A ````````````````` DISSERTATION REPORT ON NON-POINT SOURCE POLUTION IN TONS RIVER OF DEHRADUN DISTRICT, UTTARAKHAND

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of M.Sc. ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT (2011-2013) Under the supervision of By DR. C. K. JAIN SHARIQUE ANJUM SCIENTIST F & HEAD, M.Sc. Environment Management (2011-13)

ENVIRONMENT HYDROLOGY DIVISION NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HYDROLOGY ROORKEE

ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT DIVISION FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE DEHRADUN

Dr. Ramesh K. Aima , IFS Dean (Academic)

Phone : Fax : EPABX : E-mail :

0135-2752682 (O) 0135-2752682 0135-2224452(O) aimark@icfre.org

: 2757

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE (DEEMED) UNIVERSITY (INDIAN COUNCIL OF FORESTRY RESEARCH & EDUCATION) P.O.: I.P.E. KAULAGARH ROAD, DEHRADUN-248195

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation report entitled Assessment of Nonpoint source pollution in Tons River of Dehradun district, Uttarakhand is a bonafide work carried out by Mr. Sharique Anjum, student of M.Sc. Environment Management course (2011-2013) of Forest Research Institute (Deemed) University, Dehradun and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for M.Sc. Environment Management course degree programme. The work has been carried out under the supervision of Dr. C.K. Jain, Scientist F & Head, Environment Hydrology Division, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee.

Date: Place: Dehradun

Dr. Ramesh Kumar Aima, IFS Dean (Academic) FRI University

Dated:

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Divisional Attachment work entitled Assessment of Non-point source pollution in Tons River of Dehradun district, Uttarakhand is a work carried out under my guidance by Sharique Anjum, student of 4th semester M.Sc Environment Management course (2011-13) of Forest Research Institute University, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), Dehradun submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for M.Sc Environment Management, 2011-2013.

Place: DEHRADUN Date:

Dr. C. K. JAIN

Page | 4

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education
(An autonomous body of Ministry of Environmental & Forests, Govt. of India) P.O. NEW FOREST, DEHRADUN- UTTARAKHAND -248006 Dated:

DECLARATION I hereby declare that the dissertation work entitled Assessment of Non-point source pollution in Tons River of Dehradun district, Uttarakhand is a record of bonafide work carried out by me under the guidance of Dr. C. K. Jain, Scientist F & Head, Environment Hydrology Division, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee for my partial fulfilment for the award of the M.Sc. Environment Management. This project has not been submitted for any other degree/ certificate in any institute/ university.

Place: Dehradun Date:

Sharique Anjum M.Sc. (EM) 4th Sem 2011- 13

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I consider the completion of this research as dedication and support of a group of people rather than my individual effort. I wish to express gratitude to everyone who assisted me to fulfill this work.

First and foremost I offer my sincerest gratitude to my guide, Dr. C. K. Jain, who has supported me throughout my thesis with his patience and knowledge while allowing me the room to work in my own way. I attribute the level of my Masters degree to his encouragement and effort and without him this thesis, too, would not have been completed or written. One simply could not wish for a better or friendlier supervisor.

In addition, I would like to acknowledge Water Quality Lab, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee especially Dr. Mukesh Sharma, & In charge of Water Quality Lab and Mr. Rakesh Goyal Senior Lab Technician for providing the research facilities that allowed me the opportunity to learn and expand my knowledge of Flow and Water quality data.

I am also thankful to Forest Research Institute, Dehradun especially Mr. Manoj Kumar, Research Officer, Climate Change and Forest Influence Division, FRI and Dr. Mridula Negi course cocoordinator M.Sc. Environment Management for providing me their precious suggestions and opportunity to carry out my dissertation work in such an esteemed organization.

I also wish to extend my thanks to all my friends who really helped me in every possible way they could.

I am very grateful to all other members for their helpful suggestions during my entire course work of the Department of Environmental Hydrology and Director, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee for providing all the facilities needed for this project work.

I am also thankful to Forest Research Institute, Dehradun especially Dr. Mridula Negi course cocoordinator M.Sc. Environment Management for providing me an opportunity to carry out my dissertation work in such an esteemed organization.

Last but certainly not least, I would like to express my gratitude to my parents for their encouragement. The goal of obtaining a Masters degree is a long term commitment, and their patience and moral support have seen me through to the end.

And the most important I bow to Lord Almighty and thank him for being with me throughout my work, and making it possible.

Dated

(Sharique Anjum)

ABSTRACT
Non point source pollution is an important problem related to the water quality and environmental management of Rivers. There are number of studies aimed at understanding the process of controlling non-point source pollution (NPS) concentration, fluxes in the river systems and the quantification of the daily and annual pollutant loads to the rivers and streams have been accomplished in the past. But in this regard, there are very few work in India. In the present study, a surface water quality survey with special emphasis on nitrate, phosphate, potassium and total suspended solids for non point source pollution in River tons of Dehradun district, Uttarakhand has been done. The main objective of this study is to assess the non point source pollution of Tons river and the associated streams that flow into the Tons and to analyze the effect of agricultural and other anthropogenic activities on the surface water quality of Tons river.

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Title of Figures Page No.

Fig 3.1 Fig 3.3 Fig 5.1

Tons River and Sampling Points General plan of the sampling points in Tons River Chart showing Concentration of Nitrate (NO3-) at different sampling points

24 32

38

Fig 5.2

Chart showing Concentration of Phosphate (PO4-) at different sampling points 40 Chart showing Concentration of Potassium (K) at different sampling points 41

Fig 5.3

LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title of Table Page No.

Fig 3.1 Fig 4.1

Soil Types of Dehradun Conversion formula used for determining daily pollutant load

29

35

Fig 5.1

Concentration of Nitrate (NO3-) at different sampling points 37 Concentration of Phosphate (PO4-) at different sampling points 39 Concentration of Potassium (K) at different sampling points 41

Fig 5.2

Fig 5.3

Fig 5.4

Concentration of Total Suspended Solids (TSS) at different sampling points 42 43

Fig 5.5 Fig 5.6

Concentration of Pollutant at all sampling location Concentration of Pollutant at all sampling location and their relevant national & international guidelines

44

Fig 5.7

Table for converting concentration of pollutant into daily pollutant load 45 46

Fig 5.8

Daily pollutant load in different streams

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BIS CPCB EPA FAO GIS IS K Mg/L MT NO3 NPK NPS PO4 Q SPCB TSS USEPA WHO WMO - Bureau of Indian Standard - Central Pollution Control Board - Environment Protection Act - Food and Agricultural Organisation - Geographical Information System - Indian Standard - Potassium - Milligram per Litre - Metric Tonne(s) - Nitrate - Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potassium - Non point Source - Phosphate - Discharge - State Pollution Control Board - Total Suspended Solids - Velocity - United States Environment Protection Act - World Health Organisation - World Meteorological Organisation

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No. CERTIFICATE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS i iv vi vii vii ix

CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION 1.1 Nutrients 1.1.1 Nitrogen 1.1.2 Phosphorous 1.1.3 Potassium 1.2 Total Suspended Solid (TSS) CHAPTER 2- REVIEW OF LITERATURE CHAPTER 3-THE STUDY AREA AND DATA COLLECTION 3.1Tons River 3.2 Dehradu district 3.3 Data Collection CHAPTER 4-METHODOLOGY 4.1 Laboratory Analysis 4.2 Mathematical Approach 4.3 Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) Applications

1 3 5 9 13 15 16 23 23 25 30 34 27 27

28

CHAPTER 5-RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS CHAPTER 6-SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

37 47 49

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
Water is important to individuals, society and natural ecosystems as life cannot exist without a dependable supply of suitable quality water. The water in rivers plays an important role in meeting the essential requirements for the development of a country and serves as a source of water supply for domestic and industrial purposes, for agriculture, fisheries and hydro-power development. With growth and development, the demand for water has increased tremendously and its uses have become much more varied. The term water quality was coined with reference to the quality of water required for human use (i.e. drinking, agricultural and industrial purposes). This term entirely human prospective does not hold true for all aquatic organisms or ecosystems (Dallas and Day, 1993). The quality of water can be negatively influenced by natural phenomena, but the main reason for impaired water quality is contamination caused by human activities. Urban and industrial development, use of chemical and fertilizers in farming, mining activities, combustion of fossil fuels, streamchannel alteration, animal feeding operations, and other human activities has changed the quality of natural waters.

It has been found that the global freshwater consumption raised by six times at above twice the rate of population growth from the literature during 1900 and 1995 (WMO, 1997). In Africa and West Asia water quality problems are most sensitive but in many other areas, including China, India and Indonesia water deficient is a major limitation to industrial and socio-economic growth (Roger, 1998).

River systems can be considered as arteries of the land supplying life giving water to an abundance of organisms whilst at the same time supporting modern civilizations (King et al., 2003). Indian rivers are polluted due to discharge of organic sewage and industrial effluents. The water quality monitoring of major rivers indicates that organic pollution and almost all the water sources from surface are infected to some extent.

The pollution that enters the receiving surface water diffusely at intermittent intervals refers to the non-point source pollution. Nonpoint source of pollution are the hydrologic rainfall-runoff transformation processes which is basically attached with water quality components (Notovny, V. and Chesters, G., 1981) and mainly derived from activities on land, from urban runoff, waste disposal, construction, irrigation modification in hydrology, agriculture, and individual sewage disposal (Robinson and Ragan, 1993). Mainly in aquatic environments both nitrates and orthophosphate is present in small amount to maintain the growth and metabolism of plants and animals. Intolerable levels of nitrates and phosphates have been depleting the dissolved oxygen levels by causing algae blooms. High amounts of phosphates and nitrates due to eutrophication, is a main source of lake ecosystems destruction around the world.

The primary agricultural NPS pollutants are nutrients, sediment, animal wastes, salts, and pesticides. Agricultural activities also have the potential to directly impact the habitat of aquatic species through physical disturbances caused by livestock or equipment. Although agricultural NPS pollution is a serious problem nationally, a great deal has been accomplished over the past several decades in terms of sediment and nutrient reduction from privately-owned agricultural lands. Much has been learned in the recent past about more effective ways to prevent and reduce NPS pollution from agricultural activities.

A major threat to aquatic ecosystems which can be lead to severe pollution problem is nutrient enrichment. Nutrients are important building blocks for healthy aquatic ecosystems and are generally non toxic even in high concentrations; however this can change with alterations in environmental parameters such as ph and temperature. Increased nutrient levels (especially nitrogen and phosphorus) can result in over stimulated growth of aquatic weeds and algae and can ultimately lead to oxygen depletion resulting in a eutrophic system. The occurrence of nutrients in aquatic ecosystems is closely linked to activities in the catchment, such as natural weathering, agricultural runoff and disposal of untreated or partially treated wastes (Medikizela and Dye 2001; Kumari, 1984).

Nutrients are essential elements for the primary productivity of any aquatic ecosystem (Williams, et al., 2003) and include nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon among others. The nutrient dynamics are influenced by different factors such as the weather, geology and soil type, drainage pattern and weathering processes. Nutrients occur in various sources and forms. Within the aquatic ecosystems, phosphorus and nitrogen roles can vary (Howarth, 1988; McCarthy, 1981. Nitrogen occurs in numerous forms such as dissolved molecular nitrogen, a large number of organic compounds such as amino acids, amines, proteins, nitrates, nitrite and ammonium (Wetzel, 1983). Sources of nitrogen include precipitation falling directly from onto the lake surface, nitrogen fixation in the water and sediments, input from the surface and ground water recharge. In marine ecosystems nitrogen is the liming nutrient for phytoplankton growth (Smith, 1984) while phosphorus frequently is a limiting nutrient in fresh water systems (Howarth, 1988).

To manage the quality of natural water bodies that are subjected to pollutant inputs, one must be able to predict the degradation in quality that results from such inputs.

1.1 Nutrients
Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are the two major nutrients from agricultural land that degrade water quality. Nutrients are applied to agricultural land in several different forms and come from various sources. The agricultural sources of non point source pollution are discussed below.

Commercial fertilizer in a dry or fluid form, containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (K), secondary nutrients, and micronutrients;

Manure from animal production facilities including bedding and other wastes added to the manure, containing NPK secondary nutrients, micronutrients, salts, some metals, and organics;

Municipal and industrial treatment plant sludge, containing NPK secondary nutrients, micronutrients, salts, metals, and organic solids;

Municipal and industrial treatment plant effluent, containing NPK secondary nutrients, micronutrients, salts, metals, and organics;

Legumes and crop residues containing NPK secondary nutrients, and micronutrients;

Irrigation water; Wildlife; and Atmospheric deposition of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur.

In addition, decomposition of organic matter and crop residue may be a source of mobile forms of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other essential crop nutrients. Surface water runoff from agricultural lands may transport the following pollutants: Particulate-bound nutrients, chemicals, and metals, such as phosphorus, organic nitrogen, and metals applied with some organic wastes; Soluble nutrients and chemicals, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, metals, and many other major and minor nutrients; Particulate organic solids, oxygen-demanding material, and bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms applied with some organic waste; and Salts.

Ground water infiltration from agricultural lands to which nutrients have been applied may transport the following pollutants: Soluble nutrients and chemicals, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, metals; Other major and minor nutrients;

All plants require nutrients for growth. Nitrogen and phosphorus generally are present in aquatic environments at background or natural levels below 0.3 and 0.01 mg/L, respectively. When these nutrients are introduced into a stream, lake, or estuary at higher rates, aquatic plant productivity may increase dramatically. This process, referred to as cultural eutrophication, may adversely affect the suitability of the water for other uses.

Excessive aquatic plant productivity results in the addition to the system of more organic material, which eventually dies and decays. Bacteria decomposing this organic matter produce unpleasant odors and deplete the oxygen supply avail-able to other aquatic organisms. Depleted

oxygen levels, especially in colder bottom waters where dead organic matter tends to accumulate, can reduce the quality of fish habitat and encourage the propagation of fish that are adapted to less oxygen or to warmer surface waters. Anaerobic conditions can also cause the release of additional nutrients from bottom sediments.

1.1.1 Nitrogen Nitrogen is a necessary primary macronutrient for plants that stimulates plant growth and is usually added as a fertilizer but can also be found in wastewater as nitrate, ammonia, organic nitrogen or nitrite (FAO 2006). The most important factor for plants is the total amount of nitrogen (N) regardless of whether it is in the form of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N) or organic-nitrogen (Org-N) but by reporting in the form of total nitrogen comparisons can be made (Ayres and Westcot 1994). All forms of transported nitrogen are potential contributors to water quality problems. Dissolved ammonia at concentrations above 0.2 mg/l may be toxic to fish. Nitrates in drinking water are potentially dangerous, especially to newborn infants. Nitrate is converted to nitrite in the digestive tract, which reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood (methanoglobinemia), resulting in brain damage or even death. The U.S. Environmental Protectiom Agency has set a limit of 10 mg/l nitrate-nitrogen in water used for human consumption (USEPA, 1989a). Nitrate can get into water directly as the result of runoff of fertilizers containing nitrate. Some nitrate enters water from the atmosphere, which carries nitrogen-containing compounds derived from automobiles and other sources. Nitrate can also be formed in water bodies through the oxidation of other forms of nitrogen, including nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen compounds such as amino acids. Ammonia and organic nitrogen can enter water through sewage effluent and runoff from land where manure has been applied or stored. As per government of India records as on 31-1-2007 the Indian Fertilizer Industry has made a production at 120.61 MT of nitrogen (N) and 56.59 MT of phosphate (P) nutrient. Sources of Nitrogen: Although nitrogen is abundant naturally in the environment, it is also introduced through sewage and fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers or animal manure is commonly applied to crops to add nutrients. It may be difficult or expensive to retain on site all nitrogen

brought on to farms for feed or fertilizer and generated by animal manure. Unless specialized structures have been built on the farms, heavy rains can generate runoff containing these materials into nearby streams and lakes. Wastewater-treatment facilities that do not specifically remove nitrogen can also lead to excess levels of nitrogen in surface or groundwater. Nitrogen ends up in the environment mainly through agricultural processes, and thereby also ends up in water. The main sources of nitrogen compounds in water are fertilizers that mainly contain nitrate, but also ammonia, ammonium, urea and amines. The most widely applied nitrogen fertilizers are probably NaNO3 (sodium nitrate) and NH4NO3 (ammonium nitrate). After fertilization, crops take up a relatively small part of added nitrogen compounds, namely 25-30%. The residue ends up in groundwater and surface water through soils, because nitrates are water soluble. Organic fertilizers mainly contain nitrogen as proteins, urea or amines, which have different mechanisms of absorption. Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge. They may also grow legumes and leave crop residues to enhance production. When these sources exceed plant needs, or are applied just before it rains, nutrients can wash into aquatic ecosystems (USEPA, 2005). Nitrogen transport poses a concern when present in excess of plant needs and when water is available to transport it into water bodies. Nitrate and nitrite both are mobile and available, but nitrate is present in soil and water in far larger quantities. Nitrite is the intermediate step in nitrification, and it exists under most soil conditions for only a short amount of time in low concentrations (NM 3). Leaching of nitrate and nitrite and potential movement into ground water is most likely with high precipitation, volatilized ammonia gas may be deposited directly on surface waters or transported first to terrestrial areas and then to water bodies (NM 3).

Ammonia is toxic to fish and aquatic vegetation when it exists in excessive amounts. It may also react with acidic gases in the atmosphere, forming ammonium salts that impact soil and water when deposited. Forms of Nitrogen: Nitrogen is required by all organisms for the basic processes of life to make proteins, to grow, and to reproduce. Nitrogen is very common and found in many forms in the environment. Inorganic forms include nitrate (NO3), nitrite (NO2), ammonia (NH3), and nitrogen gas (N2). Organic nitrogen is found in the cells of all living things and is a component of

proteins, peptides, and amino acids. Nitrogen is most abundant in Earths environment as N2 gas, which makes up about 78 percent of the air we breathe. Nitrate (NO3) is highly soluble (dissolves easily) in water and is stable over a wide range of environmental conditions. It is easily transported in streams and groundwater. Nitrates feed plankton (microscopic plants and animals that live in water), aquatic plants, and algae, which are then eaten by fish. Nitrite (NO2) is relatively short-lived in water because it is quickly converted to nitrate by bacteria. Ammonia, another inorganic form of nitrogen, is the least stable form of nitrogen in water. Ammonia is easily transformed to nitrate in waters that contain oxygen and can be transformed to nitrogen gas in waters that are low in oxygen. Ammonia is found in water in two forms - the ammonium ion (NH4+), and dissolved, unionized (no electrical charge) ammonia gas (NH3). Total ammonia is the sum of ammonium and unionized ammonia. The dominant form depends on the pH and temperature of the water. The reaction between the two forms is shown by this equation: NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OHEffect of Nitrogen: Nitrogen-containing compounds act as nutrients in streams and rivers. Nitrate reactions [NO3-] in fresh water can cause oxygen depletion. Thus, aquatic organisms depending on the supply of oxygen in the stream will die. The major routes of entry of nitrogen into bodies of water are municipal and industrial wastewater, septic tanks, feed lot discharges, animal wastes (including birds and fish) and discharges from car exhausts. Bacteria in water quickly convert nitrites [NO2-] to nitrates [NO3-]. Eutrophication is the slow, natural nutrient enrichment of streams and lakes and is responsible for the "aging" of ponds, lakes, and reservoirs. Excessive amounts of nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, speed up the eutrophication process. As algae grow and then decompose they deplete the dissolved oxygen in the water. This condition usually results in fish

kills, offensive odors, unsightliness, and reduced attractiveness of the water for recreation and other public uses. These poor conditions have been observed in eastern North Carolina in the Neuse, Chowan, and Pamlico river systems. However, this condition occurs only when excessive nutrients are present; a certain amount of nitrogen and phosphorus is essential for any life to exist in water. Excessive nitrate (NO3) in drinking water can cause human and animal health problems, particularly for small babies. The United States Public Health Service has established a specific standard of 10 milligrams of nitrate nitrogen per liter as the maximum concentration safe for human consumption. Problems in adults that drink water with excessive nitrate are essentially nonexistent and are rare in infants. The principal sources of nitrate and nitrite (NO2) for adults are vegetables and cured meats, which supply more than 95 percent of the total nitrate in typical diets. Less than 1 percent is from drinking water if it comes from a low-nitrate source, as is usually the case. Nitrate toxicity does occur in livestock, and the nitrate concentrations that produce toxicity are much higher than those for humans. Nitrate poisoning in livestock depends more on nitrate in feed than in water. Nitrate-contaminated water is usually a problem only when it adds to high nitrate concentrations already present in some feeds. Nitrites can produce a serious condition in fish called "brown blood disease." Nitrites also react directly with hemoglobin in human blood and other warm-blooded animals to produce methemoglobin. Methemoglobin destroys the ability of red blood cells to transport oxygen. This condition is especially serious in babies under three months of age. It causes a condition known as methemoglobinemia or "blue baby" disease. Water with nitrite levels exceeding 1.0 mg/l should not be used for feeding babies. Nitrite/nitrogen levels below 90 mg/l and nitrate levels below 0.5 mg/l seem to have no effect on warm water fish. 1.1.2 Phosphorus Phosphorus exists naturally in rocks. An important source of phosphorus is phosphate rock, which contains the mineral apatite. Rocks release phosphorus as they erode under normal weather conditions. Phosphorus enters freshwater systems in four main ways: (i) atmospheric

inputs, including rain and dust; (ii) point (discrete) sources, including sewage treatment plants and industrial effluents; (iii) non-point (diffuse) sources, including stormwater, agricultural, and land clearing runoff; and (iv) non-point sources from within the water system, including washout from riverbanks and re-suspension from sediments (internal loading). The rate at which phosphorus loads enter freshwater systems varies with land use, geology, morphology of the drainage basin, soil productivity, human activities, and pollution (CWQG, 2005). Phosphorus is an essential element for plant growth and agricultural productivity. Fertilizer commonly supplies the crop phosphorus requirement or replenishes P removed from a harvested crop biomass. High value crops demand intensive management in order to remain competitive. In these cases, farmers tend to hedge their bets by fertilizing in excess of the crop requirement determined by a calibrated soil test. Over the long term, this practice will increase soil P accumulation, the risk of off-site movement, and leaching in sandy-textured soils. Animal agriculture also contributes to increased buildup of phosphorus in soils. Intensive confined livestock production areas or cattle feeding accumulate large amounts of both solid and liquid manure, which through land application are used as nutrient sources for crop production. A typical dairy lagoon waste has a 1.2:1 ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus. If manure is applied based on the nitrogen needs of the crop, phosphorus will also be applied in the same proportions irrespective of the soil test based crop phosphorus requirement. Manure transport is often not economical with extended distances, so the surrounding land area generally receives much of the manure, and with the manure comes additional, often unneeded phosphorus. In due course, phosphorus buildup in the soil will result. High levels of phosphorus may saturate the capacity of the soil to hold P, increasing the risk for off-site movement and negatively impacting the quality of the receiving water bodies. Sources of Phosphorus: Non-point source of potassium include natural decomposition of rocks and minerals, storm water runoff, agricultural runoff, erosion and sedimentation, atmospheric deposition, and direct input by animals/wildlife; nutrient losses from manure and waste products spread over large agricultural fields, sediment from eroded soils, nutrient leaching or runoff from residential or agricultural areas, etc. Sediment particles may carry adsorbed phosphorus molecules along during runoff. Industrial agriculture, with its reliance on phosphate-rich fertilizers, is the primary source of excess phosphorus responsible for degrading rivers and lakes (Carpenter, 2008). Industrial wastes and domestic sewage are the major urban sources of nutrient

overload, responsible for 50% of the total amount of phosphorus unloaded into lakes from human settlements ( Smith, Tilman and Nikola, 1999). Subsequently this phosphorus may eventually detach and become soluble in water. Because most water bodies are phosphorus impoverished, even a minute amount of soluble phosphorus can result in algal blooms and become an environmental concern. Point sources are easily located and controlled, whereas nonpoint sources of pollution are often very difficult to control in spite of complex management practices. Therefore, prevention approaches are more effective solutions to the problem than post-occurrence management.

Nonpoint sources of phosphorus include soil erosion and water runoff from cropland, lawns and gardens, home waste treatment systems, livestock pastures, rangeland, and even forests. Urban areas may produce significant nonpoint source phosphorus runoff due to over-application of fertilizer to lawns and gardens. Homeowners who apply fertilizer without following soil test recommendation eventually build up very high soil test phosphorus levels that can become significant sources of phosphorus in runoff. And most importantly, fertilizer, pet waste, and lawn clippings left on driveways, sidewalks, or streets are a direct source of pollution through storm drains in urban areas (Smolen).

Forms of Phosphorus: Phosphorus is the key element of concern because the natural occurrence of P in surface water bodies is minimal. Therefore, even a minute amount of phosphorus entering a water body can trigger a significant algal boom (although Nitrogen (N) and Carbon (C) are required for algal growth), lowering light penetration and dissolved oxygen levels; it also causes aesthetic degradation of surface water bodies. In some extreme cases, algal blooms can be harmful to human health. Phosphorus has a complicated story. Pure, "elemental" phosphorus (P) is rare. In nature, phosphorus usually exists as part of a phosphate molecule (PO4). Orthophosphate is in a form that is immediately available to aquatic biota. Phosphorus is seldom found in high concentrations in non-polluted water due to the fact that it is utilized by plants and sequestered by cells (Dallas and Day, 1983). Phosphorus in aquatic systems occurs as organic phosphate and inorganic phosphate. Organic phosphate consists of a phosphate molecule associated with a carbon-based molecule, as in plant or animal tissue. Phosphate that is not associated with organic material is

inorganic. Inorganic phosphorus is the form required by plants. Animals can use either organic or inorganic phosphate. Both organic and inorganic phosphorus can either be dissolved in the water or suspended (attached to particles in the water column).

Effect of Phosphorus: On a global basis, researchers have demonstrated a strong correlation between total phosphorus inputs and algal biomass in lakes (Anderson Gilbert and Burkholder, 2002). Since 1950, phosphorus inputs to the environment have been in - creasing as the use of phosphate-containing fertilizer, manure, and laundry detergent has become more common (Litike, 1999). Consequently, humans release 75% more phosphorus to the soil than would be naturally deposited by weathering of rock (Bennet, Carpenter, Caraco, 2001). Even increases in minute amounts of the nutrient can stimulate tremendous growth and productivity (Addy and Green, 2006). According to an estimate, 400 grams of phosphates could potentially induce an algal bloom to the extent of 350 tons (Sharma, 2009)

Phosphate will stimulate the growth of plankton and aquatic plants which provide food for larger organisms, including: zooplankton, fish, humans, and other mammals. Plankton represents the base of the food chain. Initially, this increased productivity will cause an increase in the fish population and overall biological diversity of the system. But as the phosphate loading continues and there is a build-up of phosphate in the lake or surface water ecosystem, the aging process of lake or surface water ecosystem will be accelerated. The overproduction of lake or water body can lead to an imbalance in the nutrient and material cycling process. Eutrophication (from the Greek - meaning "well nourished") is enhanced production of primary producers resulting in reduced stability of the ecosystem. Excessive nutrient inputs, usually nitrogen and phosphate, have been shown to be the main cause of eutrophication over the past 30 years. This aging process can result in large fluctuations in the lake water quality and trophic status and in some cases periodic blooms of cyanobacteria. In situations where eutrophication occurs, the natural cycles become overwhelmed by an excess of one or more of the following: nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, or organic waste. The excessive inputs, usually a result of human activity and development, appear to cause an

imbalance in the "production versus consumption" of living material (biomass) in an ecosystem. The system then reacts by producing more phytoplankton/vegetation than can be consumed by ecosystem. This overproduction can lead to a variety of problems ranging from anoxic waters (through decomposition) to toxic algal blooms and decrease in diversity, food supply and habitat destruction. Eutrophication as a water quality issue has had a high profile since the late 1980s, following the widespread occurrence of blue-green algal blooms in some fresh waters. Some blue-green algae can at times produce toxins, which are harmful to humans, pets and farm animals. Under aerobic conditions, the natural cycles may be more or less in balance until an excess of nitrate (nitrogen) and/or phosphate enters the system. At this time the water plants and algae begin to grow more rapidly than normal. As this happens there is also an excess die off of the plants and algae as sunlight is blocked at lower levels. Bacteria try to decompose the organic waste, consuming the oxygen, and releasing more phosphate which is known as "recycling or internal cycling". Some of the phosphate may be precipitated as iron phosphate and stored in the sediment where it can then be released if anoxic conditions develop.

In anaerobic conditions, as conditions worsen as more phosphates and nitrates may be added to the water, all of the oxygen may be used up by bacteria in trying to decompose all of the waste. Different bacteria continue to carry on decomposition reactions; however the products are drastically different. The carbon is converted to methane gas instead of carbon dioxide; sulfur is converted to hydrogen sulfide gas. Some of the sulfide may be precipitated as iron sulfide. Under anaerobic conditions the iron phosphate precipitates in the sediments may be released from the sediments making the phosphate bioavailable. This is a key component of the growth and decay cycle. The pond, stream, or lake may gradually fill with decaying and partially decomposed plant materials to make a swamp, which is the natural aging process. The problem is that this process has been significantly accelerated. 1.1.3 Potassium Potassium (K) is an essential nutrient for plant growth. Because large amounts are absorbed from the root zone in the production of most agronomic crops, it is classified as a macronutrient. Minnesota soils can supply some K for crop production, but when the supply from the soil is not

adequate, K must be supplied in a fertilizer program. This publication provides information important to the basic understanding of K nutrition of plants, its reaction in soils, its function in plants, and its role in efficient crop production. Potassium occurs in various minerals, from which it may be dissolved through weathering processes. Examples are feldspars (orthoclase and microcline), which are however not very significant for potassium compounds production, and chlorine minerals carnalite and sylvite, which are most favourable for production purposes. Some clay minerals contain potassium. It ends up in seawater through natural processes, where it mainly settles in sediments. Elementary potassium is extracted from potassium chloride, but does not serve many purposes because of its extensive reactive power. It is applied in alloys and in organic synthesis. A number of potassium compounds, mainly potassium nitrate, are popular synthetic fertilizers.95% of commercially applied potassium is added to synthetic fertilizers. Potassium salts and mixtures of magnesium and calcium compounds are also applied regularly. Regeneration releases wastewater that is hazardous when discharged on surface water, and that is difficult to purify. Forms of Potassium: The main forms of potassium that effect human health are potassium bromated, potassium fluoride and potassium cyanide. Sources of Potassium: Potassium is also present in various minerals and, after a weathering process, it can go to the oceans through the rivers. However, potassium content in rocks and soils is lower than that of sodium and, therefore, a lower potassium ion content in the river water is expected. Besides, sodium salts are more soluble in water than potassium salts and, frequently, potassium settled in sediments. Most of the potassium ion content in rivers comes from fertilizers, particularly from the potassium nitrate present in them. Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge (USEPA, 2005).

Effects of Potassium: Potassium is not an integral part of any major plant component but it does play a key role in a vast array of physiological processes vital to plant growth, from protein synthesis to maintenance of plant water balance. Potassium is a macro-nutrient that is present in high concentrations in soils but is not bio-available since it is bound to other compounds. Generally, wastewater contains low potassium concentrations insufficient to cover the plants

theoretical demand, and use of wastewater in agriculture does not normally cause negative environmental impacts (Mikklesen and Camberato, 1995).Potassium is an dietary requirement for nearly any organism but a number of bacteria, because it plays an important role in nerve functions. Potassium plays a central role in plant growth, and it often limits it. Potassium from dead plant and animal material is often bound to clay minerals in soils, before it dissolves in water. Consequently, it is readily taken up by plants again. Ploughing may disturb this natural process. Consequently, potassium fertilizer are often added to agricultural soils. Plants contain about 2% potassium (dry mass) on average, but values may vary from 0.1-6.8%. Mosquito larvae contain between 0.5 and 0.6% potassium, and beetles contain between 0.6 and 0.9% potassium (dry mass). Potassium salts may kill plant cells because of high osmotic activity.

Potassium is weakly hazardous in water, but it does spread pretty rapidly, because of its relatively high mobility and low transformation potential. Potassium toxicity is usually caused by other components in a compound, for example cyanide in potassium cyanide.

The LD50 value for rats is 5 mg/kg. For potassium bromate this is 321 mg/kg, and for potassium fluoride this is 245 mg/kg. Examples of LD50 values for water organisms include 132 mg/L for fish and 1.16 mg/l for daphnia. One of three naturally occurring potassium isotopes is 40K, which is radioactive. It is suspected this compound causes plant an animal gene modifications. However, it does not have a radio toxicity class, because of its natural origin. There is a total of twelve instable potassium isotopes. 1.2 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

Total suspended solids (TSS) include all particles suspended in water which will not pass through a filter. Suspended solids are present in sanitary wastewater and many types of industrial Waste water. TSS is not a measure of all pollutants carried by water runoff. Coarse materials such as street sand and trash, and dissolved chemicals like chloride are not included in the definition of TSS. Only fine particles of sediment, and the pollutants that attach to them, are measured by TSS.

Sources: There are also nonpoint sources of suspended solids, such as soil erosion from agricultural and construction sites.

Effects: As levels of TSS increase, a water body begins to lose its ability to support a diversity of aquatic life. Suspended solids absorb heat from sunlight, which increases water temperature and subsequently decreases levels of dissolved oxygen (warmer water holds less oxygen than cooler water). Some cold water species, such as trout and stoneflies, are especially sensitive to changes in dissolved oxygen. Photosynthesis also decreases, since less light penetrates the water. As less oxygen is produced by plants and algae, there is a further drop in dissolved oxygen levels. TSS can also destroy fish habitat because suspended solids settle to the bottom and can eventually blanket the river bed. Suspended solids can smother the eggs of fish and aquatic insects, and can suffocate newly-hatched insect larvae. Suspended solids can also harm fish directly by clogging gills, reducing growth rates, and lowering resistance to disease. Changes to the aquatic environment may result in a diminished food sources, and increased difficulties in finding food. Natural movements and migrations of aquatic populations may be disrupted.

Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Indias major, minor and several hundred small rivers receive a large amount of sewage, industrial and agricultural wastes. Most of the rivers in India have been degraded to sewage flowing drains and harmful chemicals present in it during past two decades. There are serious water quality problems in the towns and the villages due to flow of un-hygienic water through these areas. The organic and inorganic chemical fertilizers applied in agriculture fields and the effluents from industries have the greatest detrimental effect on the stream. Models are required to predict the outcome of various processes operating within a system and the change in concentration of substances within fluid systems. The analysis of enrichment of nutrients (i.e. nitrate, phosphate and potassium) in a reach of a river has occupied a large portion of the literature on water quality modeling. These nutrients are basically responsible for eutrophication of water bodies which make it unsuitable for use for many purposes. It allows growth of microorganism which further adds to degradation of these water bodies. Excess nitrogen can cause overstimulation of growth of aquatic plants and algae. Excessive growth of these organisms, in turn, can clog water intakes, use up dissolved oxygen as they decompose, and block light to deeper waters. Lake and reservoir eutrophication can occur, which produces unsightly scum of algae on the water surface, can occasionally result in fish kills, and can even "kill" a lake by depriving it of oxygen. The respiration efficiency of fish and aquatic invertebrates can occur, leading to a decrease in animal and plant diversity, and affects our use of the water for fishing, swimming, and boating. Too much nitrogen, as nitrate, in drinking water can be harmful to young infants or young livestock. Excessive nitrate can result in restriction of oxygen transport in the bloodstream. Infants under the age of 4 months lack the enzyme necessary to correct this condition ("blue baby syndrome"). In parts of Eastern Europe where groundwater is contaminated with 50-100 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of nitrate, pregnant women and children under 1 year of age are supplied with bottled water. Many eminent researchers had worked previously on non-point source pollution in rivers and streams with emphasis on agriculture runoff which helped me a lot for my dissertation work.

The effect of algal growth and bacterial action on oxygen deficit was studied by OConnor and Di O Connor (1970). The biochemical oxygen demand exertion rate exhibits a higher value at higher concentration of microorganisms. (Agarwal and Bhargava, 1977). It has been reported Orthophosphate is in a form that is immediately available to aquatic biota. Phosphorus is seldom found in high concentrations in non-polluted water due to the fact that it is utilized by plants and sequestered by cells (Dallas and Day, 1983). Study of the temporal trend of Niagara River with respect to pH, alkalinity, total phosphorous and nitrates using statistical approach (EI-Shaarawi et al.,1983). A hydro-chemical study of natural waters with reference to the waste effluent disposal in the upper part of Hindon basin in Saharanpur area (Patel, 1985). The changes in the concentrations of BOD and DO due to non-point sources within the river was studied. (The Thomman and Muller model, 1987). A large proportion of the annual phosphorus loads may be exported during short periods of high ows, particularly after a long period of low ows, during which there is high retention of phosphorus (e.g. Dorioz et al., 1989). All forms of transported nitrogen are potential contributors to water quality problems. Dissolved ammonia at concentrations above 0.2 mg/l may be toxic to fish. Nitrates in drinking water are potentially dangerous, especially to newborn infants. Nitrate is converted to nitrite in the digestive tract, which reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood (methanoglobinemia), resulting in brain damage or even death (USEPA, 1989) The chemical characteristics of surface water of the Hindon river system and the ground water with the objective to assess the synoptic quality of the water for various specified uses. (Seth, 1991). Experiment shows that since 1950, phosphorus inputs to the environment have been in - creasing as the use of phosphate-containing fertilizer, manure, and laundry detergent has become more common (Litike, 1999). A one-dimensional water quality model addressing nutrient transport and kinetic interactions of phytoplankton, nitrogen, phosphorus, carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand and dissolved oxygen into the water column in river system by adopting a finite segment approach were developed (Karim and Budruzzaman, 1999).

It has been recorded that consequently, humans release 75% more phosphorus to the soil than would be naturally deposited by weathering of rock (Bennet, Carpenter, Caraco, 2001). Dissolved oxygen mass balance was computed for different reaches of river Kali to obtain the reaeration coefficient (K) a refined predictive reaeration equation for the river Kali was developed (Jha et al.,2001). The concentrations of metal ions determined in major effluent drains joining the Yamuna River are assessed. It is apparent from the results that the concentrations of metal ions vary significantly in different drains depending on the nature and flow of waste effluents. In general the concentration of metal ions were found higher in post-monsoon season (Imran and Jain, 2001). A modeling showing relationship between land use and surface water quality. From the model results, it was apparent that runoff from agricultural as well as impervious urban land use had much more nitrogen and phosphorus. (Tong and Chen, 2002). It has been reported that on a global basis, researchers have demonstrated a strong correlation between total phosphorus inputs and algal biomass in lakes (Anderson Gilbert and Burkholder, 2002). Long term annual mass balance studies of phosphorus have highlighted the great variability of phosphorus retention at catchment scale (Meyer and Likens, 1979; Baker and Richards, 2002). The repeated use of water and irrigation-induced erosion are related to phosphorus enrichment in the irrigation water. As some of this water runs off into streams and rivers, it can enrich river water phosphorus levels. The total phosphorus in the Malheur River is very high during spring runoff in February and March, after which time the phosphorus level drops in April, only to rise again with the onset of the irrigation season in May and June (Shock and Pratt, 2003). There is a wide variety of factors that influence how nutrients derived from particular types of sources, such as ag land runoff, impact the fertility of water bodies receiving this runoff. An area of particular concern to agricultural interests is the availability of phosphorus in ag land runoff to support algal growth in the waters receiving this runoff (Lee et al, 2004). A reaeration coefficient (k2) predictive equation based on Froude number criteria and least square algorithms by evaluating different commonly used predictive equations for the reaeration rate coefficient using 231 data sets obtained from the literature and 576 data sets measured at different reaches of the river Kali in western Uttar Pradesh was developed. (Jha et al., 2004).

It has been reported that sensitivity of crops also varies with the growth stage; high nitrogen levels may be beneficial during early growth stages but may cause yield losses during the later flowering and fruiting stages, consequently high nitrogen water, including domestic wastewater, can be used as a fertilizer early in the season but should ideally be reduced or blended with other sources of water later in the growth cycle (Ayres and Westcot 2004).

It has been reported that excessive phosphorus in a freshwater system increases plant and algal growth. This can lead to: changes in number and type of plants and animals; increases in animal growth and size; increases in turbidity; more organic matter falling to the bottom of the system in the form of dead plants and animals; and losses of oxygen in the water. When there is no oxygen at the bottom of a freshwater system, phosphorus that previously had been locked in the sediment can be released back into the water. This is called internal loading and exacerbates the problem of excessively high productivity(CWQG, 2005). The re-aeration coefficient (k2) using data sets measured at different reaches of the Kali River in India by using the artificial neural network (ANN) method was estimated (Jain and Jha, 2005). In Udhampur district (Jammu and Kashmir) water samples were collected from wells, springs and rivers in parts of the during pre and post monsoon seasons were analyzed to evaluate drinking water quality on the basis of BIS and irrigation water quality on the basis of salinity, residual sodium carbonate and concentration of toxic elements. (Singh et al., 2005). A modified approach based on the conservation of mass and reaction kinetics has been derived to estimate the inflow of non-point source pollutants from a river reach. Two water quality variables, namely, nitrate (NO3) and ortho-phosphate (o-PO4), which are main contributors as non-point source pollution, were monitored at four locations of River Kali, western Uttar Pradesh, India, and used for calibration and validation of the model (Jha et al., 2005). It has been reported that even increases in minute amounts of the nutrient can stimulate tremendous growth and productivity (Addy and Green, 2006). Hydrochemistry of surface water (pH, specific conductance, total dissolved solids, sulfate, chloride, nitrate, bicarbonate, hardness, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium) in the Mahanadi river estuarine system, India was used to assess the quality of water for agricultural purposes. Chemical data were used for mathematical calculations (SAR, Na%, RSC, potential salinity, permeability index, Kellys index, magnesium hazard, osmotic pressure and s alt index)

for better understanding the suitability river water quality for agricultural purposes(Sundaray et al., 2008 ). According to an estimate, 400 grams of phosphates could potentially induce an algal bloom to the extent of 350 tons (Sharma, 2009)

It has been reported TSS is not a measure of all pollutants carried by water runoff. Coarse materials such as street sand and trash, and dissolved chemicals like chloride are not included in the definition of TSS. Only fine particles of sediment, and the pollutants that attach to them, are measured by TSS (David, 2009).

An estimation of the water quality of Mahanadi and its distributary rivers and streams, Atharabanki River and Taldanda Canal adjoining Paradip was studied in three different seasons namely summer, premonsoon and winter by (Samantray, 2009). An estimation of Point and Non Point Sources Pollution A Case Study of Timah Tasoh Lake in Perlis, Malaysia was carried out and it reveals the level of BOD, COD, DO, E-coli and turbidity were identified as polluted water quality were classified into classes which range of IIA to V according to classification of river water standard, NWQS for Malaysia and DOE Water Quality Index Classification. The level of pH and NH3-N was classified into Class I which is acceptable concentration. Both point and non point sources pollution of Tasoh River and Pelarit River, both have potential to increase the pollution rate in the lake areas and also Korok River (Kamarudzaman et al., 2011).

Chapter 3 STUDY AREA AND DATA COLLECTION

Present study was carried out in the Tons River and three major streams that flow in it namely Nun, Nalota and Birhant River which lie in the Dehradun district of Uttarakhand. The study area lies between 3020 to 3024N and 7758 to 785E. The Himalayan Mountain ranges have very youthful and rugged topography with deep river gorges, steep valley slopes, wide flood plains, asymmetric river basin with sinuous rivers and streams.

3.1 The Tons River The Tons river is which lies between 7739E to 7813E and 3026N to 312N the largest tributary of the Yamuna and flows through Garhwal region in Uttarakhand, touching Himachal Pradesh. Its source lies in the 20,720 ft (6,315 meters) high Bandarpunch mountain, and is one of the most major perennial Indian Himalayan rivers. The three major streams has been identified for the assessment of non point source pollution in tons river in which anthropogenic, agricultural activities effluents, sewage, etc. are degrading the surface and ground water quality.

The Tons river proper comes into being at a place named Devasu Thoch where two rivers Harkidun Gad from Jaundar Bamak glacier and Ruinsara Gad from Bandarpunch glacier meet. It travels for a distance of about 190 km before it confluences with river Yamuna at Haripur. It course is sinuous, which flows roughly in North East-South West, North South and North WestSouth East directions respectively from its source in the North to the outlet in the south (Munda and Kotiyal, 2005).

Fig 3.1: Tons River and Sampling Points

3.2 Dehradun district

Location of the Dehradun District: Dehradun, is the capital city of the Uttarakhand state, lies between latitudes 29 55' and 30 30' and longitudes 77 35' and 78 24' Fig. 1.1. It comprises townships of Vikasnagar, industrial area of Selaqui and townships of Rishikesh. The district head quarter lies in an intermontane Doon valley surrounded by the lesser Himalayan ranges in the north and Siwalik hills in the south, the river Ganga in the east, and the river Yamuna in the west. The water divide of Ganga and Yamuna passes through the city. The study area has humid subtropical to tropical climate with heavy precipitation during July to September, moderate to high sunshine, humidity and evaporation. The average annual precipitation is about 205 cm in Dehradun district and about 150cm in Haridwar district (Bartariya and Bahukhandi, 2012).

The climate of the district, in general, is temperate. In the hilly regions, the summer is pleasant but in the Doon Valley, the heat is often intense. The temperature drops below freezing point not only at high altitudes but also even at places like Dehradun during the winters, when the higher peaks are under snow. The summer starts by March and lasts up mid of June when the monsoon sets in. Generally May and June are hottest month with mean temperature ranging from 35-38C. Winter starts from November and continue up to February. The average temperature during winter remains between 17-20C. Monsoon starts by the mid of June and lasts up to September. The district receives an average annual rainfall of 2073.3 mm. Most of the rainfall is received during the period from June to September, July and August being the wettest months. The region around Raipur gets the maximum rainfall, while the southern part receives the least rainfall in the district. About 87% of the annual rainfall is received during the period June to September.

Physiography of Dehradun District: In the Shivalik range of outer Himalaya, there are number of longitudinal valleys called Duns. The Doon valley is a synclinal depression between the Lesser Himalayan Mountains in the north and Sub Himalayan Siwalik hills in the south. Aligned parallel to the general trend of Himalaya, it is veritable intermontane valley, bottom of which is filled up with thick detritus shed from overlooking hill slopes. Broadly the Doon valley can be divided into three different slopes: Northeastern slope of Siwalik, Doon Valley proper and southwestern slope of outer Himalaya range. The northeastern slopes of Siwaliks are quite steep in higher reaches and have fewer gradients lower down. These are cut by a large number of

short, shallow and boulder stream which carry discharge into As an, Susa and Song rivers. The southern slopes are very steep and are covered with poor vegetation (Bartariya and Bahukhandi, 2012).

Geology of Dehradun district: Geological structure of Doon valley is characterized by two major faults, crustal and fractures along with rock slabs of mountain mass have been uplifted and moved southward. The Doon valley and Siwalik range is principally composed of the rocks classified into the Lower, the Middle and the Upper Siwaliks. The southern limb of the Doon valley and Siwalik range are made up of the Middle and Upper Siwalik. The Middle Siwalik area composed of 1500 -1800 m thick fluviatile sediments. They consist of sandstone mudstone couplets in the lower part and a multistory sandstone complex in the upper part with few pebbly horizons to the top. This sequence of the Middle Siwalik passes transitionally upwards into thickly bedded conglomerate of the Upper Siwalik. The conglomerates are composed predominant of pebbles and boulders of sandstone, limestone and quartzite derived from the lower Himalaya similar to that of Mussoorie range. The lower Siwalik is exposed on limited outcrops on the northern limb of the Doon valley. It is made of purple clay and sandstone. The rock of Siwalik Group overlain by the Doon gravel, sand and boulders with clay bands, filled up the large part of the Doon valley. The thickness of Doon gravel is variable from 52 to > 500 meters in the central of the valley (Bartariya and Bahukhandi, 2012).

Drainage Pattern of Dehradun: An intermontane, Doon valley is characterized by the As an and Song river. A single valley, apparently, consists of two shallow valleys, the western and the eastern Doon valley respectively. The two rivers are separated by a low water divide, running from Mohand Pass to Landour at Mussoorie. The river tons are the main tributary of As an in western part of the valley discharging their water to Yamuna. Rispana, Bindal, Suswa, Jakhan are in the eastern part of the Doon valley and discharge their water to the Song and then to Ganga. The perennial rivers, Ganga and Yamuna, emanating from glaciers are forming the eastern and western limit of Doon Valley. Other source of water include spring present in Lesser Himalaya and Siwalik range and dug wells (though mostly abandoned at present), hand pump

and tube well drawing water from shallow and deep aquifers respectively (Bartariya and Bahukhandi, 2012).

Hydrogeology of Dehradun: Initially by Saxena (1974); Kainthola et al. (1988), and Roy, A.K. (1991) has provided the initial hydrogeological framework of the Doon Valley. Latter, Bartarya (1995) has given detailed hydrogeology of the Doon valley. Geohydrological, the structurally controlled intermontane Doon Valley is divisible into three zones (Bartarya, 1995):

1. The Lesser Himalayan zone; 2. The Synclinal Central zone; and 3. The Siwalik zone.

The steeply sloping Lesser Himalayan Zone consisting of rocks of the Lesser Himalayan formations (phyllites and quartzite, shales, sandstone, greywackes, slates, dolomite and limestone of Jaunsar, Blaini-Krol-Tal sequence) has secondary porosity and permeability, and is characterized by springs and seepages. The Synclinal Central Zone a synclinal depression between Lesser Himalaya and Siwalik is occupied by Doon Gravel. The Doon gravels have primary porosity and permeability and forms the main aquifer in the area. The groundwater is present in multilayered aquifers under unconfined and semi confined conditions. The subsurface geohydrology indicates that the horizons comprising boulders and gravels set in a coarse sandy matrix are the main water-bearing horizons. The discharge from the tube wells varies from 600 to 3000 l/min through a tapped horizon of 30 to 50 m with a depression of 2 to 7 m.

The Siwalik zone consists of rocks of Middle (friable, medium grained, grey-coloured massive sandstone and mudstone) and Upper Siwalik (alternate polymictic conglomerate and subordinate grey micaceous sandstone). Groundwater is present under semi-confined and confined conditions and the water table is relatively deep. Although, the conglomerate unit of the Upper Siwalik is highly porous and permeable, water quickly leaves the area as surface runoff.

Geomorphology and Geomorphic Divisions: Dehradun district may be divided into four geomorphological units namely alluvium, piedmont fan deposits, structural and denudational hills and residual hills.

Alluvium: This unit is represented by unconsolidated and loose admixture of sand, gravel, pebbles, silt and clay of varied grades deposited in the form of terraces along Asan, Song, Tons, Yamuna, Ganges etc. and in the intermontane valley as well. These are represented by unconsolidated material like sand, gravel, silt and clay. The terraces are formed by river cuttings followed by deposition of eroded and transported material in step like features along the river.

Piedmont Fan Deposits: The area comprising of Dun gravels formed of numerous coalesced fans constitute this unit. The older Dun gravels belong to the upper realm of principal Doon fans whereas the younger and youngest duns belong to lower realm of principal Doon fans and dip controlled pedimont fans respectively.

Denudational and Structural Hills: The denudational and structural hills comprise Siwalik and Lesser Himalayan Ranges. The Siwaliks are exposed as a narrow band all along the southern boundary of Doon Valley and also in isolated patches. These hills have undergone severe denudation, weathering and erosion, making steep to moderate slopes.

Residual Hills: The residual hills are mostly formed by erosion and are the remnants of post Upper Siwalik deposits. These are called Older Doon Gravels or Langha Boulder Beds. Boulder beds, shales and red clay represent this unit. The residual hills are present in Doiwala and Vikas Nagar blocks.

Soil Types: The nature and soil type play an important role in agriculture and have direct elation with groundwater recharge. Physiography, climate, drainage and geology of the area are the factors responsible for the nature and type of soil and soil cover. The soil type also depends upon the slope and rate of erosion. The soil types of district Dehradun are given in Table 3.1: Table 3.1: Soil Types of Dehradun

Physiography Mountains

Characteristics Moderately deep, welldrained, thermic coarse loamy soils on steep slopes, strong, stoniness, associated with shallow excessively drained, loamy skeletal soil.

Taxonomic Classification Loamy skeletal, Dystric Eutrochrepts, Fine loamy lithic and typic HapludollsLoamy skeletal typic Udrothants

Soils on plains

Upper

piedmont Deep, well-drained, coarse loamy cover, fragmental soils on heavy gentle slope with loamy surface and slight erosion. Associated with excessively drained soils with loamy surface and slight to moderate erosion Deep, well- drained, fine to coarse loamy surface and slight to moderate erosion

Udifluventic Ustochrepts

Typic Ustipsamments

Udic Ustorchre

Soil on Lower piedmont plains Deep, well- drained, coarse loamy cover over fragmental soils on nearly level plains with loamy surface. Associated with deep, well drained, fine loamy soil with loamy surface. Deep, well drained, fine silty soil on very gentle slopes with loamy surface and slight erosion Deep, well drained, fine to coarse loamy surface and slight to moderate erosion, silty soil with loamy surface

Udifluventic Ustochrepts

Udic Ustochrepts

Udic Haplustolls

Udic Ustochrepts

3.2 Data Collection

To collect water quality samples for measurements, nine sampling points at different locations in a stretch of 9 km of river Tons have been selected. A line diagram of Tons river basin along with sampling points is shown in Figure 3.2 To add, water samples collected from 9 points located along Tons, Nun, Birhant and Nalota River were included in the study used for the analysis. Also, for

calculating stream discharge and daily maximum loads of pollutants like (NO 3, PO4, K and TSS), data regarding width of the streams, depth and velocity of water in streams have been collected from 5 sampling points viz. Tons upstream Nalota (TUNL), Nalota (NAL), Birhant (BIR), Nun (NUN) and Tons downstream Nun (TUNI). The monitoring and analysis of water quality data and hydraulic parameters in field were conducted during February and March, 2013. Some of the important variables monitored and analyzed in the field are categorized as:

Nutrients: Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) and Potassium (K). Hydraulic Parameters: Width of River, Depth of Flow, Flow Velocity and Crosssectional areas. Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

All the samples were collected at about 15 cm. depth from three location across the river and stored in pre-cleaned polythene bottles. The depth of flow across any section of the River Tons was measured by the measuring rod and velocity was measured using by floating of standard floats. For nutrients Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) and Potassium (K) and for Total suspended Solids
(TSS), water samples were collected from different river reaches were preserved by adding appropriate reagent. The samples were brought to the laboratory, in sampling kits maintained at 4C, for detailed chemical analysis.

Important water quality variables reactive in nature and hydraulic variables were also monitored at all the sampling points simultaneously. The descriptions of all the sampling points are discussed below: Tons river upstream river Nalota is the 1st sampling location (TUNL). Nalota river before flowing down to the Tons River is the 2nd sampling location (NAL). Tons river downstream river Nalota is the 3rd sampling location (TUNL). Tons river upstream river Birhant is the 4th sampling location (TUBI). Birhant river before flowing down to the Tons River is the 5th sampling location (BIR). Tons river downstream river Birhant is the 6th sampling location (TDBI). Tons river upstream river Nun is the 7th sampling location (TUNI). Birhant river before flowing down to the Tons River is the 8th sampling location (NUN). Tons river downstream river Birhant is the 9th sampling location (TDNI).

Chapter 4 METHODOLOGY
Tons river in Uttarakhand, India is one of the most important tributaries of Yamuna River. Within its 190 kms length various human based community live and it has a significant socioeconomic value for nearby areas. It receives many point and on-point source of pollution due to various anthropogenic activites occurring on its sides such as, tourists, effluents, agriculture, etc. The methodology adopted for the present study is described below:

4.1 Laboratory Analysis

Water samples were collected from nine sampling points starting from Tons before Nalota River to Tons after Nun river in the Month of February and March 2013 to estimate Nitrate, Phosphate, Potassium and Total Suspended Solids (TSS). All the samples were collected at about 10-15 cm depth to avoid floating material from these points. The cross sectional area, water depth and velocity parameters were monitored at five sampling sites to compute variation in river discharges over a specific time period.. The flow data were obtained in the same period in which water samples were collected for analysis of NO3, PO4, K and TSS concentrations. Sample of nitrate determination were preserved by acidifying with ultra pure concentrated sulphuric acid to pH<2 and bought to the laboratory and the temperature of samples were maintained at 4C until the analysis was made. The analyses of nutrients were carried out following standard method. The K was determined by flame photometer. While the determination of Nitrate and Phosphate was done by spectrophotometer. TheTotal Suspended solid (TSS) were determined by gravimetric method.

4.2 Mathematical Approach

An alternative method for calculating discharge in which the cross-section is break up in to triangles and rectangles, finding the area of each and then adding them together was used. First the width of the river was measured. Then the depth of the flow was measured. And at last the velocity of the flow was measured by allowing a standard float to flow across 20 metres in the stream and note down the time to travel 20 metres in the particular stream.

Therefore, The velocity of the flow ( ) = Time taken by float (sec) 20 mts Discharge (Q) = Area (A) Velocity ( )

Daily load: To convert from concentration and flow to daily load in metric tons, multiply the product of concentration and flow by the appropriate constant. This is shown in table 4.1: Table 4.1 Conversion formula used for determining daily pollutant load Concentration Units Flow Units Constant mg/L m3/sec 0.0864 g/L ft3/sec 2.447 mg/L ft3/sec 0.002447 g/L m3/sec 86.4 g/L m3/sec 0.000864 (Richards, 1997) For example, if the flow is 375 m3/sec and the concentration is 1.32 mg/L, the daily load is L = 375 * 1.32 * 0.0864 = 427.68 metric tons

4.3 Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) Applications

For mapping the study area of River Tons, Dehradun topo sheet (base map) No. 53F15 and 53J4 of Dehradun were procured fro survey of India. These maps were later digitized with the help of ERDAS IMAGINE, ARC GIS, Global Mapper and Google Earth softwares for the extraction of basin boundary, drainage pattern, point maps of spot height and built up area. The maps were stored as point map, segmented map and polygon map.

Chapter 5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Nitrogen Nitrogen is a necessary primary macronutrient for plants that stimulates plant growth and is usually added as a fertilizer but can also be found in wastewater as nitrate, ammonia, organic nitrogen or nitrite (FAO 2006). The most important factor for plants is the total amount of

nitrogen (N) regardless of whether it is in the form of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N) or organic-nitrogen (Org-N) but by reporting in the form of total nitrogen comparisons can be made (Ayres and Westcot 1994). If excess nitrogen is applied to the crop it can result in: over-stimulation and excessive growth which attracts pests; delayed maturity; or a reduction in the quality of the crop. The concentration of nitrogen required varies according to the crop with more sensitive crops being affected by nitrogen concentrations above 5 mg l-1, whilst most other crops are relatively unaffected until nitrogen exceeds 30 mg l-1. The sensitivity of crops also varies with the growth stage; high nitrogen levels may be beneficial during early growth stages but may cause yield losses during the later flowering and fruiting stages, consequently high nitrogen water, including domestic wastewater, can be used as a fertilizer early in the season but should ideally be reduced or blended with other sources of water later in the growth cycle (Ayres and Westcot 19944). Table 5.1: Concentration of Nitrate (NO3-) at different sampling points
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sampling Points Nitrate (NO3-) Mg/L 5.28 4.84 2.64 11 3.52 1.76 3.08 3.08 3.52 WHO Water Standards 30 mg/L Nitrate in permitted drinking water IS 2296 Water Standards 20 & 50 mg/L Nitrate is permitted in Surface Water IS 10500 Water Standards 45 mg/L water is permitted in drinking water.

TUNL NAL TDNL TUBI BIR TDBI TUNI NUN TDNI

Nitrogen is known to be a sensitive component in rice culture because excessive nitrogen application can cause lodging of rice plants (Yoon et al. 2001). In general, the nitrogen levels in the project area were fairly low and were all below 20-30 mg/l.. The total nitrate concentration of the surface water was below the WHO (1998) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. The concentration of Nitrate across different sampling point is shown in Table 5.1.

Nitrate (NO3-) Mg/L

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 TUNL NAL TDNL TUBI BIR TDBI TUNI NUN TDNI 5.28 4.84 3.52 2.64 1.76 3.08 3.08 3.52 11

Fig 5.1: Chart showing Concentration of Nitrate (NO3-) at different sampling points Nitrate concentration of Tons river in various sampling point fluctuated from 1.76-11mg/l (Fig.5.1). Almost all the sites have shown significantly high (p<0.05) nitrate concentration. These findings are in accordance with Indian standard and WHO standards. High concentration of these parameters had derived from anthropogenic sources like untreated domestic sewage, agricultural watershed & storm water containing nitrogenous compounds and sometimes increased nitrate content may also be caused by acid rain and exhaust gases (Kido, Syawal, Sulastri, Hosokawa, Tanako, Saito, Iwakuma and Kurasaki, 2009).

Phosphorous Phosphorus is also a primary macronutrient that is essential to the growth of plants and other biological organisms but quantities can be excessive and if the concentrations in water are too high noxious algal blooms can occur. Phosphates are classified as orthophosphates, polyphosphates and organic phosphates. Municipal waste waters may contain between 4 and 16 mg l-1 of phosphorus as P (Metcalf and Eddy 2003). In Sri Lanka there is currently no limit on phosphorus levels in wastewater but the proposed limit has been set at 0.7 mg l-1 (Annex II; CEA 2001).

Municipal wastewater with 6-20 mg l-1 phosphorous increases the productivity of the crops and when the concentration exceeds 20 mg l-1 the availability of copper, iron and zinc is reduced in alkaline soils (WHO 2006). Wastewater normally contains low amounts of phosphorous, so its use for irrigation is beneficial and does not negatively impact the environment. This is the case even when wastewater effluents with high concentration of phosphorous are applied over long periods of time although, because phosphorous builds up at the soil surface, it can affect surface waters through soil erosion and runoff (WHO 2006). The concentration of Potassium across different sampling point is shown in Table 5.2. Table 5.2: Concentration of Phosphate (PO4) at different sampling points
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sampling Points TUNL NAL TDNL TUBI BIR TDBI TUNI NUN TDNI Phosphate (PO4) Mg/L 0.1 0.14 0.18 0.26 0.04 0.27 0.09 0.24 0.31 WHO Water Standards Up to 5 mg/L Phosphate is permitted in drinking water

Phosphate (PO4-) Mg/L

0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 TUNL NAL TDNL TUBI BIR TDBI TUNI NUN TDNI 0.04 0.14 0.1 0.09 0.18 0.26 0.27 0.24 0.31

Fig 5.2: Chart showing Concentration of Phosphate (PO4-) at different sampling points Phosphate concentration of Tons river in various sampling point fluctuated from 0.04-0.27 mg/l (Fig 5.2). These findings are in accordance with Indian standard and WHO standards. High concentration of these parameters had derived from anthropogenic sources like untreated domestic sewage, agricultural watershed & storm water containing phosphorous and nitrogenous compounds and sometimes increased nitrate content may also be caused by acid rain and exhaust gases (Kido et al., 2009).

Potassium Potassium is not an integral part of any major plant component but it does play a key role in a vast array of physiological processes vital to plant growth, from protein synthesis to maintenance of plant water balance. Potassium is a macro-nutrient that is present in high concentrations in soils but is not bio-available since it is bound to other compounds. Generally, wastewater contains low potassium concentrations insufficient to cover the plants theoretical demand, and use of wastewater in agriculture does not normally cause negative environmental impacts (Mikklesen and Camberato, 1995). The concentration of Potassium across different sampling point is shown in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: Concentration of Potassium (K) at different sampling points

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Sampling Points TUNL NAL TDNL TUBI BIR TDBI TUNI NUN TDNI

Potassium (K) Mg/L 1.19 2.38 1.28 2.34 1.13 1.14 1.29 1.55 1.41

WHO Water Standard There was no guideline for maintaining Potassium level in drinking water.

Potassium (K) Mg/L

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 TUNL NAL TDNL TUBI BIR TDBI TUNI NUN TDNI 1.19 1.28 1.13 1.14 1.29 2.38 2.34 1.55 1.41

Fig 5.3: Chart showing Concentration of Potassium (K) at different sampling points

Phosphate concentration of Tons river in various sampling point fluctuated from 1.13-2.38 mg/l (Fig 5.3). However, there is no guideline for maintaining potassium either in surface water or in drinking water. Neither WHO nor CPCB have given any permissible limit. However, WHO mentioned that average Potassium requirement of an average human is about 3000 mg a day.

Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

Total suspended solids (TSS) include all particles suspended in water which will not pass through a filter. Suspended solids are present in sanitary wastewater and many types of industrial

Waste water. As levels of TSS increase, a water body begins to lose its ability to support a diversity of aquatic life. Suspended solids absorb heat from sunlight, which increases water temperature and subsequently decreases levels of dissolved oxygen. The concentration of Total suspended solids across different sampling point is shown in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Concentration of TSS at different sampling points

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sampling Points TUNL NAL TDNL TUBI BIR TDBI TUNI NUN TDNI T.S.S. Mg/L 11 9 6 7 6 10 11 9 13 Guidelines No guidelines were found in Indian Standards regarding TSS in surface water. However WHO guidelines recommend TSS should be 0 Mg/L for drinking water.

The concentration of different pollutant i.e. Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) and Potassium (K) are
well within the guidelines given by World Health Organisation, Indian Standard for surface water

(IS: 2296), Indian Standard for drinking water (IS: 10500), National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (USA), etc. But the concentration Total suspended Solids (TSS) exceeds the

permissible limits of drinking water which is not important because the water of River is usually not used for drinking purpose. The concentration of Nitrate (NO3) at different location ranged between 1.76-11 mg/ L. The concentration of Phosphate (PO4) at different location ranged between 0.04-0.31 mg/ L. The concentration of Potassium (K) at different location ranged between 1.13-2.34 mg/ L. And the concentration of Total Suspended Solids (TSS) at different location ranged between 6-14 mg/L. This is shown in table 5.5.

Table 5.5: Concentration of pollutants at all sample location

S. NO.

Sampling Points
Nitrate (NO3-) mg/L Phosphate (PO4) mg/L

Parameters
Potassium (K) mg/L Total Suspended Solid (TSS) mg/L

1 2 3

Tons Upstream Nalota (TUNL) Nalota (NAL) Tons Downstream Nalota (TDNL) Tons Upstream Birhant (TUBI) Birhant (BIR) Tons Downstream Birhant (TDBI) Tons Upstream Nun (TUNI) Nun (NUN) Tons Downstream Nun (TDNI)

5.28 4.84 2.64 11.00 3.52 1.76 3.08 3.08 3.52

0.10 0.14 0.18 0.26 0.04 0.27 0.09 0.24 0.31

1.19 2.38 1.28 2.34 1.13 1.14 1.29 1.55 1.41

9 14 6 7 6 10 11 9 13

4 5 6

7 8 9

Table 5.6: Concentration of pollutant at sampling points with their relevant guidelines

S. NO.

1
NO3 (mg/L)

2
PO4 (mg/L)

3
K (mg/L)

4
TSS (mg/L)

5
Discharge (m3/s)

PARAMETER WHO IS* 2296 IS# 10500 NPDWR USA^

TUNL NAL TDNL TUBI

20 20/50 45 10 5.28 4.84 2.64 11 3.52 1.76 3.08 3.08 3.52

5 0.1 0.14 0.18 0.26 0.04 0.27 0.09 0.24 0.31

1.19 2.38 1.28 2.34 1.13 1.14 1.29 1.55 1.41

0 11 9 6 7 6 10 11 9 13
1.68 0.458

SAMPLING SITES

BIR TDBI TUNI NUN TDNI

0.037

7.382 11.095

- World Health Organisation Guideline for Drinking Water Quality, 2011 * - Indian Standard for Surface Water Quality, IS 2296 # - Indian Standard for Drinking Water Quality, IS 10500 ^ - National Primary Drinking Water Regulation, USA

Pollutant Load

The basic concept of the pollutant load of a river or stream is deceptively simple. The pollutant load is the mass or weight of pollutant which passes a cross-section of the river in a specific amount of time. Loads are expressed in mass units (e.g. tons, kilograms), but the interval of time over which the load occurs is always implicit and should be clear from context. A related concept is that of discharge, which is the volume of water which passes a cross-section of the river in a specific amount of time. Discharge has units of volume, usually cubic meters or cubic feet.

The summation is the total load for the time period of interest; each individual product could be called the unit load. If the total load is an annual load, the unit load might be the daily load. If the total load is a weekly load, the unit load might be the hourly load.

To convert from concentration and flow to daily load in metric tons, multiply the product of concentration and flow by the appropriate constant. The formula for obtaining daily pollutant load is shown in Table 5.7:

Table 5.7: Table for converting concentration of pollutant into daily pollutant load Concentration Units Mg/L g/L Mg/L g/L g/L Flow Units m3/sec ft3/sec ft3/sec m3/sec m3/sec Constant 0.0864 2.447 0.002447 86.4 0.000864 (Richards, 1997) For example, if the flow is 375 m3/sec and the concentration is 1.32 mg/L, the daily load is L = 375 * 1.32 * 0.0864 = 427.68 metric tons

The daily pollutant load are measured only in five locations. The initial point from where sample collected i.e Tons River upstream river Nalota (TUNL), the last point from where sample is collected i.e. Tons River downstream Nun River and the three Rivers flowing down into River Tons, i.e., Nalota (NAL), Birhant (BIR) and Nun (NUN).

The daily load of Nitrate across streams ranged between 0.76 metric tonnes to 3.37 metric tonnes. The daily load of Phosphate across streams ranged between 0.014 metric tonnes to 0.29 metric tonnes. The daily load of Nitrate across streams ranged between 0.17 metric tonnes to 1.35 metric tonnes. The daily load of Total suspended solids across streams ranged between 1.30 metric tonnes to 12.46 metric tonnes In Tons river upstream Nalota, the daily load of Nitrate
(NO3), Phosphate (PO4) Potassium (K) and Total Suspended Solids were 0.06 MT, 0.014 MT, 0.17MT and 1.30 respectively. In Nun River, the daily load of Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) Potassium (K) and Total Suspended Solids were 1.96 MT, 0.15 MT, 0.98 MT and 5.74 respectively.

In Tons river downstream Nun, the daily load of Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) Potassium (K)
and Total Suspended Solids were 3.37 MT, 0.29 MT, 1.35 MT and 12.46 respectively. The daily load of pollutant in other two locations i.e, Birhant and Nalota River were found very low.

A comprehensive list of discharge and daily pollutant loads at all the five location is shown in Table 5.8.

S. NO.

Table 5.8: Daily pollutant load in Different Streams DAILY POLLUTANT LOAD AT DIFFERENT SAMPLING PARAMETER
SITES (in metric tonnes)
TUNL NAL BIR NUN TDNI

1 2 3 4 5

NO3 (mg/L) PO4 (mg/L) K (mg/L) TSS (mg/L) Discharge (m3/s)

0.766448 0.014516 0.172741 1.306446 1.68

0.1913 0.005533 0.094069 0.553346 0.458

0.0113 0.000128 0.003628 0.019261 0.037

1.964539 0.153081 0.988648 5.740535 7.382

3.374361 0.297174 1.351662 12.46213 11.095

Chapter 6 CONCLUSION
The analysis reveals that water quality of Tons river with respect to agricultural pollutant such as Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) and Potassium (K) does not show any negative impact. So we can say surface water quality of Tons and other associated streams which are sampled in the study is not affected by the agricultural and anthropogenic activities during pre monsoon season.

The concentration of different pollutant i.e. Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) and Potassium (K) are
well within the guidelines given by World Health Organisation, Indian Standard for surface water

(IS: 2296), Indian Standard for drinking water (IS: 10500), National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (USA), etc. But the concentration Total suspended Solids (TSS) exceeds the

permissible limits of drinking water which is not important because the water of River is usually not used for drinking purpose. The concentration of Nitrate (NO3) at different location ranged between 1.76-11 mg/ L. The concentration of Phosphate (PO4) at different location ranged between 0.04-0.31 mg/ L. The concentration of Potassium (K) at different location ranged between 1.13-2.34 mg/ L. And the concentration of Total Suspended Solids (TSS) at different location ranged between 6-14 mg/L.

Although, the concentration of different pollutant are well within the limits of guidelines of national and international organizations but daily tonnes of pollutant are added because of various activities. In Tons river upstream Nalota, the daily load of Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4)
Potassium (K) and Total Suspended Solids were 0.06 MT, 0.014 MT, 0.17MT and 1.30 respectively.

In Nun River, the daily load of Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) Potassium (K) and Total Suspended
Solids were 1.96 MT, 0.15 MT, 0.98 MT and 5.74 respectively. In Tons river downstream Nun, the

daily load of Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) Potassium (K) and Total Suspended Solids were 3.37 MT, 0.29 MT, 1.35 MT and 12.46 respectively. The daily load of pollutant in other two locations i.e,
Birhant and Nalota River were found very low.

The above data of the River Tons and its associated stream was collected in the pre monsoon season. And generally it is believed that the concentration of nutrients and TSS increases during post monsoon due to high precipitation, fertilizer application in the agricultural field and the amount of organic matters entering the river through runoff.

REFERENCES
Addy, K. and L. Green, 1996, Phosphorus and Lake Aging, University of Rhode Island, Natural Resources Facts; Report nr 96-2.

Ali, I and Jain, C. K., 2001, Pollution Potential of Toxic Metals in River Yamuna at Delhi, India, Journal of Environmental Hydrology, Vol. 9, paper 12, pp. 1-9.

Anderson D. M., Gilbert P.M. and J.M. Burkholder, 2002, Harmful Algal Blooms and Eutrophication, Nutrient Sources, Composition, and Consequences. Estuaries. 25:704-726.

Ayres, R. S. and Westcot, D. W., 1994, Water Quality for Agriculture, FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29 Rev 1. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization.

Baker, D. B. and Richards, R. P., 2002, Phosphorus budgets and riverine phosphorus export in Northwestern Ohio watersheds, Journal Environ. Qual., Vol. 31, pp. 96108.

Bartarya, S. K., 1995, Hydrogeology and Water Resources of Intermontane Doon Valley, Journal of Himalayan Geology, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Vol. 6, No. 2.

Bartarya, S. K. and Bahukhandi, D. K., 2012,

Impact assessment of urbanization and Global Journal of Engineering,

industrialization on surface and groundwater quality, Design and Technology, Vol. 1(1), pp. 1-22

Bennet, E. M., Carpenter, S. R. and Caraco, N. F., 2001, Human Impact on Erodable Phosphorus and Eutrophication, A Global Perspective. Bioscience, N.F., Vol. 51, pp. 227-232. B.I.S., 2003, IS 10500 : 1991 Indian Standards Drinking Water Specification First Revision, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

CWQG, 2005, Guidelines: Phosphorus at a Glance, Canadian Water Quality Guidelines (CQWG), National Guidelines and Standards, Environment Canada, Ottawa ON

Dallas, H. F. and Day, J.A., 1993, The effect of water quality variables of riverine ecosystems: A review. WRC report no TT 61/93. Water Research Commission, Pretoria 240. David, S. L., 2009, Total Suspended Solids: the Hows & Whys of Controlling Runoff Pollution, UW-Extension Solid and Hazardous Waste Education Center (SHWEC), Mary Anne Lowndes, WI-DNR

Dorioz, J. M., Pilleboue, E., and Ferhi, A., 1989, Phosphorus dynamics in watersheds: role of trapping processes in sediments, Water Res., Vol. 23, pp. 147158..

Howarth, R. W., 1988, Nutrients limitation of net primary production in marine ecosystems, Ann. Rev. Ecol., Vol. 19, pp. 89-110.

Jha, R., Ojha, C. S. P. and Bhatia, K. K. S., 2004, A supplementary approach for estimating reaeration rate coefficients, Journal of Hydrological Processes, Vol. 18, pp 65-79.

Jha, R., Ojha, C. S. P. and Bhatia, K. K. S., 2001, Refinement of Predictive Reaeration Equations for a typical Indian River, Journal of Hydrological Process, Vol.15, pp. 1047-1060.

Karim, M. R. and Badruzzaman, A. B. M., 1999, Modeling of nutrient transport and dissolved oxygen in the water column in river system, Journal of Pollution Research, Vol. 18(3), pp 195-206.

Kaur, R., Joshi S. P.

& Srivastava, M. M., 2012, Natural resource degradation in three sub-

watersheds of river Tons, Uttarakhand, India, International Society for Tropical Ecology, Vol. 53(3), pp. 333-343

Kido et al., 2009, Comparison of general water quality of rivers in Indonesia and Japan, Environ. Monitor. Assess., Vol. 156, pp. 317-329.

King, et al., 2003, River rehabilitation: Literature review, case studies and emerging principles, WRC report no TT 11/61/1/03, Water Research Commission, Pretoria 273.

Litke, D. W., 1999, Review of phosphorus control measures in the US and their effects on water quality, National Water Quality Assessment Program, Water-Resources Investigations Report. Report nr 99-4007.

McCarthy, J. J., 1981, Uptake of the major nutrients by estuarine plants, In Neilson, B.J. and L.E. Cronini (eds.), Estuaries and nutrient. Humana press, pp. 139-163.

Medikizela, B. R., and Dye, A. H., 2001, Water quality and faunal studies in the Umzimvubu catchment, Eastern Cape, with particular emphasis on species as indicators of environmental change, WRC Report No TT716/1/01. Water Research Commission, Pretoria 117

Metcalf and Eddie, 2003, Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Forth Edition. New York, USA: McGraw Hill. . Meyer, J. L. and Likens, G. E., 1979, Transport and transformation of phosphorus in a forest stream ecosystem, Ecology, Vol. 60, pp. 12551269.

Mikkelsen, R. and J. Camberato. 1995. Potassium, Sulfur, Lime and Micronutrient Fertilizers. In: Rechcigl J., ed. Soil Amendments and Environment Quality. p. 109-137. Florida: Lewis Publishing

Munda R. C. and Kotiyal, P. L., 2005, Evidences of Neotectonics in Tons River Basin, Dehradun District, Uttaranchal, Special Publication in Paleontological Society of India, Vol. 2, pp. 81-88

Mylavarapu, R., Impact of Phosphorus on Water Quality, University of Florida, IFAS Extension

Notovny, V. and Chesters, G., 1981, Delivery of Pollutant from Non-point sources, Department of Civil Engineering Marquette University Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233 USA

Kainthola, S., Rawat, G., Bhandari, K & Pant, H. B., 1988, Water Requirement of Doon valley, Project report of the Center for Science and Environment under NEM-87 project, 46 pp.

Kumari, J. N., 1984, Studies on certain biochemical aspects of Hydrobiology, Ph.D. Thesis, Osmania University, Hyderabad OConnor, D. J. and DiToro, D. M., 1970, Photosynthesis and Oxygen Balance in Streams , J. Sanng. iv. ASCE Vol. 96, SA:2:547-571.

Ramasastri, K. S., Bhatia, K. K. S. and Jain, C. K., 2001, Surface water quality assessment of River Kali, U. P. with special emphasis to non point source pollution, Internal Report, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India

Richards, R. P., 1997, Estimation of Pollutant Loads in Rivers And Streams: A Guidance Document For NPS Programs, Water Quality Laboratory Heidelberg College 310 East Market Street Tiffin, OH 44883

Robinson, K.J., and Ragan, R. M., 1993, Geographic information system based nonpoint pollution modeling, In Symposium on Geographic Information Systems and Water Resources, American Water Resources Association, Mobile, Alabama, March 14-17, pp. 53-60.

Roy, A. K., 1991, Hydromorphological mapping for groundwater targeting and development in Dehra Dun valley, U.P. In : P.N. Gupta & A.K. Roy (eds): Mountain Resource Management and Remote Sensing, Surya Publication, Dehradun, 1-2-107

Saxena, P. B., 1974, Water resources and potential utilization programme in Dehradun valley (Garhwal Himalaya), Indian Sci. Cong., Nagpur, 74.

Sharma, P. D., 2009, Ecology and Environment, Rastogi Publications. 10th Edition, Meerut, India.

Shock, C. C. and Pratt, K., 2003, Phosphorus Effects on Surface Aater Quality and Phosphorus TMDL Development, Western Nutrient Management Conference, Salt Lake City, Vol. 5, pp

Smith, S. V., 1984. Phosphorus versus nitrogen limitation in the marine environment, Limnol. Oceanogr., Vol. 29, pp. 1149-1160.

Smith,V. H., Tilman, G.D. and Nekola, J. C., 1999, Eutrophication: impacts of excess nutrient inputs on freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems, Environment Pollution, Vol. 100, pp. 179-196.

Thoman, R. V. and Mueller, J. A., 1987, Principles of surface Water Quality Modeling and Control, Harper and Row Publishers, New York.

USEPA, 2005, Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff, United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA), USA

Wetzel, R. G., 1983, Limnology, 2nd Ed. Saunders Coll., Philadelphia. 860.

Williams, M. C., Palmer, C. G. and Gordon, A. K., 2003, Riverine macro invertebrate responses to chlorine and chlorinated sewage effluents-Acute chlorine tolerances of Baetis haursoni (Ephemeroptera) from two rivers in kwazul- Natal; South Africa, Water SA, Vol. 29(4) pp. 483-488.

WHO, 2002, World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments: Volume I Coastal and Fresh Waters. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

WHO, 2006, World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater: Volume II Wastewater use in Agriculture, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

WHO, 2011, World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Fourth Edition Report, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. WMO, 2007, 14th WMO/IAEA Meeting of Experts on Carbon Dioxide, Other Greenhouse Gases and Related Tracer Measurement Techniques, World Meteorological Organisation, Finland

Yoon, C.G., Soon, K.K. and Jong, H.H., 2001, Effects of Treated Sewage Irrigation on paddy Rice Culture and its Soil, Irrigation and Drainage, Vol. 50, pp. 227-236