straight and true bottom edge to a panel may be
particularly important if this surface is relied upon for
the panel to be erected plumb on pre-levelled shims.
If a gasket type seal is to be used in the panel joints,
the side forms will need to be more accurate to meet
the tighter joint width tolerance required. To facilitate
this, special fixings are available for holding and
positioning divider forms
Where panels are formed contiguously, they can be
formed on their mutual edge by a standard section
timber form fixed in place by round wire nails acting
as dowels into the slab (Figure 7.2 (b)). The latter are
simply and accurately located by pre-drilling a tight
fit hole in the floor slab. When casting, panel
concrete should be brought-up equally on either side.
Another efficient method of casting a long line of
panels is to form up and cast every second panel and
then to cast the panels in between. The sides are
formed by gluing polystyrene, the thickness of the
panel joint width, to the previously cast panels, and
the end forms are just moved along by one panel
width.
Robust and stiff proprietary aluminium angle forms
are available are. They also have the advantage that
they can be fixed at wide spacings. The fixing of
formwork to the floor can be important depending on
the floors subsequent serviceability requirements or
if that part of the floor is to be subsequently used for
panel casting. The use of explosive fastenings may
lead to spalling of the floor and should be avoided.
The use of chamfers on the edges has many benefits.
They reduce spalling on the edges during removal of
the side forms or during lifting, particularly at the
pivot bottom edge of panels. They are more flexible
than side forms and thus can be deflected and fixed
during construction to take up variations in flatness
of the slab, so minimising leakage. They also help
mask visually any variations in joint width and make
installation of joint sealants easier.
For stack-cast panels more sophisticated edge
formwork will be required. The full height formwork
illustrated in Figure 7.3 produces reasonable
dimensional control in plan but accuracy of panel
thickness and finishing inevitably suffer. A better
result is achieved with proprietary climbing
formwork bolted into the previous panel in the stack
or supported by steel RHS strongbacks raised by
plywood boxes (Figure 7.4). This allows positive
thickness control by screeding to the top of the form
and unfettered access for float finishing. It allows for
identical reproduction of panels ensuring parallel
formed joints.
With all formwork, great care must be taken at the
joints. In all cases, a small bead of silicone rubber
sealant should be applied to joints between forms and
concrete to prevent grout loss and produce clean
edges with no discoloration. Edge forms should be
coated with form release agents to permit easy
stripping.
Edge profiling strip
Edge form board
Bracing
Base board fixed to
casting slab
(a) Formwork for individually cast panels
(b) Formwork for contiguously cast panels
Edge form timber
Round wire nail acting
as a dowel
Panels cut during
construction
Shutter also
forms edge
rebate
Timber base board
fixed down to casting
slab
Floor slab
Floor slab
Floor slab
Flat formwork for continuously
cast and cut panels
(c)
Construction of panels
7-3
Figure 7.3 Full depth formwork for stack casting
Figure 7.4 Rising steel-backed formwork
Blockouts for windows, doors, etc
Blockouts for major openings can be treated in a
similar fashion to edge forms. They should be
Figure 7.5 Groove formers
securely fixed to the base slab to avoid displacement
during concreting. However the blockout formwork
may need to be released as early as possible to avoid
shrinkage cracks developing.
Grooves, indents and rebates
Grooves, indents and rebates are most easily formed
on the face-down surface as mentioned previously.
Timber strips for forming grooves should be tapered
as shown in Figure 7.5 and sealed to prevent
swelling. These can be fixed with double-sided
adhesive tape or with gun- or spray-applied adhesive.
Proprietary extruded polystyrene sections are
successfully used for single casts in the USA; they
allow crisp, accurate detailing to be achieved with
minimum effort. However, care has to be taken with
these as they are more fragile than timber and can be
easily damaged by reinforcing bars, or by foot traffic
or other heavy loads.
Large-area shallow rebates, such as those used to
create continuous window lines, are simply formed by
detailing in standard thicknesses of ply sheets (single
or multiple layer) with tapered edges to facilitate
their removal (Figure 7.6).
Battens at panel thickness
Full height braced
formwork
Ground slab
Note: With this formwork system it is more
difficult to accurately control thickness,
finish and flatness of panel
Consecutively cast panels
Ground slab Initial cast panel
Consecutively cast panels
Climbing RHS steel
side form
Plywood packing
of exact panel
thickness
Timber or EPS groove form-strip
stuck down to casting slab.
Tapered for easy striking
Panel feature grooves
ELEVATION
SECTION
Panel
Casting slab
7-4
Figure 7.6 Creating continuous glazing lines
Pilasters, columns, set-backs and curved
forms
Local increases in thickness of panels can only
sensibly be formed by increasing the depth of section
away from the slab casting face, resulting in
thickening outstands on the inner face. Providing this
rule is respected, many structural and architectural
forms are achievable on site (Figure 7.7). One USA
contractor/developer has successfully differentiated
his buildings by economical site casting of curved
corner and bay panels of a high quality Figure 7.8).
Mitred joints
Mitred joints are sometimes used to avoid showing
square butted panels at corners of buildings, but they
are more difficult to construct and edges can be more
easily damaged during erection. They are formed by
braced sloping formwork which is usually over-
angled in order to allow tolerance for erection (see
Chapter 10, Figure 10.19 Mitred tolerance joint). It
is much better to create a squared edge to the mitre
(Figure 7.9) rather than leave as a sharp edge as this
will ease construction and the resulting detail is less
prone to damage. It may be formed by incorporating
a square section or reverse fillet into the formwork.
Figure 7.7 Forming architectural features and
increased sections
Figure 7.8 Forming curved panels
Figure 7.9 Mitre with square edge
BOND-BREAKERS
Tilt up construction involves casting concrete
elements on a previously cast concrete slab. The
success of the technique depends very largely on
being able to lift one hardened concrete element off
another without damaging either of them. To achieve
this clean separation, a bond-breaker is required.
Dummy window
Panel recessed to
create continuous
Panel
Casting slab
Normal glazing
SECTION
ELEVATION
Window opening
False
column/mullion
Pilaster for strengthening
the section
Curved external
corner panel
Casting slab
Mitre formed with
square edge
Mitred tilt-up panel
Edge formwork with square
section or reverse fillet to
form square edge to mitre
SECTION
7-5
A bond-breaker is a chemical compound that is
applied to the hardened casting surface before placing
the fresh concrete for a tilt-up panel. The compound
is designed to prevent the fresh concrete from
sticking to the hardened concrete and it must be
chosen with care and applied correctly to achieve a
successful panel lift.
Effect of surface
The quality of the casting surface is very important.
A sound, dense, smooth concrete surface is essential.
This can be achieved only by using quality concrete,
well finished and cured. If there is any doubt about
the quality of this surface, advice on bond-breaker
type and application rate should be sought from the
manufacturer.
Proper curing of the casting surface will help to
achieve a dense surface with low absorption, which
will enhance the performance of a bond-breaker.
Many of the bond-breakers currently available will
also act as curing compounds to promote these
desirable surface characteristics.
Bond-breaker types
Film-forming bond-breakers are compounds that
form a waterproof barrier coat on the concrete
surface. Consequently most of them also function as
curing compounds if applied to concrete immediately
after finishing. A second bond-breaking coat must
still be applied later. This approach avoids the
potential problems of incompatibility between curing
compound and bond-breaker.
Resin-based film-forming bond-breakers are
designed so that the film will oxidise and break down
over a period of time, depending on exposure to
weather and sunlight. Wax-based film-forming bond-
breakers do not break down in this way and tend to
leave a residue which can interfere with applied
finishes such as paint, floor sealers and adhesives.
Non-film-forming bond-breakers can be either
reactive or non-reactive types. Reactive bond-
breakers work by combining with alkalis in the
casting surface to produce a soapy layer, which
prevents bonding. Non-reactive bond-breakers
function as waterproofers. They do not react
chemically with the casting surface, but block its
pores and repel fresh concrete paste, thus preventing
a bond. Non-film-forming bond-breakers generally
do not function as effective curing compounds.
Selection
Selection of one of these types of bond-breakers for a
particular project is an important process and should
be undertaken with care. It should be noted that cost
per litre is not a good basis for comparison, as the
true cost of a bond-breaker must take account of the
application rate, relative ease of use, cost of removal
of any residue, cost of any disruption to other aspects
of the work, and the consequential risks of imperfect
performance of the bond-breaker.
The selection process should take the following
factors into consideration:
Is the material produced by a reliable
manufacturer?
Is it a dependable bond-breaker? Application
should not be so critical that slight errors will
result in panels sticking.
Is it a good curing agent? Poor curing can leave a
surface that is weak, porous and difficult to work
with.
If not, is the bond-breaker compatible with the
curing compound used?
Can it withstand rain showers? Rain and heat
adversely affect the performance of some bond-
breakers.
Is it durable enough to survive delays in casting
the panels? Some products will oxidise
sufficiently to require replacement in a few days.
Does the compound dry rapidly? Slow drying
materials can cause delays or collect dirt while
still tacky.
Can the panels be painted? Some compounds
may be transferred to the panels and must be
removed by mechanical means before painting is
possible; others may take a long time to oxidise.
Will the panels look clean? Some compounds
may leave stains that would be unsightly on an
unpainted surface.
Can a floor treatment be applied to the casting
surface? Some compounds must be physically
removed before a floor hardener can be applied;
some are incompatible with many floor tile
adhesives.
Is it economical? This assessment should include
all the above considerations, not just cost per
litre.
Application
Application of the bond-breaker is one of the most
important jobs on a tilt-up site. For best results, the
compound must be applied evenly, at the correct rate
per square metre and must cover the surface totally.
Whether application is by spray, brush or roller, it is
a wise precaution to ensure that operatives know
what they are doing, why they are doing it, how
important it is and how to check that they are doing it
correctly. When applying a bond-breaker, it is
essential that the manufacturers instructions are
followed carefully. The following points are offered
as a general guide.
Make each application of bond-breaker in two
light coats, applied at right angles to each other.
Most compounds contain a fugitive dye as a
visual check on coverage.
7-6
If the first application is being used for curing,
apply it immediately after final floating. The
bond-breaker layer will be applied after
formwork is positioned.
Before applying the compound, check that the
surface is clean and free of dust and debris.
Apply the compound evenly, paying particular
attention to panel edges. Do not leave bubbles of
bond-breaker on the surface.
Do not walk on the casting surface until the
bond-breaker coating is dry.
If there is a delay before casting, or if some areas
look questionable, check the integrity of the
bond-breaker by sprinkling a few drops of water
on it. If the water does not bead up, recoating
may be required.
Do not place concrete onto bond-breakers that
are wet with rain or heavy dew. The surface
should be dried and inspected first.
Exposed wood surfaces for forming may perform
differently from slab concrete.
Summary - bond-breakers
Ensuring adequate bond-breaking is one of the
most important aspects of tilt-up construction.
Bond-breakers from reputable manufacturers
will generally perform well if used in accordance
with their instructions.
If doubt exists regarding application rate,
compatibility, procedures, etc. the manufacturer
should be consulted.
If no other information is available,
compatibility problems and procedures can be
checked by casting small trial panels and lifting
them.
For best results, site personnel should be aware
of the function, properties and limitations of the
bond-breaker and the importance of applying it
correctly.
Further information on bond-breakers and their effect
on painting may be found in Helpful hints on tilt-up
construction, No. 3
(1)
from the Tilt-up Concrete
Association.
PANEL FINISHES
Procedure
The whole casting procedure, its location, sequence,
lifting timing requirements, etc. can be influenced by
the choice of finish to be used (see Chapter 9).
Guidance on methods of production to achieve
different finishes is outside the scope of this
publication, and reference should be made to other
specialist publications
(2, 3 , 4 , 5)
.
REINFORCEMENT
Fixing the reinforcement
Before any panel reinforcement is placed in position,
the bond-breaker must be applied to the casting slab.
Edge formwork must also be erected, checked and
fastened in place.
Reinforcement must be securely fixed within the
formwork so that it is not displaced by people
walking over it during the placing of the concrete.
Laps between sheets of fabric should be tied and the
reinforcement held in the correct location by purpose-
made chairs of suitable material such as concrete,
plastic or plastic-coated wire. Care should be taken to
ensure that chairs and cover-blocks are suitable for
the proposed surface finish and treatment for visible
faces.
Extra reinforcement such as edge bars and corner
bars must be tied into position to ensure that it cannot
move during concreting. All reinforcement can be
pre-assembled into mats and placed in the panels
complete, provided the mats can be lifted. This
technique minimises the likelihood of damage to the
bond-breaker from people walking on it.
Finally, the whole panel must be checked to ensure
that all reinforcement is of the correct size and in the
right place. Particular attention should be paid to
ensuring that the specified cover is obtained at edges.
In sandwich panels, the reinforcement for the
structural inner leaf is broadly similar to that
described above except that special chairs are needed
to support the reinforcement without punching into
the insulation and hence altering cover and location.
In addition, a lightweight mesh is installed in the
outer leaf, the minimum thickness of which is
normally determined by the reinforcement sizes and
cover requirements for durability at any rebates.
It should be noted that a thin layer of tightly adhering
rust on the reinforcement is not a problem and can
give a better bond to concrete than a clean, bright bar.
Checklist
When checking a panel prior to pouring concrete, the
following points should be considered:
Have the right bar sizes been used?
Do the bar locations and spacings conform to the
drawings?
Are the laps correct?
Is the reinforcement properly spaced and tied to
hold it in the correct position?
Are the bars for each face properly separated
from each other?
Are the inserts correctly positioned and securely
tied in place and has any necessary extra local
reinforcement been correctly positioned?
7-7
Do the lifting inserts have the correct
orientation? And has any extra reinforcement at
the inserts been correctly located?
Is the bond-breaker still effective? (Use the
water-drop test.)
Is the slab surface free of dust, tie-wire and other
debris?
Only when all the reinforcement and inserts have
been properly assembled and checked should the
concrete be placed in the panels.
EMBEDMENTS
Pick-up points and brace attachments
Fixings for pick-up points and brace attachments
should be accurately and securely positioned as
indicated on the panel setting-out drawing for each
panel (see Chapter 3, Figure 3.3). All fixings must be
installed in accordance with the manufacturers
requirements. They should also be properly tied to
the reinforcing bars to prevent dislodgement during
the concreting of the panels. The reinforcement will
also ensure a ductile, rather than brittle, failure due to
overload.
A check should be made that all fixings, particularly
those for lifting, are correctly located prior to placing
the concrete. Failure to do so may require additional
fixings to be installed at a later stage, which will take
time and can disrupt the erection programme.
Weld-plates and other connections
Welded plate connections, steel fixings for beams
and other items should also be accurately and
securely positioned. The reinforcement used to tie
back these fittings can often be used to secure them
to main reinforcing bars
SANDWICH INSULATION
Installation of insulation and ties
Panel ties or anchors connect the two leaves and
allow the outer leaf to be supported off the inner
without restricting movements due to changes in
temperature and moisture. Proprietary tie systems
normally aim to minimise cold bridging. Chapter 5
considers sandwich panel types and design, while this
section covers installation.
There are two generic systems generally available
and installation depends on both the material of the
anchor or pins and their geometry.
Fibre composite connector pins - These are
generally the easiest to install. The system consists
solely of stubby cylindrical ties which are inserted
into the wet concrete of the bottom (outer) layer
through pre-drilled holes in tightly butted sheets of
insulation previously laid on top. Ties are inserted
through the holes into the concrete and twisted 90 to
key the dovetail end into the concrete. Installers then
lightly tread the insulation sheets down onto the
concrete to expell any remaining air. Either
immediately, or more typically for larger tilt-up
panels, after first set, the reinforcement for the top
inner wall is placed and the concrete cast in the usual
manner.
Metal anchor and pins - Various systems are
available in stainless steel. These generally consist of
three elements: centrally placed cylindrical anchors;
remote anchors which are set at an angle so that they
are flexible in one axis and yet stiff in the other to
carry shear forces; and pins which are flexible in two
axes but rigid along their long axis to accommodate
forces due to temperature and moisture, and to resist
imposed loadings (see Chapter 5).
With these systems, the anchors must be attached to
the reinforcement cage before casting the bottom
layer of concrete. Reinforcement dowels are inserted
through the fittings to lie in the plane of the wall and
wired in place. Pins are simply clipped onto the
reinforcement. The system therefore slightly impedes
concreting and finishing operations. The insulation
sheet is generally installed after the concrete has set,
by cutting holes for anchors and by pushing the sheet
over the pins.
CONCRETING, FINISHING AND
CURING THE PANELS
Normal good practice
(6, 7)
should be applied to tilt-up
panel construction. However some specific points for
tilt-up are worth noting. As craneage is not required
on site until the panels are erected, placing by skip
may not be economical. Careful planning may allow
sufficient access for delivery by mixer truck chute, or
pumping may be an option for larger sites. To ensure
a consistent colour for visible faces the same mix
should be used for all the panels.
Good compaction is essential and use of a vibrating
screed is good practice. Extra care is needed around
fixings, at corners and edges, and at areas of
reinforcement congestion. Poker vibrators may be
used for thicker sections, taking care not to damage
the visible face. To help with this, some contractors
have developed waffle pokers or other methods such
as the use of a rope sling to keep the poker axis
horizontal. No final finishing should be attempted
until all bleed water has disappeared. Finishing will
vary depending on the required internal surface finish
specified and the whether stack-casting is to be used.
In hot, dry conditions, the top surface of the concrete
should be protected against rapid drying by shielding
the surface from winds, shading from the sun and
timing the placement to avoid the worst conditions.
Spraying curing compounds onto the surface will
also help control evaporation from the surface and
reduce the risk of plastic cracking, which could cause
a significant reduction in the tensile capacity of a tilt-
up panel.Tilt-up panels should be cured properly to
7-8
ensure that the full potential concrete strength is
developed
As with bond-breakers, two further points need to be
stressed. Firstly, to be effective, the curing compound
needs to be properly applied to give uniform and
complete coverage to the concrete surface. This
application should take place just when the sheen of
surface moisture has disappeared but while the
concrete is still damp. Secondly, the compatibility of
the chosen compound with the bond-breaker and its
effect on subsequent surface treatments needs to be
evaluated. Wax emulsion will, for example, impair
the bond of future surface coatings.
There are many parallels between panel and floor
slab construction. Further relevant guidance on
construction is given in Chapter 4 under the heading
Floor slab design and construction.
REFERENCES
1. Tilt-up Concrete Association. Helpful hints on
tilt-up construction, No. 3. Tilt-up Concrete
Association, Iowa, USA, 1993. 2 pp
2 Monks, W. Visual concrete: design and
production. British Cement Association, Wexham
Springs (now Crowthorne), 1988. 47.101. 28 pp.
3 Monks, W. Textured and profiled concrete
finishes. Cement & Concrete Association (now
British Cement Association), Wexham Springs
(now Crowthorne), 1986. 47.107. 12 pp
4 Monks, W. Exposed aggregate concrete finishes.
Cement & Concrete Association (now British
Cement Association), Wexham Springs (now
Crowthorne), 1985. 47.108. 16 pp.
5 Monks, W. Tooled concrete finishes. Cement &
Concrete Association (now British Cement
Association), Wexham Springs (now
Crowthorne), 1985. 47.109. 8 pp.
6. British Cement Association. Concrete on site.
Set of eleven booklets. British Cement
Association, Crowthorne, 1993. 45.200.
7. Ready-mixed Concrete Bureau. The essential
ingredient - Site practice. Ready-mixed Concrete
Bureau, Crowthorne, 1994. 22 pp. 97.341.
8-1
PANEL ERECTION

This chapter covers all practical panel erection issues and activities. These are given in chronological order,
from determination of adequate panel concrete strength and preparations for lifting through to actual lifting, and
finally bracing, release and panel base grouting.
PANEL STRENGTH
Before a panel may be lifted it must be confirmed
that the concrete has reached the required design
strength. This can be determined by use of
temperature-matched cubes cured alongside the
panels or assessed, where some previous experience
exists, from time/temperature records, as indicated in
Reference 6 and 7 in Chapter 3. Evidence of adequate
strength avoids premature lifting, which may cause
cracked panels or actual panel failure, as the concrete
will be less resistant to flexural stresses. Similarly,
failure of the lifting inserts may also occur as the
surrounding concrete also governs their strength.
A slightly longer curing period may be required for
stack-cast panels, as the last and youngest panel in
the stack must be lifted first. Speed of construction
may dictate that special curing or a stronger mix may
be justified, but this needs to be addressed at the
planning stage.
PREPARATIONS FOR ERECTION
Before starting the lifting sequence, full consultation
between the contractor and the crane driver will
avoid misunderstanding and delays. The following
actions need to be carried out before starting to erect
the panels:
Check that the panel levelling pads have been
correctly located.
Clear the site for crane access and mobility.
Provide sufficient room for crane outriggers and
panel bracing.
Confirm procedures in respect to overhead
powerlines.
Check that the concrete in the panels has attained
the specified strength for lifting.
Check that the inserts are correctly located, and
look for any signs of lack of compaction around
them.
Clean out all lifting, bracing and fixing insert
recesses.
Remove any concrete fins caused by grout
seepage before lifting (this is easier and safer
than when erected).
Preferably fix roof-framing members (running
along panels) to panels before erection.
Preferably attached top fixing of bracing to the
panel before lifting.
Missing, damaged or misaligned lifting inserts should
be corrected by attaching new, possibly chemical,
fixings. These should be approved by those
responsible for this aspect of the design. Expansion
anchors should however, be avoided. Replacement
bracing inserts and fixing inserts should be installed
while the panel is still on the casting bed.
ERECTION SEQUENCE
It is important to ensure that the panels are erected in
accordance with the specified sequence (see Chapter 3).
Generally, panels should be erected progressively
from one end of the building. The sequence of
erection should, whenever possible, be designed to
avoid multiple handling of panels. Generally, because
of the increased risk of cracking, the designer should
be notified before any lifted panels are lowered back
for storing flat. In such circumstances the designer
must determine the support system. However, panels
should preferably be stored in the vertical position
using temporary props, but great care is needed to
ensure their safety in the temporary state. In some
cases where continued activity is required on the
panels (for example, cleaning of brick faces), A-frames
may be needed in place of conventional bracing. In
essence, the panels should be stored only in a
position approved by the designer.
CRANES
Assuming adequate preparations for lifting, the
capacity of the mobile crane, the experience of the
erection gang and safe rigging determine the speed,
efficiency and safety of panel erection. The crane
should be of adequate size to easily handle the largest
panel on the job. Factors such as the height of the
panel, the amount of movement of the crane, and the
position of the crane relative to the panel must be
considered. The crane should be able to erect panels
without sliding or jerking them upward and with a
minimum number of moves.
The lifting position of the crane will vary, depending
on whether the panel is cast inside face up or outside
face up, and whether the crane must work from inside
the building or outside. The safest, quickest, and
least expensive method is to lift the inside face of the
8
8-2
panel from inside the building. But it might be
necessary to cast the panel outside face up to achieve
a particular finish or shape on the outside. The crane
may have to work outside because of the lack of
unobstructed interior space. Stack-casting of panels
may overcome the lack of interior space.
A cranes rated maximum capacity refers to its
capacity at a minimum radius and often bears little
relation to its actual capacity to lift large tilt-up
panels. The selection of crane size should be made at
the planning stage considering working radius and
boom extension required (see Chapter 3). Before
erection, a check should be made that the cranes
load scale is operating correctly.
RIGGING THE PANELS
The design for lifting (see Chapter 6) determines the
number and position of lifting fixings. Lifting or
rigging configurations are then determined so as to
minimise the load on the inserts. Most manufacturers/
suppliers of fixings can provide guidance on rigging
configurations and may also provide rigging hardware.
However, in most cases a specialist supplier will
supply the rigging hardware. The following comments
are adapted from the typical guidance given in
manufacturers brochures
(1,2,)
.
Although the number of lifting inserts cast-in
determines the amount of rigging, the actual rigging
configuration used may vary. It is usual and far better
for the rigging configurations to be designed to be
self-equalising (Figure 8.1). To facilitate this
equalisation, the rigging system often includes the
use of slings running through sheaves (pulleys) on
spreader or lifting beams.
The crane rigging cables must also be of sufficient
length. Due to the extra loads imposed by their
geometry, short cables may result in cracked panels
or overloaded inserts. Cable of the largest sensible
diameter is recommended to minimise tension
stretch.
Although thinner cables may be of sufficient
strength, their springiness may increase impact
loading.
Cables should be kept vertical and any side pulls
should only be executed following prior consultation
with the hardware supplier.
To avoid costly delays, rigging changes should be
kept to a minimum. It may be more economical to
add a few inexpensive inserts on the lighter panels
for consistency than to constantly change rigging.
Where possible, three rows of inserts should be
avoided due to the complex rigging configurations
required, but this is a design issue that must be
addressed prior to the erection phase.
Figure 8.1 Rigged panel being lifted
Panel erection
8-3
Some variations are possible on site, such as
converting, say, a two-high rigging to four-high
without removing existing rigging. However, this
will require consultations with the hardware supplier.
STRONGBACKS
Panels that are oddly shaped, elongated, or with large
or awkwardly located openings are often strengthened
for lifting by adding strongbacks (Figure 8.2). This
may be in addition to extra reinforcement in the panel.
The designer will normally have taken into account
the size, shape and weight of the panel and whether
strongbacks are to be used for lifting purposes.
Potential clashes between strongbacks, roof /floor
support angles, props, and the rigging should be
resolved at the planning stage. Any changes to the
specified strongback system should be referred to the
designer.
LIFTING METHODS
A single crane generally erects tilt-up panels with the
panel rigged for a typical multi-point lift. However,
there are other methods that can be employed for
different panel shapes and erection requirements.
Tandem lift - Sometimes for very large panels
(typically in excess of 60 tonnes) two cranes are used
in tandem. This will normally require the use of a
spreader beam to connect each crane hook to a
common lift point. Although this method is
sometimes used it is preferable to use a single larger
capacity crane where available.
Blind lifting - A reverse lift or blind lift is one where
the crane operator is unable to see the upper face of
the panel when the panel is lifted. This method is
used occasionally but should be avoided whenever
possible. However, a reverse lift is sometimes
necessary, when, for example, the panels are erected
from outside the building. It may also be unavoidable
when erecting the last panel.
The main danger is that the panel leans towards the
crane and additional precautions may need to be
taken. If a blind lift is going to occur it is important
that this aspect is discussed at an early stage with the
prospective crane company.
Top lift - This method is normally only used for
small panels typically not more than 4.5 m high. In
this case the lift inserts are positioned in the top of
the panel rather than on the face, and the panel will
usually require the provision of reinforcement for
lifting, which may be more than is required for in-
service loadings.
This is not efficient in panel design but leaves an
unmarked face and the panel hangs plumb. This
method is also commonly used for factory-produced
panels.
Figure 8.2 Panel strengthened by strongbacks for lifting
8-4
True vertical lift - The erection of panels on a
boundary against an existing wall can often be
difficult. Face-lifted panels will always hang slightly
off vertical by 3 to 5. Top-lifted panels will hang
vertical. However this lifting configuration is not
economical for panels over about 4.5 metres high.
One solution is to use an extra set of inserts in the top
edge for face-lifted panels. The load can be transferred
to these using a second crane or the panel could be
temporarily propped off vertical and re-lifted off the
top edge. Alternatively, offset lifting brackets can be
used, so can trigger mechanisms, which lock the
lifting ropes against the top of the panel when the
panel is nearly vertical. These operations need to be
planned beforehand and should be carried out only by
an experienced crane operator.
Walking a panel
This is a system used in some countries where the
crane lifts the panel and carries the panel to within
setting distance of its position in the wall. This is
often referred to as walking the panel. This method
is often used for one of the corner panels, which may
need to be cast some distance away from the corner,
requiring it to be carried (walked) to its final position.
In the UK walking of panels is normally carried out
only with crawler cranes.
While travelling, the panel should be tethered in
place to the crane. Very high loads can be exerted
onto the slab by this method.
The walk-out panel
The crane may be able to place most of the panels
from inside the building, but at least one of the panels
must be positioned after the crane exits. This last
panel is often called the walk-out or closure panel,
and must be set as a blind lift with the crane outside
the building. It is also not uncommon to mark the top
face of this panel walk out panel, just to ensure it is
not positioned with the crane still inside the building.
It may also be set vertical in a temporary position
next to the opening, reducing the crane reach at final
erection.
THE LIFT
When all the checks have been carried out and the
panel is fully rigged it is then ready to be lifted.
Lifting should be carried out so that the panel rotates
about the bottom edge. Appropriate joint detailing
can hide any damage to this edge. Bottom-edge
chamfers are normally used to reduce this risk. Care
should be taken to avoid sliding or dragging panels
across the finished floor because of the risk of
damage to panel, casting slab, personnel and
equipment. With stack-cast panels, more care is
needed to prevent the panels sliding off the stack and
damaging the face of the panel beneath. Raised and
braced timber packings can be used at the rotating
edge to prevent such damage.
Wedges can be used to overcome suction or a
chemical bond due to poor bond-breaker application.
The wedges should be hammered in line with the
lifting inserts to minimise stress on the panel.
LIFTING SEQUENCE
An experienced lifting crew will usually comprise
two riggers, a foreman, carpenters and labourers
together with a crane operator. The sequence of
events required to erect a tilt-up, as outlined by
Hughes
(3)
and others
(4)
, is as follows:
1. The crane operator lowers the spreader bar with
rigging attached, and the riggers connect the
cables to the pick-up inserts.
2. The riggers straighten cable tangles to prevent
snagging whilst the carpenters or labourers check
that the braces will hang loose as the panel is
lifted.
3. At the foremans signal, the crane operator lifts,
tightening the cables and pulling the panel to
break the suction bond. Generally, wedges will
be used to free the panel when the lifting force as
shown on the cranes load indicator reaches a
value of 20% in excess of the calculated value
under self-weight. The panel will lift slowly,
pivoting about the lower edge resting on the floor
slab. Lifting continues until the panel is near
vertical and off the floor. Crane operators should
apply a smooth and even lifting pressure to allow
air to penetrate the interface and break the suction
force. Water around the perimeter of the panel
may seal the edge and prevent penetration of air.
If, after heavy rain, water is lying against a panel,
lifting should not be attempted since suction
forces will be substantially increased. The water
should be swept away from panel edges.
(Sections of timber can be placed under the panel
to support it if it has to be lowered back down to
the horizontal. This also helps to prevent
scratching of the floor slab if the panel slides
during subsequent lifting. However, horizontal
storing and double handling can cause problems
(see Erection sequence on page 8-1)).
4. The panel is then swung gently into position by
the crane.
5. The panel is then lowered so that it rests onto pre-
levelled pads with the cables still taut. If
necessary, additional shims, typically of tough
PVC, may be used to level the panel. The erection
crew use leverage (pry) bars and wedges to move
the panel into the final position on its grid lines.
To provide spaces for leverage bars, some
contractors create small formwork notches, say
25 x 100 mm, in the bottom edge of the panels
when casting.
Panel erection
8-5
6. When the panel rests securely on the pads, the
braces are extended and holes are drilled in the
floor slab for their attachment. With the crane
still holding the panel, the braces are adjusted
(using their integral turnbuckles) until the panel is
approximately plumb.
7. After the braces are secure and the panel is
plumb, the crane slackens the cables and the
lifting hardware is disconnected. If using quick
release fixings, sometimes called ground
release fixings, release is achieved by simply
tugging a lanyard cable.
8. The crew gathers tools and work proceeds to the
next panel, moving the crane if necessary.
The elapsed time to lift and position a typical panel is
between 15 to 30 minutes, depending on size. Lintel
panels or L-shaped panels and other panels that
require strongbacks may take a little longer. It may
be seen from this that about 100 m or so of walling
can be erected in a single day, thus demonstrating the
speed of construction of tilt-up panels.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The general safety precautions to be applied during
the lift are given in more detail in Chapter 11, but
some of the more important items in respect to the
actual lift are included here for additional emphasis.
No personnel should pass beneath a non-
vertical panel, under any circumstances.
All personnel should be at a safe distance from
the panel when lifting the panel from horizontal
to vertical.
When tail ropes are used to control the swing of
the panel, personnel should work clear of the
panel.
Personnel should work clear of the panel edges
as the panel may slew sideways.
Tail ropes should never be wrapped around the
hands or other parts of the body during the lift.
Whenever possible, panels should be lifted with
the working gear facing the crane.
No attempt should be made to lift panels in
strong winds.
Braces, including knee braces when specified,
should be connected before releasing the lifting
gear.
LIFTING PROBLEMS
Tilt-up construction has been developed and refined
over the years and nearly every lifting problem can
be avoided by proper planning. The following
problems can occur, but can be avoided by paying
proper attention to them during the design and
construction phase. Further details may be found in
Reference 3.
Panel sticks to the floor slab
This may be caused by suction created by water
under the panel and may require the use of wedges as
discussed earlier. Failure of the bond-breaker might
result in some floor slab clinging to the panel (or
vice-versa) when lifted, requiring it to be chipped off
and the floor and panel made good. This problem,
however, can be eliminated by proper attention to the
type and application of the bond-breaker.
Panel does not hang correctly
This is caused either by miscalculation of the proper
location of lift points, or by physical failure to place
them correctly as designed. If the panel cannot be
manhandled into position, it can be lowered and
additional bolted-on lift inserts attached to better
balance the panel. In some instances this can be
corrected by using special offset lifting adapters.
POSITIONING AND LEVELLING THE
PANELS
The rigging arrangements are designed so that as the
panel rises it gradually rotates until it is in a near upright
position at lifting. From here the crane jibs out and
lowers the panel to its required position onto previously
levelled pads located under each end of the panel.
The accurate erection of the first few panels is
critical. Extra time spent in plumbing these in both
directions and establishing the correct line will repay
itself in quicker erection of succeeding panels. Extra
time should also be allowed on the first panels for the
erection team to become familiar with the procedure.
Panels must be moved smoothly at all times to avoid
shock loading which may induce cracking or possibly
damage the crane.
Adjustments and tolerances
It is of the utmost importance that the specified panel
and joint tolerances are realistic. Once established they
must be maintained. In general, panel variations lead
to a growth in overall wall length. Depending on their
size, joint details may be used to absorb these variations
either progressively at each joint or collectively at
one location, eg. at an oversail corner or doorway.
If tilt-up panels are being used in conjunction with
in-situ construction, then the tolerances for tilt-up
panels should not be used to absorb the construction
errors of the in-situ work.
The levelling pads should be compressed fibre sheet,
in-situ concrete or PVC shims of adequate strength to
carry the loads. Steel shims should not be used since
they can corrode, and can have too much frictional
resistance, which can result in diagonal cracks near
the ends of the panel as the panel shrinks. The tendency
to crack can also be avoided by providing additional
horizontal reinforcing at the bottom of the panel and
continuous support from grouting under the panels.
8-6
Concrete levelling pads should be the full thickness
of the panel and at least 500 mm long. PVC shims
should be at least 150 mm long. The length of the
pads is dependent on the panel bearing stresses. The
PVC shims have a high compressive strength
(typically 55 N/mm
2
), sufficient to resist the weight
of even the largest panels. Shims are available in a
range of thicknesses (typically between 1.5 and 6.5
mm) and should be limited to a maximum combined
thickness of 25 mm.
BRACING
Because a tilt-up panel is not a completed wall
immediately upon lifting, temporary support in the
form of bracing provides the necessary protection
against the forces of wind (Figure 8.3). Bracing gives
the contractor time to turn isolated panels into one
unified structure.
A number of variables will effect the amount of force
each brace each must resist and includes wind
velocity, surface area of the panel, the presence or
absence of openings, the dimensions of the panel and
the angle of each brace relative to the panel.
Figure 8.4 shows a typical example of a brace set-up
from which the required propping force may be
determined.
The number of braces is then found by dividing this
force by the safe working load for the particular brace
type being considered. A minimum of two per panel
should be generally employed. The braces are
attached to the panel normally by fixings
incorporated during its fabrication. The foot of the
brace is usually attached to the floor by special
anchor bolts inserted into the holes drilled into the
floor slab (Figure 8.5). Sometimes the braces may
need to be strengthened by additional knee bracing
(Figure 8.6)
Figure 8.4 Typical bracing set-up
Figure 8.3 Example of braced panels
3
4
5
Fw
Prop force
Fb = 1.25Fw
0.5h
h
2
h
2
2h
3
Fx=0.75Fw
Wind
force
Tilt-up panel (height = h)
Prop fixed
down to slab
or deadman
Prop fixed to wall panel
Panel erection
8-7
Figure 8.5 Connecting brace to floor slab
Figure 8.6 Strengthening main brace with a knee
brace
On occasions, for example, when there is no floor
slab or where it is required to brace the panel
externally to the structure, the foot of the brace may
be attached to a deadman cast into the ground,
typically a large auger drilled hole or pit filled with
concrete (see Figure 8.4). The weight of the deadman
is typically required to be at least 80% of the
maximum applied brace load.
Braces - general conditions for use
(1, 2)
Panels must be braced in accordance with the
specification.
All braces should be marked with their
maximum safe working load. In the case of
adjustable braces, the safe working load, both
zero extension and at maximum extension,
should be marked.
Whenever possible, affix the bracing to the panel
before lifting.
During the lifting process, the braces should not
hang freely below the base level of the panel.
This may be achieved by the use of adjustable
brace lengths or by the use of tail-ropes.
If bracing inserts are on the opposite face of the
panel to the lifting inserts, tilt panel just past
vertical in order to install the bracing.
When attaching the braces after the panel has
been positioned cannot be avoided, the panels
should be held firmly, safely and just past
vertical by the crane whilst the braces are
installed with the use of a ladder.
Adjustable braces should have stops on the
threads to prevent over-extension.
Generally, a minimum of two braces should be
used for each panel.
Whenever possible, avoid using normal
expansion anchors as the bracing inserts in the
floor. Instead, use special proprietary products.
Bracing bolts should be checked at regular
intervals.
RELEASE OF PANEL
The panel must not be released from the crane until
the braces attached to the panel have been installed
(including any knee, end or cross bracing) and the
panel is approximately plumb. Some adjustment of
the braces may be made after release (by turning the
threaded portion), but the panel should be within
about 100 mm of plumb before release.
Before being released from the crane the panel must
also be level so that the vertical joint between panels
will be of a uniform width.
FINAL GROUTING
The gap between the bottom of the panel and the
footing should be grouted or dry packed to transfer
the load to the footings. This will normally need to be
done before roof or other members are installed.
REFERENCES
1. The Burke Group. Burke on tilt-up. Burke, San
Mateo, USA, 1984. 54 pp.
2. Dayton Superior. Tilt-up construction handbook.
Miamisburg, USA, 1985. 55 pp
manual. HBA Publication, New Port Beach,
USA, 1994. 370 pp. 4th Edition.
Zealand. Tilt-up technical manual. C&CA New
Zealand, Porirua, 1990. TM 34. 32 pp.
Main brace
Knee
brace
Longitudinal brace
Knee brace
attachment
8-8
9-1
NON-STRUCTURAL
CONSIDERATIONS
This chapter contains a loose grouping of what are mostly non-structural design issues. Thermal design
considers air penetration, thermal insulation and thermal mass effects and includes the performance of sandwich
panels. Following a brief discussion of sound insulation the main range of finishes available is presented. Paints,
their specification and application are then examined in more detail since they are used on the majority of tilt-
up panels. Finally, the main options for panel joints are considered, together with their advantages and
disadvantages.
THERMAL DESIGN OF A BUILDING
In contrast to many metal cladding systems, tilt-up
construction provides a high-mass alternative,
consisting of monolithic panels that are normally
structural. This offers consequential benefits in air
tightness, insulation, and thermal mass.
There are basically three aspects requiring
consideration in the thermal design of structures:
An evaluation must be made of the desired
indoor environmental conditions.
An assumption of the typical weather conditions
that must be taken into account when developing
the best design to suit specific requirements.
Design should ensure that the procedures and
physical properties of different structural
materials are utilised effectively to ensure the
best possible control of living and working
environment.
The main factors determining the thermal response of
a building are: the heat gains or losses through the
various structural elements including the walls,
windows, roofs and floors; the internal heat loads;
and the rate of ventilation. The structural heat gains
or losses are dependent on certain properties of the
elements concerned.
Insulated tilt-up concrete wall panels can provide the
level of insulation necessary to meet the Building
Regulations, and give thermal mass and reduced air
penetration. Thus the physical properties combine to
give highly efficient thermal building design. In the
USA, the thermal mass of sandwich tilt-up panels has
been successfully exploited in warehouses to reduce
temperature fluctuations by up to 8C. Prison
authorities in Arizona and California have specified
similar construction to maintain temperatures at 19 to
21C an established factor in reducing prisoner
disturbances
(1)
.
Air penetration
In the UK, it is only recently that attention has been
drawn to the need not just for adequate insulation and
thermal mass, but also for airtight structures.
International studies have shown that Britain lags
behind in achieving the latter, and that theoretical
insulation values are meaningless where air can flow
through the myriad joints of some systems or even
between the leaves of built-up systems. On the other
hand, tilt-up is routinely used for buildings requiring
controlled atmospheres because its large monolithic
panels and widely spaced accessible joints are ideal
for reducing air penetration. These qualities are
readily exploitable for most buildings and may be
considered in the overall thermal design strategy.
Thermal insulation
Thermal options for tilt-up wall panels - Tilt-up
panels achieve good levels of thermal insulation,
either as solid panels with internally/externally
applied insulation, or as sandwich panels where the
insulation is incorporated between the inner and outer
leaves. The advantage of sandwich panels is that the
insulation is enclosed by robust protective concrete
layers during their production and this simplifies site
construction by reducing second fix work.
The U-value for these elements can be easily adjusted
to comply with the recommended values given in
Approved Document L
(2)
to the Building Regulations
or with the more stringent requirements that would be
required, for example, for cold stores. Thus, use of
this type of building element is compatible with
moves to decrease energy use.
The thermal transmittance of insulated tilt-up panels
is affected by the type of insulation and, to a degree,
by any connectors used in their fabrication. However,
the calculated difference in the averaged U-value of a
sandwich panel with stainless steel as opposed to
composite ties is not more than a few percent when
considering a typical building. The exact difference
will depend on the extent and thermal efficiency of
the installed steel tie system. Indeed, the effect on the
overall energy consumption of the building is likely
to be minimal as that will be largely influenced by
heat losses through roof and floor and by air changes.
In very critical situations, however, such as cold
stores operating at -20
o
C or so, the composite ties
may become more beneficial as they virtually
eliminate thermal bridging.
As with any other building element, moisture
absorption by the insulation can also influence the
9
9-2
thermal behaviour of both insulated solid panels and
insulated sandwich panels. Water has a higher
thermal conductivity than air. Thus, if the insulating
layer absorbs water, its thermal performance will be
affected. It normally becomes an issue only in the
cases of external insulation and then only when
inappropriate insulation is used. Loss of insulation is
not normally a problem with tilt-up since panels are
normally internally insulated or are of sandwich
construction, which is protected by dense concrete.
Likewise, interstitial condensation is not a problem as
the concrete, ties and insulation are resistant to the
effects of water under most normal building
conditions
Calculation of thermal transmittance, U-value, for
a building element - For a solid element composed
of n different layers in thermal contact with each
other, the U-value can be calculated using the series
parallel method below:
Where 1/h
i
and 1/h
o
are respectively the surface
resistances of the inner and outer surfaces ( ie. A
i
and
A
o
respectively) to heat flow;
1
...
n
and d
1
.. d
n
are
respectively the thermal conductivities and
thicknesses of n successive layers of the different
materials comprising the element; A
1
...... A
n
are the
cross-sections of elements through which heat flow
takes place; and A is the total cross section area of the
building element. Other factors being fixed, the heat
flow across an element is proportional to its U-value.
Thermal bridging - Thermal bridges are formed by
materials with relatively low resistance to heat flow
such as nails, metallic fasteners and concrete passing
through or penetrating an otherwise well-insulated
element.
In sandwich panel construction, connectors pass
through the layer of thermal insulation that is placed
to restrict the heat flow across the element and thus
may conduct heat from one side of the insulator to
the other.
The effect on the thermal transmittance (U-value) of
such an element depends on the total area and
thermal conductivity of the materials used in the
fabrication of the connectors.
As indicated under Concrete sandwich panels (steel
ties), on page 9-3, thermal bridging by large
components or connections can be a problem, but the
bridging caused by the ties used in an insulated tilt-
up panel may not be that significant.
Approved Document L
(2)
indicates that account needs
to be taken of the effect of thermal bridging by use of
the series parallel method, but this does not extend to
wall ties. However, the U-value indicated later in this
chapter for sandwich panels with steel and composite
ties allows for a typical arrangement of ties and
connections in order to give an example of their
calculated effect.
In order to obtain an expression for the overall heat
flow through the wall generally, it will normally be
acceptable to determine an equivalent single
resistance for the parallel configurations.
Insulation materials - The materials should: not be
combustible or, in a fire, produce appreciable smoke
or noxious and toxic fumes; be inherently proofed
against rotting, mould, fungal growth and attack by
vermin; not give rise to objectionable odours at
temperatures at which they are to be used; not cause a
known hazard to health, either in use or upon
removal. A low thermal conductivity should also be
obtained through the entire working temperature range.
The forms of insulation used for
tilt-up construction, particularly
when used in sandwich panels,
commonly meet all the above
requirements. Also, being
protected by concrete, the panels
retain their insulation and do not
present a problem in terms of a fire hazard as can be
the case with some other forms of construction (see
Chapter 5, Fire growth and spread on page 5-18).
Thermal performance of sandwich panels -
Thermal resistance of the inner and outer surfaces of
the structure should be calculated, taking into account
the conditions of exposure, position of the member
and its emissivity
(3)
.
The use of internal/external or sandwich insulation
enables tilt-up panels to be easily designed to meet
the provisions of the Building Regulations.
Knowing the thermal conductivity of different
components of the wall, thicknesses of the layers and
the surface resistance, an overall U-value can be
calculated using the series parallel method
(3)
as
described earlier. Generally the insulation layer will
extend to the perimeter of the panel. Where it does
not cover the entire panel and solid concrete is
framed around it, this reduced performance should be
calculated.
Tilt-up sandwich panels can be more energy efficient
than those types of construction where the interior
wall is merely covered by insulation or where air
leaks in cavities between thin wall layers reduce the
energy efficiency significantly. There is growing
recognition that circulation or loss of air in such
cavities can increase the heat flow through the
building element and seriously reduce the effective
thermal insulation.
Traditional sandwich panels have two layers of
concrete that are connected together by ties (typically
A
A
d
A
d
A
d
A h A h
R
U
1
n n
n
...
2 2
2
1 1
1
o o
1
i i
1
1 1
,
_
+ +
+ +

Non-structural considerations
9-3
steel or composite) and separated with a layer of
insulation. Ultimately, the choice between steel and
composite connectors will depend on a combination
of cost, thermal and mechanical performance, design
constraints, and efficiency of construction.
Concrete sandwich panels (steel ties) - Steel ties are
used to connect the two layers while passing through
the insulation (Figures 9.1 and 9.2). Both concrete
and steel have very low thermal resistance in
comparison with building insulation materials (150
mm of concrete has an R-value, thermal resistance, of
0.09 m
2
K/W, nearly 1/8 of the thermal resistance of
25 mm of polystyrene foam which is equal to 0.7 m
2
K/W). The steel ties will form thermal bridges but
their effect may not be that significant, as shown by
the following example.
The U-value of a typical plain sandwich panel with
stainless steel ties ( = 16 W/m K) having an 125
mm inner concrete leaf, 75 mm thickness of
insulation ( = 12.1 W/m K) and a 75 mm outer
concrete leaf is computed to be 0.371 W/m
2
K. This
value is well within the Building Regulations
minimum requirement of 0.45 W/m
2
K and
demonstrates the good insulation achievable with tilt-
up construction.
In the absence of any ties, the U-value for the same
wall and insulation layer would be 0.36 W/m
2
K. This
shows that the effect of the ties is small and increases
the heat flow by only a few percent when compared
with a hypothetical panel without ties.
It is assumed in this example that the sleeve
connector is not fille d with concrete (cre ating a thermal
bridge ) and tha t the re is no pe rime ter bridging. If s uc h
bridging does occur the effect should be allowed for
as it can be significant
Figure 9.1 shows a typical concrete sandwich panel
with steel ties, and Figure 9.2 shows a typical cross
section of a similar panel.
Concrete sandwich panels (composite ties) - A
sandwich panel system (Figures 9.3 and 9.4) using
composite ties is marketed by Thermomass Building
Systems. It is a specific type of concrete sandwich
panel often used in tilt-up construction and provides a
wall with a high degree of thermal performance.
The panels incorporate prefabricated Styrofoam
(EPS) insulation. The thermal conductivity of this
type of insulation is known to be low and around
0.03 W/m K, and it has a closed cell structure, which
restricts the uptake of moisture.
This building system also reduces the heat loss and
gains through building elements through the thermal
bridging effect as fibre composite materials are used
in the fabrication of connectors (PC-connectors).
These materials have a much lower thermal
conductivity than steel connectors.
Taking a sandwich panel of the same dimensions as
previously but with composite connectors rather than
Figure 9.1 Typical concrete sandwich panel with
steel ties
Figure 9.2 Typical cross section of a concrete
sandwich panel with steel ties
steel ties, the U-value reduces to about 0.361 W/m
2
,
virtually identical to a panel without ties. From this
example, the U-value calculated for a panel with PC-
connectors is better than for steel ties, but not
appreciably so. However, since the actual U-value
will depend on the number of ties and connectors and
their installation, it is best assessed individually for
Panel ties at 1200 mm over wall
Connector pins
Flat anchor
Sleeve connector anchor
250 mm
150 mm
6500
7500
Insulation
d
1
d
3
d
2
Internal
concrete leaf
External
concrete leaf
9-4
each panel configuration. The use of composite ties
may, however, become more beneficial where there
is a need for extreme insulation as might, for
example, be the case with cold stores. Also localised
cold spots due to thermal bridging, which can occur
with metal ties, are eliminated.
Figure 9.3 Typical concrete sandwich panel with
composite ties
Figure 9.4 Typical cross section of a concrete
sandwich panel with composite ties
Solid insulated panels - The alternative to insulated
sandwich panels is internally or externally insulated
solid panels. These can provide similar levels of
insulation to sandwich panels but normally have the
insulation applied after the erection of the panels as
part of the other building works. This insulation can
be positioned part internal and part external (as in the
case of the Glenrothes project shown in Chapter 2).
The position relative to the concrete panel will
radically affect the usable thermal mass. In these
cases the external insulation can be protected by an
earth berm, which also provides some insulation and
allows the internal insulation to be raised above the
circulation area thus eliminating damage due to
traffic within the building. The amount of insulation
for this form of tilt-up panel can be readily obtained
from Approved Document L
(2)
to the Building
Regulations.
Thermal mass
Thermal mass is the property that enables building
materials to absorb, store and later release significant
amounts of heat or coolth. Structures constructed
from concrete and masonry have a unique energy-
saving advantage because of their inherent thermal
mass. Smaller peak internal temperatures compared
with those of the exterior environment, stability of
inside temperatures, and the time lag between the
occurrence of peak internal and external temperatures
are the favourable thermal characteristics observed in
energy-efficient high mass construction.
By reducing the amplitude of the internal temperature
fluctuations, thermal mass reduces the cooling loads
and makes the environment more comfortable. Delay
of peak temperatures in the internal environment,
known as thermal lag, shifts the peak cooling loads to
cooler times of the day when any air-conditioning
equipment installed can work more efficiently.
A number of energy-efficient commercial
developments in the UK have demonstrated clearly
the effectiveness of concretes passive cooling effect
and thermal inertia in controlling the thermal
environment within a building
(4)
.
The calculation of heat and energy balance with
consideration of thermal mass and thermal capacity
are set out in prEN 832
(5)
and the CIBS Building
energy code
(6)
.
When the insulation layer is located between the two
concrete layers or externally - allowing a concrete
surface to be in direct contact with the internal space
significant thermal capacity is presented to release
and store energy, and limit temperature swings in the
interior of the building. The impact of thermal mass
is more significant in reducing the cooling loads than
the heating loads.
Tilt-up sandwich walls - Insulated tilt-up sandwich
panels are designed to meet all the criteria required
for energy efficiency as set by the standards. The
Panel ties at 400 mm over wall
Composite connectors
250 mm
150 mm
6500
7500
Insulation
d1 d3 d
2
Internal
concrete leaf
External
concrete leaf
9-5
exposed internal concrete leaf (generally the
structural leaf) can store and release significant
thermal energy due to its thermal capacity. Therefore,
it can help prevent wide temperature swings in the
interior of the buildings and produce a more
comfortable living or working environment.
Since the insulation layer is located in between the
two concrete layers it allows the concrete mass to be
in direct contact with the internal space. Therefore,
this type of construction is more effective in
moderating the indoor temperatures compared with a
wall which is lined by an insulation material on its
internal surface.
In the USA, building thermal performance Standard
ASHRAE.90.1
(7)
allows designers to recognise the
beneficial effects of high thermal mass by calculating
an effective U-value incorporating a correction for
fabric energy storage. A sandwich panel system
supplier has calculated effective U-values, modified
for dynamic effects, for a range of constructions and
locations in the USA
(8)
. Depending on the local
climate, typical effective U-values are improved by a
factor of between 1.3 and 3.0 over steady-state
values.
SOUND INSULATION
The general subject of sound insulation is so complex
that in-depth study is outside the scope of this design
manual. It is, however, possible to outline the
principal objectives of sound insulation and to give
general guidance on the sound performance
properties of concrete tilt-up panels.
There is a need for separating walls between
dwellings, and indeed walls between individual
rooms of all types of buildings, to posses adequate
sound insulation. It can also be beneficial, and in
some instances will be necessary, to provide adequate
sound insulation to external walls in order to reduce
sound entering or exiting a room or building.
Sound insulation in buildings may be provided to
resist the transmission of both airborne and structural
or impact sound.
Resistance of a wall to airborne sound transmission
mainly relies on its weight, stiffness and the degree
of isolation between the leaves in the case of multi-
layer panels. Concrete can provide such airborne
sound insulation and provide excellent control of
impact sound when used in conjunction with a
floating/resilient surface layer.
Mass law
One way to assess the performance of an element to
resist airborne sound is by use of the mass law, which
relates the sound reduction index to the mass of the
wall. The mass law should, however, only be used to
give an approximate guide to the insulation
obtainable. In practice the insulation obtained is
always a few dB less than the theoretical maximum.
At the frequencies controlled by mass, the Sound
Reduction Index increases at a rate of about 4 dB for
each doubling of mass, which for a particular
material means a doubling of thickness. However,
this is a significant change since it relates to a log
scale, and doubling the mass or thickness effectively
reduces the sound energy level by half.
Single panel solid concrete wall - The sound
insulating performance of a plain concrete panel can
be approximated using the mass law, assuming that it
is well sealed at the joints and edges and that bypass
routes are adequately blocked. According to Building
Regulations, a 190 mm thick wall of in-situ concrete
(minimum density of 2200 kg/m
3
) can provide
reasonable sound resistance of 52 dB. The use of a
plaster coating is optional.
Sandwich panels - The typical sound resisting
performance of a double or multi-layer construction
is different from and more complex than that of a
single wall.
However, mass law could be applied to estimate the
sound insulation of tilt-up sandwich panels in
frequency regions where resonance and coincidence
do not occur. It is recommended that only the
combined thickness of the two concrete layers is
considered in the calculation.
Ideally ties should not be rigid, and should be kept to
a minimum in sandwich panels to minimise the
formation of sound bridges. When sound insulation is
critical it is recommended that tests for different
frequency regions are undertaken to give a better
understanding of the sound insulating behaviour of
tilt-up concrete sandwich panels.
In respect to airborne sound, concrete tilt-up walls
can be provide excellent levels of sound insulation,
typically in the order of 52 dB or better. This can be
compared with normal metal cladding systems,
which, due to their low mass, often only provide less
than 30 dB sound reduction without resorting to
specialist designs for which the cost may be
uneconomic. This is a very significant difference and
is a major benefit offered by tilt-up construction.
PANEL FINISHES
Surface treatments and finishes
A major factor in the acceptance and increased use of
tilt-up construction in Australia, the USA, and New
Zealand in recent years has been the improved
appearance of the structures. A wide variety of
aesthetic effects has been created using treatments
and finishes, most of which are simple to achieve
(Table 9.1). In addition to the advent of specialised
paints and coatings at reasonable cost, much of the
improvement is due to the sensitive detailing of
panels.
Thoughtful use of grooves, textures and colour can
break down the scale of a large flat wall to make it
9-6
more appealing, and can highlight particular areas or
features. Although several of these finishes can be
achieved on the face-up side of a panel at casting, it
is normal to apply them to the face-down surface in
order to ensure consistent quality finishes, to avoid
lifting fittings in the visible outer face, and to allow
stack-casting.
Table 9.1 Types of finishes used for tilt-up panels
Type Variations
Coloured concrete Cement/aggregates
Fairfaced concrete Cement/aggregates
Exposed aggregate
/sand bed
Cement/aggregates
Acid etched
Elastomeric
1
(Polyurethane, silicone
rubber)
Formliners
Rigid plastic
2
(GRP, ABS, PVC)
Coatings Paints
Textured
Trompe loeil Paint, texture and shape
Feature strips Shape and position
Brick Slips
Cropped bricks
Brick outer leaf
Openings/pierced Size, shape and location
1. Generally multiple factory use only, due to high cost.
2. Typically single-use, lower cost.
Procedure
The whole casting procedure, its location, sequence,
lifting timing requirements, etc. can be influenced by
the choice of finish to be used. Although it is possible
to give a special finish to both faces of a tilt-up panel,
this is not recommended. The internal face is
normally given a plain smooth finish suitable for
painting or leaving as formed.
It is important to appreciate the economics and
production implications of certain finishes. For
instance, the use of expensive elastomeric formliners
for large areas of relief will dictate sequential casting
involving repeated use of the same formwork, more
suited to factory precasting than site casting.
A similar situation may occur for some brick finishes
that involve jigs for locating the brick units.
However, cheaper single-use formliners, especially
for smaller areas, may be economical for site tilt-up
involving panels cast simultaneously.
Grooves and relief
The creation of grooves in tilt-up panels at the time
of casting is one of the easiest ways of providing
visual interest to otherwise large flat areas of
concrete. If the width of the groove is chosen to
match a standard paintbrush or roller, it becomes a
simple matter to apply a coloured coating in the
groove that will contrast with the colour of the panel.
Such grooves are easily formed in face-down casting
by fixing strips of sealed timber, or expanded
polystyrene or polyethylene to the casting bed. The
sides of the grooves should be tapered by a minimum
of 15 to permit easy removal of the groove former
and to avoid sharp corners, which may chip. Groove
formers may be stuck to the floor slab using gun-
applied mastic. Close attention to correct setting out
and location is essential to ensure high quality
finishes.
A similar technique using sheet material such as
plywood or expanded polystyrene is possible for
simulating windows, forming architectural features
and providing relief on an otherwise flat surface. It is
possible to use shaped formers to produce indented
letters or logos to give the building a company
identity.
In all cases, the depth of the groove or shape should
be less that 20 mm. Deeper indents could have a
significant impact on durability and structural
strength, as the reduced section may become the
critical one for design for strength and durability.
Well thought out detailing can avoid reduced sections
at critical locations such as horizontal bands at the
mid-height of panels.
Formliners are an alternative method for producing a
series of grooves to give a ribbed finish. They are
available in a variety of patterns. They can be made
of rubber, plastics, timber, or metal decking and are
laid on the casting bed to form a profiled or textured
surface against which to cast the concrete. In general,
selective and sensitive use of formlined texture/relief
in relatively small areas is more effective than larger
areas, depending on the fineness of the relief
produced. When using formliners, particular care
must be taken to choose an appropriate bond-breaker.
Exposed aggregate
Exposed aggregate finishes may be formed on either
face-up or face-down surfaces, but quite different
techniques are required. For face-up work, the
traditional water-washing approach that is used for
paving is appropriate.
Chemical retarders are often used to create exposed
aggregate finishes on panels cast face-down. Care
must then be taken when placing the concrete not to
abrade the retarders. Protect the casting surface
during the initial placement of concrete by deflecting
the pour with shovels, a wood baffle or similar
equipment. Subsequent wet concrete should be
9-7
placed onto previously placed material and then
spread with rakes or other hand devices.
Sand embedment is the normal technique used for
face-down casting. The selected larger aggregate or
stone is spread in a single layer over a thin bed of
sand and tamped into place. While pouring the
concrete care must be taken not to displace any
aggregate from the sand bed. On lifting the panel, the
sand is brushed off to leave the embedded aggregate
showing on the surface.
This latter technique can also be used to create
patterns or designs, either by using selected coloured
aggregates or by choosing pieces of flat stone to form
a mosaic or inlay. It is also common practice to
delineate different areas of exposed aggregate by
means of grooves or recessed plain bands.
Using a suitable concrete mix, an effective exposed
aggregate appearance can also be achieved by
sandblasting, grit-blasting or acid-etching the
finished panel.
Surface treatments
Surface treatments are one of the easiest and most
versatile ways of improving the appearance of
smooth-finished surfaces and can vary from simple
acrylic paints or high-build elastomeric coating
systems to chemically-bonded finishes or stains
guaranteed for up to 25 years. The wide range of
colours available makes it possible to choose an
attractive colour scheme, whether it is for decoration
or to give corporate identity to a building. Surface
treatments can be applied to the total surface or used
to highlight parts of it; they can be easily reinstated
after damage and may be changed to give a new
image following a change in ownership or tenancy.
Proprietary high-build surface treatments are
available to produce a wide variety of textured
finishes from fine to coarse. They can be sprayed,
brushed, rolled, combed or trowelled onto the
concrete and can be coloured as desired. Such
coatings have the advantage of masking minor
imperfections in the concrete surface, but will not
conceal major blemishes.
For any surface treatment to be successful, the
surface must be properly prepared to receive it. In
tilt-up construction it is also advisable to check what
effect the bond-breaker/curing compound may have
on any subsequent treatment. Some materials are
incompatible and will impair coating adhesion unless
physically removed. Pressure washing may be
sufficient to do this once the chemicals have started
to break-up with UV exposure. Further information
on surface treatments is given later in this chapter in
Painting tilt-up panels.
Trompe loeil
Careful use of rebates and/or paints can give apparent
relief, shading and form to flat panels.
Brick finish
A variety of methods is available to provide or
simulate brick finishes to tilt-up panels. The Scott
Brick System from the USA supplies brick slips with
dovetail keys on their concealed face, which fit into a
snap-together spacing system that simulates both
stretcher and stack bonds. The sacrificial spacing
system replicates a lightly recessed jointing effect
and the visible face of the brick slips is protected by
wax against grout staining.
Another method successfully employed in the UK
uses bricks cropped in half along their long axis,
through holes formed during normal manufacture.
However, the bricks are thicker than slips and require
a spacing system in the mould used for their casting,
which must be sequential, so compromising fast tilt-
up construction.
A further alternative is for tilt-up to be used as the
loadbearing inner leaf of the building. This allows a
brick outer to be laid later, off the critical path, and
tied to the concrete panel across the cavity formed.
Combinations
The various finishes possible for tilt-up construction
need not be considered in isolation. Some stunning
effects can be achieved by combining two or more
finishes on the same panel.
Mock-ups and test panels
For many tilt-up buildings it is usual to erect a small
test panel for all parties concerned to agree upon
standards, particularly for finishes. Mock-ups such as
these allow alterations before construction and easy
reference during construction.
The USA-based L. M. Scofield Company suggests
that at least one month prior to placing any concrete
that will be textured, a sample panel having adequate
horizontal and vertical dimensions should be made
for approval on the job-site using the contemplated
materials, mix designs, pour rates, and construction
techniques including timing for stripping of the
formwork or liner.
The TCA also recommend test panels as an effective
means of setting a standard for variations in colour or
surface finishes. It is thought that a representative test
tilt-up panel could include:
Range of aggregate size and colour
Range of admixture/grout colour
Edges and reveals
Formliner joints
Lifting/bracing component holes
Degree of abrasive blasting.
Examples of panel finishes
Examples of a range of panel finishes are shown in
Figure 9.5 on the next page.
9-8
Figure 9.5 Examples of panel finishes
Figure 9.5 Exales of panel finishes
9-9
Achieving successful finishes
Although it is a relatively simple matter to achieve a
wide variety of different finishes for tilt-up
construction, attention paid to the following points
will maximise the potential for success:
Ensure the casting bed is free from physical
blemishes that will be reflected in the panel
surface.
Use grooves or reveals to break up large panel
areas. This reduces scale, provides visual interest
and creates smaller defined areas for easier
coating application.
Select coating textures which are appropriate for
the visual effect required and the condition of the
panel concrete at casting. Areas that will be
subject to close scrutiny probably justify more
elaborate textures.
Ensure that the curing compound and bond-
breaker will not interfere with the application of
the final coating. Follow the recommendations of
the coating manufacturer with regard to surface
preparation and the method of application.
Conduct trials to ensure that the chosen finishes
produce the desired effect on the concrete
surfaces produced on the job-site from the
proposed floor slab finish.
The range of surface treatments appropriate for tilt-up
construction is very wide, covering the full spectrum
of cost and appeal. The more expensive techniques
are not always applied to a whole project: it is quite
common to use these eye-catching treatments only at
the front of the building, or for small areas, applying
an alternative finish to the remainder. In this way, the
effect on overall cost is small, although the
improvement in appearance is considerable.
PAINTING TILT-UP PANELS
Painting is the most common method used to finish
tilt-up panels, its primary function being to enhance
the appearance of the structure, through properties
such as colour, texture, cleanability, opacity and
mould resistance. This section therefore examines
surface treatments in more detail.
Selection of paints
There are many different surface treatments on the
market with differing benefits and weaknesses, which
must be appreciated when selecting material
appropriate to a specific situation. It is beyond the
scope of this publication to give more than brief
pointers to help in the consideration of
manufacturers recommendations for selection of
appropriate paints, preparation and application
methods.
The Concrete Societys guide
(9)
provides more
detailed guidance on the selection and application of
paints, referred to as surface treatments. An outline
of the selection process given in the above reference
is shown in Figure 9.6
Figure 9.6 Outline of the selection process for a
surface treatment
Paint materials
Surface treatment classification by generic material
type is complex (Figure 9.7, page 9.10) and although
certain generic performance characteristics can be
ascribed, the degree to which they are achieved
depends critically on the particular formulation.
Therefore, it is unwise to substitute a specific product
for another of the same generic type for cost or other
reason without careful consideration. A further useful
subdivision of treatments based on film thickness
yields the following two categories:
Coatings which depend on the formation of a
continuous surface film to shield the surface.
Materials which impregnate the concrete but do
not depend on the formation of a significant
surface film. These may be either:
i) penetrants which line the concrete pores and
prevent ingress of liquids by absorption or
capillary action or
ii) sealers which block the pores with minimal
surface film or affect on appearance.
Table 9.2, on page 9-10, gives a simplified overview
of the common applications of the main types of
surface treatment relating to appearance. It is
presented only as an initial guide to contribute to
informed discussions with suppliers of specific
treatments, and should be supplemented by test
results, case histories and predictions of the service
conditions of the actual tilt-up panels.
Proprietary products
Different generic types
Main reason
for treatment
Service conditions
Application conditions
Assessment of test
data and case histories
Health and safety
(Cost)
Potentially suitable
types of treatment
Properties
required
Preferred route,
but not possible
Preferred route,
but not possible
Specific type
of treatment
Proprietary products
Same generic type
9-10
Whole life cycle performance of the paint is an
important consideration in its selection. Poor
performance is likely if basic procedures necessary to
produce painted panels are ignored.
Achieving a successful paint-job
Some of the factors that can influence the quality of a
painted finish include: concrete cure, surface dryness,
moisture content, temperature, use of bond-breakers
and curing compounds, paint type, paint application
method, or interaction of more than one of the above
Table 9.2 Use of generic treatments to enhance or maintain appearance
Inorganic Hybrid Organic
Use
C
e
m
e
n
t
i
t
i
o
u
s
S
i
l
i
c
a
t
e
-
b
a
s
e
d
S
t
e
r
a
t
e
S
i
l
i
c
o
n
a
t
e
S
i
l
i
c
o
n
e
S
i
l
a
t
e
S
i
l
o
x
a
n
e
P
o
r
e

f
i
l
l
i
n
g

s
e
a
l
e
r
T
h
e
r
m
o
s
e
t
t
i
n
g
T
h
e
r
m
o
p
l
a
s
t
i
c
S
y
n
t
h
e
t
i
c

r
u
b
b
e
r
M
i
s
c
e
l
l
a
n
e
o
u
s
Comments
Mould, dirt staining
Uniformity after repair
3
3
3
3
3 3 3 3
3
3
3
3
3
Anti-graffiti
3 3
(3) (3) (3) 3 (3) (3) Some products only
Colour, texture, reflectance (3) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
This table is for initial guidance only. It is prescriptive and should not be used directly for the final selection or specification of a surface treatment
Figure 9.7 A classification of surface treatments (Taywood Engineering Ltd)
Inorganic Organo-metallic
Siliconates
Stearates
Organo-silicon
Silanes
Siloxanes
Silicones
Organic
Cementitious
(usually polymer-
modified)
Silicates
Silicofluorides
Thermosetting Miscellaneous
Bituminous
Oleo-resinous
and drying oils
Alkyds*
Thermoplastics and
synthetic rubbers
Two-pack One-pack
Moisture-curing
polyurethanes
(may be solvented)
Solvented
Acrylic
Vinyls
Acrylated rubber
Chlorinated rubber
Polyurethane
(one-pack)**
Water-borne
Acrylic
Vinyls
Acrylated rubber
Styrene-butadiene
Solvented
Epoxies
Polyurethanes
Water-borne
Epoxies
Solvent-free
Epoxies
Polyurethanes
(Meth)acrylates
Unsaturated polyesters
Vinyl esters
Including urethane modified materials which
may be referred to as polyurethanes.
Non-reactive - solid or high viscosity
polymers in solution.
**
*
9-11
items. Material from the TCA datasheet on the
painting of tilt-up panels (Reference 10) is
summarised below, amended for UK practice. It
presents some of the basic techniques used by
successful tilt-up contractors to improve consistency
and quality of painted finishes.
Bond-breaker - Some of the bond-breaker applied to
the floor slab to prevent sticking can be transferred to
the down-side face of the tilt-up panel and must be
removed prior to painting the panel. To aid removal,
bond-breakers formulated for tilt-up are normally
designed to degrade under the UV component of
daylight.
It is advisable to check with the manufacturer of the
bond-breaker and paint to make sure the materials are
compatible and, if there is any doubt as to the
compatibility, do a test application. Note that the test
paint sample may need to dry for some days before
adhesion testing. CIRIA Technical Note 139
(11)
and
draft European Standard pr EN 1542
(12)
give further
details of testing.
Panel curing and drying - The typical tilt-up panel
is erected between seven and 14 days after pouring.
Leaving the panel in its horizontal position for longer
periods increases the strength of the concrete but
does not allow excess moisture to escape from the
face of the panel in contact with the slab. Moisture
levels in concrete can sometimes give rise to
problems with application and performance. Some
paint formulations are more tolerant of application to
damp surfaces and are more vapour permeable and
thus less likely to suffer bond failure from vapour
trapped behind the coating. However, even these will
perform better if applied to dry concrete. In view of
this, the manufacturers recommendations should be
sought on applicability to tilt-up panels which, as
with all new concrete, will contain some moisture
even when surface-dry.
Surface preparation - Surface preparation is the key
to a successful paint job. It must be done consistently
and thoroughly with no exceptions. All bond-
breakers or form release agents, oils, dust, mould and
mildew must be removed from the panel. TCA tips
include:
1. Wait a minimum of 30 days after erection before
cleaning the panels. Clean panels prior to any
patching so that the repair will adhere to the
base. Clean again if necessary.
2. The most economical and effective method for
tilt-up panels is the use of a power washer.
Bond-breaker and paint manufacturers typically
have recommendations regarding the removal of
bond-breakers, indicating whether power
washing, detergent washing, etc. is required.
Further advice is also given in BS 6270
(13)
,
ASTM D4258
(14)
; and ASTM D4259
(15)
.
3. The use of a washer having an oscillating tip
with a pressure of at least 300 psi is
recommended.
4. The concrete should change colour after surface
drying from a mottled grey to a more consistent
light grey.
5. Clean all joints in addition to the panel faces.
The same factors that prevent paint from
adhering to the panel will also prevent joint
sealants from adhering.
6. In the USA, many sealants are painted over,
requiring checks with the sealant manufacturer
regarding compatibility, curing time and other
factors affecting paint adhesion. Generally such
joints should cure for at least 10 days prior to
painting.
Application
Application methods include spraying, rolling and
brushing, and are specific to the treatment under
consideration. Advice about methods is given in
BS 6150
(16)
. The choice of paint system and its
method of application will be affected by the method
of access (eg. mobile platform) and health and safety
issues.
Service life
Experience in the USA is of paints typically lasting
some seven to 12 years before needing repainting,
primarily due to fading. During the research of this
publication, several European paint manufacturers
have come forward with products with claimed special
benefits for tilt-up. For instance Andura claim special
properties to cope with moisture trapped in new concrete,
and some Keim products carry guaranteed service lives
of up to 25 years (see Chapter 13). It is not feasable
to provide a full list of manufacturers and products,
and specifiers are encouraged to contact a variety of
sources for comparison of properties, application
methods, service lives, and costs.
WEATHER RESISTANCE OF PANELS
AND JOINTS
General
The high quality concrete used in the production of
tilt-up wall panels results in an exterior surface that is
durable, resistant to freeze-thaw effects, and resistant
to water penetration.
Concrete is typically specified to have a minimum
compressive strength of 35 N/mm
2
and can be air-
entrained to give enhanced durability or where
subject to the effects of de-icing salts. For this
reason, special sealers and protective coatings are not
generally needed
(17)
. Further guidance on weathering
of buildings may be found in Reference 18.
The following section gives guidance on the
appearance and weatherproofing of joints and on
joint width and sealants. Further information and
illustrations of joints are given in Chapter 3.
9-12
Joints
The importance of joint detailing in respect of the
cost, appearance and performance of a tilt-up
building cannot be over-emphasised. Joint details
must be compatible with the structural design
assumptions, the erection procedures, the fixing
details and the construction tolerances. When this is
done, the expected service life of a sealant can be up
to 20 years, and even more under favourable
conditions
(19)
. The main aspects of joint design
which need to be considered are given below.
Appearance - The number of joints should be kept to
a minimum. If a small-panel appearance is desired
then this can be achieved by the use of false joints
(grooves) in the panel surface. It is usually desirable
to express the joints, not to try to hide them. The use
of a recess or a dark band of paint on either side will
help mask any variation in the width of a joint. It will
also minimise the effects of any variable weathering
at the joint line. In certain circumstances, for example
with heavily ribbed panels, it may be possible to
conceal the joints in the overall texture of the wall.
Bevels at the edges of panels are desirable as they
reduce the vulnerability to damage during handling
and mask the effects of construction tolerances.
Corners of tilt-up buildings can be designed in a
number of ways. Oversail joints, for example, can be
used to alleviate build-up of construction tolerances
where it is acceptable to show a panel edge on one
faade (its prominence will depend on the design
details used on the face of the panels). Mitred joints
allow a uniform surface treatment of both walls, but
they do impose greater restrictions on construction
and erection tolerances. (Details of these joints are
given in Chapter 10.)
Weather-tightness and maintenance - Joints
between wall panels will usually need to be weather-
tight. Face-sealed joints or gasket joints are usually
preferred between panels, although more expensive
open-drained joints can be used for very exposed
situations.
Illustrations of joints are given in Chapter 3, Figure
3.11. The advantages and disadvantages of the four
types of joint are summarised in Table 9.3.
At a corner joint the situation is different. The
movement of the joint will include some shearing as
well as tension and compression, so the criteria for
the selection of the joint-sealing material will be
different.
Joint width and sealants - Joints must be able to
accommodate rotation and the variations in width
caused by construction and erection practices. They
must also allow the panels to move relative to each
other as the environment changes, eg. changes in
temperature or humidity.
The two simple recommendations for weather joints
between panels are: (1) they work best in the range
12 to 25 mm, and (2) in order to maintain specified
joint widths, it is preferable to allow cumulative
tolerances to be absorbed at corners or opening (see
Chapter 3).
The selection of the sealant for joints is complex and
involves the consideration of a number of factors, eg.
expected movement, type of sealant, width-to-depth
ratio of sealant. A full discussion of all factors is
outside the scope of this manual, but detailed
evaluations can be found in BS 6213
(19)
and BS 6093
(20)
. Overseas publications include the ACI guide
(21)
and the BRANZ publications
(22, 23)
.
The following general points for sealants should be
noted:
Wide joints lower the strain due to volume
movements and are to be preferred.
The preferred width-to-depth ratio varies with
different sealant types. For an elastic sealant this
ratio is 2:1. Adopting the correct geometry helps
to minimise the stresses developed.
Sealants should be bonded only on the two side
faces.
Backup rods, which do not bond to the sealant,
are available to control the depth and profile of
the sealant.
To enable a good bond to be made with the
sealant, the concrete faces at the joint should be
dense, smooth, clean and dry.
The compatibility of the form-release agent and
any curing compound with the adhesion of the
chosen sealants should be checked.
The extension and compression capacities of
mastic sealants will be inadequate for most tilt-up
structures.
The effect of ageing and exposure on the sealant
must be considered
Most tilt-up buildings are not tall and therefore
access to the joints for maintenance of repair may
not be difficult or costly.
Where long life is required a high performance
material (eg. uv resistant) is desirable.
If the sealant is to be painted it must be
compatible with the paint system.
REFERENCES
1. Glass, J. Evaluation of tilt-up construction in
relation to selected UK building types. Post
Graduate Research School, School of
Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, UK.
1997.
2. HMSO. The Building Regulations 1991,
Approved Document L. HMSO, London, 1994.
74 pp.
3. Chartered Institute of Building Services.
Thermal properties of building structures.
CIBSE, London, 1980. Guide A3. 58 pp.
9-13
4. Flynn, M, ONeill, B. and Shaw, G. Project
profile - Powergen headquarters. RCC,
Crowthorne, 1996. 97.361. 13 pp.
5. British Standards Institute. prEN 832. Thermal
performance of buildings - Calculation of energy
use for heating - Residential buildings. CEN,
August 1992.
6. Chartered Institute of Building Services
Engineers. Building energy code, Part 2,
Calculation of energy demands and targets for
design of new buildings and services: (a) Heated
and naturally ventilated buildings. CIBSE,
London, 1981.
7. The American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE). Standard 90.2. 1989.
8. CTC. Thermomass manual. Geographical
considerations for mass factor effect in concrete
insulated sandwich panels. Composite
Technologies Corporation, Ames, Iowa, 1996.
Table 9.3 Comparison of weather-tight joints
Joint type Advantages Disadvantages
Face-sealed joint Simple edge profile
(no grooves necessary).
Completed joints easy to inspect.
Effectiveness of seal totally
dependent on continued adhesion
and performance of sealant.
Access necessary to front face of
panel after erection.
In order to ensure good adhesion
surface of concrete needs to be
clean, smooth, dense and dry.
Sealant exposed to deteriorating
influences of weather (UV light
etc.)
Open-drained joint Basic sealing mechanism
dependent on geometry not on
adhesion.
Will tolerate larger construction
variations and subsequent
movement.
Installation during wet weather
possible.
Rear air seal protected from UV
light and weather.
Requires more complex edge
formwork.
Profiled edge can be prone to
damage during construction.
Installation of baffle can be
difficult.
Drumming of baffle caused by
wind may be objectionable.
Gasket joint Simple edge profile.
Quick to install.
Completed joints easy to inspect
Maximum construction width
tolerance is about t 4 mm,
requiring special consideration
during design and construction.
Precompressed impregnated
filler strips
Simple edge profile.
Quick to install.
Completed joints easy to inspect.
Will tolerate larger construction
variations and subsequent
movement.
Installation during wet weather
possible.
Does not need wide joints to cater
for large movements.
Seal dependant on precompression
not just adhesion.
Access necessary to front face of
panel after erection.
Sealant exposed to deteriorating
influences of weather (UV light
etc.)
Installation is low-temperature
sensitive.
Synthetic impregnate may be
necessary for longest life.
9-14
9. Concrete Society. Guide to surface treatments
for protection and enhancement of concrete.
Concrete Society, Slough, 1997. Technical Report
No.50. 87 pp.
10. Tilt-up Concrete Association. Tilt tips No.3,
Painting tilt-up panels. TCA, Ames, USA, 1993.
2 pp.
11. CIRIA. Standard tests for repair materials and
coatings of concrete, Part 1, Pull-off tests.
CIRIA, London, 1993. 41 pp. Technical Note 139
12. British Standards Institution. Draft European
Standard pr EN 1542. BSI, Milton Keynes.
13. British Standards Institution. BS 6270. Code of
Practice for cleaning and surface repair of
buildings, Part 2. BSI, Milton Keynes, 1985.
20 pp.
14. American Society for Testing of Materials.
D4258, Standard practice for surface cleaning of
concrete for coating. ASTM, Philadelphia, USA,
1992.
15. American Society for Testing of Materials.
D4259, Standard practice for abrading concrete.
ASTM, Philadelphia, USA, 1992.
16. British Standards Institution. BS 6150:1991
Code of practice for painting buildings. BSI,
Milton Keynes, 1991. 132 pp.
17. Portland Cement Association. Precast concrete
loadbearing wall panels. Building system report.
PCA, Skokie. 12 pp.
18. Hawes, F. Appearance matters 6 - The
weathering of concrete buildings. Cement &
Concrete Association (now British Cement
Association), Wexham Springs (now
Crowthorne), 1986. 47.106. 48 pp.
19. British Standards Institute BS 6213. Guide to
the selection of joint sealants. Milton Kenyes,
BSI, 1982 (1992). 32pp.
20. British Standards Institute BS 6093. Code of
practice for design of joints and jointing in
building construction. Milton Keynes, BSI, 1993.
48 pp.
21. American Concrete Institute. CI 504R-77.
Guide to joint sealants for concrete structures.
ACI manual of concrete practice Part 5 ACI,
Detroit, 1990.
22. Building Research Association of New
Zealand. Sealed joints in external claddings: 1
Joint design. BRANZ, Judgeford, 1984. Building
Information Bulletin 238.
23. Building Research Association of New
Zealand. Sealed joints in external claddings: 2
Sealants. BRANZ, Judgeford, 1984. Building
Information Bulletin 238.
10-1
CONNECTION DETAILS

This chapter examines the need for connections in structures incorporating tilt-up panels, the requirements on
their performance, and their conceptual design. It then reviews connection types and presents typical details
which designers may wish to develop or adapt to suit the particular demands of individual projects. However, it
should be noted that the diagrams are illustrative only, and do not show all the detail of construction.
GENERAL CRITERIA
Tilt-up panels often fulfil a multitude of functions as
part of the structural system of a building. In addition
to serving as the external cladding (non loadbearing
panel), it is common for wall panels to carry vertical
and horizontal loadings (loadbearing panel). The
connections must therefore be designed to allow
panels to transfer the various forces from the roof and
floor members into the foundations.
Connections must also be capable of providing a
degree of ductility for relief of temperature and
shrinkage stresses, for seismic energy absorption, and
to allow safe predictable behaviour under fire
loading. Finally, it is important that cosmetic
cracking of concrete around connections is
minimised, particularly at service load level.
When designing connections, strength and
serviceability criteria must be met. Details that are
not properly considered in design may result in costly
construction delays or unsafe structures. BS 8110
part 1: section 5
(1)
and Reference 2 provide
information on design and detailing of precast
construction but they do not relate specifically to
tilt-up.
More detailed information directly relevant to tilt-up
may be found in References

3, 4, and 5 which give an
overview of important design criteria and materials
that should be considered in connections for tilt-up
construction. The following section highlights some
of the common requirements for connections used on
tilt-up, and discusses the types available. The
information and details given are for general
guidance only and the designer must assess their
suitability and adapt as necessary for the particular
project under consideration.
CONNECTION DESIGN
Conceptual design
When tilt-up is site cast, the architect and structural
engineer together will be responsible for determining
the materials, locations, and the magnitude and type
of loading for all connections. They will also produce
the designs and details of the panels and connections
that are given to the tilt-up contractor. The tilt-up
contractor may, however, provide some input into the
design process.
When tilt-up is precast off site, the design architect
and structural engineer provide information in the
contract documents to identify the materials,
locations, and the magnitude and type of loading for
all connections. The precast producer then designs
and details the panels and connections. The shop
drawings and structural calculations are then
submitted to the architect and structural engineer for
approval.
Because each project has a unique set of design
problems it is important that the architect discusses
connection ideas with the structural engineer and
precast concrete producer early in the design process
(5)
.
Connections should be protected from fire to the
same degree as the component they support.
Connections should also:
Be easy to install
Have adequate ductility and flexibility
Have provision for on-site adjustment
Be repetitive and accommodate tolerances.
Although general in nature, the above conceptual
design considerations are important since the
connections need not only to be structurally adequate
but must also ensure efficient construction and enable
the take up of tolerances
(4)
.
Load path - Each structure with all its elements and
connections should be considered as a single
structural system. Each connection is not an isolated
element but is part of an integrated system. An
applied external load (including that caused by
volume changes) is distributed by load paths in the
structural building system to the support foundations.
Load paths induce internal forces between elements
of the system. In an effort to simplify the
connections, an efficient design considers the number
and magnitude of internal forces within a structural
system.
Failure modes - The designer should be aware of the
potential modes of failure in each connection.
Sufficient redundancy should be provided to
eliminate the potential for a progressive collapse.
Failure mechanisms are often obvious and easy to
10
10-2
define. Failure modes that are difficult to determine
should be assessed by testing.
Connections that subject concrete to tensile forces
can result in brittle failure modes. Unlike a ductile
failure, a brittle failure is usually sudden and without
warning. If a ductile connection (such as by yielding
of reinforcement after cone failure of the concrete)
cannot be provided to cater for the ultimate loading,
the engineer should increase the safety factor of the
connection.
Design loads - Some design loads are obvious such
as vertical imposed and dead loads and lateral loads
due to wind, soil pressure and seismic events. In
connection design, less apparent loads such as
temporary erection loads and volume changes must
also be considered.
Over-stiff connections can introduce unwanted
restraints. The amount of fixity of a connection
influences the load paths, which in turn affect other
elements of the structural system. Therefore, the
design must consider connections as an integral part
of the structure.
Connections are often designed with the intention of
resisting only one type of loading. An example is a
connection that has a large tensile capacity but little
shear capacity to accommodate movement due to
volume changes.
Ductility of connections - Ductile connections are
those that exhibit an ability to withstand deformation
and load beyond the initial yield. It is desirable to
design connections to behave in a ductile manner so
they can support loads if unexpected forces occur and
large deformations develop.
Restraint to volume change - Shrinkage from
drying, changes in temperature, and creep cause
movements in wall panels. Where possible, it is
advisable to design connections that will
accommodate all likely volume changes.
Shrinkage occurs due to drying of the concrete. If
immersed in water after drying the concrete absorbs
water and expands but it does not return to its
original volume. Concrete also expands or contracts
as the ambient temperature increases or decreases.
Differential volumetric effects can also induce out-
of-plane bending that may also need to be addressed.
Durability - Durability refers to a materials ability
to maintain its strength and serviceability throughout
its service life. Exposure of connections to weather
may foster deterioration of the components and
results in a subsequent reduction in strength. Proper
protection is, therefore, essential. In climates where
freeze-thaw cycles occur, concrete should have
sufficient strength or be air entrained. Connections
utilising wood may need to be treated, whilst exposed
steel components must be given protective coatings
(eg. galvanised). Alternatively, the use of stainless
steel or non-ferrous materials may be necessary.
TYPES
Rigid connections can be subject to unanticipated
stresses due to volume changes, and may fail. An
alternative to a rigid connection is one that relieves
stress by allowing movement to occur. Flexibility can
be attained in various ways: bearing pads supporting
structural members can offer stress relief and low
friction materials allow a member to slip, thus
accommodating movement.
Connections can be made flexible through the use of
slotted holes in bolted connections (Figure 10.1 (a)).
The bolt is tightened sufficiently to hold the member
but still allow it to move with little restraint. If the
connection is bolted tight against the end of the slot,
movement is restricted: this can be avoided by using
friction-grip bolts.
Alternatively, movement can be accommodated
through elastic and, ultimately, plastic flexibility of
the connection (Figure 10.1 (b)).
Figure 10.1 Corner connections to permit movement
Connections used in tilt-up construction can be
broadly categorised into four main groups:
Cast-in-place connections
Steel plates with welded studs
Embedded inserts
Drilled-in inserts.
Cast-in-place connections - Cast-in-place
connections are made by casting infill sections
between the erected panel components with
overlapping reinforcement projecting from the ends
of the panel (see Figure 10.15 later in this chapter).
The result is a very strong but often expensive
solution for connecting the panel elements. Cast-in-
place connections tend to be very rigid and therefore
proper attention to thermal and shrinkage stress
build-up must be given. Ductility after yielding can
be attained but usually not without considerable
concrete distress.
Angle with oversize
holes bolted to cast-
in inserts
Angle welded to
channel webs only
Channel fixed at
middle-third of
panels to minimise
restraint
Slotted angle
connection
(a) Flexing
connection
(b)
Connection details
10-3
Steel plates with welded studs - Steel plates with
welded studs
(6)
are one of the most common tilt-up
connections (Figure 10.2). Typically, an anchored
embedded steel angle or plate is cast into the panel.
The plate is either anchored by fully embedded
reinforcement or it is provided with short studs
crossed by panel reinforcement thus providing
ductility to any failure cone of concrete. Subsequent
connections are made by site welding to the exposed
metal surfaces. These connections are sufficiently
strong for most applications, are fast and inexpensive,
and can be designed with reasonable ductility.
However, the use of site welding requires careful
specification and inspection.
Figure 10.2 Steel plates with welded studs
Embedded and drilled-in inserts - Embedded
inserts such as the ferrule or coil inserts (Figure 10.3),
or drilled-in inserts such as the expansion anchor,
allow bolted connections to be made directly. These
eliminate the need for site welding, reduce the
requirements for pre-planning, and provide a
convenient means for correcting errors.
Embedded and drilled-in inserts are most often used
for light loads or for fastening non-structural
elements. They are the cheapest but least reliable.
Both types of inserts should be avoided in seismic
applications or where heavy vibrations occur,
because of their poor cyclic loading characteristics.
Figure 10.3 Embedded inserts
DETAILS
Details for connecting structural components to tilt-
up panels are not easily standardised. Variations in
the type of roof and floor systems, and designers
own preferences, have resulted in a wide variety of
connection types.
Some of the common connection details are now
reviewed to demonstrate the simplicity of the
principles involved.
Mastery of these simple concepts offers considerable
design flexibility in developing or varying details to
suit individual projects.
Reinforcement usually detailed
to pass through failure cone to
ensure ductility
(b) Ferrule inserts
(c) Coil inserts
10-4
Main roof and floor connections
Main roof and floor structural elements are attached
to tilt-up panels by a variety of connection details
that transfer forces to provide stability and, in many
cases, give immediate support to the element during
construction. The connections used for tilt-up follow
the usual principles adopted for precast concrete, but
some have been specially developed for this form of
construction.
Seat for steel truss - This is often provided by a
pocket recessed in the plane of the panel with an
anchored angle seat (Figure 10.4 (a)). It is commonly
Figure 10.4 Connections for steel trusses
designed and detailed to carry vertical loads, transverse
loads due to out-of-plane wind or seismic forces, and
sometimes longitudinal shear forces.
The pocketed connection has the added benefit of
reducing eccentricity of load. The steel member is
commonly site welded to the angle seat.
An alternative to this connection is a flat steel plate
with stud anchor
(6)
or reinforcement tie embedded in
the concrete (Figure 10.4 (b)). The angle seat is
usually welded on before by hand but can also be
attached after the panel is erected.
Both of the above examples avoid projections above the
surface of the panel to allow for easy screeding and
finishing, or for stack-casting one panel on top of
another.
Seat for steel beam - Recessed pockets (similar to
Figure 10.4 (a)) are also sometimes used for beam
connections when the vertical reaction is of a light or
moderate nature.
For heavy loads, a corbel or full height pier should be
considered in order to provide sufficient concrete
depth to install confining ties (Figure 10.5).
Alternatively, a large flush plate with embedded
anchors may be used with an angle seat welded on
before or after erection, similar to that shown in
Figure 10.4 (b).
Figure 10.5 Seat angle on pier for heavily loaded beam

Cast-in angle
seat with truss
connected by
weld or bolts
Reinforcement
welded to angle seat
Joist pocket formed with
block-out
Continuous chord
angle welded to truss

Angle seat with
joist connected
by weld or bolts
Embedded plate with
stud anchors
Continuous chord
angle welded to joists
(a) Pocketed connection for steel truss
Truss supported by angle welded
to embedded plate
(b)
Chord angle
Support pier cast
with panel
Angle seat with
attached tie bar
Reinforced section
(confining ties)
Connection details
10-5
Support for timber joist - Timber roofs and floors
have been used for a number of tilt-up projects,
although this may not be common in the UK.
A system popular for timber roof construction on tilt-
up is to use timber joists supported on a timber wall
plate (Figure 10.6).
The wall plate is connected with bolts, cast into the
panel, or drilled in before erection. This is generally
sufficient for vertical loads but is considered to be
inadequate for transverse loads, and it is
recommended that additional transverse steel strap
ties are installed to prevent separation of the roof or
floor deck from the tilt-up panel.
Figure 10.6 Timber wall plate connection
Support for precast concrete hollow-core units -
Hollow precast concrete floor or roof slabs can be
supported by a ledge on a tilt-up panel (Figure 10.7 (a)) ,
on a continuous corbel (Figure 10.7 (b)) or by an
angle (as shown in Figure 10.4 (b)). However, panels
with corbels are more difficult to produce. The use of
a ledge is common where storey-height panels are
used or at roof level. But at intermediate floors in a
multi-story panel it is more common to use a steel
angle (Figure 5.1, Chapter 5) due to the limitations of
construction.
The slabs are sometimes supported on a neoprene
strip to even out the bearing stresses. Lateral
reinforcing ties may be detailed to be cast into some
of the cores or into the structural topping when used.
Figure 10.7 Support for precast concrete hollow-
core units
Support for precast concrete double-tee beams -
Support for a double-tee beam may be provided by
pocketed connections (Figure 10.8 (a)) or a
continuous horizontal corbel (Figure 10.8 (b)). In
both cases the units would normally be supported on
neoprene pads so as to allow for some rotational
movement when the beam is loaded.
Ties can be provided by embedded panel anchors and
site welding or by reinforcement cast into a concrete
topping.
The limitations and alternative support as indicated
for hollow-core units are also applicable to double-
tee beams.
Timber plate bolted
to panel
Steel strap cast in panel
and fixed to joists
Decking
Timber joist

Bearing pad where required
Reinforcement from panel
cast into topping or
concreted into cores
Precast concrete hollow-core units

Bearing pad where required
Reinforcement from panel
concreted into cores or
cast into topping as above
Precast concrete
hollow-core floor units
Continuous top ledge to support
precast concrete floor units
Continuous corbel to support
precast concrete floor units
(a)
(b)
10-6
Figure 10.8 Double-tee support to wall panel
Roof or floor diaphragm connections
Diaphragm action of a floor or the roof may serve to
support the walls and transmit lateral wind, soil, or
earthquake forces back into shear walls and
foundations. The roof or floor is stiffened or braced
to perform as a diaphragm (a large deep horizontal
beam with the deck acting as the web and its
perimeter acting as the flange)
(3)
. Continuity of the
perimeter is provided by reinforcement within the
panels and ties between the panels or by the use of a
perimeter angle, which often serves as support for the
roof or floor as shown in Figure 10.4(b) above.
Steel angle connections - With this method, site-
welded connections are made between the roof or
floor diaphragm to the continuous angle. The chord
angle will in turn typically be welded to cast-in
anchor plates or fastened to machine bolts embedded
in the concrete (Figure 10.9). This connection will
also carry small vertical loads. Where bolted
connections are used the steel angle plate is provided
with slotted holes to allow the panel to shrink without
restraint from the bolts. The angle is also often attached
to the panels away from its edges (say at third points)
to further reduce panel restraint (Figure 10.10).
Figure 10.9 Connections between roof/floor
diaphragm and perimeter support angle
Perimeter reinforcing steel connection - This detail
(Figure 10.11) is popular with timber roof and floor
systems. The timber wall plate (or steel channel)
transmits vertical and longitudinal loads into the
panel. The reinforcing bar is cast into the panel with

Welded connection
between plates in panel
and beam
Precast concrete double-tee units

Neoprene bearing pad
Continuous top ledge to support
precast concrete double-tee units
Continuous corbel to support
precast concrete double-tee units

Welded connection
between plates in panel
and beam
Precast concrete double-tee units
Reinforced corbel
Neoprene bearing pad
(a)
(b)
Welded connection between
steel decking and panel angle
Angle attached by cast-in
bolts or welded to cast-in
plates
Bar welded between angle
and cast-in panel plate
Plate welded between studded
panel plate and plate cast-in
panel
(a) Edge connection to steel decking
(b) Edge connection to double-tee unit
(c) Edge connection to hollow-core unit
Connection details
10-7
Figure 10.10 Attachment of connections to reduce
restraint
Figure 10.11 Reinforcing bar chord connection
a sleeve at the outer one-third ends to allow for panel
expansion or contraction. A full-strength lap splice is
made at panel joints by site welding. This
reinforcement system can also be used with a roof or
floor that is supported by a pocketed connection with
intermittent fixings from the deck.
Panel-to-panel connections
There are wide differences in opinion as to whether
panels need be connected structurally to one another
at their vertical joints. There are those who suggest
that two or three welded connectors should be
provided at each panel joint, particularly for
buildings located in seismic zones. On the other
hand, there is the view that unconnected panels
enable expansion and contraction between panels to
take place, thereby reducing the build up of stresses.
It is believed that unconnected panels may also
perform better in a large earthquake (due to structural
damping)
(3)
. An assessment of these variations in
opinion indicates that there is insufficient evidence to
require arbitrary panel-to-panel connections, and that
only those connections required for structural
stability need be provided. This now seems to be the
view of most tilt-up designers.
For most buildings it will be necessary for certain
panels to resist overturning forces (Figure 10.12 (b))
due to wind or other specified loadings (eg. due to
earthquakes). When this is necessary, as in the case
of high, narrow panels in earthquake zones, the
panels should be connected in pairs, or at most, in
groups of three. When this is done, additional
reinforcement may be required in the panels in order
to minimise the effect of increased shrinkage stresses
due to this restraint.
Figure 10.12 Panel shear wall stability
The shear wall connection of this type should have a
high static strength with good ductility under cyclic
loading
(3)
. Since it is used primarily for transmitting
shear forces, it should be recessed below the surface
of the panel and anchored with splayed deformed
bars (Figure 10.13). Split pipe connectors as shown
in Figure 10.13 can be used with several of the other
details shown in this Section to provide restraint but
with the ability to offer some give to movements. The
embedded angle (Figure 10.14) with stud anchors can
have adequate static strength but is poor in cyclic
loading, and cracks may occur around the connector
as a result of volumetric panel movement. Therefore,
it is generally only used to tie together or attach
panels of short length. For very large shear forces, a
cast-in-place stitch may be used such as illustrated in
Figure 10.15. Again, because of the effect of
restraint, it needs to be used with discretion. It may
also be necessary to tie other panels or columns, and
examples are shown in Figure 10.16.
Panel-to-foundation connections
In general, it is recommended that some kind of
connection is made between the wall panel and the
ground floor or foundation. This is most important in
seismic zones but is also good practice in other
situations since, occasionally, panels have been
displaced by impact from equipment, eg. forklift
trucks
(3)
.
Angle plate or floor/roof connections
attached to panel at intermediate
positions to minimise restraint
(shown at 1/3 positions)
Cylindrical cardboard sleeve encasing
top chord bar at both ends of panel
Bars spliced
together at
ends of panel
L
L/3 L/3 L/3
Discontinuous
wall plate
attached to
panel via
slotted holes
Shear force from roof diaphragm
(a) Panels not connected
Shear force from roof diaphragm
(b) Panels connected in pairs
10-8
Figure 10.13 Panel-to-panel connection
Figure 10.14 Embedded connections in panels
Figure 10.15 Cast-in-place connection
The connection can sometimes be made at slab level
(Figure 10.17) or alternatively connections can be
made both to the foundation and the concrete ground
floor slab (Figure 10.18). The slab connection serves
to transmit longitudinal and transverse loads and may
take the form of a dowel projecting from the panel or
a welded embedded anchor. A dowel, welded plate,
or continuous longitudinal slot or upstand in the strip
footing provides transverse restraint for the panel at
this level and can provide a degree of moment
restraint to the panel, which is discussed further in
Chapter 7.
Connections for sandwich panels
Many of the forgoing details can in essence be used
for sandwich panels that have the added advantage of
built-in insulation and the ability to reduce
temperature movements of the inner leaf. The use of
two leaves also provides greater scope for variations
in construction details as the outer leaf masks the
inner panel allowing, for example, full-width pockets
and fixings to be used. Another benefit is that it
enables initial eccentricities of vertical loads to be
minimised or even eliminated.
A range of typical connection details is shown in
Figures 10.19 to 10.31, which are adapted from
Reference 7.
Connection details further information
Design of connections for tilt-up requires
consideration of strength and serviceability of all
materials that may be affected, whether they are
concrete, steel or wood. For further requirements
related to these materials, the appropriate Codes of
Practice should be consulted. For data on the
performance of the connection elements, refer to the
manufacturers design data.
Panel reinforcement
ENLARGED SECTION
ELEVATION
Split pipe connector
welded to anchor plates
Splayed connector
plate anchors
Embedded angle
with studs
Plate welded across
angles
Embedded plate
with studs
Plate welded across
plates
Cast-in sockets Plate bolted to cast-
in sockets
(a) Embedded angles
(b) Embedded plates
(c) Cast-in sockets
(a) Panel-to-panel detail
Pilaster cast after
panel erection
Panel reinforcement
extended into pilaster
(b) Panel-to-pilaster detail
Panel reinforcement
Connection details
10-9
Figure 10.16 Other panel connections Figure 10.17 Simple panel-to-floor slab connections
Loose angle
welded in place
Recessed joint
mortared up
Welded plates
Cast-in threaded
insert
Mortared recess
Tolerance hole for
bolt through panel
(a) Welded connection
(b) Bolted connection
Loose angle bolted or welded to cast-in
fixings in panel and column
Steel clip shown bolted
to cast-in socket.
(Alternatively weld to
cast-in plate)
Concrete
column
Steel column
Bolted and welded connection
(Shown as split column section)
Continuous rebates
Mortar filled
Concrete column
(d) Slotted connection
(c)
Welded
Shims for
initial support
and levelling
Continuous
footing
(a) level site
Continuity strip
or welded
connection
Shims for initial
support and levelling
Continuous
footing
(b) Stepped site
Concrete support
with dowel cast in
to footing
Grout for
long-term
support
Grout
Reinforcement
Make-up strip
Main floor
Continuity strip
reinforcement
10-10
Figure 10.18 Typical panel-to-floor slab connections
Grouted anchor dowel
50 mm nominal
grouted recess
(b) Dowelled - 2
(b) Recessed
Dowel screwed into
threaded coupler in
panel
Shims for initial
support and
levelling. (Grout
carries panel load
in service)
(a) Dowelled - 1
(c) Embedded plate with angle (d) Embedded fixings with welded plate
Grout
Welded plate
Plate anchored
into panel
Angle anchored
into panel
Angle welded to
cast-in plate in
panel and
bolted to
foundation
Connection details
10-11
Figure 10.19 Mitred corner joint
Figure 10.20 Butted corner joint
Figure 10.21 Parapet with angle support
Figure 10.22 Roof with top support
Sealant and backing strip
Thermal insulation
Inner concrete leaf
Mitered tolerance joint
Fixing welded or bolted to
embedded anchor plates
(but see Connection
design on page 10-1)
Outer leaf discontinuous at
corner to allow for movement
Sealant and backing
(but see Connection
design on page 10-1)
Additional ties at upper level
Angle ledge welded or
bolted to embedded
anchor plates
Ties joining inner and
outer leafs together
Roof truss
Direct bearing of roof
truss (Welded or
bolted to angle seat)
10-12
Figure 10.23 Roof with angle support
Figure 10.24 Roof edge support
Figure 10.25 Panel with simple welded connection
to floor slab
Figure 10.26 Panel with simple dowelled connection
to floor slab
Angle ledge welded or
bolted to embedded
anchor plates
Roof deck and framing
Roof steelwork attached to
Sealant and
backing strip
Leveling shims (Joint
grouted between shims
along length of wall)
Insulation as
necessary
Levelling shims (Joint
Dowelled grouted
joint
Sealant and
backing strip
Connection details
10-13
Figure 10.27 Panel tied to slab and restrained in
foundation
Figure 10.28 Retaining panel propped by slab and
restrained by foundation
Figure 10.29 Intermediate floor connection
Figure 10.30 Insulated opening
Embedded
continuity strip
Levelling shims (Joint
Foundation recessed
to clamp panel
Caulking strip
Fixing welded or
bolted to anchor
plates
Levelling shims
(Joint grouted
between shims
along length of
wall)
Restraint block with
dowel into foundation
Caulking strip
Precast concrete
hollow core units
Angle welded or bolted to
In-situ concrete
Reinforcement welded to
support angle and concreted
into hollow-core unit
Inner concrete
leaf
Timber subframe to
window / door
frame
Connection details
10-14
More detailed information on connections can be
found in References 3, 4, 6, which show typical
connection details used in tilt-up connections, and
which also contain design guidance. References 2
and 8, although not strictly applicable to tilt-up,
provide guidance on fixings for precast members and
for non-loadbearing vertical elements. Due to local
environmental conditions such as temperature,
humidity, expansive soils or because of locally
accepted details and practices, some of the details
shown may not perform satisfactorily or prove
economical in all situations. Therefore, each detail
and the specific requirements for the connection
should be studied thoroughly before any decision to
adopt its use.
REFERENCES
1. British Standards Institution. BS8110 Part 1:
Structural Use of Concrete, 1985. 124 pp.
2. Institution of Structural Engineers. Structural
joints in precast concrete: manual. ISE, London,
1987. 56 pp.
3. Weiler, G. Connections for tilt-up construction.
Concrete International, Vol. 83, No 3, June 1986.
pp 24-28.
4. Portland Cement Association. Connections for
tilt-up wall construction. PCA, Skokie, USA,
1987. EB 110.OID. 39 pp.
5. Portland Cement Association. Precast concrete
loadbearing wall panels. PCA, Skokie, USA,
1987. Building Systems Report. PA167.01B.
12 pp.
6 BRC Square Grip. Peikko, Fastening plate
design manual. BRC Square Grip, Sutton-in
Ashton, 1998.
7 Composite Technologies Corporation Inc.
Thermomass building system. Design folder. CTC,
Iowa, USA.
8. British Standards Institution. BS 8200. The
design of non-loadbearing vertical enclosures.
BSI, Milton Keynes, 1985. 76 pp.
11-1
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

This chapter contains safety information drawn mainly from countries where tilt-up is well established. It may
be used when considering the safety aspects of particular UK projects.
GENERAL
Until recently, the main responsibility for safety
during construction work has been with contractors,
but with the introduction of the CDM Regulations in
1995, this is now shared by clients and designers,
who are specifically targeted by many of the
requirements of the Regulations.
This chapter briefly discusses just some of the issues
considered important to safety in those countries
where tilt-up is in common use. This will help the
above parties determine their responsibilities when
considering the Regulations. Planning supervisors
may also wish to consider the material when
constructing their health and safety plans.
By its very nature, much of the construction process
in forming tilt-up panels is inherently safe. Up to the
point of lifting, construction is at ground level with
good access, and involves easily handled components
with the minimal use of heavy plant. Side forms are
lightweight and starter bars are often unnecessary.
Concrete, the heaviest component, is often delivered
by mixer truck chute or by pump. Finally, before
lifting, all possible operations are performed on the
horizontal panel to avoid unnecessary working at a
height. For instance, bracing props and welded or
bolted fittings are attached at this point.
Due to the size and weight of the elements
concerned, the lifting and subsequent temporary
bracing phases prior to the structure being self-
supporting introduce particular demands on safety
planning. The Tilt-up Concrete Association (TCA)
has recently introduced a safety checklist for tilt-up
concrete construction
(1)
which, together with other
material, has been used to produce the list below.
However, it may be necessary to make some
modifications or additions to these guidelines in
order to suit UK law and practice.
SAFETY CHECKLIST
1. Prior to construction
Hire an erection sub-contractor and crew
experienced in the handling of tilt-up or precast
panels.
Select a crane with a capacity capable of lifting
the heaviest panel (including an allowance for
suction see Chapter 3) plus the weight of the
rigging gear. Crane selection will not only be
based upon weight but also on how far the crane
must reach and how far the crane may have to
travel with a panel.
The panel contractor should obtain from the
erection sub-contractor documentation attesting
to the cranes certification, also a certificate of
insurance.
Ensure that there is a proper sub-base under the
floor slab. This will be the casting area as well as
a working surface. The slab is only as good as
the sub-base upon which it is placed.
Check the floor slab for adequate strength to
support the crane if required.
Obtain a properly designed and detailed tilt-up
package that is supported by a professional
engineer.
Obtain a bracing manual showing braces
appropriate for design wind loads.
Obtain approved shop drawings for each panel
showing all pertinent information.
Develop a panel casting and erection sequence.
Always test the bond-breaker prior to casting any
panels. Verify that the bond-breaker is compatible
with any curing or sealing compounds that may
have been used on the floor slab.
Inspect the panel formwork for proper placing of
reinforcing, inserts, embedded items and for
dimensional accuracy.
2. Prior to erection day
Perform a site inspection. Look for any
underground hazards, overhead wires, rough
terrain, or soft sub-grade on which the crane will
travel. Make notes of any corrections that need
to be made or any hazardous areas.
Rig the crane prior to the date on which erection
is to start.
The panel contractor should verify that the crane
is in good working condition.
Check that lifting inserts are properly located,
strongbacks properly installed, and that the
concrete has gained the required strength at
lifting. This information should be recorded in
the erection manual.
Install entrance and exit ramps for the crane to
position itself onto the floor slab. Do not allow
11
11-2
the crane to exert its weight on the extreme edge
of any portion of the slab.
Check to make sure all the floor slab blockouts
are covered. If water gets under the slab, it could
weaken the sub-grade and the crane may crack
the slab.
Itemise the equipment required for a proper and
safe lift. Ensure that the tools and equipment are
well maintained.
Identify erection sub-contractors crew. A
minimum crew should consist of the crane
operator, rigger foreman, two journeyman
riggers and welders if required.
Provide a clean working area with all debris and
obstacles removed.
Locate proper shim points on the footing to
prevent overloading the footing prior to grouting
under the panels. The design engineer can help
you with these locations.
Hold safety meeting before any lifting starts.
Ensure that each member of the crew
understands their position and the responsibility
that goes with it.
Draw up an erection manual containing all
necessary information for erection.
3. At the safety meeting
Create a safety checklist and have all relevant
staff sign and check the list after the safety
meeting has been conducted.
Instruct personnel never to place themselves
under a panel while it is being tilted, on the blind
side of the panel while the crane is travelling
with it, or between the crane and the panel.
At the site, do not allow horseplay or
unnecessary talking.
Instruct personnel to remain alert at all times and
to look out for fellow workers.
While on the site, proper attire should be worn at
all times (ie. hardhats, shoes, etc).
Address all fall protection requirements.
Identify the rigging foreman. Ensure that the
rigging foreman and the crane operator know all
the hand signals that they will be using to
communicate with each other. Instruct the other
personnel that the only person that should signal
the crane operator is the rigging foreman.
Clearly define the function and responsibility of
each person on the lifting crew.
Demonstrate the use of the lifting hardware,
bracing hardware, and proper use of any tools
and equipment that are to be used.
Instruct the construction gang never to reach
their hands under a panel to adjust a shim or a
bearing pad.
Provide the crane operator with weights of
individual panels, predicted suction, and
instructions on the lifting sequence.
4. During the lift
Provide a clean working area with debris and
obstacles removed.
Do not lift panels when wind conditions would
produce unsafe conditions during a lift.
No personnel should pass beneath a non-vertical
panel, under any circumstances.
Personnel not involved with the panel lifting
procedure should be clear of the lifting area.
If possible, fully extend outriggers and use
cribbing to spread the outrigger loading. If
outriggers cannot be fully extended, then the
crane capacities must be reduced.
Inspect all rigging gear prior to loading the
inserts. Rigging gear must be properly aligned
and free of snags.
Make certain that the rigging configuration
matches that shown in the erection manual.
Check to be sure that braces will not be trapped
by the rigging once the panel is in its final
position.
Be alert for panels that may be stuck to the
casting surface. These may require releasing
carefully with wedges or pry bars as loads to the
lifting inserts may be twice that designed for,
causing possible insert withdrawal.
At a predetermined lifting force, carefully
release the panel using pry bars and wedges.
If you must walk a panel, be alert to all
obstacles in the path of the crane and the crew.
Take extra precautions when lifting panels with
special shapes or special rigging.
Do not use any damaged or bent braces, lifting
hardware or bolts.
Make certain that any strongbacks shown on the
erection details are included on the panels.
5. After the lift
Be alert when plumbing panels to their final
upright position. Make sure that the panel being
plumbed does not strike another previously
erected panel.
Support panels as close as possible to the vertical
prior to attaching braces to the floor slab.
Never release the crane load if the bracing does
not appear adequate.
If the bracing design calls for a support system
of knee, lateral, end or cross bracing, it should be
completely installed prior to releasing the crane
load.
Safety requirements
11-3
If the lateral and end bracing cannot be installed
with the panel load still on the crane, then the
completion of this bracing must not be further
than one panel behind the lifting schedule.
All bracing should be installed on all erected
panels at the end of the working day.
At the beginning and end of the working day, all
brace inserts should be checked to ensure that
they are tight and have not worked loose
throughout the night or day. Check brace
inserts daily.
Maintain a daily torque log on brace insert
tightening.
If at all possible, grout under the erected panels
prior to the end of the working day.
Do not remove any braces until all the structural
connections are completed and the lateral
resistive system is in place and completed. The
structural engineer can help you determine if it is
safe to remove any or all of the panel braces.
Be careful when backfilling the infill strip of the
ground slab so that you do not exert excessive
pressure on the tilt-up panel.
Part 1 of the Australian Standard
(2)
covers safety
requirements in some detail. It focuses particularly on
lifting and bracing phases, with reference to design,
material, fittings and construction aspects.
INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITIES
Since efficient tilt-up construction requires a team
approach, safety must involve the designer,
contractor and lifting contractor. Each team member
should have an agreed role in clearly defined
procedures and with known responsibilities.
The C&CA of Australia
(3)
suggests the following
breakdown of responsibilities, which has been
modified to suit that more likely for the procurement
route and particular needs of a UK project. This will
vary, depending on the procurement method adopted.
Some of these responsibilities are shown as being
shared, but in such cases one of the team will need to
assume overall responsibility. It will also be
necessary to further sub-divide these responsibilities
if separate parties carry out the construction and
erection.
Structural designer
Overall building stability
Fire resistance of elements
In-service design of panels
Load design of floor/pavement
Drawings and documentation for the contractor
Panel size/shape/tolerance
Panel fixings and their positions
Main contractor
Access for crane/trucks
Preparation for floor
Placing reinforcement in floor
Placing brace inserts in floor
Placing and compaction of concrete for floor
Curing compound for floor and application
Panel casting sequence (building programme)
Crane/panel weight ratio
Panel erection sequence
Safe working environment/procedures
Tilt-up sub-contractor*
Bond-breaker type and application
Curing compound for panels and application
Selection and use of strongbacks
Lifting and bracing insert type
Positioning inserts in panel
Positioning reinforcement in panels
Placing, compacting and curing concrete in panels
Bracing design
Casting sequence
Lifting procedures
Rigging gear and lifting
Erection sequence
Crane position
Safe working environment/procedures
* This assumes the tilt-up contractor is responsible
for both the production and erection of the panels.
REFERENCES
1. Tilt-up Concrete Association. Safety checklist
for tilt-up concrete construction. TCA, Mount
Vernon, USA, 1996. 4 pp.
2. Standards Australia. AS 3850.1, 1990. Tilt-up
concrete and precast concrete elements for use in
buildings. Part 1: Safety requirements. SA,
Sydney, Australia, 1990. 16 pp.
data sheets 1997).
11-4
12-1
SPECIFICATIONS

It is beyond the scope of this manual to produce a standard specification for tilt-up construction for the UK.
However, a new British national specification
(1)
has been developed by BRE, Construct and the RCC for the
construction of concrete frames in buildings. This may prove suitable for use on tilt-up projects with appropriate
amendments permitted in Part 2 of the Specification. Alternatively, readers wishing to research this matter may
refer to the Australian Standard, Tilt-up concrete and precast concrete elements for use in buildings, Part 2:
Guide to design, casting and erection of tilt-up panel
(2)
.
REFERENCES
1. Building Research Establishment. National
concrete frame specification for building
construction. BRE, Garston, 1998. 60 pp.
2. Standards Australia. A 3850.2. Tilt-up
concrete and precast concrete elements for
use in buildings, Part 2: Guide to design,
casting and erection of tilt-up panel. SA,
Sydney, Australia, 1990. 28 pp.
12
12-2
13-1
SPECIALIST SUPPLIERS
AND SERVICES
The following list of suppliers of products and services, particularly relevant to tilt-up, is not exhaustive. It is
composed mainly of those individuals and companies who have come to light during the compilation of this
manual, and inclusion or omission does not constitute endorsement or censure by the RCC. This list will be
updated from time to time, and can be obtained from the Reinforced Concrete Council at Century House,
Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berks RG45 6YS.
Name of organisation and address Tilt-up
expertise
(see key)
Telephone & fax number
Key to codes
1 Tilt-up design experience
2 Tilt-up contracting experience
3 Tilt-up fittings supply a) Lifting
b) Panel fixing
c) Bracing
d) Rigging
e) Other
4 Tilt-up panel lifting design
5 Tilt-up chemicals (curing agents, bond breakers, etc)
6 Tilt-up components
7 Specialist paints/treatment for concrete
8 Tilt-up trade association/licensing
9 Sandwich panel systems
10 Overseas supplier
11 UK sales/agency
12 Architectural finishes a) Form liners
b) Brick slips
c) Other
13 Tilt-up manuals/publications
13
FOR THIS EDITION
THIS LIST
HAS BEEN PRODUCED SEPARATELY
Specialist suppliers and services
13-2

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Figure 5.11(b) Stress-strain relationship, EC 2

Equating (1) and (2b) simultaneously provides a

Figur 6.5 Tilt up stress analysis

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