INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL RELATIVITY

RONALD ADLER Instito de Fisica ' Universidade Federal de Pernambuco . Recife, Brazil

MAURICE BAZIN Department of Physics Rutgers University

MENAHEM SCHIFFER Department of Mathematics Stanford University

SECOND EDITION

INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION

McGRAW-HILL KOGAKUSHA, LTD. Tokyo Auckland Beirut Bogota Diisseldorf Johannesburg Lisbon London Lucerne Madrid Mexico New Delhi Panama Paris San Juan Sao Paulo Singapore Sydney

Contents

P R E F A C E TO THE SECOND E D I T I O N P R E F A C E TO THE F I R S T E D I T I O N INTRODUCTION

/. 2. Physics and Geometry " The Choice of Riemannian Geometry

xi xiii 1
1 7

CHAPTER

TENSOR ALGEBRA
-1.1 Definition of Scalars, Contravariant Vectors, 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 and Covariant Vectors Einstein's Summation Convention Definitions of Tensors ,Tensor Algebra Decomposition of a Tensor into a Sum of Vector Products Contraction of Indices The Quotient Theorem Lowering and Raising of IndicesAssociated Tensors Connection with Vector Calculus in Euclidean Space Connection between Bilinear Forms and Tensor Calculus

1 7

18 20 21 24 25 28 29 80 32 35

Vi

Contents

CHAPTER

VECTOR FIELDS IN AFFINE AND RIEMANN SPACE 2.1 Vector Transplantation and Affine Connections 2.2 Parallel DisplacementChristoffel Symbols 2.3 Geodesies in Affine and Riemann Space 2.4 Gaussian Coordinates

41 42 50 53 61

CHAPTER

TENSOR ANALYSIS
3.1 Covariant Differentiation 3.2 3.3 8.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Applications of Tensor Analysis Symmetric and Antisymmetric Tensors Closed and Exact Tensors Tensor DensitiesDual Tensors Vector Fields on Curves Intrinsic Symmetries and Killing Vectors T E N S O R S IN P H Y S I C S 4-1 Maxwell's Equations in Tensor Form 4-2 Proper-Time and the Equations of Motion via an Example in Relativistic Mechanics 4-3 Gravity as a Metric Phenomenon 44 The Red Shift

67
67 75 80 87 90 94 98 105 105 120 131 135

CHAPTER

CHAPTER ET

THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD EQUATIONS IN FREE SPACE

5.1 Criteria for the Field Equations 5.2 The Riemann Curvature Tensor 5.3 Symmetry Properties of the Riemann Tensor 5.4 The Bianchi Identities 5.5 Integrability and the Riemann Tensor

145 145 147 151 155 157

Contents Pseudo-Euclidean and Flat Spaces The Einstein Field Equations for Free Space 5.8 The Divergenceless Form of the Einstein Field Equations 5.9 The Riemann Tensor and Fields of Geodesies 5.10 Algebraic Properties of the Riemann Tensor ' . 5.6 5.7

VII

162 167 170 171 176

CHAPTER

THE SCHWARZSCHILD

SOLUTION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES: EXPERIMENTAL TESTS OF GENERAL RELATIVITY

6.1 The Schwarzschild Solution 6.2 The Schwarzschild Solution in Isotropic Coordinates 6.3 The General Relativistic Kepler Problem and the Perihelic Shift of Mercury 6.4 The Sun's Quadrupole Moment and Perihelic Motion 6.5 The Trajectory of a Light Ray in a Schwarzschild Field 6.6 Travel Time of Light in a Schwarzschild . Field 6.7 Null Geodesies and Fermat's Principle 6.8 The Schwarzschild Radius, Kruskal Coordinates, and the Black Hole

1 8 5
185 196 199 209 214 219 221 222

CHAPTER

THE KERR SOLUTION

7.1 Eddington's Form of the Schwarzschild ^ Solution 7.2 Einstein's Equations for Degenerate Metrics 7.3 The Order m2 Equations . 7.4 Field Equations for the Stationary Case 7.5 The Schwarzschild and Kerr Solutions 7.6 Other Coordinates 7.7 The Kerr Solution and Rotation

237
237 238 241 243 250 253 256

viii

Contents 7.8 Distinguished Surfaces and the Rotating Black Hole 7.9 Effective Potentials and Black Hole Energetics

CHAPTER

THE M A T H E M A T I C A L S T R U C T U R E OF THE EINSTEIN DIFFERENTIAL S Y S T E M ; THE P R O B L E M OF CAUCHY 8.1 Formulation of the Initial-Value Problem 8.2 Structure of Einstein's Equations 8.8 Separation of the Cauchy Problem-into Two Parts ' 8.4 Characteristic Hypersurfaces of the Einstein Equation System 8.5 Bicharacteristics of the Einstein System 8.6- Uniqueness Problem for the Einstein Equations 8.7 The Maximum Principle for the Generalized Laplace Equation

275 276 276 281 284 285 289 295

CHAPT ER

THE L I N E A R I Z E D EQUATIONS

FIELD 301 301 305 809 '314 317

9.1 Linearization of the Field Equations 9.2. The.Time-independent and Spherically Symmetric Field ,9.3 The Weyl Solutions to the Linearized Field Equations .. . 9.4 Structure of the Linearized Equations 9.5 Gravitational Waves

CHAPT ER

10

THE GRAVITATIONAL F I E L D E Q U A T I O N S FOR NONEMPTY SPACE 10.1 The Energy-Momentum Tensor 10.2 Inclusion of Forces in T<"

329 330 384

Contents 10.3 The Electromagnetic Field and T<" 10.4 The Field Equations in Nonempty Space 10.5 Classical Limit of the Gravitational Equations

ix 338 344 345

CHAPTER

FURTHER CONSEQUENCES OF THE FIELD EQUATIONS 11.1 The Equations of Motion 11.2 Conservation Laws in General Relativity: Energy-Momentum of the Gravitational / Field 11.8 An Alternative Approach to the Conservation Laws: Energy-Momentum of the Schwarzschild Field 11.4 Variational Principles in General Relativity Theory: A Lagrangian Density for the Gravitational Field 11.5 The Scalar Tensor Variation of Relativity Theory

351 351 . 354 366 376 380

11

CHAPTER

DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4

COSMIC 389 390 395 400 408 4,12 415

12

Observational Background The Mathematical Problem in Outline The Robertson-Walker Metric Further Properties of the Robertson-Walker Metric 12.5 The Red Shift and the Robertson-Walker Metric: Hubble's Law 12.6 The Apparent Magnitude-Red Shift Relation .

CHAPTER

COSMOLOGICAL MODELS 18.1 Einstein's Equations and the RobertsonWalker Metric 13.2 Static Models of the Universe

425

13

Contents 13.3 18.4 13.5 13.6 Nonstatic Models of the Universe The Godel Solution and Mach's Principle The Steady-State Model of the Universe Converse of the Apparent Magnitude-Red Shift Problem 431 437 448 454

CHAPTER

14

T H E R O L E OF R E L A T I V I T Y IN S T E L L A R S T R U C T U R E AND G R A V I T A T I O N A L COLLAPSE

461 462 468 476 478

14.1 Relativistic Stellar Structure . 14.2 A Simple Stellar ModelThe Interior Schwarzschild Solution 14.3 Stellar Models and Stability 14-4 Gravitational Collapse of a Dust Ball

CHAPT ER

15

E L E C T R O M A G N E T I S M AND GENERAL RELATIVITY

15.1 The Field of a Charged Mass Point 15.2 Weyl's Generalization of Riemannian Geometry 15.3 Weyl's Theory of Electromagnetism 15.4 Some Mathematical Machinery 15.5 The Equations of Rainich, Misner, and Wheeler .

485
486 491 500 507 518

INDEX

535