memo

To: IEPR Committee (Chair Weisenmiller and Commissioner Douglas) From: KEMA, Inc. Karin Corfee, David Korinek, William Cassel, Christian Hewicker, Jorg Zillmer, Miguel Pereira Morgado, Holger Ziegler, Nellie Tong, David Hawkins, and Jorge Cernadas Copy: Otto Tang Subject: Distributed Generation in Europe Physical Infrastructure and Distributed Generation Connection

Date:

April 29, 2011

KEMA is pleased to submit the attached memo (Memo #1) on distributed generation applications in Europe. This memo specifically focuses on the physical infrastructure and distributed generation connection. This memo is the first of three memos that will serve as interim deliverables for the European Distributed Generation Infrastructure Study. The three memos will eventually be rolled into one consultant report.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................1 SECTION1:PhysicalInfrastructureinGermany ..............................................................................2 RegionalandQuantitativeAllocationofRenewableEnergyinGermany....................................2 WindEnergy.......................................................................................................................................4 SolarEnergy ........................................................................................................................................4 BiomassinCogenerationPlants......................................................................................................4 HydroPower......................................................................................................................................5 NetworkStructuresinGermany ..........................................................................................................5 GridandVoltageLevels...................................................................................................................5 TransmissionGrid.............................................................................................................................6 ConclusionforGridConnectionofDistributedGeneration ..........................................................10 ImplicationsofDGonGridPlanningandOperation................................................................10 GridDimensioning..........................................................................................................................11 GridOperation.................................................................................................................................11 GeneralandTechnicalRequirementsinGermany.........................................................................12 GeneralRequirements.....................................................................................................................12 TechnicalRequirements..................................................................................................................13 TechnicalOptionstoEnsureSecureGridOperation......................................................................15 General..............................................................................................................................................15 MostFrequentApplicationofOptionsinGermany...................................................................18 RecentNetworkPlanningPoliciesandStudies...............................................................................19 SECTION2:PhysicalInfrastructureinSpain...................................................................................21 OverallSystemPlanningandDevelopment....................................................................................22 NetworkStructuresinSpain..............................................................................................................22 GridandVoltageLevels.................................................................................................................22 TheSpanishTransmissionSystem................................................................................................23 TheSpanishDistributionSystem..................................................................................................26

 HVDistributionGrid......................................................................................................................26 MVDistributionGrid......................................................................................................................27 LVDistributionGrid.......................................................................................................................30 RenewableEnergySources(RES)inSpain .......................................................................................31 DistributedGeneration...................................................................................................................32 RegionalandQuantitativeAllocationofRenewableEnergy....................................................33 RESCompensationArrangementsinSpain .....................................................................................36 InterconnectionTechnicalRequirementsinSpain......................................................................37 ImplicationsonPowerGridOperation............................................................................................38 ConnectionProcesstoTransmissionNetworkinSpain .................................................................38 ConnectionApplicationPhase.......................................................................................................38 ConnectionProcesstoDistributionNetworkinSpain...................................................................40 RESInstallations(Nonsolar).........................................................................................................40 PhotovoltaicInstallations ................................................................................................................41 MainReasonsforSuccessofRESinSpain.......................................................................................42 RemainingBarrierstoDevelopmentofDGinSpain......................................................................43 ImpactofDGonSpainsNetworkInfrastructure...........................................................................44 SECTION3:ComparisontoGridInfrastructureinCalifornia.....................................................46 SECTION4:SummaryofKeyLessonsLearned..............................................................................51 ListofFigures Figure1:GenerationMixinGermanyatEndof2009(AllDatainPercentages).............................2 Figure2:RelationshipbetweenNetworkConnectionLevelandTechnologyforInstallations Eligibleunderthe2008RenewableEnergyAct .....................................................................................3 Figure3:MediumvoltageGridLayoutsa)NormallyopenLoops;b)CircuitswithTwoSource StationsandNormallyopenContactatOneStation............................................................................7 Figure4:TypicalUrbanLowvoltageGridLayout ...............................................................................9 Figure5:TypicalRuralLowvoltageGridLayout..............................................................................10 Figure6:VoltageIncreaseCausedbyDistributedGeneration.........................................................14 Figure7:SpanishTransmissionSystem ................................................................................................25 Figure8:LoopedHVGrid(SingleSourcePoint)................................................................................26
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 Figure9:BridgeConfiguration(HVGridFedfromTwoPoints).....................................................27 Figure11:UrbanMVGrid:ReflectionPointandSupportCircuitDesign.....................................28 Figure12:UrbanMediumVoltageGrid:DistributionPointdesign................................................29 Figure13:RuralMVGridStructure......................................................................................................30 Figure14:LVGridStructure..................................................................................................................31 Figure15:BreakdownoftheTotalInstalledCapacitybyTechnologyattheEndof2010............31 Figure16:AnnualGrowthofSpainsInstalledPowerGeneration(GW) ........................................32 Figure17:BreakdownoftheTotalRenewableInstalledCapacitybyTechnologyattheEndof 2009............................................................................................................................................................33 Figure18:WindCapacityGeographicDensityinSpain...................................................................34 Figure19:InstalledSolarPower(MW)intheAutonomousCommunitiesofSpainbyEnd2009 a)PVandb)SolarThermal .....................................................................................................................35 Figure20:DGConnectionProcess........................................................................................................40 ListofTables Table1:GeneralRulesforSelectingtheVoltageLevelofthePointofCommonCoupling, accordingtotheRatedPowerofGenerationPlants.............................................................................3 Table2:HydroPowerPlantsinGermany,CategorizedbyNumberandInstalledPower............5 Table3:OverviewofVoltageLevelsinGermany .................................................................................6 Table4:MostFrequentlyUsedOptionstoIntegrateDistributedGenerationinGermany..........18 Table5:OverviewofVoltageLevelsinSpainperIECDefinitions..................................................23 Table6:ComparisonofACVoltageLevelsinCaliforniaandEurope ............................................46

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INTRODUCTION
AsreflectedintheEnergyCommissionspreviousIntegratedEnergyPolicyReportproceeding, theEnergyCommissionwantstodeterminehowcertainEuropeancountriesintegratelarge quantitiesofintermittentrenewableelectricityintotheirelectricdistributionsystemswhilestill maintainingsystemcontrolandreliability.Thismemoaddressesthisissuebyprovidinga comparisonbetweentheelectricdistributionsystemsinEuropeandCaliforniawiththe ultimategoalofcapturingkeylessonslearnedtofacilitateCaliforniasintermittentrenewable distributedgeneration(DG)intoitselectricdistributionsystem. Thismemodescribesthephysicaldistributioninfrastructureandtherequirementsand processesforinterconnectingDGtothedistributioninfrastructureinGermanyandinSpain.It comparestherelevantcharacteristicsintheseEuropeancountriestothecorresponding characteristicsinCalifornia.Theanalysisfocusesonmediumandlowvoltagedistribution gridsandoutlinesrelevantaspectsandimpactsofrenewablegenerationathighervoltage levels. Theresearchfocusedonaddressingthefollowingquestions:

HowaretheelectrictransmissionanddistributionsystemsconfiguredinGermanyand Spain?DoesthistopologyincreaseopportunitiesforrenewableDGintegration? Havegridoperatorschangedtheconfigurationoftheirdistributionsystemstoallowfor greaterpenetrationofrenewableDG?Whatarethechangesfromaqualitativesense (whathavetheydone)andaquantitativesense(howmuchofithavetheydone,how aretheytreatingcostallocation,whatisthequantitativerelationshipbetweenchangesin infrastructureandDGpenetration)? Dogridoperatorsuseancillarytechnologies(i.e.,batterystorage,flywheel)andpolicy leversthatallowforgreaterbackflowsonthedistributionsystemwithoutthreatening gridstability(e.g.,protectiondevices,curtailment)?Ordotheysimplyallowgreater penetrationundersomecircumstanceswithoutconcern? IshigherpenetrationofrenewableDGlikelytocausevoltageissuesandpotentialback feedissues?HowdoestheelectricdistributionsystemofGermanyandSpainaddress thebackfeedissueinlightofactivepowerflowfromthemediumvoltagecircuitsupto thetransmission/subtransmissionhighvoltagecircuits?

Thismemoisorganizedasfollows:

Section1reviewsthecurrentstateofphysicalinfrastructureinGermany. Section2reviewsthecurrentstateofphysicalinfrastructureinSpain. Section3providesacomparisontogridinfrastructureinCalifornia. Section4providesasummaryofkeylessonslearned.

SECTION 1: Physical Infrastructure in Germany

Atoftheendof2009about16percentoftheGermanelectricalenergyproductioncamefrom renewableenergysources.1ThegrowthofrenewableDGinGermanycontinuesunabated. Germangridoperatorshavedealtwiththechallengeofsignificantrenewableintegrationforthe lastfiveto10yearsandhavedevelopedtechnicalrulesandguidelinestoensuresecurenetwork operation.AnexaminationoftheGermanpowersystemisthereforeusefulforacomparative analysis.

Regional and Quantitative Allocation of Renewable Energy in Germany

Theextentofdeploymentofeachtypeofrenewablegenerationdependsonmanyfactorssuch aslocalclimateconditions,landutilization,andpopulationlevels.Acomparisonofalltypesof installedgenerationcapacityinGermany,includingbothrenewablesandconventional generationisshowninFigure1.
Generation capacity (total: 153.8 GW net)
13 29 13 6

Net electricity generation (total: 561 TWh net)

16 23

Renewable generation capacity (total: 44.6 GW)

3 21 56 Wind Biomass Hydro

13 12 15 Nuclear Hard coal Oil, Pump storage hydro, other 18 18 Lignite Natural gas Renewables 24

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Solar others 10

Figure 1: Generation Mix in Germany at End of 2009 (All Data in Percentages)

Source: BDEW: German Energy Market, 2010

1GermanStatisticsofRenewableEnergySources,December2010. 2

 Thetypeofrenewableenergysourceoftenaffectsthesizeofthegenerationplantsandthereby thetype(voltagelevel)ofthegridconnection.AsageneralrulefortheGermangrid,the voltagelevelatthepointofcommoncouplingforDGplantsfollowstheschemashowninTable 1.

Table 1: General Rules for Selecting the Voltage Level of the Point of Common Coupling, according to the Rated Power of Generation Plants
Rated power of the generation plant Up to 30 kW 30 to 200 kW 0.15 to 20 MW 15 to 80 MW 80 to 400 MW Voltage level of grid connection Low-voltage grid without verification Low- or medium-voltage grid Medium-voltage grid High-voltage grid Extra-high voltage grid

Source: Potentialermittlung fr den Ausbau der Wasserkraftnutzung in Deutschland, Bundesministerium fr Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit (BMU), September 2010 [Capacity of hydro power in Germany, September 2010]

Inactualpracticetherecanbedeviationsfromthegeneralrulebasedontheresultsofspecific studiesforDGinterconnection.Figure2showsthebreakdownofgenerationtypesinstalledat eachvoltagelevelasapercentageofthetotalgenerationcapacityinstalledatthatvoltage.The sizeofthegeneratorisakeyparameterasitrequiresacorrespondingcapacitybothatthe networkconnectionpointandfortransportingtheelectricityproducedfromthatpointtothe system.Forinstance,solarpowerinstallationstendtoberathersmall(mainlyroofbased installations)andaremostlyconnectedtothelowvoltagenetwork.Ontheotherhand,wind projectsaredevelopedoveramuchwiderrangeofsizes(e.g.,windfarms)andthereforeare connectedatmanydifferentvoltagelevels.

Low voltage Medium/ low voltage Medium voltage High / medium voltage High voltage Extra high/ high voltage Extra high voltage 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Hydro Biomass Gases Geothermal Wind Solar

Figure 2: Relationship between Network Connection Level and Technology for Installations Eligible under the 2008 Renewable Energy Act2
Source: Bundesnetzagentur EEG-Statistikbericht 2008 (Translated Regulators EEG Statistical Report, 2008)

2Installedgeothermalcapacityisnegligible.Gasesreferstowastegasprojects(e.g.,minegas,etc.) 3

 AdditionalgeneralobservationsinregardtonetworkintegrationofDGontheGermannetwork areasfollows:

Wind Energy
Ahighconcentrationofwindenergyplantsappearsinrural,sparselypopulatedareasin northernGermany.Theindividualgeneratingunitsmostlyhavearatedpowerfrom1MWto 3MW.Hence,thepointofcommoncouplingismostoftenlocatedonamediumvoltagegrid. However,whenindividualunitsarecollectedintowindfarmswithratedpowerfrom20MWto 80MW,theyareusuallyconnectedtothehighvoltagegrid.Afewlargewindfarmsgenerate80 to400MWofelectricpowerapieceandaredirectlyconnectedtotheextrahighvoltagegridvia separatesubstations.

Solar Energy
Eventhoughthepercentageofelectricalenergygeneratedbysolarpowerwasonlyabout 7percentofallrenewableenergybytheendof2009,solarpowerhashadthestrongestgrowth rateforthelasttwoyears.Asignificantamountofsolarenergygeneratingunitshasbeen installedparticularlyinsouthernGermany.Theinstalledsolargenerationcapacityincreasedby 3,800MWin2009andbyabout6,500MWin2010,bringingthetotalinstalledsolarcapacityto approximately10GW. Inurbanareas,smallsolargenerationplants(photovoltaicmodulesandconverters)are installedonroofsofresidentialhomes(ratedpower3kWto5kW)orcommercialandpublic buildings(100kWto1MW).Accordingtogridcode,smallunitsupto5kWpeakcanbe connectedasasinglephasecustomerataservicepoint.3Unitsupto30kWareallowedto connectasathreephasecustomeratanypointontheLVgridwithouttechnicalverification. However,thepresenceofmultipleDGprojectswithinanindividualrurallowvoltagegridcan causeseverevoltageorpowerqualityissues(seeMemo#2forfurtherdiscussion).

Biomass in Cogeneration Plants

Bytheendof2009,thefractionofrenewableelectricalenergygeneratedfrombiomasswas roughly30percentofallrenewableenergyproduction.Hence,biomassisthenextmost importantrenewableenergysourceafterwindinGermany,andalsohashighgrowthrates.Co generationplantsforbiomassareinstalledalloverGermany,particularlyinruralareas.Small unitswithelectricpowerupto150kWareconnectedtothelowvoltagegrid.Themajorityof unitsrangesfrom500kWto5MWandisconnectedtothemediumvoltagegrid.Largeunits withconsiderablymorethan5MWexistandareconnectedtothemediumorhighvoltagegrid

3EigenerzeugungsanlagenamNiederspannungsnetzRichtliniefrdenAnschlussundParallelbetrieb vonEigenerzeugungsanlagenamNiederspannungsnetz;VWEWEnergieverlagGmbH;September2005 [GermanTechnicalGuidelineGeneratingPlantsConnectedtotheLowVoltageNetwork,September 2005] 4

 accordingtotheirratedpower.Sincebiomassisconsistentlyavailable,itislesscriticalfor networkoperationthanfluctuatingresourcessuchaswindandsolarpower.

Hydro Power
HydropowerresourcesareconsideredtobewelldevelopedinGermany.Therefore,the amountofhydropowerhasremainednearlyconstantoverthelastfewdecadessincemostof thepotentiallocationsarealreadyutilized.Hydropowerstationsofvarioussizeshavebeen installedinmountainousareasandalongriversincentralandsouthernGermany.Currently, hydrogenerationisabout25percentofallGermanrenewableenergygeneration. Severallargepumpedstoragepowerplantsconnectedtotheextrahighvoltagegridcontribute totheloadbalancingandfrequencycontrolofthetransmissionsystem.Table2providesan overviewofthenumberofgenerationplantsinseveralpowercategoriesandtheinstalled power.
Table 2: Hydro Power Plants in Germany, Categorized by Number and Installed Power
Hydro power units with less than 1 MW Number of units Installed Power ~6,500 ~600 MW Hydro power units with more than 1 MW ~400 ~3,400 MW Pumped- storage plants ~30 ~6,600 MW

Network Structures in Germany

Inthenextpartofthememo,thebasictechnicallayoutsandconfigurationsofGerman transmissionanddistributiongrids,includingsubstationsandsecondarysubstationsare described.ThenthegeneralandtechnicalrequirementsfortheinterconnectionofDGfroma Germanperspectivearethenconsidered.Finally,themostcommonnetworkupgradeoptions tomanagetheintegrationofrenewableenergysourcesandcomplywithtechnicalrequirements areexamined.

Grid and Voltage Levels

TheEuropeanpowergridisathreephasealternatingcurrentgridoperatedatafrequencyof50 Hertzatallvoltagelevels.4Fourcommonvoltagegroups(EHV,HV,MV,andLV)havebeen establishedintheGermanpowergridperInternationalElectrotechnicalCommission definitions.TheexistinggridvoltagesforeachofthesegroupsinGermanyareshowninTable 3.

4Therailwaypowergridisdistinguishedfromthepublicpowergridbyfrequencyandgeneration.Itisa twophaseACgridoperatedat16.7Hz. 5


Table 3: Overview of Voltage Levels in Germany
Name(IEC Definition) Extra-high voltage High voltage Medium voltage Low voltage Abbreviation EHV HV MV LV Rated Voltage 380 kV, 220 kV 110 kV 30 kV, 20 kV, 15 kV, 10 kV 400 V Distribution grid Role Transmission grid

Transmission Grid
TheEuropeantransmissiongridisoperatedprimarilyat380kVandpartiallyat220kV,butthe latterisonthedeclineandprovidesthebasisfortheelectricalenergytransportbetweenlarge scalepowerplants,theconnecteddistributiongrids,andneighboringcountries.TheEuropean transmissiongridisanintegratednetworkdesignedtoensurereliable,efficient,andsecure electricalenergysupplybasedontherulesoftheOperationHandbookoftheEuropean NetworkofTransmissionSystemOperatorsforElectricity(ENTSOE).5Accordingtothe GermanTransmissionGridCode,6themaintaskofthetransmissiongridoperatorsistoassume responsibilityforthewholesystemofelectricalenergysupply,including:

Thebalanceofloadwithinacontrolarea,especiallyincaseofaresourcecontingency, andtherebymaintainingsystemfrequencystability Networksecurity,i.e.,thesecurityofsupply,secureoperation,thecompliancewith voltageandotheroperationallimitsandthe(n1)criterion Theongoingevaluationofsystemoperatingconditionsandinitiationofrequired correctivemeasuresthatwillinvolvetheassociateddistributiongridoperatorsas needed

Thetransmissiongridisameshedsystemwithhighstandardsforsystemstability(frequency, voltage,dynamicstability)andsecurityofsupply.ThetransmissioninfrastructureinGermany ispredominatelyoverheadconstruction. Distribution Grid at the High Voltage Level The110kVhighvoltage(HV)gridservesasthetransportgridformediumdistancesand carriestheelectricenergyfromexchangepointsonthetransmissiongridtowardsurbanorrural mediumvoltagegrids.Therequirementsconcerningsecurityofsupplyareagaincoveredby compliancetothe(n1)contingencycriterion.Thegridismeshedandconsistsmainlyof overheadlines.Inurbanareas,undergroundcablesareofteninstalledat110kV.Highloads
5UCTEOperationHandbook(OH),version2.5,levelE,dated24.06.2004,UnionfortheCoordinationof TransmissionofElectricity(UCTE);Brussels. 6TransmissionCode2007,NetzundSystemregelnderdeutschenbertragungsnetzbetreiber,Version 1.1,August2007,VerbandderNetzbetreiberVDNe.V.beimVDEW,Berlin[TransmissionCode2007, NetworkandSystemRulesoftheGermanTransmissionSystemOperators,August2007] 6

 withhighdemands(e.g.,largeindustrialloads)andgeneratingunitsexceedingapowerlimitof about20MWareprimarilyconnectedtothisgridlevel. Distribution Grid on Medium Voltage Level Themediumvoltagegrid(MVgrid)mainlycomprisesthevoltagelevels30kV,20kV,15kV, and10kV.Urbanandruralmediumvoltagegridssignificantlydifferintheircharacteristics. Ahighdensityofloadsandrelativelyhighdemandthatcauseshighutilizationofthe equipment(transformers,cables)istypicalforurbanareas.Appropriatefortheserequirements, urbanmediumvoltagegridsinGermanyconsistlargelyofcableswithatypicalcablecross sectionof150to300mm(nominallyequivalenttoarangeof300kcmilto636kcmil)andwitha comparablyshortcablelength.TheurbanMVgridsaregenerallyoperatedatvoltagelevelsof 10kVand20kV.Theyaresetupasloopednetworkswithopenloopsundernormaloperating conditions(seeFigure4),wherethesmallercirclesrepresentnormallyopenswitchgearandthe largercirclesrepresentsubstationtransformers.
110 kV

20 kV

20 kV

20 kV

20 kV

a)

110 kV

b)

Figure 3: Medium-voltage Grid Layouts a) Normally-open Loops; b) Circuits with Two Source Stations and Normally-open Contact at One Station
Source: KEMA

TheMVgridsareconnectedtothehighvoltagegrid(110kV)viasubstationswithtwoormore HV/MVtransformersinaratedpowerrangefrom31.5MVAto63MVA.Thepower transformersaretypicallyequippedwithtapchangersandautomaticvoltagecontrolto

 guaranteeafixedvoltageatallmediumvoltagebusbars.Aslinktothelowvoltagegrids,the secondarysubstationsmainlyconsistofsingleMV/LVtransformersinaratedpowerrange from400to1,000kVA.Fordirectcustomerconnections,transformersupto1,600kVAcanbe used.Asaresultofthehighinstalledpowertransformercapacityandtherelativelyshortcables withlargecrosssections,thenetworkimpedanceiscomparablylowthroughoutthewhole urbanmediumvoltagegrid.Hence,voltagedropandpowerqualityissuesrarelyoccur. RuralMediumvoltageGrids Ruralareasarecharacterizedbylargergeographyandlowloaddensity.Thisresultsinlong lines,highnetworkimpedances,andlowutilizationoftheequipment.Inruralmediumvoltage gridsinGermany,undergroundcablesandoverheadlinesareinstalledinnearlyequalshares. Typicalundergroundcablecrosssectionsrangefrom120to240mm(nominallyequivalenttoa rangeof4/0AWGto400kcmil).Thecrosssectionsofoverheadlinesrangefrom70to120mm (nominallyequivalenttoarangeof2/0AWGto4/0AWG). RuralMVgridsareoperatedatvariousvoltagelevels;mostcommonare10kV,15kV,20kV, and30kV.Likeurbanareas,ruralMVgridsaresetupasloopednetworkswithopenloops undernormaloperatingconditionsorinsomecases,linesareconnectedbetweentwostations withanormalopencontactatoneend(seeFigure1).Usually,thegridsareconnectedtothe highvoltagegrid(110kV)viasubstationswithtwoHV/MVtransformersinaratedpower rangefrom16to40MVA.Thepowertransformersaretypicallyequippedwithtapchangers andautomaticvoltagecontroltoguaranteeafixedvoltageatallmediumvoltagebusbars.The secondarysubstationsconsistofsingleMV/LVtransformersinaratedpowerrangefrom100to 400kVA. Inafewcases,intermediate30kVgridsoperatetosupplyremote,lightlyloadedareas.These30 kVdistributiongridsformclosedloopsandsupplylowervoltage10kVgrids. Duetothelonglines,smallcrosssectionsandthecomparablylowinstalledtransformer capacity,thenetworkimpedanceincreasessignificantlytowardstheremotelineterminal. Voltagedropandpowerqualityissuesfrequentlyoccur(seefurtherdiscussioninMemo#2). Low Voltage (LV) Distribution Grid Thelowvoltagegrid(LVgrid)isa400Vnetworkandremainsathreephasegrid(orthree phaseplusneutralphase)uptotheservicepoints(endcustomers).Ingeneral,outgoingcable unitsinsecondarysubstationsarefusedbyalowvoltage,highloadbreakingcapacityfuse. Servicepointconnectionsareprotectedforamaximumpermissiblecurrentof63A(equalto25 kVA).Similartomediumvoltagegrids,urban,andrurallowvoltagegridshavedifferentgrid characteristics. UrbanLowvoltageGrids Accordingtothehighspatialdensityofurbanloads,lowvoltagegridsintheseareasconsistof relativelyshortgridcableswithtypicalcablecrosssectionsof150to240mm(nominally equivalenttoarangeof300kcmilto400kcmil).Fromthegridcables,servicepointcableswitha

 crosssectionof3550mm(nominallyequivalenttoarangeof#2AWGto#1AWG)branchoff tocustomers. TheurbanLVgridsareoperatedasmeshedgridsconnectedbymeansofcabledistribution boxes.TheLVgridscanbefedbyasinglesecondarysubstationorbyoneortwoMVcircuits (seeFigure4).Theurbansecondarysubstationscontainabout10outgoingcableunits.The meshedgridstructureensureshighservicereliability,allowsforhighutilization,andreduces voltagedropsandpowerqualityissues.Unfortunately,thegridassemblyisunclearandthe maintenanceeffortisrelativelyhigh.

Figure 4: Typical Urban Low-voltage Grid Layout

Source: KEMA

RuralLowvoltageGrids Withrespecttotheexpansionofthesupplyzoneandthelowloaddensity,rurallowvoltage gridsinGermanyaremainlyradiallystructuredcableoroverheadlinegrids.Forthegridlines, typicalcablecrosssectionsrangefrom95mmto150mm(nominallyequivalenttoarangeof 3/0AWGto300kcmil).Thecrosssectionsofoverheadgridlinesrangefrom50to95mm (nominallyequivalenttoarangeof#1AWGto3/0AWG).Theservicepointconnectionsare typicallyrealizedthrough35mmcables(nominallyequivalentto#2AWG).Occasionally, overheadlineswithcrosssectionof25to35mm(nominallyequivalenttoarangeof#4AWG to#2AWG)areused. Theruralsecondarysubstationscontainuptoeightoutgoingcableunits.TheruralLVgridsare operatedasradialgridsfedbyasinglesecondarysubstation(seeFigure5).Thelonglinesand decreasingcrosssectionstowardsthelineendscausehighnetworkimpedances.Thus,the sensitivitytovoltagedeviationandsystemperturbations(powerqualityissues)significantly rises.

Figure 5: Typical Rural Low-voltage Grid Layout

Source: KEMA

Inadditiontothestandardtaskofsupplyingendusecustomersthedistributionoperators (DSO)mustconnectdistributedgeneratingunitsinthemostcostefficient,technicallysecure way.Therefore,theDSOfirstutilizesanyexistingreservecapacityinthegridforconnectinga DG.Ifthesereservesareexhausted,thepointofcommoncouplingcaneitherbemovedtoa highervoltagelevelgrid(dependingontheDGsize),orthelowervoltagegridmustbe upgradedtoaccommodatethenewDG.Inthecaseofagridextensionorupgrade,thegrid plannerconsidersexistinggridexpansionrequirementsandnetworkplanningdirectivesin conjunctionwiththetechnicalrulesforthegridconnectionofdistributedgenerationinorderto comeupwiththeoveralllowestcostgridexpansionplan.

Conclusion for Grid Connection of Distributed Generation

Implications of DG on Grid Planning and Operation
Eventhoughtheincreasingproductionofrenewableenergyfromdistributedgeneratingunits affectsthegridatallvoltagelevels,nofundamentalchangesinthegridstructureandplanning standardshavebeenmadeinGermany.However,duetothescaleofdistributedgeneration growthinthelastdecade,thelevelofDGoutputonmediumandlowvoltagegridsnow exceedslocalloadinmanyplacesinGermany.Hence,backfeedconditionsoccurinsome regionsofthenetwork.Ingeneral,backfeedsarepermittedinGermany.Themeteringand protectionhastobedesignedforbidirectionalflow.Afourquadrantmeterisnecessaryand theprotectionsystemhastoallowbackfeeds. Networkconnectionsandupgradesareplanned,basedontheexpectedlevelofbackfeed,so thatthisconditioncausesnooverloads.Therefore,abackfeedconditionduringnormal

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 operationsshouldnotleadtocurtailmentortrippingtheDG.Infact,undertheGermanrules, TSOsmustfirstexhaustallotheravailablemarketoptionsbeforecurtailingrenewableDG. RulesapplyingtoDGcurtailmentbyDNOsarenotasclear,andtheDNOsalsohavefewer optionsthantheTSOs.However,ifarenewableDGiscurtailedbyeitheraTSOoraDNO,the DGstillreceivesitsnormalfeedintariffremunerationforanycurtailedenergy(i.e.,itdoesnot reducetheDGsrevenue). SincethecostsofnetworkupgradesinGermanyaresocialized,networkplannersseekthe lowestcostplanofupgradetosatisfyDGintegrationneeds.Uptonow,theplanningforDG integrationhasgenerallybeendoneaspartoftheregulargridexpansionplanningprocesswith normalexpansionplanningandreplacementneedsconsideredfirst,thenDGintegration second.

Grid Dimensioning
Inthepast,mediumandlowvoltagegridsweredesignedanddimensionedbasedonthepeak loadscenario.Thegriddimensioningandoperationnowhavetoaccountforthefollowingfour scenariosforloadandDGoutput:

Peakload/lowDGoutput PeakDGoutput/lowload Peakload/peakDGoutput Lowload/lowDGoutput

Thefirsttwoscenarioshavebecomethemostcriticalcasesforgridplanningandoperation.The powerlinesandtransformersofeachvoltagelevelofthegridmustbesizedtomanagethe emergingrenewablepowerproduction. ProtectionaspectsTheprotectiondevicesandsettingsinGermandistributiongridsgenerally allowforbackfeeds.Theoverloadprotectiondependsontheloadinglimitsoftheassetsandis independentoftheflowdirection. Distributedgenerationplantshavetobeequippedwithovervoltageandundervoltage protection.Thetimedelayoftheprotectiondeviceshastobeadjustedtoallowforthetime delayoftheautomatictapchangersonHV/MVpowertransformerssupplyingthatpartofthe network.Additionally,distributedgenerationplantsinmediumvoltagegridsandabovemust beequippedwithunderfrequencyandoverfrequencyprotection.Furthermore,apowercircuit breakerwithintheDGplantmustguaranteethedisconnectionofthedistributedgeneration projectfromthegridincaseofashortcircuitintheplant.

Grid Operation
Operationalissuesduetothehighconcentrationofwindandphotovoltaicgenerationplants thataremanagedmainlyatthehighvoltageandextrahighvoltagelevelinGermanyinclude:

Theloadforecastandgenerationschedules,definedinthetraditional15minute schedulingintervals,getperturbedbyfluctuatingrenewableoutput.

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Theconsiderablebackfeedsfromlowload/highDGareasmustbetransportedtolarge loadcentersandcancausecongestioninthetransmissiongrid. Thecurtailedutilizationofconventionalpowerplantsreducestheavailablefrequency controlandshortcircuitdutyandaffectsthedynamicstabilityofthesystemduetoa reductioninrotationalinertiaconnectedtothesystem.

AccordingtotheGermanlawEnWG,gridoperatorsatallvoltagelevelscaninvokegeneration curtailmenttocopewithcongestionandothercriticaloperationalsituationsthatjeopardizethe networksecurity.Forthispurpose,distributedgenerationplantswithratedpowerofmorethan 100kWmustbeequippedwithremotecontrolcapabilitytocommunicatetheirrealtimeoutput tothegridoperatorandallowforthegridoperatortosendautomaticpowerdispatchcontrol instructionstothegenerators.Whilesuchtelecommunicationfacilitiesarenothighvoltage facilities,theystillareanessentialcomponentoftheinfrastructurerequiredforreliable operationandcontrolofthehighvoltagegridinGermany.

General and Technical Requirements in Germany

General Requirements
TheimplementationofrenewableenergysourcesisanimportantpoliticaltargetoftheGerman government.Inthiscontext,thefederalgovernmenthasdevelopedlegalboundaryconditions forthedevelopmentofdistributedgeneration.Asaresult,importantnewlaws(EnWG7and EEG8)wereenacted.Theselawsdefineapriorityofrenewableenergysourcesincontrastto conventionalenergysourcesandobligatetheGermangridoperatortoconnectdistributed generation.Thegridoperatorhastoensurethatdistributedgeneratingunitsareabletofeed intothegridandthatthetotalinstalledpowercanbetransmittedundernormalconditions. Furthermore,thepointofcommoncouplingshouldbeascloseasreasonabletothelocationof theindividualdistributedgeneratingunit,giventechnicallimitations. Anexceptionisdefinedfordistributedgeneratingunitswithaninstalledpowerlowerthan 30kW.Fortheseunitsthepointofcommoncouplingissimplydefinedasthelowvoltagegrid closesttotheserviceconnectionoftheownerofthegeneratingunit.

7EnWGZweitesGesetzzurNeuregelungdesEnergiewirtschaftrechtsvom7.Juli2005; BundesgesetzblattJahrgang2005TeilINr.42,ausgegebenzuBonnam12.Juli2005[SecondGermanLaw ontheEnergyIndustry,July2005] 8EEGGesetzzurNeuregelungdesRechtsderErneuerbarenEnergienimStrombereichundzur nderungdamitzusammenhngenderVorschriftenvom25.Oktober2008;BundesgesetzblattJahrgang 2008TeilINr.49,ausgegebenzuBonnam31.Oktober2008[GermanLawontheRenewableEnergySources, October2008] 12

 Regardingtheevaluationofthetechnicallyreasonablepointofcommoncoupling,different technicalnormsandrulesweredevelopedinthepast.Theserulesweredevelopedin considerationofthefollowingtargets:

ThepointofcommoncouplingshouldbeclosetothelocationoftherespectiveDG. Asecuregridoperationmustbemaintainedunderallconditions,includingthefull outputofthedistributedgenerator. TheoperationofDGshouldhavenegligibleimpactonothercustomers. Specificpowerqualityparametershavetobemaintained.

Giventhiscontext,distributedgenerationplantsareconnectedatvariousvoltagelevels dependingonthetypeofenergysourceandtheinstalledpower.Thefollowingsummary describesthetechnicalnormsandrulesregardingdistributedgenerationconnectedtomedium voltageandlowvoltagegrids.

Technical Requirements
Toensureasecureoperationofthegridunderallconditionsthefollowingmainpointsshould beconsidered:

Allcomponentsusedintheinterconnectionshouldbeproperlydimensionedforthesize oftherenewableproject. Thevoltagelevelatthepointofconnectionshouldbewithinanacceptablerange.

Utilization and Overload Theutilizationoftheelectricalinterconnectioncomponentsmustnotexceedtheratedcurrentof theelectricalcomponents.Theratedcurrentsofthecomponentsaredefinedthroughindustry norms.Inaddition,gridoperatorsinGermanyhavedefinedrelatedrules.Distributed generatingunitsthatareconnectedtothemediumvoltageorlowvoltagegridsshouldnot causeoverloads,undervoltages,orovervoltages. Permissible Voltage Range ThepermissiblevoltagerangeformediumandlowvoltagegridsisdefinedinthenormDIN EN50160.9Ontheonehand,themaximumvoltageshouldnotexceedtheinsulationlevelofthe electricalcomponents.Ontheotherhand,theminimumvoltageateachserviceconnection pointmustallowanundisturbedoperationofallconnecteddevices.Inthiscontext,thevoltage ateachserviceconnectionpointshouldbeinarangeof10percentoftheratedvoltageunder normaloperatingconditions.

9DINEN50160MerkmalederSpannunginffentlichenElektrizittsversorgungsnetzen;April2008 [GermanNorm50160VoltageCharacteristicsofElectricitySuppliedbyPublicDistributionNetworks,April 2008] 13

 Power Quality Additionally,distributedgenerationplantsshouldnotinterferewithothercustomers (consumersorgeneratingunits).Toensureacceptablepowerqualityparameters,thefollowing systemperturbationsassociatedwithaDGshouldbeconsidered:

Voltageincreaseatpointofconnection Flicker Harmonics

Admissiblelimitsforvoltagedeviation,nonsymmetry,flicker,andharmoniclevelsarealso defined(seeMemo#2).Technicalrulesexistforthegridconnectionofgeneratingunitstothe mediumvoltagegrid10andtothelowvoltagegrid11,respectively. The Most Critical Issue: Voltage Increase Generally,voltageincreaseisthemostcriticalissueatthepointofcommonconnectionfor distributedgeneratingunits.Voltageincreasesarecausedbytheinjectedpowerofgenerating units.Thepowertransmissionoverthenetworkimpedancecausesavoltagedropfromthe feedingtothereceivingend.Themagnitudeofthevoltagedeviationrelatestothesizeofthe impedance.Asaresult,thevoltagedeviationsinthegridvarydependingontheDGsize.This effectisillustratedinFigure6.
transformer circuitline servicepoint

G
distributed generation plant

load voltage peakfeed in voltage increase

length peakload

Figure 6: Voltage Increase Caused by Distributed Generation

Source: KEMA

10.ErzeugungsanlagenamMittelspannungsnetzRichtliniefrdenAnschlussundParallelbetriebvon ErzeugungsanlagenamMittelspannungsnetz;VWEWEnergieverlagGmbH;Juni2008[GermanTechnical GuidelineGeneratingPlantsConnectedtotheMediumVoltageNetwork,June2008] 11.EigenerzeugungsanlagenamNiederspannungsnetzRichtliniefrdenAnschlussundParallelbetrieb vonEigenerzeugungsanlagenamNiederspannungsnetz;VWEWEnergieverlagGmbH;September2005 [GermanTechnicalGuidelineGeneratingPlantsConnectedtotheLowVoltageNetwork,September2005] 14

 ThemaximumdifferencebetweenreceivedvoltageswithandwithoutDGoperationare definedintheGermangridrules(seeMemo2).Alldistributedgeneratingunitsthatare connectedonacommonsectionofgridhavetobeconsidered. Theshortcircuitdutyatapointofcommoncouplingservesasameasureforthenetwork impedance.Highshortcircuitdutyreflectsalownetworkimpedanceandviceversa.Therefore, inareaswithlowshortcircuitpower(i.e.,ruralareas),theoccurringvoltageincreaseishigher thaninareaswithahighershortcircuitpower(i.e.,urbanareas).Ifthevoltageincreaseexceeds thelimitvalue,eithergridupgradesarerequiredtoreducethenetworkimpedance,orthe distributedgeneratingunithastobeconnectedtoanotherpointofcommoncoupling. Inaddition,othertypesofsystemperturbations(i.e.,flicker,harmonics,etc.)arealsoevaluated inregardtotheshortcircuitpoweratthepointofcommoncoupling.Alloftheperformance rulesareconsideredbytherespectiveTSOorDNOduringplanningstudiesforeachDG connectionandappropriateplanningoptionsareemployed,asdiscussedinthenextsection.

Technical Options to Ensure Secure Grid Operation

General
Becauseofthedistinctelectricalcharacteristicsofeachmediumandlowvoltagegrid,the maximumacceptablelevelofDGcapacitycanbelimitedatanygivenpointinthenetwork.To ensuresecuregridoperationdifferentgridplanningoptionscanbeusedtoincreasethe acceptableamountofconnecteddistributedgenerationinagivenpartofthenetwork. However,Germannetworkplannersconsiderallpossibilitiesinordertodeterminethe minimumlevelofgridinvestment.Generally,whentheconnectionpointisinadequate,the technicaloptionsinclude:

DirectlyconnectingtheDGintoasubstation UpgradingofthenetworkcircuitthermalcapabilitytotheDGlocation Upgradingofupstreamtransformercapacity Reroutingthecircuittoreducecircuitlength Relocationofthenetworkloopnormallyopendisconnectpoint Setpointadjustmentofautomaticvoltagecontrolonnetworktransformers Usingreactivepowercapabilitiesofdistributedgeneratingunits Constructionofanewsubstation Changestonetworktopology Upgradeofthenetworksratedvoltagelevel Installationofsupplementalreactivepowercompensationequipment Implementationofrotatingandnonrotatingenergystoragesystems

15

 Thesepossibilitiesaredescribedinmoredetailbelow. Direct Connection at a Substation Ifthevoltageincreaseexceedsthelimitvalue,otherpointsofcommoncouplingshouldbe justified.Inthiscontext,thedirectconnectionofadistributedgeneratingunittoanetwork substationisoneofthemostcommonlyusedsolutionsinGermany.Thisoptioncanalsobe usedifothersystemperturbationfactorsexceedthepermissiblelimits.Itrequiresrelocationof theplannedDGtoasiteadjacenttothenetworksubstationorconstructionofagentieline fromtheDGsitetothenetworksubstation. Upgrade of Conductor Size Anupgradeofgridundergroundcableoroverheadlinescanbeusediftheconnectionofthe DGtothenearestgridlineexceedscriticalperformanceparameters.Dependingonthegrid load,thisapproachmayallowadditionaldistributedgeneratingunitstobeintegratedintothe grid.InGermany,thissolutionisoftenusedforoldergridlines,andconductorreplacement neededduetotheageofthegridlinecansometimesbecombinedwithintegrationof distributedgeneration.Thissolutionisalsousedinordertoraiseshortcircuitdutyatthepoint ofcommoncoupling.Therefore,thisoptioncanalsobeusedtosolveproblemsregarding criticalvoltageincreases.However,Germanyavoidsupgradingofthedistributiongridsolely forintegratingdistributedgenerationmany.DependingontheamountofDGprojectsaddedto aportionofthegrid,upgradeoflineconductorsmayonlybeashorttermoption.Inallcases, relevantneartermandlongtermgridplanningfactorsshouldbetakenintoaccount. Upgrade of Transformer Capacity Similartolineupgrades,theupgradeofupstreamtransformercapacityisalsousedinGermany forsomeDGinterconnections.Thisoptionmaybepreferable,especiallyforoldertransformers andallowsmorepoweroutputbydistributedgeneration. Reduction of the Circuit Length Thisoptioncanberealizedbyreplacinggridline(s)totheDGsitewithanalternativeroutethat createsashortercircuitlengthandlowernetworkimpedance.However,thefeasibilityofthis optiondependsonthegeographyofthespecificgridarea.Moreover,theresultantbenefitsin manycasesarerelativelylow. Relocation of the Network Normally-Open Disconnect Point Ashorttermoptiontoreducevoltageincreasesongridlinescanbetherelocationofthe normallyopendisconnectpointofagridloop.12 InGermanythisoptionisonlyashorttermsolutionandisusedmorefromthegridoperation side.Theimpactoftherelocationofthedisconnectionpointontheabilitytointegrate distributedgenerationiscomparablylowandmayincreasethenetworkelectricallosses.With respecttothedynamicgrowthofrenewableenergygeneration,therearesuperioroptionsfor mediumtermorlongtermgridplanning.
12Thedisconnectionpointdefinesthenormallyopenpointinanetworkloop(seeFigure1a). 16

Adjustment of Automatic Voltage Control Set Point on Transformers Anadjustmentofthetransformervoltagecontrolsetpointisalsoconsideredashortterm option,butinsomecasescanbeusedtokeepthevoltagelevelatadownstreamDGconnection pointwithinthepermissiblerange. ThisoptioncanonlybeusedinmediumvoltagegridsinGermanybecauseonlytheHV/MV powertransformersareequippedwithautomaticvoltagecontrolsystems(tapchangingunder load).Therefore,applicationislimitedtolargerDGfacilitiesthatneedtoconnecttoMV networks.ThisoptionisoccasionallyusedinGermany. Using Reactive Power Production Capabilities of Distributed Generation Plants Somedistributedgeneratorsareequippedwithautomaticvoltageregulatorsthatcanabsorb reactivepowerfromthegrid(underexcitedoperation)orprovidereactivepowertothegrid (overexcitedoperation)UnderexcitedDGoperationcanbeusedtodecreaseconnection voltage,whileoverexcitedoperationcausesvoltageincrease.InGermany,thisoptionisbeing usedwithincreasingfrequencyaspartofthelongtermgoalfordistributedgeneratingunitsto contributetothevoltagecontrolofthegrid.Inthepast,numerousDGunitswerenotcapableof producingreactivepower.Therefore,differenttechnicalruleshavebeendevelopedthatinclude therequirementforDGcapabilitytoprovidereactivepowerandtocontrolvoltage. Construction of a New Substation Anewsubstationcanbenecessaryifseveralcomponentstransformersandgridlinesreach criticalutilizationlevelsduetoDGintegration.Theconstructionofanewsubstationimplies extensivegridextensionmeasures.Itisthemostcostlyoptionandisthereforeavoidedin Germany.However,thisoptionmaybenecessaryinareasexperiencingacomparablyhigh levelofDGinstallationconcentratedinonelocation.Thishasbeenthecaseinthenorthernpart ofGermanywheresomeHV/MVsubstationshavebeenconstructedexclusivelyfordistributed generation(windfarmconnection). Change to the Network Structure ChangestoexistingnetworkstructuresarecarriedoutinGermanyonlyifneededaspartofa comprehensivegridexpansionplan.Whiledistributedgenerationaloneisnotconsideredthe mainreasonforchangingnetworkstructureinGermany,itisoneofthemanyfactors consideredinlongtermgridexpansionplanning. Upgrade of the Rated Voltage Level TheratedvoltagelevelofmediumvoltagegridsinGermanyhasbeenupgradedinsomeareas. Inmostcases,theupgradewasfrom10kVto20kV.Theseupgradesallowforagreater penetrationofdistributedgeneration.However,whenthisoptionhasbeenuseditwasselected duetoitscompatibilitywiththeoverallgridexpansionplanningneeds.Distributedgeneration wasnotbeenusedasthesoledriverforthisoptioninGermany.

17

 Installation of Supplemental Reactive Power Compensation Theimplementationofsupplementalreactivepowercompensationsystems(e.g.,shunt reactors,FACTS),ishardlyeverusedformediumvoltageandlowvoltagegridsinGermany. Testsregardingtheimplementationofreactivepowercompensationsystemsarebeingcarried out.Whethertheinstallationofmorereactivepowercompensationsystemsinmediumvoltage andlowvoltagegridswilltakeplaceinGermanyisunclearatthistime. Implementation of Rotating and Non-rotating Energy Storage Systems Energystoragesystemscanstoreoutputfromfluctuatingrenewableenergysourcesattimes whentheyexceedtheneedsofthegrid,andthestoredenergyisreleasedbackintothegridata latertimewhenneeded.However,storagesystemshavenotbeenusedinmediumvoltageand lowvoltagegridsinGermanyforDGintegrationtodatebecausethecostsofsuchtechnologies arenoteconomicallyjustified.However,pumpedstoragehydroprojectshavebeenused extensivelyontheEHVgridforregulatingpurposes. However,implementationofstoragesystemsforrenewableintegrationonHVandMVgridsis consideredtobealongtermpossibilityinGermany.

Most Frequent Application of Options in Germany

ThemostfrequentlyusedoptionsaresummarizedinTable4andarecategorizedaccordingto themostcommonfieldsoftheirapplication.
Table 4: Most Frequently Used Options to Integrate Distributed Generation in Germany
Critical voltage variation Power quality issues

Option Direct connection to a substation Upgrade of grid circuit conductors Upgrade of upstream transformer capacity Reduction of the grid circuit length Relocation of the loop normallyopen disconnect point Set point adjustment of transformer automatic voltage control (tap changer) Using reactive power capabilities of distributed generation plants Construction of a new substation

Grid overload

18

 Automatic Curtailment Option Ingeneral,thegridoperatorsofmediumandlowvoltagegridsinGermanyhavenotused automaticcurtailmentofDGasanoptionforexpansionplanning.However,thisoptionhas recentlybeenunderdiscussion.Inthisscenariothedistributedgenerationplantwouldneedto becapableofautomaticallyreducingtheiroutputintheeventofspecificovervoltageor overloadcondition,evenwithoutaremotecontrolsignalfromthegridoperator.Technicalrules havenotyetbeenestablishedforthispotentialoption,butitmightbeimplementedinthe futureasanoption.

Recent Network Planning Policies and Studies

Eventhoughtheincreasingproductionofrenewableenergyfromdistributedgeneratingunits affectsthegridatallvoltagelevels,nofundamentalchangesintheapprovedgridstructureand planningdirectiveshavebeenmadetodate.Technicalguidelineshavebeendevelopedto ensureasecureoperationofthegridunderallconditionswhileconnectingdistributed generationinaneconomic,leastcostmannerfromtheperspectiveofgridexpansionoptions. Anylargescalegridexpansionandredesignmeasuresinthepasthavebeendrivenprimarily byoveralllongtermgridplanninggoals,andnotprimarilybydistributedorrenewable generation.However,recentpolicyinitiativesandstudiesinGermanysuggestthatanewgrid investmentparadigmmaybedeveloping.Thisisdueperhapsinparttoconcernsoverthelevel ofdependenceonnuclearresourcesinGermanyslongtermenergyplanandthepossibilityof significantlyreducingthisdependencethroughintegrationofevenhigherlevelsofrenewables. MostrelevanttothecurrentKEMAinvestigation,recentlypublishedGermanstudyreports concludethatamajorincreaseinthescopeofdistributedandrenewablegenerationwould requireconsiderableexpansionofexistingtransmissionanddistributionnetworks.According toonemajorwindresourceexpansionstudy13completedin2010,inthebaserenewable expansionscenariostudiedupto3,600kmofnewtransmissionlinesareneededto accommodaterenewablegrowth,particularlylargeoffshorewind,by2020.Thiswouldrequire approximately1billion/yearinadditionalgridexpansioncostsfornewtransmissionlines. Anotherexpansionscenarioconsideredincreaseduseofhightemperaturetransmission conductorswhichwouldreducethemileageofnewlinestosome1,700km,butwouldalso requiresome5,700kmofexistinglinestobemodified.Thisscenariowouldincreasethe expansioncoststo1.6billion/year,whichisthehighestofallthescenariosanalyzed. TheseresultsarecomplementedbyanotherdraftstudybyamajorGermanindustryassociation (BDEW)whichquantifiesthenetworkexpansionnecessarytomeetmidtermrenewablepolicy goalsandforecast.14Whilethegovernmentsenergystrategypublishedin2010envisionsatotal
13DeutscheEnergieAgenturNetworkStudyIIPlanningoftheGridIntegrationofWindEnergyin GermanOnshoreandOffshoreuptotheYear2020(DenaGridstudy),2010. 14DraftreportbytheFederalAssociationoftheGermanEnergyIndustry(BDEW),March2011. 19

 installedsolarpowercapacityofapproximately33GWin2020(i.e.,doublingthecurrent installedsolarpowercapacity),theFederalMinistryofEnvironmentestimatesthatby2020 therewillbeanother52GWofinstalledcapacityaddedfromsolarpowerandsmalleronshore windparks.Giventhisforecast,theBDEWdraftstudyconcludesthatby2020theywouldneed tobuild195,000kmto380,000kmofadditionallinesontheGermanHVandMVdistribution voltagenetworks.Theassociatedcapitalcostisestimatedtobe13billionto27billion. Duetothedelayandconsiderableamountoftimeneededofthepermittingprocedurefor plannedandnewtransmissionlines,theGermangovernmenthasalsorevealedpotentiallegal changesinordertoaccelerateandsimplifytheplanningandpermittingprocedure.

20

SECTION 2: Physical Infrastructure in Spain

Inrecentyearsdistributedgeneration(DG)hasreceivedincreasingattentionasitcancontribute tothevariousgoalsofEUenergypolicy.Enhanceddiversityofsupply,areductionin greenhousegasemissions,efficiencygainsandmoreflexibilityininvestmentsaresomeofthe majorbenefitsassociatedwithDG.However,whentheamountofdistributedelectricitysupply ofrenewableenergysources(RES)surpassesaparticularlevel,itcannolongerbeignoredin planningandoperationoftheelectricitysupplysystem.Therefore,improvementsofthe regulatoryframeworkoftheelectricitysupplysystemsarerequiredalongwiththegrowthof theelectricitysupplyfromdistributedgeneration. Basicprinciplesforachievingsustainabledevelopmentfromaneconomic,social,and environmentalpointofviewinSpaintodayincludereducingdependenceonforeignenergy, betteruseofavailableenergysources,andagreaterawarenessoftheenvironment.Thesegoals increasinglydemandthedeploymentofrenewablesourcesofenergy,increasedefficiencyin electricgenerationandareductioningreenhousegasesinaccordancewiththecommitments acquiredonsigningtheKyotoprotocol,bymeansofasearchforenergyefficientgenerationof electricity. Creationofthespecialregimeforthegenerationofelectricitymeantanimportantmilestonein Spainsenergypolicy.Targetsforrenewableenergyandcombinedheatandpowerarecovered intheRenewableEnergyPlan20052010andintheStrategyforEnergySavingandEfficiencyin Spain(E4),respectively.Inviewoftheabove,althoughgrowthinthespecialregimefor electricitygenerationhasbeenoutstanding,incertaintechnologiesthetargetsarestillfarfrom beingreached. Attheendof2010Spainhadatotalinstalledelectricpowerproductioncapacityof97.5GW (peninsularsystem).Thetotalinstalledcapacityinsolarandwindpowerproductionwas23.8 GW(24percentofthetotalinstalledcapacity).Thistotalincludesapproximately9GWfrom windprojectsand4GWfromsolarPVprojectssmallerthan20MW.Continuedgrowthof distributedrenewablegenerationseemsunabated. Therefore,Spanishgridoperatorsinrecentyearshavedevelopedtechnicalrulesandguidelines tomaintainsecurenetworkoperationwithlargeamountsofrenewables.Accordingtothese extensiveexperiencestheSpanishpowerdistributionsystemissuitableforacomparative analysis. TheSpanishMinistryofIndustrythroughtheInstituteforEnergyDiversificationandSaving (IDAE)hasdevelopedthewebsiteRenovables(Renewables)MadeinSpain, http://www.renovablesmadeinspain.com/withtheobjectivetoinformtheworldaboutthe significantpenetrationofrenewableenergiesinSpainandtheleadershipofSpanishcompanies andorganizationsthathavemadethispossible.

21

 Inthefollowingsectionstheresearchteampresentsthemainvoltagesofthetransmissionand distributionnetworksinSpain.Thenwedescribetherelevanttypesofrenewableenergy sourcesbyregion,alongwiththecharacteristicsofthegenerationplantsandtheirimplications forthegrid.Finally,weaddressthemostfrequentlyusedtechnicaloptionsandfacilitiesto managetheintegrationofrenewableenergysourcesandtherebytocomplywithtechnical requirementsandguidelines.

Overall System Planning and Development

InMay2008,theSpanishMinistryofIndustry,TradeandTourismpassedthe20082116 planningdocumentforthegasandelectricitysectorstoensurethesafetyandqualityofthe energysupply.Thisplansetsoutasubstantialprograminvolvingtheconstructionofnew powerinstallations. In2009RedElctricadeEspaa(REE),theSpanishcorporationthatoperatesthenationspower transmissionsystemandelectricitygrid,continuedtodrawupforecaststudies,bothforpower demandandcover.REE,asoperatoroftheinsularandextrapeninsularsystems,likewise drawsupboththedemandandpowerpeakforecastsandtheestimatesofgenerating equipmentneedsforthesesystems. REEiscarryingoutinvestmentsaimedatreinforcingthegridmeshinordertocoverincreases indemandinsomeareasofthemainlandandtofacilitatetheestablishmentofthenew generationinstalled,mainlycombinedcyclesandwindpowerplantsand,toaneverincreasing extent,solarthermalplants.

Network Structures in Spain

ThispartofthereportdescribesthebasictechnicalconfigurationsofSpanishdistributiongrids includingsubstationsandsecondarysubstations.Theanalysisfocusesonmediumandlow voltagedistributiongrids.Italsooutlinesrelevantaspectsofdistributedgenerationathigher voltagelevelsinSpain.

Grid and Voltage Levels

TheSpanishpowergridatallvoltagelevelsisathreephasealternatingcurrentgridoperatedat afrequencyof50Hertz.FourcommonvoltagelevelshavebeenestablishedintheSpanish powergridasshowninTable5.ThisclassificationofvoltagesisaccordingtotheIEC definitions.

22


Table 5: Overview of Voltage Levels in Spain per IEC Definitions
System Name (IEC Definition) Extra-high voltage High voltage

Abbreviation EHV HV

Rated Voltage 400 kV, 220 kV15 132 kV, 110 kV 66 kV, 45 kV 30 kV, 20 kV, 15 kV, 13.2 kV, 11 kV

Role Transmission grid

Medium voltage

MV

Distribution grid

Low voltage

LV

400 V

Spanishlegislation(RoyalDecree223/2088)givesasimilarclassificationforlinesabove1kV:

Specialcategory:Linesofnominalvoltageaboveorequalto220kV,ortheonesoflower voltagethatareoperatedbytheTSO. Firstcategory:Linesofnominalvoltagebelow220kVandabove66kV Secondcategory:Linesofnominalvoltageequaltoorbelow66kVandabove30kV Thirdcategory:Linesofnominalvoltageequaltoorbelow30kVandabove1kV.

Thecharacteristicsandfunctionsofthemainvoltagelevelsarediscussedbelow.

The Spanish Transmission System

ThetypicalvoltagelevelsforthetransmissiongridinSpainare400kVand220kV.The internationalconnectionsarealsoconsideredasapartofthetransmissionsystem.REEisthe TransmissionSystemOperator(TSO)andownsabout99.8percentofthe400kVpowerlines and98.5percentofthe220kVpowerlines.AccordingtocurrentSpanishregulationsall220kV mustbetransferredtotheTSO. TheElectricitySectorAct54/1997confirmedtheroleofREEasacornerstoneofsystem operation.Thislawcreatedawholesalepowermarketthatrequiredaneffectivelymanaged transmissiongridtoworkproperlyandacoordinatedoperationofthegenerationtransmission systemtoensurethatdemandwouldbesatisfiedatalltimes. Act17/2007of4JulyinSpainamendedthepreviouslawtoadaptittoEuropeanDirective 2003/54/CEwhichestablishedthecommonguidelinesforthedomesticpowermarket.Thislaw hasresultedinthedefinitiveconsolidationoftheREEsTSOmodel.Inthisregard,REE,asthe systemoperator,guaranteesthecontinuityandsecurityofthepowersupplyandtheproper
15Inthepast,theDSOscontrolledpartsofthe220kVnetwork,butithasmostlybeenmovedtothe TSO. 23

 coordinationoftheproductionandtransmissionsystem,performingitsfunctionsbasedonthe principlesoftransparency,objectivity,andindependence. REEisnotjustthemanager(operator)ofthetransmissiongridbutlikewisehasexclusive responsibilityfordevelopmentandmaintenanceofthegrid.Thisisquitedifferentfromthe Germancasewhereseveraltransmissiongridownersandoperatorscoexist. LikeGermany,SpainispartoftheEuropeanNetworkofTransmissionOperatorsforElectricity (ENTSOE),andthereforeoperatesaccordingtorulesintheOperationHandbookofENTSOE. Thetransmissiongridisameshedsystemwithhighstandardsforsystemstability(frequency, voltage,dynamicstability)andsecurityofsupply.Overheadlinesdominatethegrid infrastructure.Figure7illustratestheSpanishtransmissionsystemwith400kVlines representedinredand220kVlinesrepresentedingreen.

24

Figure 7: Spanish Transmission System

Source: REE (http://www.ree.es/transporte/mapa_red_transporte.asp)

25

The Spanish Distribution System

ThetypicaldistributionvoltagelevelsinSpainare132kV,110kV,66kV,45kV(highvoltage), 30kV,20kV,15kV,13.2kV,11kV(mediumvoltage),and380V(400Vinthelatestregulation, RD842/2002,lowvoltage). InSpainthemaindistributioncompaniesareIberdrola,Endesa,GasNaturalFenosa, Hidrocantbrico,andE.Onwithamarketshareof40percent,39percent,15percent,2.5 percent,and2.5percenteach,whichcombinedrepresent99percentofthetotaldistribution activity.

HV Distribution Grid
SpanishHVgridsareofmeshedtopology(moreorlesscomplex)andcanbeoperatedalsoina meshedphilosophy(closedloop)orradial(openloop).Theexceptionareafewradialbuilt networksinruralareas,butevenintheseareasthemostcommontopologyistheopenloop,so thereispossibilityofsupportthroughasecondline.Thisgridisusedtofeedthedistribution substationsthatareconnectedtotheMVgrid.ThelayoutoftheHVbusbarofthese distributionstationsdependsontheareatheyarebuilt.MostoftheHVgridcomplieswithn1 securitycriterion(fortransformersandlines).Securitycriterian2canbeappliedforHVgrids associatedtourbanareas,whenthereareforexamplesubstationsfedbycriticaldoublecircuit lines.Figures8through10illustratedifferentnetworktopologiesappliedattheHVlevelin Spain.

Figure 8: Looped HV Grid (Single Source Point)

Source: KEMA

26

Figure 9: Bridge Configuration (HV Grid Fed from Two Points)

Source: KEMA

Figure 10: HV Mesh Configuration

Source: KEMA

MV Distribution Grid
TheSpanishmediumvoltage(MV)grid)inSpainisdifferentiatedbyurban,semiurban,and ruralareasthathavedifferentpowerquality,reliability,andcontinuityofsupplyrequirements. Urban Medium-voltage Grids UrbanMVgridsinSpainservehighdensityurbanareasfedbyundergroundcables.The typicalcablecrosssectionis240to400mm(nominallyequivalenttoarangeof400kcmilto750 kcmil),butthereisasignificantheterogeneityofcrosssectionespeciallyinthelargecitiesdue todecadesofdifferentplanningcriteriaandnetworkdevelopmentcriteria.

27

 ThedesignphilosophyofMVgridsinSpainistoservetheMV/LVstationsinawaytheycan alwaysbefedfromatleastfromtwodifferentpoints.ThereshouldnotbeMV/LVstationson single,radialMVsources.Thisisachievedbyapplyingmainlytwostandardnetworkdesigns:

Reflectionpointandsupportcircuit Distributionpoint

Figure11illustratestheconceptbehindthereflectionpointandsupportcircuitdesign.Theidea istohaveanormallyopenbackupcircuit(CircuitodeApoyo)thatincaseoffaultinoneofthe mainfeederswillbeabletocloseintothereflectionpointandfeedtheloadonthehealthy portionofthefaultedfeederafterthefaulthasbeenisolatedbyremotecontrolledswitches. TheseswitchesareassociatedtoRMUs(RingMainUnits)intheMV/LVstations(circlesinthe figure).IntheexampleshowninFigure11,afault(indicatedbythelightningbolt)hasoccurred onthefirstsectionofCircuit1nearthesourcestation(ST),whichhasbeenisolatedandthe remainderofthecircuitloadpickedupfromthereflectionbusviathebackupcircuit(green indicatesaclosedbreaker,andwhiteindicatesanopenbreaker).

Figure 11: Urban MV Grid: Reflection Point and Support Circuit Design16
Source: Universidad Pontificia Comillas: Master Thesis by Trinidade Moya

Figure12illustratesthedistributionpointdesignthatisusedmainlyinhighdensityloadareas. Reliabledistributioncentersarebuiltascloseaspossibletotheloadcenterandtwoormore highcapacitytrunkfeeders(circuitosallementadores)areconstructedfromtheremoteHV/MV transformationsubstationstothedistributioncenters.Noloadisconnecteddirectlytothetrunk feeders.Multipledistributioncircuitsemanatefromeachdistributioncenterandfeedmultiple MV/LVstationswithinthehighloaddensityarea.Figure12illustratesaconfigurationwithtwo suchdistributioncenters,butothercombinationscanbeused.TheMV/LVstationsnormally consistoftransformersabove400kVA,withoneormoretransformersperstation.

16STmeanssubstation.CircuitodeApoyomeansbackupcircuit.CXmeansreflectionpoint;abus withcircuitbreakersandgroundswitchesusedtogroundthecircuitswhenthebreakersareopen. 28

Figure 12: Urban Medium Voltage Grid: Distribution Point design

Source: Universidad Pontificia Comillas: Master Thesis by Trinidade Moya
17

Rural Medium-voltage Grids Spainhasmadeadifferentiationbetweenconcentratedanddispersedruralareas.Botharefed mainlybyoverheadlines,thoughdispersedruralareashavelongerlines,commonlycausing voltagedropproblemsrelatedtothelargeimpedanceofthelongoverheadlines.Thedesign normallyconsistsofamainfeederwiththesameconductorcrosssectionoveritsfulllength,

17CentrodeRepartoCR1and2meansDistributionCentersNo.1and2,Subestaciaon TranformadorameansTransformationSubstation,TrafoT1andT1meanBank1and2. 29

 fromwhichseveralderivativefeeders(branches)aresuppliedtypicallywithsmaller conductors. SimilarlytotheUnitedStates,theruralnetworksinSpainareequippedwithswitchesalongthe lines(reclosersandsectionalizers)inordertomoreefficientlyisolatefaultysectionsandrestore thesupplytothehealthyones.Themainfeedersoftheruralnetworkcanbefedfromtwo alternativesubstationsoperatinginanopenloopmanner(makinguseofanormallyopenpoint bymeansofaswitch),resemblingtheloopconnectedwithnormalopencontactphilosophythat isusedinGermany.Thisallowstheuseoflooprestorationschemesincaseoffaults.Thetypical SpanishruralMVgridstructureisillustratedinFigure13.Unlikeurbanareas,MV/LVstations inruralareasareusuallysuppliedfromasinglecircuit.

Figure 13: Rural MV Grid Structure

Source: KEMA

LV Distribution Grid
Thelowvoltagegrid(LVgrid)isathreephase400V,comprisingalsoaneutralwire.These gridsarebuiltandoperatedinaradialway,regardlessofbeingurbanorrural.Urbangridsare dominatedbyundergroundcables,whileruralgridsaredominatedbyoverheadlines.Rural gridsaremoreexposedtovoltagedeviations(droporrise)duetotheirhigherperunit impedancecombinedwithlongerlength.ThetypicalSpanishLVgridstructureisillustratedin Figure14.

30

Figure 14: LV Grid Structure

Source: KEMA

Renewable Energy Sources (RES) in Spain

ElectricityproducersinSpainaresubjectedtodifferentlegislationdependingonthetechnology andenergysourceused.Producersareclassifiedintwomaingroups:specialregime(ex: renewableenergysources)andordinaryregime(ex:conventionalpowerplantssuchasnuclear powerstations).Figure15showsabreakdownofthetotalinstalledcapacitybytechnologyat theendof2010.Figure16showstheannualevolutionoftheinstalledpowerbytechnology from2005to2010.
Installed Power (GW)

Other Special Regime; 9,8 Solar; 4,0 Wind; 19,8

Combined cycle; 25,2

Fuel/Gas; 2,9 Coal; 11,4 Hydro; 16,7 Nuclear; 7,7

Figure 15: Breakdown of the Total Installed Capacity by Technology at the End of 201018
Source: REE (Red Elctrica de Espaa)

18ThecategoryOtherSpecialRegimeincludescogenerationandwastetoenergyplantsbelow50MW. 31

 Spainhadatotalinstalledcapacityinelectricpowerproductionof97.5GW(peninsularsystem) bytheendof2010.Thetotalinstalledcapacityinsolarandwindpowerproductionwas23.8 GW(24percentofthetotalinstalledcapacity)attheendof2010.Nexttocombinedcycleplants at25.2percentofthetotalresourcecapacity,windwasthenextlargestblockat19.8percentof total.

Installed Power (GW)

2010

25,2

2,9

11,4

7,7

16,7

19,8

13,8

2009

23,1

3,0

11,4

7,7

16,7

18,7

13,3

2008

21,7

4,4

11,4

7,7

16,7

16,2

12,6

2007

21,0

4,8

11,4

7,7

16,7

14,8

9,7

2006

15,5

6,6

11,4

7,7

16,7

11,6

2005 0

12,2 10

6,6 20

11,4 30 Combined cycle

7,9 40 Fuel/Gas

16,7 50 Coal Nuclear

8,7 60 Hydro

8,4 70 S.R. Wind 80 S.R. Other 90 100

Figure 16: Annual Growth of Spains Installed Power Generation (GW)

Source: REE (Red Elctrica de Espaa)

Distributed Generation
Generally,distributedgenerationcomprisesgenerationplantsthatareconnectedtolowand mediumvoltagedistributiongridsclosetoenergyconsumersandgenerationplantsforself supply.However,thisdefinitionassuchisnotusedinpracticeinSpain.Althoughthereare differentremunerationschemesforgeneratorsofdifferentsize,whichthereforewillbe connectedtodistinctvoltagelevels,themainsplitinSpainismadebetweenthesocalled ordinaryandthespecialregime.Thetechnologieseligibleforspecialregimearecogeneration, renewableenergysourcesandwaste.AccordingtotheSpanishlawRD661/2007,therenewable energysourcesgroupisdividedineightsubgroupsasfollows: b.1:solarenergy b.2:windenergy b.3:waves,geothermic,tides b.4:andb.5:hydropower b.6,b.7,andb.8:biomassandbiogas Installationswithaninstalledcapacitylargerthan50MWarenotincludedinthespecial regime.However,iftheseinstallationsproducerenewableenergytheyreceiveapremiumequal
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 tothatpaidtosmallerrenewableprojects(i.e.,thoselessthan50MW),butdiscountedby2080 percent.Duetothisfinancialdisincentivetherearenoindividualrenewableenergyprojectsin Spainwithinstalledcapacityover50MW. Point of Common Coupling ThedefinitionofpointofcommoncouplinginSpainissimilartoGermany,i.e.itisthegrid connectionpointofagenerationplant.Itslocationdependsontheratedpowerofthe generationplantandtechnicalandeconomicaspectsofthepowergrid(voltagelevel,utilization ofassets,networkimpedance,etc.).

Regional and Quantitative Allocation of Renewable Energy

In2009,thegeneratorsoperatinginthespecialregimesupplied32percentofthegrosselectrical consumptioninSpain.Windfarmsalonesupplied14.5percentofSpainsgrosselectrical consumptionin2009. Figure17showstheshareofthedifferentrenewabletechnologiestothetotalinstalledcapacity inrenewableelectricityproductionforthespecialregime(S.R.).
Installed Power (% Total Renewable installed Power)

S.R. Solar 13,9%

S.R.Biomass 2,6% S.R. Hydro 7,8%

S.R. Wind 75,1%

Figure 17: Breakdown of the Total Renewable Installed Capacity by Technology at the End of 2009
Source: REE (Red Elctrica de Espaa)

Wind Energy WindpoweristherenewablesourcethathasexperiencedthelargestdevelopmentinSpain.The populationdensityinlargeareaswithgoodwindresourceismuchlowerthaninGermany, whichhasprovidedopportunitiestobuildlargerwindfarms.Thedevelopmenthastakenplace throughlargeinvestorssuchaselectricityandconstructioncompanies.Recently,thetrendisfor nonelectriccompaniestoselltheirinstallationsduetotheincreasingtechnicalrequisitesinthis sector.Thedevelopmentofthewindpowersectorgoesinthedirectionoflargerwindfarms connecteddirectlytothetransmissiongridduetothetechnicaldevelopmentofwindturbines technologyandtheavailablecapacityinthetransmissiongridtotransportmoreelectricpower, gettingbetterprices.Whentheinstallationcapacityislargerthan50MW,promotersdivideinto severalinstallationsunder50MWinordertogetthehighestpayment.About60percentofthe
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 totalinstalledwindpowerisconnectedtothetransmissiongrid.Oftheremaining40percent connectedtodistributionthelargemajorityisconnectedtothe132/110/66kVgrids.Only25 percentisconnectedtotheradialoperateddistributiongrids(30kVandbelow).Windpoweris distributedalloverthecountry,butthereissignificantincidenceoflargewindfarmsinthe northernregionsofGaliciaandtothesoutheastinCastillaLaMancha.Figure18showsthe installedwindcapacitydensity(kW/km2)inSpain.

Figure 18: Wind Capacity Geographic Density in Spain

Source: REE (Red Elctrica de Espaa)

Spainswindproductionishighlyvariablebothhourbyhouranddaytoday.Forexample, Spainsrecordhighwindproductionwasabout11:00amonFebruary24,2010at12,916MW, andtherecordlowwasonJune3,2009at164MWintheearlyafternoon.Onmostdays,wind productionpeaksatnight,andreachesaminimumbetweennoonand2:00pm.Downward rampsinwindproductioninthemorningsoftenincreasemorningrampupsofconventional generationinthesummeralongwithdispatchofpumpedhydroplants.Somekeyfactsabout windpowerinSpain:

RenewableenergyplanforSpain(20052010):~20,000MW(accomplished) Officialnetworkplanningfor2016:29,000MW Furtherincreaseexpectedfor2020incompliancewithproposedECinitiatives Productionrecords:54percentofdemandat3:50amonDecember30,2009

Solar Energy Spainleadstheworldinthedevelopmentofsolarenergy,asitisoneofthesunniestcountries inEurope.Morethan95percentofthetotalPVinstalledcapacityisconnectedtothe

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 distributiongrid(below220kV)aswellasabout35percentofthetotalthermal(conventional) installedgeneratingcapacity. Figure19showsthedistributionofsolarPVandsolarthermalpowerintheSpanish autonomouscommunities,byend2009.Atthistimetherewereabout3.3GWofsolarPVwere connectedtothegrid.Whilesolarthermalispresentonlyinthecommunitiesofhighersolar radiationexposure,suchasAndalucia,solarPVismuchmoreuniformalongthecountry, althoughstilldominatedbythesoutherncommunities.

a) b)

Figure 19: Installed Solar Power (MW) in the Autonomous Communities of Spain by End 2009 a) PV and b) Solar Thermal
Source: REE and ASIF (Associacion Industrial Fotovoltaica)

AtpresenttheTSOhasnoremotemonitoringorremotecontrolcapabilityforanyofthe3.3GW ofPVpowergenerationbecausetelemetrytotheTSOisonlyrequiredforDGprojectsof10MW orlarger,andtherearenoPVprojectsofthissizeinSpain.AstheinstalledMWofsolarPV expands,thelackoftelemetryontheseprojectswillcreategreateroperatingproblemsforthe TSO.Also,SpainswinterpeakdemandisintheeveningwhenPVmakesnocontribution.In thewintertheuseofmoltensaltenergystorageandhybridizationwithnaturalgas19canenable suchsystemstoproduceduringthepeakdemandhours.Ontheotherhand,concentratingsolar thermalhasapositivecorrelationwithSpainssummerpeakdemand.

19HybridizationwithnaturalgasislimitedbySpanishregulationsto15percentofsolarthermalplant capacity,whereashybridizationwithbiomassorbiogasisallowedupto50percent.

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RES Compensation Arrangements in Spain

RESrevenuescanbedeterminedbyoneofthetwofollowingalternatives:

Feedintariff:thepricepaidpereachkWhproducedbyaRESinstallationisregulated andfixedtoaconstantvalue,independentofmarketfluctuations.Theannualevolution ofthistariffdependsontheevolutionoftheaveragereferenceelectricitytariffinSpain (RT),asfeedintariffs(FIT)aresetasapercentageoftheRT.Thetariffisfixedfora certaincontractduration(e.g.,15years).TheregulatedfeedintariffforeachRES technologydependsonthetypeofthetechnologyandontheyearwhentheinstallation isputonservice.Thisalternativeisaheritageofthepreviousregulation.RESfacilities greaterthan10MWarecommittedtogivetodistributioncompanies(DISCOs)a productionschedule30hoursinadvance,beingallowedtoadjustsuchschedule1hour aheadofeachintradailymarket(sixcallsduringaday).Hourlyenergydeviationsfrom theproductionschedulearepenalizedatapriceperkWhdeviatedequalto10percentof theRT.Thispenalizationdoesnotapplyinadeadbandof20percentoftheproduction scheduledforRESfacilities.Thisrule,whichimpliesabigchangeinRESregulation fromthepreviousframework,willapplytowindfarmsonlysinceJanuary1,2006.As thegovernmentREStargetsarereached,theFITdecreases.WhentheFITcontract periodforagivenRESprojectisover,itsenergyissoldatthemarket(pool)price. Wholesalemarket:RESaregivenincentivestojointhewholesalemarket,followingin thiscasepracticallythesamerulesasordinarygenerators.AstheRESwillfacenew technicalandeconomicconstraintsbydoingso,theirremunerationschemeprovidesan additionaleconomicincentive.Thetotalincomeisthesumofthemarketsellingprice, plusapremiumthatrepresentstheexternalitiesinasimilarwaytopreviousregulation, plustheabovementionedadditionalincentivetoaccessthemarket.Thepremiumand theadditionalincentivearesetalsoasapercentageoftheRT.AsRESareintegratedin thewholesalemarket,theyhaveaccesstoalltherestofelectricitymarkets(daily,intra daily,ancillaryservices,etc.).Theycanearnmoneyiftheyareabletoparticipateinsuch marketsorpayiftheyusesuchservices,beingthemostimportantthecostofproduction deviationsfromthepredictions.Inthiscase,thereisnodeadband,andthepriceis settledthroughmarketmechanisms.

REShaveanadditionalincomeassociatedtoreactivepowerthatdependsonthetimeperiod (peak,flat,orvalleyhours)anditcanbepositiveornegativedependingonthepowerfactorthe unitisproviding.ThisincomeencouragesREStoconsumereactivepower(laggingpower factor)invalleyhoursandtosupplyreactivepower(leadingpowerfactor)inpeakhours.In previousregulationstherewasanincentivetokeepthepowerfactorequaltoone. AninterestingaspectofcurrentSpanishlegislationistheeconomicincentivethathasbeenfixed forwindfarmstobeabletocopewithvoltagedipswithouttripping.Thisisoneofthemain technicalproblemsforwindgenerationexpansion,withhighpenetrationlevelsofwind generationthatcanalltripatonceifthereisavoltagedipinthetransmissionnetwork,

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 threateningsystemstability.Thereisaneconomicincentiveof5percentofRTtoeachkWhsold byeachimmunizedwindparkagainstvoltagedipsduringaperiodoffouryears.

Interconnection Technical Requirements in Spain

RESproducersthatwishtoconnectattheEHVlevelmustconnectaminimumcapacityof100 MWatanyonepointofinterconnectiontothe220kVgridoratleast250MWatanyonepoint ofconnectionwithtothe400kVgrid.Itispossibleseveralforsmallerprojectdevelopersto makeajointapplicationtotheTSOtofulfillthisrequirement.RD436/2004definesadditional criteriaandareagainstatedagainintheRD661/2007(annex11)withsomemodifications: 1. Thecombinedcapacityofallspecialregimegeneratorsconnectedtoonelineofthe distributiongridcannotexceed50percentofthecapacityoftheline. 2. Thecombinedcapacityofallspecialregimegeneratorsconnectedtoonesubstationor substationtransformercannotexceed50percentofthecapacityoftherespective substationortransformerservingthatvoltagelevel. 3. Forproducerswithoutstoragecapabilitiesornotabletodirectlymanagetheiroutput, suchaswindpowerandPVproducers,itisalsoestablishedthattheMWcapacityofthe producerorgroupofproducerssharingaconnectionpoint(pointofcommoncoupling), willnotexceed5percentofthegridshortcircuitduty(atthatpointonthesystem) expressedinMVA.Fordispatchablegenerators(biomass,solarthermal),theMW capacityshallnotexceed10percentofthegridshortcircuitduty(atthatpoint) expressedinMVA.ThisisintendedtolimitthemaximumvoltagedeviationduetoDG operationtotherangeof510percentofthelocalgridsnominalvoltage. BecauseoftheabovelimitationsingridimpactsduetoDG,veryfewbackfeedsituationshave developedinSpain.Inpractice,thecriteriaaboveonlyrestricttheconnectiontothe distributiongridandarenottheconnectiontothetransmissiongrid.Basedonutilityexperience regardingconnectiontothedistributiongrid,criteria1and2fromthelistabovelimitthe capacitythatcanbeconnectedinabout10percentofthecases,whilecriteria3islimitingin approximately90percentofthecases.DGprojectsinSpaindonothavemuchexperience connectingtotheMVdistributiongrid,sotheselimitationsmayneedtobereviewedinthe comingyearsaswell.Distributioncompaniesgenerallyconsiderthesecriteriatobeadequate, althoughtherehavebeensuggestions/discussionsontheinclusionoflocalloadasalimiting factorfortheinterconnectionofspecialregimegenerationduetoconcernaboutbackfeedinto HVandthetransmissiongrid. Photovoltaicplantssmallerthan100kVAandconnectedtolowvoltagenetworks(below1kV) havespecificconnectionrequirementsenactedintheRoyalDecree1663/2000.Themostrelevant requirementsofthislegislationaretheobligationstomaintainvoltageattheinterconnection pointat5percentofthenominalvoltageandoperateatapowerfactorascloseaspossibleto unity.

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Implications on Power Grid Operation

REE(TSO)has,alongtheyears,beenexperiencingwindgenerationtripsduetovoltagedips.As aresult,ithasbeenmonitoringvoltageandgeneratorperformancesince2005.Anoperational procedurehasbeenimplementedaspartoftheSpanishgridcodethatestablisheswhen generatorsmustremainconnectedinordertoallowridethroughintheeventofafault.Starting January1,2008,allnewwindfacilitieshadtocomplywiththisvoltageridethroughregulation. Mostexistingplantshavemadethenecessaryretrofitstocomply,andonlysome1,000MW to1,500MWplantsstillneedtobeadapted.REEnowrunsrealtimesimulationtomodel scenariosofthreephasefaultsin70ofits400kVsubstations.ThesesimulationsallowtheTSO totakeactionsfromadedicatedcontrolcentreinordertoensuresafesystemoperationand avoidfurthergenerationtripping. Voltagecontrolforconventionalgenerationistypicallydoneatthesubstation.Thatisnot sufficientwherealargepenetrationofrenewablegenerationexists.REEhasinstitutedasystem toincentiverenewablegeneratorstoprovidereactivepower:Generatorsreceiveabonusor sufferapenaltyfor+8percentto4percentof78.44perMWh,dependingonthepowerfactor. Thesystemoperatorissuesinstructionstomodifythepowerfactorsettings. SinceApril1,2009,REEhasorderedallDGunitsabove10MWtooperateatpowerfactors between0.98and0.99inductiveinordertoeliminatesuddenchangesinthevoltageprofileand avoidhighvoltages.REEbelievesthattheultimatesolutionistoenablevoltagescheduling capabilityforallgeneratorsgreaterthan10MW.Akeyissueremainsastowhenandhowto automateDGvoltagecontrolandwhetherthisrequiresalocal,regional,ornationalstructure.

Connection Process to Transmission Network in Spain

Connection Application Phase
Therearetwodifferentstages,accordingtoP.O12.2ofREE:

1Requestforaccesstothetransmissiongrid. 2Requestforconnectiontothetransmissiongrid.

Forstage1,thegeneratormustsubmitarequestforaccesstoaspecificnetworklocation(node) andsupplyavarietyoftechnicaldataaboutitsgeneratingplantfromratedpowertoPSS/E controlblockmodelsfordynamicanalysis.REEalsorequeststheseasonalgenerationpatterns. Itisacompletesetofdataonthegeneratingunit,whichiscomplementedwithdataon interconnectionlinesandalsowithdataonstepuptransformers.Furthermorethereare differentrequestsdependingonthegenerationtechnology.REEP.O12.1annexeslistallthe necessarydatafordifferentgenerationtechnologies.Afterreceivingtherequestforaccess accompaniedbythegeneratordata,theSpanishTSOhastwomonthstodetermineifthesystem capacitywillsupporttheconnection.Ifso,thegeneratoradvancestostagetwo.

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 Atstagetwothegeneratormustsubmitthebasicdesignofitsinstallation,theconstruction programandareportshowingthattheinstallationfulfillsalltheconnectionrequirementsin Instalacionesconectadasalareddetransporte:Requisitosminimosdediseoy equipamiento.Thisdocumentdefinesprotectionrequirements,groundingrequirements, switchgeararrangements,etc.Thegeneratorhasonemonthtodeliverthesedocumentsafter receivingapositivestage1approval.Initsturn,theTSOhasonemonthtodecideifthe generatorsdocumentationisadequate. Thegeneratordoesnothavetoperformanystudiesitself,sincethestudiesarecarriedoutby theTSOusingdatasuppliedbythegenerator.ThegeneratorisfreetoasktheTSOfor informationaboutaparticularlocationornodeofthegridifhewishestoperformhisown studiestoevaluatethefeasibilityoftheinterconnectioninagivennode.The[deciding authority]usestheTSOstudiesforitsdecision. Ifthestateoneproposalfails,thegeneratorcanproposealternativeconnectionpointsorrequest informationonthegridreinforcementcostsnecessarytoeliminatetherestrictions.Ifthe developeriswillingtopayforthesereinforcements,whileadvancingtostagetwo,hemustpay upfrontfor20percentofthesecosts. Commissioning Phase Twomonthsbeforetheplannedinterconnectiondate,thegeneratormustprovidetheTSOwith atestprogramandthedatesforfirstinterconnectionandstartofcommercialoperation. Generatorsmustconductspecificteststakingintoaccounttheexpectedabsorption/supplyof activeandreactivepower.Thegeneratormustalsoprovideasinglelinediagramofthe installation,includingancillaryservices.Hemustprovideupdatedinformationonthe installationaccordingtoP.O.9ofREE.P.O.9asksforinformationnecessaryforrealtime operations,soalongwithstandardgeneratorcharacteristicsitincludesinformationoncontrol systemssuchasislandingability.Theinformationtobesuppliedvarieswiththegeneration technology. TheTSOmustplanthecommissioningdateoftheinterconnectionfacility,takingintoaccount thenecessaryoutagesandtheireffectonnetworksecurity.Onceadateisestablished,theTSOis responsibleforschedulingameetingwiththegeneratorwherethefollowingaspectswillbe clarifiedwiththerelevantstakeholders:

Necessaryoutages Networksituationbeforecommissioningofthegenerator Listoftestsandactionsassociatedtoeachphaseofthecommissioningalongwith verifications Networksituationaftergeneratorcommissioningisfinished Intermediateconfigurationsduringthecommissioningstage Futuregenerationoperatingconditions Impactofthenewgeneratoronnetworkblackstartandrecoveryplans

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 TherelevantstudiesaremadebytheTSOsothereisnoneedtovalidatemodelingfromthe generator.However,inthepublicdocumentsthereisnoreferencetonetworkmodelvalidation methodology.ItseemstheTSOdoesnothavetoprovethevalidityofhismodels.Ifthereis noncompliancethegeneratorcannotbegincommercialoperationandisgiventheopportunity tocorrecttheproblemsandrepeatthetests.Theprocesswillhappenasmanytimesas necessaryuntilthereiscompliancewithallaspectsdemandedbytheTSO.

Connection Process to Distribution Network in Spain

Thespecialsystemsconnectionprocesstotheinstallationnetworkhassixphases(excluding ProjectExecution),endingwiththeinvoicingprocess,asshowninFigure20:

Figure 20: DG Connection Process

Thephasesofthisprocessdifferdependingonwhethertheinstallationisphotovoltaicor anothertype(wind,solarthermal,smallscalehydro,cogeneration,biomass,orwaste).

RES Installations (Non-solar)

Forinstallationscontemplatedbythespecialregimethatarenotphotovoltaic,thephasesfor connectingtothenetworkareasfollows: Request by the Developer ThedeveloperformalizesaguaranteetotheAutonomousCommunityfor20/kW.The developermustrequestaconnectionpointfromthedistributor.Thedistributorissuesareport thatincludestheconnectionpointrequirements.Thedevelopernotifiesthedistributorthatitis incompliancewiththereportandconnectionpointrequirements. Approval of the Project by the Autonomous Community Thedeveloper,whenapplicable,requestsadministrativeauthorizationandpresentsthebasic projectandexecutionprogram.Thedeveloperwillpresentacopyoftherequestfor administrativeauthorizationandproofofpresentationtotheAutonomousCommunityofthe basicprojectandexecutionprogram.Thedevelopergrantsadministrativeauthorizationand approvaloftheproject. Connection to the Network Thedistributioncompanyformalizesatechnicalcontractwiththeproducerandissuesa certificateofreadingiftheinstallationspowerislessthanorequalto450kW,aswellasa

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 certificateofaccessandconnection.IftheDGislargerthan450kW,theirmetersand interconnectionmustbecertifiedbytheTSO. Contracting IftheconnectionoccursattheHVlevelthedevelopermustformalizethesupplycontractwith anauthorizedcommercializationcompany.ForaLVconnection,thedevelopermustcontactthe distributortoformalizethesupplycontract.Thedevelopersignsthesupplycontract.Theterms ofthiscontractareregulatedbytheMinistryofIndustryandapplyforatleastfiveyears.The contracthastospecifythefollowing:

Locationofmeteringdevicesandconnectionpointtothenetwork.Italsohastospecify thecharacteristicofcontrol,protection,andmeteringdevices Estimationsoftheexpectedvolumeofsoldenergyand,whenapplicable,energy consumption,specifyingmaximumdemandandproduction Possiblecausesformodificationandcancellationofthecontract Technicalaspectsoftheinterconnection,suchascircumstancesinwhichtheDistribution Companywillnotbeabletoabsorbtheenergyproduction Economictermsandconditions,whichincludesthechosenalternativeforsellingthe energyandtheagreementonhowtoremuneratetheDGforproductionofreactive power(ifapplicable).Thedistributioncompanymustpaywithin30daysofreceivingof eachbill.

Thedistributioncompanymustsignthecontractinthethreemonthsaftertheagreementonthe locationandtechnicalconditions,eveniftheRESgeneratordoesnotsupplyenergy.The distributioncompanyhastopayRESalltheitemscorrespondingtothespecialregime (premiums,economicincentives,etc.)inthe30daysafteritreceivesthebill.Ifthedistribution companydoesnotpayduringthisperiod,ithastopayapenaltyof1.5percentofthebill. Installation of Metering Equipment Meteringequipmentmaybeownedbyeitherthedeveloperorthedistributor.Some distributorsprovidetheoptionofrentingthisequipment(exceptequipmentconnectedtoLV installationswithapowerexceeding15kW).Installationshavingapowergreaterthan15kWare requiredtobeequippedwithremotecontrolmeteringequipment,butremotecontrolisnot required.Thedistributorinspectsandsealsthemeteringequipment.Thedeveloperprovidesa copyofthedefinitiveinscriptionintheAutonomousCommunitysRegistryoftheSpecial System.

Photovoltaic Installations
Belowissummaryoftherequirementsandproceduresthatmustbecompliancewithby producersofthespecialsystemintheeventofphotovoltaicinstallations.

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 Request by the Developer Thedeveloper,whentheinstallationisbasedontheground,mustformalizeaguaranteetothe AutonomousCommunityfor500kW(excludingroofbasedinstallations).Thedeveloperasks distributorforaconnectionpoint.Thedistributorissuesareportwiththeconnectionpoint requirements.Thedevelopernotifiesthedistributorofitscompliancewiththereportand connectionpointrequirements. Approval of the Project by the Autonomous Community Thedeveloper,whenapplicable,willrequestadministrativeauthorizationfromthe AutonomousCommunityandpresentthebasicprojectandexecutionprogram.Thedeveloper willpresentthedistributoracopyoftherequestforadministrativeauthorizationandproofof thepresentation.Lastly,thedeveloperwillpresentthedistributorwiththeadministrative authorizationandprojectapprovalgrantedbytheAutonomousCommunity. Connection to the Network Thedistributioncompanywillissueaconnectioncontractandcertificateofmeterreading,ifthe installationspowerisupto450kW,andacertificateofaccessandconnection.IftheDGis largerthan450kW,theirmetersandinterconnectionmustbecertifiedbytheTSO. Contracting Inthecaseofhighvoltageconnections,thedevelopermustcontactanauthorizedselling companyinordertosignthesupplycontract.InthecaseofaLVconnection,thedeveloper mustcontactthedistributortoformalizeasupplycontract.Thedevelopersignsthesupply contract.Thetermsandconditionsofthiscontractaresimilartotheonesapplicableforother RES. Installation of Metering Equipment Meteringequipmentmaybeownedbyeitherthedeveloperorthedistributor.Some distributorsprovidetheoptionofrentingthisequipment(exceptequipmentconnectedtoLV installationswithalargerthan15kW).Installationslargerthan15kWarerequiredtobe equippedwithremotecontrolmeterreadingequipment(telemetering).Thetermsand conditionsofthecontractaresimilartotheonesapplicabletootherRES.

Main Reasons for Success of RES in Spain

TherehavebeentwostepsinthepromotionofRESinSpain.Thesecondstephasjustbegun,so itisonlypossibleatthistimetojudgethefirststepsresults(RD2818/1998).Inthisinitial scheme,specialregimegeneratorshadfewertechnicalobligations,hadtherightofsellingall theirproduction,andwereeconomicallysupportedthroughafeedintarifformarketpriceplus apremium.Theresultsdependedontheeconomicsupportlevelandontheadministrative authorizationprocess. Theresultsshowthatexpansionofwindhasbeenasuccessintermsofinstalledcapacity. However,therearesomeregionsofSpainwherewinddevelopmenthasbeencompletely

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 blockeduntilanofficialwindplanhasbeendeveloped,whileotherregionshavejustbegunto givethemandatoryauthorizationstopromoters. Therearearound30,000MWofadditionalwindinstalledcapacityindifferentstagesof registrationasspecialregimes.Thisdoesnotmeanthatallofthemwillbebuiltandoperated, butitgivesanideaofthestrengthofwindexpansioninSpain.Itappearsthatonly administrativebarriersortechnicallimitsofintegrationcanstoptheexpansionofwind resourcesontheSpanishgrid. Ontheotherhand,thelevelofdevelopmenttodateofotherREStechnologiesisstillnot consideredsatisfactorybythegovernment,anditisunlikelythatproposedtargetsforthose categorieswillbereached.

Remaining Barriers to Development of DG in Spain

Themainstakeholders(renewabledevelopersandDistributionSystemOperators)have identifiedseveralbarrierstofulldevelopmentofrenewabletechnologiesinSpainasfollows:

Technicalrequirements: o Connectionstandards(particularlyshortcircuitlimits)areviewedasconservative bypromoters,andinmanycasesrequirethemtoconnectatahighervoltagethan originallyplanned. Monitoringandcommunicationdevicesmayrepresentabarrierincaseoftryingto accessthemarket. Inthecaseofwindgenerator,itsabilitytocopewithvoltage/frequencydipswithout trippingmaybecomeessential. Networkcapacityfordeliveryofrenewableenergy:Renewableresources,especially windparks,arenotalwayssituatedneartheelectricalnetworkandmayrequire constructionofhighvoltagelines.,Theapprovalprocessforlineconstructioncanbe slowduetoenvironmentalissuesanddelaysinconstructionmaybeaslongasfive years. DistributionSystemOperators(DSOs)perceiveDGasanaddedcomplexityintheir networksthatdonotprovideanyeconomicbenefitsandbringadditional operationalandplanningproblemssuchas:gridoperationandmaintenance personnelsafety;impactongridoperationregardingshortcircuitlevels,voltage control,andinterruptionsduetofailures;impactonnetworkreinforcementsto accommodatenewDGconnections;unpredictableenergydeviationswithrespect thescheduledprogram;andthedifficultytomaintaincertainpowerfactorsat consumptionpointsonthetransmissiongrid. AmajorrevisionofdistributionsystemregulationsisexpectedinSpain.Underthese changesstakeholdersexpectthatDGexpansionwillneedtobeconsideredasamore integratedcomponentoftheoverallgridplanningprocess.Therevisedregulation
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o o o

 shouldprovideDSOswithoption(s)torecoverthecostofnetworkreinforcements duetotheconnectionofDG.Significantconnectionchargesarecurrentlyimposed onDGprojectsinSpain,whichcreatesissuesforrenewableexpansion. o o AdistributioncongestionmanagementproceduretodispatchDGincaseofnetwork congestionshouldbedesignedandimplemented. ThedefinitionofDSOswithassociatedfunctionsshouldbeclarifiedinSpain,inline withtheDirective2003/54/EC.OperationalproceduresforDSOsshouldbeclearly stated,asitwasdonefortheTSO. Administrativeprocesses:Adeveloperhastonegotiatewiththestateministry,the regionalauthority,themunicipality,theelectricalcompanyand,incaseofaccessing themarket,withthemarketoperatorandsystemoperatoraswell.Duetothe complexityofthisprocess,experienceshowsthatbuildingawindparkmaytake fiveyears. Economicsupport:Asthepremiumiscalculatedexanteanddecidedbythe regulator,notbythemarket,thefixedamountmaybeinsufficienttorecover renewableprojectcosts.Conversely,inthecaseofwindpower,thepremiummaybe toohigh,whichcouldbecomeabarriertorenewabledevelopmentinthefutureifall theeconomicresourceshavebeendedicatedtothefirstwindparks.

Impact of DG on Spains Network Infrastructure

TheSpanishelectricpowergridisdesignedtomeetreliabilityrequirementsatallvoltage levels.Thisisreflectedintheestablishedgridstructuresatthevariousgridlevelsandprovides asolidbasisforthegridintegrationofrenewableenergysources.Therefore,nofundamental changesinthetopologyoftheSpanishgridhavebeenrequiredtodateduetothe interconnectionofrenewableenergysources.Changeshavebeenlimitedtolocal/specific reinforcementsinthedistributiongrid,mainlyassociatedtothegrowingofsolarPVandthe needtomaintainvoltagewithinacceptableboundaries.ThewaySpanishlaw(RD436/2004and statedagainintheRD661/2007)iswrittenshiftsthebiggestrenewablegenerators(tenthsofa MW)tohighervoltagegridswheretheydonotcauseproblems.Therestrictionsforeseeninthe currentSpanishlawmaybereviewedinthefuture,asthereismoreexperiencewith interconnectionofrenewablegenerationinMVandLV.Thiswasnotanissueinthelastdecade wheremostoftherenewableenergydevelopmentwasdrivenbylargewindfarmsconnectedto highvoltage.Althoughsettingupsuchlimitscanbeseenastoorestrictive(itisseenthatway bypromoters),foracountrywithambitiousemissionreductiontargetssuchasSpaintheyhave producedgoodresultsenablingmassiveintegrationofrenewableenergywithminimum disturbancetothegrid,atleastattheplanninglevel. Fromatechnicalperspective,inordertobeabletocontinueintegratinglargeamountsofDG, Spainisestablishingnationalandregionalcontrolcentersforrenewableswithmandatory monitoringandcontrolcoupledwhileestablishingincentivesforcurtailingwind.Providing frequencyregulationbyspillingwind(andotherintermittentresources)providesoperational
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 flexibilitytomaximizerenewableenergyproductionwhilemaintainingreliability.These centersincludestateoftheartrenewableforecastingtechnology,includingramprate predictionsoftware.AlthoughSpainswindforecastingtechnologyisworldclass,thediscipline needssubstantiallymoreresearchanddevelopmenttooptimallyoperateapowersystemwith substantialpenetrationofrenewables.AtthesametimeGridCodesarebeingupdatedandwill requireallrenewablegeneratorsoveracertainsizetoprovidezerovoltageridethrough capabilityandmandatoryVolt/VARcontrolcapabilitytosupportthesystem.Volt/VAR capabilityinwindpowergenerationcanbeprovidedbytheuseofpowerelectronicinterfaces onwindturbinegeneratorssuchasdoublyfedinductiongeneratorsoradvancedinverterson PVsystems.

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SECTION 3: Comparison to Grid Infrastructure in California

LiketheEuropeanpowergrid,theCaliforniagridisathreephasealternatingcurrent(AC)grid. TheCaliforniagrid,likemostofNorthAmerica,isoperatedatafrequencyof60Hertzatall voltagelevels.However,thedifferencebetweenthe60HertzACsysteminCaliforniaand50 HertzinEuropehasnoimpactonrenewableintegration.Inaddition,theCaliforniagridhas twomajorhighvoltagedirectcurrent(HVDC)500kVtransmissionlinesthatareclosely integratedwiththeACsystemandinterconnectCaliforniatothePacificNorthwestandRocky Mountainregions.Likewise,inKEMAsopinion,thepresenceoftheseHVDClineshasno directbearingonintegrationofrenewablesinternaltoCalifornia. Table6comparescommonvoltagerangesfoundintheCaliforniaelectricgridtothe correspondingrangesinusedinGermanyandSpain,andshowsthatthereisaclosecorrelation atallofthenetworklevels.
Table 6: Comparison of AC Voltage Levels in California and Europe (Phase-to-Phase Voltages)
Network Level Extra-high voltage Germany 380 kV, 220 kV Spain 400 kV, 220 kV California 500 kV, 345 kV, 287 kV, 230 kV, 220 kV 138 kV, 115 kV, 69 kV, 66 kV 34.5 kV, 13.8 kV, 12.47 kV, 4.8 kV, 4 kV

High voltage

110 kV

132 kV, 110 kV 66 kV, 45 kV 30 kV, 20 kV, 15 kV, 13.2 kV, 11 kV 400 V

Medium voltage

30 kV, 20 kV, 15 kV, 10 kV 400 V

Low voltage

480 V, 208 V

Thiscomparisonclearlyshowsmuchsimilaritybetweenthenetworkvoltagerangesinthethree regions.AlthoughCalifornias230kVand220kVvoltagesaregroupedwiththeExtrahigh voltage(EHV)networkclassificationinTable7theyarenotgenerallyconsideredEHVvoltages byU.S.standards.Thefunctionsofthe60kVthrough138kVsystemsinCaliforniacaneitherbe transmissionordistribution,dependingonthefacilityowner.20Similarly,although34.5kVis shownintheMVdistributioncategory,theLosAngelesDepartmentofWaterandPower operatesanextensive34.5kVsubtransmissionsystem.Regardlessofthenomenclatureusedby

20SDG&Es138kVand69kVsystems,andmuchofPG&Es115kVsystem,areconsideredtransmission andareundertheCaliforniaISOsoperationalcontrol.SCEs66kVand115kVsystemsareconsidered distribution,andnotunderCaliforniaISOcontrol. 46

 Californiautilitiesfor34.5kVto230kVsystems,theirelectricalfunctionissimilartothe EuropeanHVandMVcategories. However,onedifferenceworthnotinginTable6istheapparentskewingofMVdistribution voltagestheEUtowardinthe1530kVrangeascomparedtoCaliforniawherethepredominate distributionvoltagesareinthe1215kVrange,plusasubstantialamountofolderdistribution loadinthestatewhichisstillservedbyfacilitiesat2kVto5kV.Thiscouldhaveadirectimpact onDGintegration,sincethepowerdeliverycapabilityofanysizeelectricalconductorvaries proportionallywiththeoperatingvoltage.Therefore,ifaconductoriscapableofcarrying6MW at10kV,thesameconductorcouldcarry12MWat20kV.However,makingsuchanincreasein theoperatingvoltageofanexistingdistributiongridwouldentailvirtuallyacompleterebuild oftheassociatedinfrastructure(substations,polelines,undergroundcables,andprimaryto secondarytransformers,etc.)Itcanbeassumedthatthecostsofsuchawholesaleconversion wouldbeprohibitive,exceptperhapsinthecaseofanantiquateddistributiongridthatis experiencinghighfailureratesandneedstobereplaced.Inmostcasesamorecosteffective approachtointegratingDGonsuchlowervoltagedistributionsystemswouldbetousethe sameplanningoptionsdiscussedinSection1relativetotheGermansystem.Again,eachlocal systemwouldneedtobestudiedtodeterminethebestplanningoption. AnotherdifferencethatisnotobviousfromTable6istheabsenceofLVdistributionnetworks inCalifornia.WhilethesearecommonlyusedintheEUforsupplytoresidentialcustomers,this topologyisnotincommonuseinCalifornia.21InGermanyandSpain,residentialandsmall commercialcustomersinurbanareasareserveddirectlyfrommeshed,threephase400V networks.InCaliforniaitiscommonpracticetouseMVcircuitsoperatedradiallytocoverboth urbanandruralareas.TheseMVcircuitsareoftenconnectedtoadjacentMVcircuitsvia normallyopenswitchestoprovidealternativesourcesofsupplyinthecaseoffaultsor maintenanceonanMVcircuit.Infact,anyoneMVcircuitmighthavenormallyopentiesto severaladjacentMVcircuitsinthismanner.MVcircuitsinCaliforniaservedistribution transformersthatstepdownthevoltagefromMVtoLV.TheresultingLVsysteminCalifornia (typicallyreferredtoassecondaryvoltage)onlydistributestopowertorelativelyfew customers(e.g.,oneto20customers)neartheMVtoLVtransformerincontrasttomany hundreds(orthousands)ofcustomersonatypicalLVnetworkinGermany.Thesamepractice isfollowedinsparselypopulatedruralareasinCalifornia,whereanMVcircuitisusedtocover thelongerdistancebetweencustomers,andtheLV(secondary)wiringispresentonlyforafew spansandmaybeonlyforonecustomer. SomeexamplesoffullymeshedLVnetworks,likethoseinEurope,existinotherpartsofthe U.S.particularlyinlargeurbansettingswheretheLVsupplysystemoriginallyevolvedalong
21AnexceptiontothisinCaliforniaistheoccasionaluseofLVspotnetworks(e.g.,240volts)forsupply oflocalizedcustomerloadcentersinurbanareas(e.g.,selectedofficecomplexesandshoppingmalls),but thesearerelativelylimitedinscalecomparedtothewidespreadLVnetworksfoundinEurope.Larger commercialcustomersandsmallerindustrialcustomersinEuropearetypicallyservedfromMV distributionsystems. 47

 thismodel(e.g.,NewYorkCityandBoston).ConnectingDGtofullymeshednetworkscanbe problematic,partiallybecausesuchnetworksaredesignedtopreventreversepowerflow throughtheMV/LVtransformers.Industryexpertsareengagedindevelopingstandardsand practicesthatwouldallowforDGconnectiontotheseLVnetworks.Obviously,thegeneral absenceoffullymeshedLVnetworksinCaliforniarendersthisamootpointforDGintegration inthestate. AnotherdifferencebetweendistributiongridsinCaliforniaandGermanyisthemore predominantuseofathreephasecircuitconfigurationthroughoutGermandistribution systemsversusCalifornia.ThecommonpracticeinCaliforniaistoutilizeathreephase configurationonthemaintrunklinesleavingdistributionsubstations,butswitchtoasingle phaseordoublephaseconfigurationformanysmallerdownstreambranches.Apotential impactofthisdesigndifferenceisthatifrenewableDGprojectsareaddedonsinglephaseor doublephasedistributionbranchesinCalifornia,itmaybemoredifficultforutilitysystem plannerstobalanceloadingbetweenallthreeofthephasesonthemainfeedersandsubstations. Thisproblemseemslesslikelytooccurwhenallofthedistributionsystemisbuiltwithathree phaseconfiguration.Ifasignificantimbalanceinloadingexistsbetweenphasesitcould,under worstcaseconditions,acceleratetheneedforreconductoringofafeeder.However,anumberof otherlowercostoptionssuchastransferringcustomerloadsbetweenphasescantypicallybe usedtorebalanceloadingonthemainfeeder.Therefore,KEMAconcludesthatthisdifference indistributionsystemdesignbetweenCaliforniaandtheEUshouldhaveanegligibleeffecton DGintegration. Therealsoappearstobesomeminordifferencesinnetworkfacilitygroundingpracticesin EuropecomparedtoCalifornia.Thereareavarietyofgroundingconfigurationsusedforthree phasesystemsintheindustryincludinggroundedwye,ungroundedwye,delta,andother variations.Eachofthesehasuniqueoperatingandprotectionimplications,andtosomeextent mayalsobearonthetechnicalperformanceaDGfacilityanditsimpactsonthenetworkunder someoperatingconditions.IngeneralthereappearstobeagreatertendencyintheEUtobuild distributionnetworkswithungroundedconfigurationsmoresothanintheUS.However,the affectofthisfactoronoverallDGintegrationintheEUvs.Californiaisprobablynegligible. TypicalnetworktopologiesandequipmentratingsusedforHVandMVdistributiongridsin GermanyandSpainaredescribedinSections1and2ofthismemo.Whiletherearenuancesto thetopologiesandequipmentratingsinallthreeregions(Germany,Spain,andCalifornia),they haveincommon:

PlanninganddesignofEHVandHVnetworkstowithstandatleastsinglecontingencies withoutinterruptionofservicetocustomers,lossofgenerationorsysteminstability PlanninganddesignofHVtoMVsubstationswitheitherredundanttransformer capacityorasparetransformerthatcanbeenergizedintheeventofatransformer failure

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AtendencytoplanandoperateMVnetworksasradialsystems,butwiththecapability torestoreservicefollowinglossoftheprimarysourcebyclosinganormallyopen switchingdeviceineitheraloopconfigurationortoanadjacentMVnetwork

ThesimilarityofsystemvoltagesshowninTable6suggeststhattheDGinterconnection capabilityofindividualdistributiongridsinboththeEUandCaliforniashouldbecomparable. Whileadeterminationoftheacceptableinterconnectionvoltagealwaysmustbemadeona casebycasebasisexceptforthesmallestDGunits,generalobservationscanbemadeby comparingTables1and6.BasedonKEMAsexperience,theDGcapacityrangesand correspondinginterconnectionvoltagelevelsshowninTable1aregenerallycomparableto California.Forexample,itispossibletointerconnectDGprojectsuptoabout20MWin Californiaatmany34.5kVsubstationsoronanindividual69kVline.Likewise,DGprojectsin therangeof5MWto10MWcouldbeconnectedintoeitheratypical30kVMVlineinGermany oratypical34.5kVlineinCalifornia.22ThemaximumDGprojectsizeonatypical10kVto15 kVdistributionlineineitherGermanyorCaliforniaislikelytobeseveralmegawatts.However, thisconclusiononlyappliesfordistributioncircuitsofcomparablevoltageandwouldnotbe validforcomparingsaya12kVcircuitinCaliforniaversusa20kVcircuitintheEU(thisissue ofcapacityversusvoltagewasdiscussedearlierinthissection).Finally,renewableprojectsizes atHVandEHVvoltagelevelsinTable1arealsocomparabletogenerationplantsizes interconnectedontheHVandEHVgridinCalifornia. However,oneaspectofthenetworkinfrastructureinGermanythatclearlybearsonsuccessful integrationofDGcapacityistherequirementthatallDGunitsabove100kWmusthaveremote observabilityanddispatchabilitybythenetworkoperator.Whilethisinfrastructure requirementdoesntdirectlyaffectthemaximumDGcapacitythatcanbeintegratedatagiven locationinthenetwork,itclearlyimpactstheabilityoftheGermangridtoacceptmoretotalDG capabilityonamacrolevelthanCalifornia.ThisisduetotheabilityoftheGermangrid operatorstoobservetheoutputandredispatchtheseDGunitsinrealtimewhenneededfor systememergencies.Thishasclearimplicationsoncongestionmanagementandfrequency regulation,incontrasttoCaliforniawhereonlyDGfacilitiesabove20MWwouldtypicallybe observableinrealtimetothegridoperatorandnoautomaticcurtailmentprovisionsexistatthis timeforcongestionorfrequencyregulationneeds.Onthemacrolevelthislackofobservability andcontrolposesaseriousconstrainttothetotalamountofintermittentrenewablesthatcanbe integratedintoCaliforniasgrid. Anotheraspectoftheinfrastructurethatappearstobedifferentisthetypicalsystemprotection designatHV/MVdistributionsubstations.BecauseMVfeedersintheU.S.areusuallyaradial configuration,faultdetectionand/oroverloadprotection(especiallyonolderfeeders)isoften providedbysimple,nondirectionalovercurrentrelaying.Insuchcases,ifthereisabackfeed
22AnexceptiontothismaybeifaDGconnectstoalong34.5kVdistributioncircuitinruralareaof California,wherethepointofcommoncouplingisextremelyremotefromthesourcesubstation. However,similarcircumstancescouldalsooccurinGermany. 49

 conditionduetoDGandthemagnitudeofthebackflowexceedsthesettingsoftheovercurrent relays,theywilloperateandtripthecircuitbreakeratthesubstationdeenergizingthefeeder. InsomecasesintheU.S.,thedistributionsubstationtransformersalsohavereversepower relaysthatareintendedtopreventbackfeedintothetransmissionsystemthatservesthe distributionsubstations.Insuchlocations,abackflowconditioncouldcauseanoutageofan entireHV/MVtransformerbankorsubstation.Therecanalsobesubstationprotectiondesigned toavoidcirculatingcurrentbetweentwotransformersoperatinginparallelthesamesubstation, iftheyareconnectedtocommonhighsideandlowsidebuses.Typically,suchprotective schemesareusedtopreventcirculationofreactivepowerduetodifferencesintapsettings betweenparalleltransformers,buttheycouldalsooperateduetoDGbackfeed.Therefore,if andwhensuchscenariosdevelopinCaliforniaduetoincreasingDGdeployment,affected portionsoftheexistingsubstationprotectionequipmentmightneedtobechangedto accommodatebackfeed.Thesimplestchangeisatthefeederlevel,whereitmaybepossibleto resetolderelectromechanicalovercurrentrelaystoaccommodatebackflowortoreplacethem withnewersolidstaterelayingthatismoreflexible.Solidstaterelaysarealreadyinplaceon manyfeeders. Finally,thereappearstobeadifferencebetweentheU.S.approachandthoseusedinGermany andSpainwithrespecttocertainoptionsavailabletoDGdevelopersandassociatedgrid operatorstudyprocesses.UnderexistinggridtariffsintheU.S.,anindependentpower producer(IPP)seekingconnectiontothetransmissiongridhastheoptiontosimplyapplyfor interconnectiontothegrid,orcanalsoelecttoapplyfordeliveryrightsoverthegrid.Ifthe latteriselected,abifurcatedapplicationandstudyprocessresults.Inthefirstphase,the requiredinterconnectionstudyonlyneedstoshowthatthereisaplausiblesystemloadand dispatchconditionforwhichtheIPPsfullpoweroutputcanbereliablyfedintothegrid.This phasedoesnotexplicitlyaddressdeliverabilityfromtheIPPpointofinterconnectiontoany otherpoint(s)onthegrid.However,iftheIPPalsoseeksassuranceofsuchdeliverycapability,a secondphaseofstudyisrequired.Inthissecondphasearangeofstressedsystemloadand dispatchconditionsaretypicallystudiedandadditionalgridupgraderequirementsmaybe determined.AnIPPseekingsuchdeliverabilityrightsisresponsiblefortheupfrontcapital costsofsuchgriddeliverabilityupgrades,butmaybeeligibleforarefundofsuchcapital contributionsfromthegridowneraftertheIPPprojectachievescommercialoperation.The basicinterconnectionstudyprocessusedforDGunitsintheGermanandSpanishgridsseems similartothetwophasestudyprocessthatisonlyusedintheU.S.ifanIPPappliesfor interconnectionplusdeliverability.However,forIPPsthatonlyseekinterconnection,itappears theU.S.studyprocessisnarrowerinscopethantheplanningprocessinGermanyandSpain.If so,itclearlyhasimplicationsregardingthelikelihoodofdispatchconstraintsforsuchprojects intheU.S.

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SECTION 4: Summary of Key Lessons Learned

TheimpactsofrenewableDGintegrationonthedistributiongridandthechoiceofappropriate countermeasuresdependheavilyonregionalandlocationalaspectssuchasloaddensity,the typeandamountofDGcapacityperregion/substation/circuit/location,theoriginalgrid utilizationconditions,andotherfactors.Giventhesemanyvariablesandinterdependencies,we mustbecarefulinderivingconclusionsregardingtheimpactsofdistributioninfrastructureon DGintegrationinEuropeversusCalifornia.Evenso,basedonKEMAsreviewofthemost commonDGgridcharacteristicsandintegrationissues,optionsandcountermeasuresin GermanyandSpainthefollowingconclusionscanbemadeinregardtoinfrastructureimpacts onDGintegrationinCaliforniaversusGermanyandSpain:

DifferencesinthebasicdistributioninfrastructuredesignbetweenGermany,Spain,and CaliforniadonotappeartobeamajorfactorinhowmuchDGcanbeintegratedintothe respectivesystems,withoneimportantexceptiontherequirementunderGermangrid codesthatallDGprojectsabove100kWmusthavetelemetrywhichprovidestheTSO withbothvisibilityandremotecontroloftheseunits.InSpain,thistypeoftelemetryis onlyrequiredonDGunitsabove10MW.InCalifornia,remotemeteringand/or telemetryrequirementsexistforprojectsthatelecttoexecuteaparticipatinggenerator agreement(PGA)withtheCaliforniaISO.ThisPGArequiresthatallintermittent renewableprojectsof1MWorgreaterarerequiredtohavetelemetrythatallowstheISO toseeunitstatusandoutputlevel.Othertypesofparticipatinggeneratorsthatare10 MWorlargermustalsohavetelemetry.However,theCaliforniaISOsagreementswith DGsnormallydonotincluderemotecontrolofDGdispatch,butinsomecases aggregatorsmaycontractwithvariousDGstocreatearesourceportfolioforbidding intotheCaliforniaISOsancillaryservicemarket. GridoperatorsinGermanyandSpainhavenotchangedthebasicconfigurationsoftheir distributionsystemstoallowforgreaterpenetrationofrenewableDG.Thetypesofgrid upgradesconsideredbygridplannersandoperatorsforintegratingDGprojectsin GermanyandSpainarecomparabletotheoptionsemployedbygridplannersand operatorsinCalifornia.However,therearedifferencesinhowthecostisassignedfor suchupgradescomparedtoCalifornia.Inallthreecountriestheconnectionoption selectedmayimpactthecostsbornebytheDGdeveloper(e.g.,suchasthecostto constructalongergentieleadtoanupstreamsubstation).Significantconnection chargesarecurrentlyimposedonDGprojectsinSpain,whichcreatesanimpedimentto renewableexpansion.However,pendingchangesinSpanishlawcouldsocializemoreof thesecosts.SimilarcostallocationissuesexistinCalifornia. Todate,gridoperatorsinGermanyandSpainhavenotutilizedancillarytechnologies (i.e.batterystorage,flywheels,etc.)tointegrateDGonthedistributionsystem. However,thereissignificantrelianceonexistingpumpedhydrostorageplantsonthe

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 EHVgridlevelinGermanyinordertobalancetheintermittencyofwindgenerationfor regulationandfrequencycontrol.

GridplannersandoperatorsinGermanyandSpaindonotintentionallyignorethe consequencesofgreaterpenetrationofDGintheirdistributiongridsorwillinglytake additionalriskscomparedtothosetakenbyDGoperatorsinCalifornia.Thetechnical performancerequirementsspecifiedintheGermangridcodesthatapplytoconnection ofDGprojectsareatleastasrigorousasthoseinCalifornia. GridplannersinGermanyandSpainaddressbackfeedconditionsfromtheMV distributiongridstotheHVdistributiongridsduetoDGintegrationbyconsideringthe samerangeofplanningoptionsasusedinCalifornia.However,theyareobligated undercurrentlawsinGermanyandSpaintoidentifyareliableserviceplantoconnect anyDGproject,consistentwiththegridcodetechnicalspecifications.Thecostofthe requiredgridupgradesisthensocializedtoalargeextent,especiallyinGermany.The DGconnectionplanningprocessinCaliforniaappearstobelesscompulsoryandmore subjecttonegotiationoverthescopeoftherequiredgridupgradesandtheallocationof costresponsibilitiesbetweenthegridoperatorandDGprovider. OnceaDGprojecthasbeenconnectedtothegrid,transmissionanddistribution operatorsinGermanyandSpainhavetheauthoritytoredispatchDGunitstomitigate backfeedissuesandvariousothernetworksecurityconcerns.SuchDGredispatch authorityisnotgenerallyavailabletogridoperatorsinCalifornia,unlessithasbeen packaged(e.g.,aggregated)byanancillaryserviceproviderandmadeavailablethrough bid/contractmechanismstothegridoperator.Evenso,thegridrulesinGermanyand Spainrequiregridoperatorstoexhaustotherdispatchoptionsbeforecurtailing renewables. ThoughthecostofgridupgradesforDGdeliverabilityarelargelysubsidizedin GermanyandSpain,thecapitalinvestmentstrategyinbothcountriestodatehasbeento minimizetheincrementaldistributiongridupgradesforDGintegration.Thisissimilar tothesituationinCalifornia.However,thereisgrowingpressureinGermanyatthis timetoconsiderchangingthisstrategy.DraftstudyresultsbyGermanindustrybased onagovernmentforecastof52GWofpotentialrenewablegenerationexpansionby2020 indicatesthat13billionto27billionofcapitalupgradesmaybeneededonthe GermanHVandMVdistributiongridstoreliablyintegratethislevelofrenewables.This figureexcludesEHVgridexpansioncoststhatmayalsobeneededforlargescalewind farmintegrationinGermany.However,itmaybesometimebeforetheresultsof nationalpolicydebateontheseoptionswillbeknown. AccomodatingbackflowconditionscausedbyDGintegrationdoesnotappearto requiresweepingchangestoCaliforniasbasicdistributioninfrastructure.However,a numberofsecondarymeasureswillberequiredsuchasaddingtelemeteringforallDG unitsgreaterthanacertainsize(e.g.,100kW),replacingsubstationrelayingto accomodatebackfeed,reconfiguringvoltagecontrolappartusandcontrolson distributionfeeders,anddeployingappropriatesmartgridtechnologiesonCalifornias distributionandtransmissiongrids.Asrenewablelevelscontinuetoincrease,the 52

 installationofenergystoragedevicesonthetransmissionanddistributionsystemand insomecasesatDGsitesmaybecomeessentialtomodulatetheaffectsofthe intermittentresourcesandprovideacceptablelevelsofbalancingareafrequencycontrol.

Itispossiblethatselectivechangestoratemakingdesignandcapitalcostallocation policiesinCaliforniarelatedtointegrationofDGintothedistributionandtransmission gridscouldincentivizeahigherrateofDGgrowthinCalifornia. Similarly,itwouldbebeneficialtoexploretherangeofDG scheduling/redispatch/curtailmentoptionsthatcouldbeimplementedinDG interconnectionagreements,tariffsandmarketmodelsinCaliforniatoincrease participationbyDGproducersinsupportingtheoperationalreliabilityneedsofthe distributionandtransmissiongrids.Regulatorscanhelptosteerthedirectionofsuch optionsthroughpoliciesregardingequitablecompensationforcurtailments,lost opportunitycosts,andsoforth.

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