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J Sci Educ Technol (2010) 19:215236 DOI 10.

1007/s10956-009-9195-x

Motivating and Assisting Adult, Online Chemistry Students: A Review of the Literature
Betsy J. Bannier

Published online: 24 September 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2009

Abstract While comprehensive texts, articles, and literature reviews presenting research in the singular arenas of motivation, help-seeking, and online science learning are relatively easy to nd, syntheses and interactions between these constructs are lacking. Part I of this review addresses this knowledge gap by drawing together key research from the domains of educational psychology and adult education, addressing the constructs of motivation, self-efcacy, adult learning, and help-seeking. Part II of this review extends and applies the motivation and help-seeking discussion to the emerging and exciting eld of online chemistry education. The result is a comprehensive synthesis of the strengths and limitations of the currently existing body of knowledge related to the motivation and help-seeking behaviors of adult, online chemistry students. Keywords Distance education Online chemistry education Motivation Introduction While comprehensive texts, articles, and literature reviews presenting research in the singular arenas of the psychology of motivation (Weiner 1985; Wigeld and Eccles 2002), self-efcacy (Pajares 1996), adult education (Taylor 1997), and help-seeking (Aleven et al. 2003; Hattie et al. 1996) were relatively easy to nd, syntheses and interactions between the constructs of motivation and perceived academic assistance needs with the domain of adult learning were lacking. Part I of this review addresses this
B. J. Bannier (&) Lake Region State College, 1801 College Drive N, Devils Lake, ND 58301-1598, USA e-mail: betsy.bannier@lrsc.edu

knowledge gap by drawing together key research from the domains of educational psychology and adult education, addressing the constructs of motivation, self-efcacy, adult learning, and help-seeking. Figure 1 illustrates this intention. Part II of this review extends and applies the motivation and help-seeking discussion to the emerging eld of online chemistry education. The organizational structure of this review assumes that most readers bring intimate familiarity with several, but not necessarily all, included research domains and constructs. In light of this, each research domain is succinctly introduced as relevant research studies within the domain are expounded upon. First, in Part I, the discussion of motivation opens with a presentation of the nuances of three motivation theories introduced in Chapter 1: goal theory, self-determination theory, and expectancy-value theory. A discussion of academic assistance needs concludes this section, and includes a presentation of the difference between academic assistance offerings and actual help-seeking behaviors. Key research methodology and ndings within the domains of educational psychology and adult education are critically examined, with links between the domains highlighted and gaps in the research revealed. Second, in Part II, online learning is highlighted and the emerging eld of online chemistry education is introduced. Theoretical tensions resulting from constructivist teaching approaches within a historically positivist discipline are revealed, with implications for online chemistry learners claried. Key research related to motivation and helpseeking within the domains of online education and science education are presented. Finally, Part I and Part II are synthesized in a comprehensive discussion of the strengths and limitations of the currently existing body of knowledge related to the motivation and help-seeking behaviors of online chemistry students.

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Educational Psychology

Motivation

Adult Education

desires to achieve specic goals (Seifert and OKeefe 2001). Researchers subscribing to goal theory generally agree that students goal orientations fall into one of four categories: learning goals, performance goals, social goals, and work avoidance goals (Seifert and OKeefe 2001). Learning and Performance Goals Learning goals, with their emphasis on content mastery and success (Seifert and OKeefe 2001), assume that effort covaries with outcome (Ames 1992) and reects a sense of condence in ones ability (Bandura 1991). Some theorists suggest that learning goals can be further sub-categorized as either masteryapproach goals, where understanding is a primary goal, or mastery-avoidance goals, where avoiding misunderstanding is a primary goal (Pintrich 2000). In contrast to learning goals, performance goals emphasize instructor and peer perceptions of ones ability, and often reect a preoccupation with public comparison to others (Ames 1992; Dweck and Leggett 1988; Seifert and OKeefe). Some theorists believe that students with high self-efcacy are most likely to set challenging learning goals (Bandura 1991), which are assumed to reect a higher and more sustainable level of student motivation than performance goals. Other, more recent theorists believe that performance goals may be more complex than earlier research suggests, and may in fact be outward indicators of underlying learning or achievement goals (Middleton et al. 2004). Whether an individual sets learning goals or performance goals for herself is also believed to be related to whether the learner views intelligence as a static or dynamic trait. Learners who believe they have the ability to continually increase their intelligence level tend to strive for maximum learning and retention (indicative of learning goals), while learners who view their intelligence as preset tend to question their ability and place the highest value upon instructor and peer evaluations (indicative of performance goals; Dweck 1986; Dweck and Leggett 1988; Seifert and OKeefe 2001). In the same vein, individuals pursuing learning goals are more likely to remain persistent when faced with academic challenges, and employ higher levels of cognitive strategies. Individuals pursuing performance goals are more likely to give up when challenged, and employ more rudimentary cognitive strategies (Dweck and Leggett 1988). A 2003 study conducted by Grant and Dweck further supported the belief that learning goals positively correlate with coping skills, while performance goals correlate with loss of motivation in the face of difculty. In this statistical correlation analysis, 92 Columbia University students completed a goal item survey and then responded to a second survey where they predicted their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors based upon one of two hypothetical

Online Chemistry Education

Experiences Of Learners

Adult Education

Adult Learning Online Chemistry Education

Educational Psychology

Fig. 1 Four constructs within two research domains

Search Criteria Literature included in this review was gleaned by searching a variety of library databases including ERIC, EBSCOHost, PsycINFO with PsycARTICLES, and Dissertations and Theses. Key search phrases for Part I included motivation, academic motivation, achievement motivation, education motivation, adult motivation, academic assistance, learning assistance, adult learners. Articles which either (a) explained a comprehensive study related to academic motivation and/or academic assistance, including a clear explanation of the research methodology, or (b) described a comprehensive theoretical framework related to motivation and/or perceived academic assistance needs of learners were included in Part I of this review. Key search phrases for Part II included distance education, distance learning, online education, online learning, chemistry education, and science education. Articles which either (a) explained a comprehensive study related to online education and/or science education, including a clear explanation of research methodology, or (b) described a comprehensive theoretical framework related to online education and/or science education were included in Part II of this review.

Part I Motivation Theories Goal Theory Succinctly stated, goal theory posits that students academic motivation and corresponding behaviors reect their

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Self Efficacy

Help Seeking

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failure scenarios. While the researchers approach was interesting, it must be noted that the Grant and Dweck (2003) study had two signicant limitations. First, their sample of students from a highly selective university may not be representative of college or university students at large. Second, their ndings were based on self-reported hypothetical data, which may or may not mirror actual data in real-life failure scenarios. In her studies of childrens motivation, Dweck (1986) observed that students pursuing learning goals tend to put forth the highest level of effort in order to increase their competence. A similar trend has also been observed among adult learners (Brunson and Matthews 1981), though not all studies offer such dichotomous ndings. For example, Harackiewicz et al. (1997) conducted a study in which undergraduate psychology students were asked to selfreport their goals at the beginning of the course. The selfreported goals were identied as either mastery (i.e., learning) goals or performance goals, and were crossexamined against both students self-reports at the end of the course and nal course grades. Interestingly, the study revealed that both learning and performance goals may offer positive benets. While learning goals at the beginning of the semester were positively correlated with sustained, high interest levels, performance goals were positively correlated with higher nal grades. Correlations were not observed in either reverse instance; there was no identiable relationship between learning goals and nal grades, nor was there an identiable relationship between performance goals and sustained interest in the subject matter. More recently, Bouffard and Couture (2003) conducted a quantitative study of 226 secondary school students in Montreal to compare strength of learning goals as reported on questionnaires and academic achievement as determined by nal course grades. The researchers examined these two parameters according to type of student (learning disabled, average, and high achieving) and subject (French and mathematics) in a three by two analysis of variance. Bouffard and Couture concluded that students with learning disabilities demonstrated somewhat lower strength of learning goals than average or high achieving students. The researchers did not nd signicant differences in correlations between strength of learning goals and achievement based upon the specic academic subject. Ames and Archer (1988) examined learning and performance goals from another angle, researching the relationship between students chosen learning strategies and their perceptions of classroom goals set for them by their teachers. This approach was in line with Seifert and OKeefes (2001) assertion that the types of goals students set for themselves are dependent upon both the students self-efcacy and their perceived learning environment. The

assertion that academic motivation depends upon the difculty, specicity, and proximity of the learners goals has been well documented (Schunk 1991). Challenging goals are seen as more motivational than simpler goals, because challenging goals tend to provide learners with rich opportunities to assess their increasing abilities and build academic self-efcacy. Similarly, specic and proximal goals allow learners to evaluate specic abilities in a timely manner. Ames and Archer adapted an extension of this argument by asking, Do mastery and performance goal constructs differentiate students perceptions of their classroom experiences? How are the students perceptions of the classroom goals related to their task choices, attitudes, and beliefs about the causes of success and failure? (p. 260). To answer these questions, 176 students completed a questionnaire related to perceptions of goal orientations in their classrooms, individual learning strategies, general attitudes, and task selections. The ndings extended established beliefs about learning and performance goals, suggesting that students who perceive learning goal orientations in their classrooms tend to use higher levels of cognitive strategies, welcomed academic challenges, exhibited positive affect, and believed in the uidity of their intelligence. Students who perceived performance goal orientations in their classrooms were found to focus excessively on their inherent ability or perceived lack thereof, and exhibited more negative affect. Overall, the ndings suggested that students motivational patterns are heavily inuenced by their perceptions of classroom goal orientations. Social and Work Avoidance Goals Until recently, relatively little attention was paid to the motivational impact of social goals, which emphasize interpersonal social approval (Seifert and OKeefe 2001), and work avoidance goals, which reect a desire to avoid challenging tasks and escape from a situation (Dweck and Leggett 1988). Social goals may stem from the intense need of some learners to feel socially compliant or earn the approval of their peers, while work avoidance goals may stem from feelings of anxiety, control loss, perceived lack of task relevance, and diminishing condence in ones abilities. According to Seifert and OKeefe, each of these goals may be related to self-efcacy in the sense that some learners may experience heightened self-efcacy via heightened perceptions of peer approval, while other learners may protect their existing level of self-efcacy by avoiding challenging tasks. gner In a study of 459 French high school students, Re et al. (2007) used a combination of personal goal questionnaires and the Social Comparison Orientation scale (Gibbons and Buunk 1999) to examine the possible relationship between social goals and learning goals. The research revealed a moderate positive correlation between

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social goals and learning goals, even after correcting for the presence of performance goals and differentiation in nal grades. The hypothesized explanation for this correlation drew from both goal theory and social comparison theory. Basically, the researchers asserted that students motivated by learning goals tend to include self-evaluation strategies among the cognitive strategies employed to achieve content mastery and retention. For many learners, social comparison (i.e., comparison of perceived mastery with perceptions of others mastery) may be viewed and used as a logical self-evaluation tool. gner et al. (2007) cautioned that while their ndings Re conrm a correlation, they do not conrm causation. The researchers also cautioned that the relationship between social goals and learning goals is precarious in the sense that the presence of social goals may strengthen learning goals, but an over-emphasis on social goals may be detrimental to learning goals; more research in this arena is needed. In a longitudinal study of 475 sixth- and seventh-grade mathematics students, Middleton et al. (2004) surveyed participants about their self-efcacy, social goals, and performance goals, and then compared this data to students course grades. The researchers concluded that a signicant relationship existed between students performance goals in sixth grade and their work avoidance goals in seventh grade. They explained, the way students with high efcacy respond to change is different from the way lower efcacy students respond. For example, students with higher efcacy may perceive a drop in grades when faced with a new environment as an indication of lower efcacy and therefore possibly more of a threat (p. 304). Taking a qualitative approach, Dowson and McInerney (2003) interviewed and observed 86 middle school students in an attempt to understand their motivational goals. They concluded that the students cognitive, academic goals are not self-standing, but rather are intimately connected to the students affective, social goals. Dowson and McInerney encouraged other researchers to look behind students achievement goals and examine the social goals that drive students desire to achieve academically. Self-Determination Theory The basic premise of self-determination theory is that an individuals perceived locus of behavioral causality depends upon whether the behavior is self-determined or controlled. Self-determination theorists posit that all behavior falls somewhere along the continuum of amotivation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation, with intrinsic motivation being the most signicant and sustaining (Deci et al. 1991; Cokley et al. 2001; Vansteenkiste et al. 2006). Both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation can be

further classied along a self-determination continuum of external regulation, introjected regulation, identied regulation, and integrated regulation (Karsenti and Thibert 1995). Amotivation Dened as the absence of both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, amotivation is the manifestation of the belief that ones actions are the result of something beyond their own control (Cokley et al. 2001). A classic example is an amotivated college student who, because she does not perceive a connection between her behaviors and future outcomes, cannot really articulate why she is enrolled in school (Karsenti and Thibert 1995). Researchers have identied several factors that may exacerbate amotivation including negative feedback, perceived extreme external control, and perceived task irrelevance (Deci et al. 1991; Johnson and Aragon 2003). Negative feedback may have the effect of decreasing a learners self-efcacy, whether received from an external source or personally administered. This resulting, lowered self-efcacy may lead to feelings of amotivation and disempowerment. Similarly, when a learner is asked to complete a task that they perceive as irrelevant to their goals, feelings of anxiety and pressure may develop. These feelings may also lower self-efcacy, resulting in amotivated behavior. Finally, when a learner perceives extreme external control, the resulting loss of autonomy may shift the learners locus of behavioral causality to the source of external control. At a minimum, this shift inhibits intrinsic motivation; at its extreme, this shift leads to amotivation. Extrinsic Motivation Learners who are motivated extrinsically place their locus of behavioral control outside of themselves; their actions are guided by external parameters including rewards and punishments (Karsenti and Thibert 1995). In some cases (referred to as external regulation), extrinsically-guided behavior reects almost no selfdetermination, whereas in other cases (referred to as introjected regulation), reasons for behavior in addition to rewards and punishments are starting to become internalized, and self-determination is beginning to develop (Deci et al. 1991; Vansteenkiste et al. 2006). Once the reasons underlying behavior are identied as important and become genuinely accepted by the learner, extrinsic motivators may become internally regulated; this stage of the continuum is referred to as identied regulation (Karsenti and Thibert 1995). Only when commitment to an extrinsic motivator becomes fully internally regulated can we say that a learner has reached the stage of integrated regulation (Karsenti and Thibert 1995). The primary concern with extrinsic motivation is that consistently performing a behavior for the sake of receiving a reward (or avoiding a punishment) undermines

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autonomy and may lead to both decreased persistence and increased feelings of control loss (Vansteenkiste et al. 2006). Arguably the most powerful extrinsic motivator in Western culture is money, the sudden offering of which has been shown to steer individuals toward a cognitive shift away from intrinsic motivation. As Deci (1971) bluntly asserted, In short, money may work to buy off ones intrinsic motivation for an activity (p. 114). Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation is widely considered to reect the highest level or hallmark of motivation, as the locus of behavior is entirely internal (Grolnick et al. 2002, p. 149). Such internalization, considered by some to be the foundation of human learning (Vansteenkiste et al. 2006), has been described as the process of transforming external regulations into internal regulations and, when the process functions optimally, integrating those regulations into ones sense of self (Deci et al. 1994, p. 120). Many theorists including Knowles (1980), Cross (1981), and more recently Wlodkowski (1999) have presumed that people are inherently, intrinsically motivated to learn. Intrinsic motivators include constructs such as personal happiness and intellectual growth. At the rst level of intrinsic motivation, referred to as introjected regulation, learners are beginning to internalize the perceived external controls guiding their actions, but do not yet fully recognize those controls as their own (Deci and Ryan 1985; Deci et al. 1994). For example, a student who is unhappy about having to complete a term paper assignment in order to pass a class, yet does understand the connection between the assignment and his/her own personal goals, is exhibiting introjected regulation. The student at the introjected regulation stage of intrinsic motivation feels internal pressure to demonstrate a behavior, if only to avoid feelings of shame or guilt (Vansteenkiste et al. 2006). At the second level of intrinsic motivation, referred to as identied regulation, actions become valued and truly chosen by the student (Karsenti and Thibert 1995, p. 5). Because the regulatory process, i.e., the assignment demands within a college course, is becoming internalized, the learner begins to accept personal responsibility for regulation of the behavior. Once the regulatory process becomes fully internalized and the learner accepts full responsibility for their behavior, the learner has achieved integrated regulation. At this nal stage of intrinsic motivation the learner has integrated the regulatory process within their own sense of self, and their behavior becomes fully self-determined (Deci et al. 1994). In a study actually designed to examine the phenomenon cal et al. (1995) gathered of student procrastination, Sene data from Academic Motivation Scales (AMS) as well as data from an in-house academic procrastination scale completed by 498 French-Canadian junior college students.

Findings suggested procrastination is less prevalent among students with high intrinsic motivation. Research has also shown that students who feel a sense of condence and control over their learning are more likely to exhibit intrinsic motivation (Seifert and OKeefe 2001). Vansteenkiste et al. (2006) asserted that autonomysupportive environments in which teachers not only avoid exerting pressure and allow opportunities for choice, but also display empathy and explain the relevance of tasks, foster the development of intrinsic motivation by assisting learners in their endeavors to internalize and integrate external motivators. In fact, abundant research supports the idea that educators can tailor their teaching and learning environments to facilitate the development of intrinsic motivation in students by supporting students autonomy, explaining the relevance of academic expectations, and encouraging interpersonal relationships. In a study of 72 fourth- and fth-grade private school students, Cordova and Lepper (1996) observed children playing a series of educational computer games. One group of students was allowed to personalize the games by, for example, naming characters after friends and family members. A second group of students was not provided with this feature. The observation-based ndings showed that students who had been allowed the autonomy to insert interpersonal details into their games displayed greater motivation and overall learning. In a somewhat related study, Assor et al. (2002) evaluated academic interest questionnaires completed by 862 third- through eighthgrade Israeli students. Findings revealed that the children were able to differentiate between teacher behaviors related to task relevance, task choice, and freedom of discussion. Students displayed clear preferences for autonomyenhancing teacher behaviors including carefully explaining the relevance of tasks, allowing freedom and exibility with students choice of assignments, and allowing students to voice criticism. While general agreement exists in the literature that autonomy-enhancing teacher behaviors facilitate the development of intrinsic motivation, research is conicted as to whether intrinsic motivators are always more powerful and personally sustaining than extrinsic motivators. Vallerand and Bissonnette (1992) argued that learners levels of intrinsic motivation are in fact directly related to strength of persistence, based upon their analysis of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) and course completion statistics of 1,062 French-Canadian junior college students. Covington and Dray (2002) used a qualitative approach to ask 460 University of CaliforniaBerkeley students to self-report the events in their academic careers that they consider to be most motivating. In contrast to Vallerand and Bissonettes ndings, Covington and Dray found that extrinsic motivators such as peer competition and grades were most highly

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motivating for their particular sample of students, a nding that clearly dees conventional self-determination theory tenets. The researchers explained this surprising nding by stating, Our informants [at Berkeley] were enjoying the fruits of a highly satisfying process of academic self-sorting. Because they survived a rigorous course of successive academic elimination, beginning a decade or more earlier, these relatively few students now stand at the pinnacle of academic excellence as they begin college. (p. 43) This nding revealed a serious limitation in motivation research based upon self-determination theory; a failure to carefully examine the continuum of self-determined motivators relative to the continuum of learners academic histories and abilities. Future research under the umbrella of self-determination theory should strive to more evenly span the continuum of learners ages (including adult learners), academic histories, and academic abilities. Expectancy: Value Theory According to expectancy-value theory, a learners level of motivation is dependent upon her/his perceived incentive, or level of belief that their behavior will lead to outcomes of high value (Weiner 1985). In this vein, expectancy-value theorists believe that people tend to make calculated decisions about outcome expectancy, or the probability of achieving a variety of goals (Bandura 1977; Schunk 1991). Some researchers refer to this construct as self-competence, encompassing not only specic outcome expectancy but also generalized perceptions about interpersonal and interdomain abilities (Schunk and Pajares 2002). Because motivation within the framework of expectancy-value theory is related to a learners perception of their own ability, self-efcacy is presumed to play a key role in establishing ones level of expectancy-value for any particular goal (Bandura 1993; Bembenutty and Karabenick 1998). Some expectancy-value theorists perceive a connection between the strength of a learners motivation and their ability to postpone immediate rewards (often social rewards) to work toward long term academic goals. In Bembenutty and Karabenick (1998) developed an Academic Delay Of Gratication Scale (ADOGS) to measure learners ability and desire to delay gratication. The scale developers asserted that, delay of gratication is considered a controllable activityin which cognitive operations and motivational determinants orchestrate to accomplish goals. As a strategy, delay would be activated by the same motivational determinants (e.g., expectancy and task value) as would other cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management strategies (Bembenutty and Karabenick

1998, p. 330). Interestingly, Bembenutty and Karabenick also asserted that the tendency for academic delay of gratication is connected with learners help-seeking behavior. The construct of help-seeking is discussed later in this review. Bembenutty (2008) employed the ADOGS to measure the academic motivation and resource management strategies of 196 public university students enrolled in introductory psychology courses (average age = 20 years). The researcher calculated difference scores (delayed gratication scale values minus immediate gratication scale values) relative to students liking, perceived importance, and expectancy for success. Not surprisingly, the ndings revealed that students attempted to gauge the probable outcome of delaying gratication (i.e., the likelihood of earning a high test score)a clear tenet of expectancyvalue theorybefore revealing a willingness to delay gratication. While the Bembenutty (2008) study suggested a clear link between expectancy-value theory and delay of gratication, it was not without serious limitations. First, the ADOGS is a self-report scale, based upon hypothetical scenarios. Students responses on the ADOGS may or may not mirror the decisions they make in real life. Second, the ADOGS may not be at all appropriate for adult learners. The ten-item scale, each with two options, is full of references such as spend more time with your friends, and go to a party (Bembenutty and Karabenick 1998, p. 344). References such as spend more time with your family, and go to your childs piano recital may be more appropriate for adult learners, as examples. Ponton et al. (2005) also examined the connection between expectancy-value theory and delay of gratication, focusing their research attention upon adult learners. The researchers were specically interested in identifying connections between resourcefulness (similar to Bembenuttys resource management) and persistence (related to delay of gratication), toward assisting adults in becoming autonomous lifelong learners. In Ponton, Derrick, and Carrs study, 372 adult learners with a mean age of 37.63 years (SD = 11.64) completed a computer-based Learner Autonomy Prole. Findings revealed that learners academic persistence is directly related to their resourcefulness, and that strength of both persistence and resourcefulness depend upon how highly adult learners prioritize their learning activities. Hybrid Theory In a recent dissertation, Payne (2006) combined goal theory and expectancy-value theory to examine the motivational proles of two distinct groups of students: High-Ability-LowPerforming (HALP) and High-Ability-High-Performing

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(HAHP) students. In this quantitative study, survey responses based upon two reliable scales, teacher reports, and California Standardized Test (CST) scores of 138 high school students were analyzed. The researcher concluded that HAHP students held stronger learning goals than HALP students and further demonstrated that students expectancy beliefs were correlated with their grade point average, accounting for 21% of variance. Motivation and Self-Efcacy The construct of self-efcacy refers to subjective selfperceptions regarding an individuals capability of performing a particular task or producing results at a particular level (Bandura 1993, 1997; Bong 2004; Schunk 1991; Seifert 2004). Self-efcacy is inherently connected to motivation in the sense that self-beliefs of efcacy contribute directly to the self-regulation of motivation (Bandura 1991, 1993, 1997; Schunk 1991). Likewise, motivation is enhanced by selfperceptions of the learning progress, resulting in higher selfefcacy (Schunk 1991; Schunk and Pajares 2002). These self-perceptions may be enhanced by personal success or diminished by personal failure, but once a strong sense of self-efcacy is in place, the impact of discrete failures is minimized (Bandura 1986). Interestingly, self-efcacy may also be inuenced by vicarious experiences, such as seeing peers successfully navigate their way through threatening activities (Bandura 1977; Schunk and Pajares 2002). In a seminal study of selfefcacy, Bandura (1977) exposed adult snake phobics to either (a) snakes directly, (b) images of other people exposed to snakes, or (c) no treatment at all. While participants who were directly exposed to snakes reported higher efcacy expectations than the participants who were vicariously exposed to snakes, both groups reported higher efcacy expectations than the control group. Self-Efcacy as a Common Thread Self-efcacy serves as a key link between motivation theories including goal theory, self-determination theory, and expectancy-value theory. Central to the construct of selfefcacy is the idea that some people view ability as dynamic and continuously acquirable through means such as knowledge building, while others view ability as a static capacity beyond their personal control. In accordance with goal theory, those who view ability as dynamic are more likely to pursue challenging goals, while those who view ability as static are more likely to pursue performance or avoidance goals (Bandura 1993). More recently, Bandura (1997) asserted that learners with low self-efcacy can often be effectively guided by persuasive and empowering educators in the direction of clear goal setting and goal

achievement. In turn, goal achievement can lead to selfperceptions of empowerment and the development of higher self-efcacy. As learners experience progress toward their goals, and their self-perceptions of efcacy increase, heightened motivation is often experienced (Elliott and Dweck 1988). In accordance with self-determination theory, learners with high self-efcacy are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, while learners with low self-efcacy are more likely to be motivated by external factors such as teacher approval (Bandura 1993). Further, learners who feel a sense of control over their environment are more likely to display sustained motivation (Schunk and Pajares 2002). Environments that emphasize personal successes while diminishing social comparison are particularly well suited for the development of self-efcacy and strengthening of motivation (Bandura 1977). In accordance with expectancy-value theory, learners with high outcome expectancy will display higher levels of motivation. Likewise, learners with high self-efcacy will display greater persistence when their progress toward personal goals is challenged (Bandura 1977). Self-efcacy is also inherently connected to its cousin, self-regulation. Self-regulated learning can be described as a metacognitive process whereby learners set goals and monitor their own progress, both behavioral and motivational, toward those goals (Pintrich and Garcia 1994). cal et al. (1995) hold a slightly different view, dening Sene self-regulation in terms of the way individuals make use of internal and external cues to determine when to initiate, when to maintain, and when to terminate their goal-directed actions (p. 609). An individuals belief about her own abilities tends to inuence both her goals and intended actions. These intentions are brought to fruition by a variety of self-regulatory mechanisms (Bandura 1993, p. 128). Learners with a strong sense of condence and perceived control tend to exhibit the strongest self-regulated behaviors (Seifert and OKeefe 2001). Derrick (2003) proposed that self-efcacy and related factors are inextricably connected to lifelong learning. Specically, Derrick asserted that a concurrent combination of self-efcacy and persistence, resourcefulness, and initiative are responsible for the phenomenon whereby learners continue to learn throughout life and view learning as a never ending journey of self-fulllment and selfsatisfaction (p. 15). Self-Efcacy and Motivation Research Research conrms the theoretical connections between the constructs of motivation, self-efcacy, and self-regulation. For example, Sungur (2007) analyzed the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaires (MSLQ) completed by

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391 high school students and determined that students selfregulation strategies were correlated with strength of intrinsic goals, perceived task value, perceived locus of control, and academic self-efcacy. In a remarkably similar study, Mills (2007) analyzed the data from several measures including the French Learning Anxiety Scale, Academic Self Description Questionnaire, Childrens Multidimensional Self-Efcacy Scales, and Student Attitude Questionnaire, as completed by 303 college students studying French. The adaptations allowed to three of these measures remain a bit unclear. Even so, Mills concluded that achievement was more highly linked to students beliefs about their ability to regulate their own progress, or selfefcacy of self-regulation, than were self-efcacy to achieve performance goals, self-perceptions of anxiety, or self-concept. Lodewyk et al. (2009) studied the impact of the structure of teaching and learning tasks on students self-regulation and academic achievement. Using a mixed methods approach, the researchers studied multiple variables related to the learning experiences of 90 tenth grade science students, including their motivation, learning strategies, and task structure. Lodewyk, Winne, and Jamieson-Noel concluded that self-regulation was particularly difcult for lower-achieving students on poorly structured teaching and learning tasks. Research also suggests that motivation, self-efcacy, and self-regulation are at least somewhat domain specic. In a landmark study of self-efcacy and academic motivation across the domains of English, Korean, mathematics, and science, Bong (2001) used factor-analysis to interpret 454 Korean middle- and high school students responses to a self-efcacy instrument. She found that selfefcacy was only moderately correlated across domains, and responses to motivation items were highly domain specic. These ndings were consistent with Gottfrieds (1990) statistical interpretation that childrens intrinsic motivation in the domains of readings and mathematics are also only moderately correlated. In a follow-up study, Bong (2004) asked the question, If students exhibit certain motivational beliefs in one academic domain, how likely are they to face other domains with similar beliefs and attitudes? (p. 287). To that end, she surveyed 389 Korean high school girls enrolled in English, Korean, and mathematics classes using a scale containing 5 self-efcacy items, 4 mastery items, 3 performance items, 3 performance-avoidance items, 2 ability attribution items, and 2 effort attribution items. The scale was administered to the study participants several times over the course of 1 year. Bongs sample size (N = 389) was high enough to overcome any reliability and validity problems that might otherwise have been introduced by such small subscales, and interesting ndings were

revealed. For example, self-efcacy was again found to be only moderately correlated across domains, but performance goals and performance-avoidance tendencies were found to be highly correlated across domains. This suggests that learners are not necessarily likely to consistently view their perceived ability as the reason for personal success or failure in multiple domains. Steinmayr and Spinath (2009) observed an even stronger relationship between domain specicity and academic achievement. In their study of 342 German high school students (median age = 16.94 years), reported self-perceptions about ability in both mathematics and German language studies were more strongly correlated with achievement than either motivation or goal orientations. While research examining the constructs of motivation and self-efcacy is certainly abundant, it may not be adequate. Schunk (1991) argues that the present body of knowledge related to these constructs is, overwhelmingly, based upon quantitative, short-term research, and that there is a need for data collected in other ways: longitudinal studies, case studies, and oral histories (p. 226). Motivation and the Adult Learner Fundamental Limitations It would be remiss to delve into the existing spectrum of research related to the academic motivation of adults without also candidly discussing several of the limitations framing this body of knowledge. First among these limitations seems to be a tacit oversimplication of Maslows (1970) hierarchy of needs. Second, existing research conrms the dominance of psychology-based research and the corresponding marginalization or neglect of research framed through a social or historical lens (West 1995). Third, the fact that existing research is still predominantly quantitative calls into question the space adult learners have been allowed for making reexive contributions to the present body of knowledge. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow himself has argued strenuously that his famous hierarchy of needs should not be taken as an unshakable, discrete sequence of steps from ranging from physiological needs at the bottom, to safety needs, love needs, and esteem needs in the middle, and nally culminating at self-actualization. As Maslow (1970) himself stated, These needs must be understood not to be exclusive or single determiners of certain kinds of behaviormost behavior is overdetermined or multimotivated. Within the sphere of motivational determinants any behavior tends to be determined by several or all of the basic

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needs simultaneously rather than by only one of themI may point out that it would be possible (theoretically, if not practically) to analyze a single act of an individual and see in it the expression of his physiological needs, his safety needs, his love needs, his esteem needs, and self-actualization. (p. 55) Earlier in Motivation and Personality, Maslow (1970) expounded upon an entire list of reasons and as to why the hierarchy is not nearly so rigid as we may have implied (p. 51). Examples included some peoples undervaluing of long-satised needs (such as food in food-stable countries), some peoples apparent value of self-esteem or creativity over love, and some peoples permanently deadened or lowered aspirations (p. 52). These exceptions and others give serious reason to pause when confronted with research offering a list of variables by which adult motivation and/or motivational barriers can supposedly be explained (Ahl 2006; Boshier 1971; Governanti and Clowes 1982; Hunt and Stone 1979; Kerka 1992). Adults motivations to participate in higher education are complex, and the need to develop more sophisticated concepts to explain and predict motives for participating is clearly evident (Governanti and Clowes 1982, p. 284). Ponton et al. (2005) offer a candid reminder that tidy motivation theories cannot always be directly observed within the complicated lives of adults. They explained, Although an adult may anticipate future rewards of present learning and even prioritize such learning over nonlearning activities in terms of value attribution, the lawn may need mowing, the kids may need to be taken to soccer practice, or perhaps a friend may need consoling nowIn terms of value to a particular adults long term development, learning may still be the most highly prized activity, but the roof may need xing today. (p. 124) This caution was echoed by Qureshi et al. (2002), who reminded us of the barriers faced by many adults who are otherwise motivated to pursue educational activities. These barriers may include any combination of time, cost, work and family responsibilities, and lack of condence in ones ability. Dominance of Psychology-Based Research The dominance of psychology-based research related to the construct of motivation can be quickly seen by conducting a simple web-based literature search using ERIC as the education database and PsycINFO as the psychology database. Recently, a search using the key words adult motivation revealed only two refereed journal articles in the past 10 years in ERIC (Ahl 2006; Redding and Rotzien 2001), one of which is a critical argument rather than a research

study (Ahl 2006). In contrast, a parallel search revealed seven refereed journal articles in the same span of time in PsycINFO (Stephens et al. 2006; Barbuto 2006; Melenhorst et al. 2006; Skilton-Sylvester 2002; Stewart et al. 2002; Isaac et al. 2001; Sogunro 1998). A search using the key words academic motivation revealed a similarly striking disparity519 hits in PsycINFO, compared to only 276 hits in ERIC. Psychology-based motivation studies make frequent reference to Boshiers (1971) Education Participation Scale (EPS; Governanti and Clowes 1982). The EPS represents a seminal motivation scale where respondents are asked to identify factorsfrom a list of 48 itemsthat impact their decision to enroll in education programs. In one application, Governanti and Clowes administered the EPS to 800 community college students, including 600 students who were at least 25 years old. Using EPS data, the researchers conducted both factor and multiple regression analyses to determine that social relationships, external expectations, social welfare, professional advancement, escape/stimulation, and cognitive interest are largely responsible for the academic motivation of adults (Governanti and Clowes 1982, pp. 272273). Arguably, the problem with the size disparity between the bodies of motivation research in the arenas of education and psychology is that psychological research (and therefore most motivation research) is overwhelmingly quantitative. As West (1995) explained, While researchers using survey methods can ask large and diverse samples of people why they participate in education, they are unable to explore the meanings people themselves might give to their actions (p. 135). Consider the research ndings of Governanti and Clowes (1982). Ahl (2006) argued that situational variables are not as closely tied to a persons psychological make-up, but to a persons life situation (p. 395). Using EPS data alone, Governanti and Clowes were unable to explore the underlying, personal reasons why six factors loaded so highly in their study. Providing participants with a second, qualitative venue in which to explainin a reexive, open ended mannertheir reasons for pursuing education programs, the ndings and implications may have been even more richly revealing. West (1995) managed to gather such richly revealing data in his comprehensive study of how the motivation of learners is shaped by cultural experiences, including experiences of gender, class, and ethnicity. To accomplish this, West interviewed thirty adult learners at least six times each, for at least 2 h per session, over a span of 3 years. All interviews were recorded, transcribed, and reexively analyzed with the participants themselves. West carefully explained the critical importance of considering the impact of individual life experiences including childhood memories and development of relationships on adult

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academic motivation. He cautioned strongly against pigeonholing the motivation of learners based upon relatively easily identiable demographics such as socioeconomic status, pointing out that many adult learners, including signicant numbers from deprived communities and marginalized groups, choose courses in the humanities and social sciences which cannot be regarded as the most obvious or surest route to employment or a better job (p. 137). Motivation and Help: Seeking Dening the Construct It is important to note how learners self-perceived needs to seek academic assistance, and also their experiences actually seeking assistance, are distinctly different from academic assistance offerings themselves. As Ames explained, Help-seeking is conceptualized as an achievement behavior involving the search for and employment of a strategy to obtain success. In this context, help-seeking is considered a proactive problem-solving strategy employed by persons who desire to achieve some goal (1983, p. 165). Research suggests that, before learners are likely to engage in help-seeking behaviors, they must rst employ metacognitive skills to identify deciencies in their past and/or present performance (Newman 2002; Ames 1983). Second, and just as importantly, learners must believe that engaging in help-seeking behavior is likely to have a favorable effect on their future academic success. Newman (2002) drew a strong connection between motivational goal theory and help-seeking behavior, theorizing that students who hold strong learning goals (or who are situated in learning environments where learning goals are strongly valued) are more likely to be energized by challenge and will seek assistance when needed (p. 291). Students who hold dominant performance goals (or who are situated in learning environments where performance goals are strongly valued) are theorized as being more likely to avoid challenge and seek only supercial assistance, if they even seek assistance at all. Holley and Taylor (2009) caution that while students do tend to seek assistance as needed, adult students in particular are likely to seek assistance from unconventional sources. Their qualitative study of 40 students (average age = 35 years) employed as Registered Nurses and enrolled in an online nursing program revealed that nontraditional students rely heavily upon inuences outside of the formal, higher education context to enhance their learning. Holley and Taylor suggest that students may indeed learn more from authentic, community based learning experiences inspired by their online studies (i.e., at the workplace) than in the online environment itself.

Help: Seeking and Self: Efcacy While the theoretical relationship between motivation and help-seeking behavior is relatively well established, the theoretical relationship between self-efcacy and helpseeking behavior is a bit dicey. Jones (1973) argued that students with low self-efcacy are logically quite likely to seek academic assistance in order to achieve success and improve their feelings of efcacy, while Bembenutty (2006) found that students with higher initial self-efcacy were actually more likely to seek assistance. Bembenuttys (2006) nding was in line with the conclusion of Tessler and Schwartz (1972), who argued that students with low self-efcacy are logically less likely to seek academic assistance because to do so would be to admit their lack of success. Ames (1983) summed this difference of opinion succinctly, explaining the person is apparently faced with a real dilemma: seeking help may be necessary for improving his or her chances of success in the future, resulting in enhanced self-worth, but at the same time it may risk loss of esteem from having tried and failed again (p. 169). Regardless of the argument over the impact of self-efcacy, research is clear that help-seeking behaviors are correlated with higher academic achievement (Blaylock 2007). Help: Seeking Research A pleasantly surprising variety of research ndings related to student help-seeking behaviors can be found by searching within the domains of both developmental education and educational psychology. These studies employed a variety of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods research methodologies. Summaries of these ndings are illustrated below. Quantitative Research In an elegantly simple quantitative study, Webler (1992) administered questionnaires to 149 students, including 35 students at least 23 years of age, enrolled in a microcomputer applications course. Data revealed that adult students (if reaching the age of 23 years automatically qualies oneself as an adult) were more likely to feel a need for a prerequisite course, more likely to believe that more lecture time was needed to absorb course material, and also more likely to believe that additional lab assistance was needed. In short, adult students were identied as perceiving more need for academic assistance than traditional age students. Karabenick and Knapp (1988) examined the relationship between the need for academic assistance and actual helpseeking behavior. To accomplish this, the researchers surveyed 612 university students regarding their anticipated nal course grades, perceived academic assistance needs,

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and actual help-seeking behaviors. Interestingly, Karabenick and Knapp unveiled an inverted U-shaped, curvilinear relationship between academic assistance needs and actual help-seeking behaviors, with students anticipating nal grades between a B- and a C? being most proactive about actually seeking assistance (p. 406). Students anticipating both very high grades and very low grades were less likely to seek academic assistance. Ames and Lau (1982) examined the help-seeking behavior of 198 college students in relationship to the students histories of academic success or failure, the students attribution for their prior academic performance, and students understanding of the potential advantages of seeking academic assistance. The students were divided into two research categories, based upon their success (high performers) or failure (low performers) on the rst exam in their introductory psychology course (Ames and Lau 1982, p. 420). Then, students attendance at optional help sessions prior to the next exam was tracked. Students also completed a 22-item questionnaire aimed at determining their attributions. Help-relevant attributions included such options as I am capable, but did not try hard enough (Ames and Lau, p. 415). Help-irrelevant attributions included such options as the instructor did not motivate me (Ames and Lau, p. 415). The researchers concluded that students with a history of low performance who attributed their performance to help-relevant factors were statistically signicantly more likely to seek academic assistance than were either students with a history of high performance or students who attributed their performance to help-irrelevant factors. Cukras (2006) investigated help-seeking behavior from a different angle, examining the relationship between taught strategy employment and actual exam performance. Nineteen community college students were observed for one semester; for two-thirds of the semester, the researcher taught a variety of specic study strategies to the participants. Then, participants were informed by the researcher of an approaching exam. Participants received guidelines regarding what to study, but were not provided with guidelines about which study strategies to employ. After administering the exam, the researcher asked participants to review their test performance in conjunction with the strategies they selected and evaluated their responses using a series of three criteria on a ve-point scale (Cukras 2006, p. 196). The researcher concluded that two specic study strategiesusing a study plan and self-monitoring were statistically correlated with exam performance. Qualitative Research Nelson-Le Gall and Jones (1991) employed a qualitative, participant observer research methodology to examine the relationship between help seeking and motivation among African-American children.

By circulating through the classrooms of third and fth grade children working on vocabulary tasks, the researchers determined that intrinsically motivated children (dened as children working largely independent of the teacher) were more likely to request assistance in such forms as hint-seeking, which would allow them to continue to strive for deep learning. Extrinsically motivated children (dened as children largely dependent upon the teacher) did not display a preference for either the type of help sought or offered. Using data gathered through interviews with developmental education students enrolled in a study skills course, Simpson (1996) qualitatively examined the relationship between students use of study strategies and students grade point averages. Simpson found that students with higher grade point averages were able to not only recite the names of specic strategies, they were also able to coherently explain how they adapted these strategies for specic circumstances. Students with lower grade point averages, in contrast, could neither recite the names of strategies nor describe how they might be modied. Rather, students with lower grade point averages instead described their desire for college faculty to teach motivational strategies. This interesting twist may serve as a possible indicator that students tacitly acknowledge a connection between academic assistance and motivation.

Mixed: Methods Research In an intriguing, embedded single-case study, Miller and Atkinson (2001) examined the factors that affected the academic motivation of one high school student, Taylor (p. 324). Qualitatively, Taylor himself was observed both within and beyond the classroom, and participated in a series of interviews. Taylors parents and educators also participated in interviews for the purposes of this research. Quantitatively, the results of three psychoeducational evaluations previously completed by Taylor were analyzed. Likely due to the complex nature of the study, the research ndings themselves are markedly complex. The researchers identied a series of connections between Taylors perceived level of academic difculty in a variety of situations, his attributions for success or failure, his intrinsic and extrinsic motivation levels, and his perceptions of various study strategies. For example, when Taylor perceived an academic task to be quite difcult, he tended to fall back on self-handicapping strategies, attributing his current struggle to an inherent weakness, and displayed dominantly extrinsic motivation tendencies. Taylor also displayed a tendency to discount the relevance and even appropriateness of using study strategies, further illustrating the link between academic assistance (typically contained within the domain of developmental education) and educational psychology.

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Finally, in a novel mixed-methods study, Silverman and Juhasz (1993) investigated the help-rejection behaviors of college students who had been placed on academic probation. A total of 67 students were invited to both participate in a structured interview and also to complete two quantitative measures related to the assessment of academic problems and conict resolution; eight students were selected as representative case studies. The resulting data revealed that students who rejected help despite the need for academic assistance suffered from low perceptions of self-esteem and belongingness. Further, these students felt a strong sense of autonomy and were somewhat suspicious of offers of help. Implications for academic assistance programs are discussed, though perhaps at the expense of connections to motivation theories. Part II Connections to Online Chemistry Setting Context Distance education is dened by Eastmond (1998) as the separation of teachers and students interacting through mediated technologies under the auspices of an institution (p. 33). When the mediating technology is the internet (as opposed to mail correspondence or television broadcasting, for example), distance education may be more narrowly categorized as online education (Yoon 2003; Zemsky and Massy 2004). As higher education institutions increasingly nd themselves faced with greater demand for course offerings than space and nancial resources can accommodate, they are turning to distance educationparticularly online educationas a feasible way of satisfying student needs (Jackson 1998). Just how extensive is online education? As of the 2000 2001 academic year, approximately ninety percent of US public colleges and universities offered online education courses to over 2.8 million students, the overwhelming majority of whom were undergraduates (Waits and Lewis 2003). According to Allen and Seaman (2006), more than three million students enrolled in formal online coursework during the fall of 2005. Amazingly, online enrollment is increasing nationally at a rate of 33% per year (Pethokoukis 2002). Given its prevalence, even naysayers must concede that online education is now rmly rooted in our higher education landscape. Part II of this review concedes that a large body of evidence supporting the teaching and learning merits of online education has already been presented and o 2007; Morris and Finndebated (Aragon 2003; Conceic a egan 2009). Certainly, we are long past the stage of having to justify the merits of online education via direct

comparison to face-to-face learning, and can recognize online education as a unique component within the grand scope of higher education (Aragon 2003; Johnson et al. 2000). As Derrick (2003) explained, the environment is the medium and not the outcome. Traditional course curricula cannot be transferred to a distance learning platform; the goals and objectives of the course should remain constant, but the delivery must be suited to the medium (p. 9). The Face of the Online Learner Changing demographics in higher education, particularly the inux of nontraditional students in recent years, may be largely responsible for the upward trend in online enrollment. According to the 2000 National Student Aid Survey, the majority of students enrolled in distance education courses cited having family responsibilities and limited time (Aragon 2003, p. 6). Summers et al. (2005) likewise found that online students tend to be older, employed full time, and have families. These barriers may have a more signicant impact on students programs of study than many educators realize. MacBrayne (1995) surveyed 672 online community college students and learned that, overwhelmingly, students made their course selections precisely because they were offered onlinea secondary consideration was interest in the actual course content. In apparent agreement with the National Student Aid Survey, MacBrayne observed that online students were likely to be women with multiple adult commitments who perceived an inability to complete face-toface classes due to time constraints. Qureshi et al. (2002) surveyed 174 students (both online and face-to-face learners) and calculated mean differences between online and face-to-face respondents to create a prole of students who self-select online learning environments. They determined that online learners have higher incomes, are more likely to have dependents, are more likely to face situational barriers, and are less motivated than their face-to-face counterparts. The nding that online learners are less motivated was completely unexpected, and in fact is contradictory to earlier literature (Benshoff and Lewis 1992; Cross 1981). As the authors explained, The unexpected nding the lower motivation of the DE [distance education] student is a nding that warrants further investigation. A study that more thoroughly examines motivation and includes such constructs as personality types, attribution theory, selfefcacy notions, constructivism, social-cognitive theory, and so on, could provide a rich source of information about the DE learner. It is this motivational anomaly that is most striking, and most pressing in terms of the next research step. (Qureshi et al. 2002, p. 8)

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Ely et al. (2009) conducted a quantitative study of 111 adult, online learners who were employed full time in electrical career elds. The researchers concluded that students goal orientations are directly related to the amount of time online learners choose to spend in selfpaced, online learning environments. In other words, students embracing high mastery goals appeared motivated to spend more time interacting with the online learning modules than were students holding either low mastery goals or performance-avoidance goals. In addition to being in conict over the motivation of online students, current literature is in conict over the general differences between online and face-to-face learners. Wallace (1996), for example, analyzed enrollment data from a Canadian university over the span of 10 years and concluded that online and face-to-face student populations are beginning to converge, with younger, full-time students increasingly enrolling in online classes. Online Science Courses Despite the high and growing numbers of online students in higher education, less than ve percent of for-credit online classes are in the physical, biological, and natural sciences enfeld-Tacher et al. 2002). This gure is strikingly (Scho low, considering that most degree programs in the US have science requirements (Adams and Philips (1991)). While concerns over the quality of laboratory and other non-tactile experiences available to online students were quite common during the infancy of online education (Carr 2000; Forinash and Wisman 2001), these concerns have been downgraded among informed science educators by empirical research (Carvalho-Knighton and Keen-Rocha 2007; Jang 2009; Milne and Otieno 2007; Sanger et al. enfeld-Tacher et al. 2002). New technologies 2007; Scho including CHEMnet (Nick et al. 2003), computer-aided learning (CAL) courseware (De V. Steyn et al. 1996), Moodle (Martin-Blas and Serrano-Fernandez 2009), and Physical Chemistry OnLine (PCOL) modules (Slocum et al. 2004) have demonstrated that online science courses can indeed offer dynamic laboratory learning experiences. Beyond the debate over laboratory experiences, possible reasons for limited online science offerings include a lack of acknowledgement of the needs of non-science majors, the abstract nature of chemistry itself, and difculties navigating the constructivist-positivist tension inherent in the sciences. Needs of Non-Science Majors The animosity with which many non-science majors view their laboratory science requirements such as General

Chemistry is widely recognized. As Jackson (1998) explained, Chemistry courses have seemingly cultivated disinterest and in many cases an outright dislike of the subject. Ironically, this is often viewed as a badge of honor by the persecuted chemistry instructor validating the ineptitude of the other parts of the educational system and breakdown of society in general. (p. 163) Several possible reasons for this perception exist. In addition to being largely abstract and, in some cases, uncomfortably positivist, General Chemistry courses are typically designed to prepare learners for future study within the discipline of chemistry, or at least within the laboratory sciences (Jackson 1998). Unfortunately, this design approach often means that questions of how and why are not answered in General Chemistry, the answers remaining banked for higher-level courses. The net effect of this approach is that learners often feel disenfranchised, as if the course has no relevance to them whatsoever (Jackson 1998). While some in the laboratory sciences hold fast to the idea of scientic mastery as the ideal learning goal, others have broadened their proposed learning goals to sensibly accommodate both majors and non-majors alike. For example, Berg and Jefson (1999) articulated developing abilities to see interrelationships between scientic concepts, to express positive attitudes about the laboratory sciences, and to successfully solve problems as learning goals for science teachers to embrace on behalf of their students. Accomplishing these goals would require that students have opportunities to explore connections between laboratory science courses and the real world, to identify scientic problems themselves, and to actively participate in building scientic knowledge (Berg and Jefson 1999). As Adams and Philips (1991) explained, Non-majors should be motivated to learn science when it is presented in a manner to show its relationship to their career, life, and personal goals, the understanding of the natural world, the global environment, or the fulllment of their obligations to society. (p. 156) To that end, Adams and Philips (1991) conducted a case study analysis of issues-directed chemistry and biology courses designed specically for business students, with an eye on accommodating students natural motivation (p. 157). Primary learning motivators framing the analysis included the desire to accomplish goals, understand relationships, build knowledge, participate in active learning, understand natural phenomena, become effective citizens, and build a general sense of well being. Adams

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and Philips (1991) concluded that issues-directed teaching and learning in both chemistry and biology was effective for non-science majors, as it places science in the context of some issue which addresses one or more of the learning motivators (p. 157). This nding supports the anecdotal success of other scientic teaching and learning platforms which may be considered issues-directed, such as World Builders (Viau 2004) and Cells Alive (Joseph 1996). The Abstract Nature of Chemistry As every chemist knows and as Gabel (1999) succinctly stated, Many of the concepts studied in chemistry are abstract, and are inexplicable without the use of analogies or models (p. 548). This abstraction has a tendency to vex students, for several reasons. First, observations and explanations within the study of chemistry, such as in the study of colligative properties, tend to take place on different levels. While observations occur on the macroscopic level, their subsequent explanations occur on the microscopic, or particulate, level (Gabel 1999). Second, the jargon used to dene and explain chemistry (stoichiometry being a great example) is unfamiliar. As developmental educators have long understood (Silverman and Casazza 2000) and science educators are beginning to acknowledge in the literature (Gabel 1999), unfamiliar terms not only take up more space in short-term memory, they are in turn more difcult to le in long-term memory in such a manner that they will be easily retrievable. While the elimination of terms such as stoichiometry from the General Chemistry vernacular is unlikely, Gabel sharply criticized the overwhelming lack of concern for familiarity by pointing out, Problems at the ends of chapters are seldom about sugar, salt, wax, or lipstick there is no way [students] can even imagine the physical properties of the material being considered (p. 550). The third vexing tendency of abstraction in chemistry concerns the abstraction inherent in many of the theories with which beginning students must grapple. As Norris and Kvernbekk (1997) explained in their theoretical analysis of science education practices, Theories are applied for a variety of purposes including description, prediction, and explanation of phenomena; testing of theory; and modication of the world. The abstraction necessary for the existence of theory must be taken into account when applying theories to reality. (p. 981) The kinetic-molecular theory of gasses is an excellent example. Typically, General Chemistry students are introduced to the kinetic-molecular theory of gasses by rst

discussing the characteristics of an ideal gas and then by exploring the gas laws, including the Ideal Gas Law, quantitatively. The problem, from a teaching and learning standpoint, is remarkably simpleideal gasses do not actually exist, but rather are a simplied, abstract concept. Constructivism and Positivism Constructivism is a philosophy of learning based on the idea that knowledge is constructed by the learner through activity (Martens et al. 2007, p. 82). The constructivist teaching model is particularly well suited for adult education in that it facilitates active development of personal meaning through the interaction of current conceptions and ongoing experiences (Yakimovicz and Murphy 1995, p. 203). Constructivist teaching and learning approaches compliment students motivation levels by drawing upon students own experiences (Martens et al. 2007); indeed, many believe that students only construct new knowledge after they have reected upon the differences between new information and their former knowledge base (Gabel 1999). Constructivism abounds in online education. Evidence of constructivism can be found in specic online course components including concept mapping assignments (Daley et al. 2007) and online discussion board content (Levine 2007). As Lee and Lee (2008) explained, e-Learning is an active process of information [sic] because knowledge generation is accomplished through individual experience, maturation, and interaction with ones environment (p. 33). In an intriguing article bridging educational psychology and philosophy, Wong (2009) discusses the interplay between constructivist teaching and learning, autonomy, and motivation. Wong asserts that learners themselves construct meaning from their experiences, and further asserts that to be motivated, to have passion, is not merely to be working toward pre-determined goals, but to be swept away by the power of an idea or the drama inherent in all educative, transformative events (p. 217). This is at once a humbling and challenging idea for educators to consider. Wong explains, When students undergo powerful learning experiences, the teachers goal is to open up, rather than close down, the realm of possibilities for students. Thus, the wise educator understands the context of choice and appreciates the complementary roles of student autonomy and its opposite in compelling educative experiences. (pp. 212213) Several recent studies conrm the effectiveness of constructivist teaching and learning, as well as strong

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connections to student motivation, in online environments. Lim (2004) used an online questionnaire to assess the online learning motivation of both Korean and American college students, and found that the motivation of American students was sustained primarily by perceived course relevancy, followed by learner control, feedback, and interest. Except for feedback, each of these parameters is inherent in constructivist teaching and learning. Rosen and Salomons (2007) meta-analytic study of constructivist and traditional (positivist) mathematics courses revealed that problem-solving and critical thinking skills were most enhanced by learning in constructivist environments. While constructivist teaching and learning approaches are quite common in online education, literature related specically to the teaching and learning approaches used in online chemistry education is scant. This may be due to the dichotomous pedagogical histories of online education and chemistry education, online education being rooted in participatory, constructivist approaches and chemistry education being rooted in transmissive, positivist approaches (Straits and Wilke 2007). To be fair, the lack of attention paid to online science by education experts may have more to do with historic than current differences, as many science educators have indeed moved to the constructivist teaching and learning methods recommended in the National Science Education Standards (Norris and Kvernbekk 1997; Straits and Wilke 2007). This is a truly unfortunate oversight, as Norris and Kvernbekk (1997) explained, To turn away from the insights and epistemological thinking that can provide for dealing with problems of theory and practice, again on the grounds that such thinking must be positivistic, and to treat the problem solely from a sociopolitical perspective, is to turn our backs on a rich resource. (p. 1001) Clearly, there is room in the literature for studies which squarely examine the dichotomous pedagogies embraced by historic and modern science education. An interpretive, grounded theory study conducted by Syh-Jong (2007) explored the constructivist-positivist tension in the sciences by examining the experiences of nineteen Taiwanese college students enrolled in a constructivist science class. This study was particularly intriguing because, in Taiwan, positivist science teaching is the norm. Syh-Jong discovered that students found the new constructivist methods to be superior in several ways. Students found the new approach more interesting and more conducive to collaborative learning. In addition, the constructivist approach helped students to deepen their

understanding of scientic phenomena, and helped them to become more active learners.

Conclusions Spanning two domains (educational psychology and adult education) and four constructs (motivation, self-efcacy, adult learning, and help-seeking), this review provided comprehensive presentations of both theoretical underpinnings and key research related to the motivation and perceived academic assistance needs of college students. As Table 1 illustrates, authors in the domain of educational psychology dominate the existing body of motivation research. The reality that most of our existing body of theory and research related to understanding the motivation and perceived academic assistance needs of college students stems from the singular domain of educational psychology poses several potential problems for adult educators. These problems may be attributed to differences in background training and knowledge, accepted denitions of shared constructs, and commonly accepted research methodologies among educational psychologists compared to adult educators. As we have seen throughout this review, currently existing research related to academic motivation and perceived academic assistance needs is overwhelmingly based upon children and traditional college students as research subjects. Those psychology-based studies that do seek to differentiate adult learners from traditional college students tend to dene adult supercially, by age alone. Adult education as a domain has developed much more comprehensive denitions for adult learners, which could be used to elevate the level of research related to the motivation and perceived academic assistance needs of often overlooked adult students. Adult education as a domain must continue to develop its own, independent body of research and theory related to psychology-based motivation because adult educators tend to embrace a more comprehensive denition of adult learners than often prevails in the literature. Finally, as seen in Table 1, research gleaned from the domain of educational psychology overwhelmingly employs quantitative research methods. While quantitative research is valuable in its own right, adult education as a domain largely recognizes that quantitative research alone cannot fully explain dynamic constructs such as motivation, self-efcacy, adult learning, and help-seeking. Qualitative studies are needed to forge beyond questions of who and what, to answer questions of why and how.

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230

Table 1 Presentation of research by construct and method


Purpose of study Sample Findings

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176 junior high and highschool students 862 third- through eighthgrade Israeli students 196 under-graduate psychology students Students who perceived classroom performance goal orientations exhibited more negative affect Children displayed clear preferences for autonomy-enhancing teacher behaviors Students attempted to gauge the probable outcome of delaying gratication Students with learning disabilities displayed lower strength of learning goals than average or high-achieving students Learning goals were positively correlated with coping skills Learning goals were positively correlated with higher sustained interest, and performance goals were correlated with higher nal grades Online students in the US had signicantly higher motivation scores than Korean students Self-management of poorly structured tasks was particularly difcult for lower achieving students Students made course selection because courses were offered online; course content was a secondary concern A signicant relationship existed between performance goals in 6th grade and work avoidance goals in 7th grade Higher-performing students held stronger learning goals; expectancy beliefs were correlated with GPA Learners academic persistence was related to their resourcefulness; both depended upon how highly learning activities were prioritized Online learners had higher incomes, were more likely to face situational barriers, and had lower motivation A moderate correlation existed between social and learning goals, even after correcting for other variables 32 prior studies Students in constructivist teaching and learning environments demonstrated higher levels of learning Procrastination was less prevalent among condent students with high intrinsic motivation 342 high school students Domain-specic self-perceptions of ability were signicantly correlated with academic achievement Intrinsic motivation levels were directly related to strength of persistence Evaluated students abilities to differentiate between teacher behaviors and identify personally motivating preferences Examined the connection between expectancy-value and academic delay of gratication Examined students learning goals relative to academic subject 226 secondary school and type of student students in Montreal 92 Columbia University students Examined the relative impact of learning and performance goals 311 under-graduate on academic motivation and achievement psychology students Studied the motivation of both Korean and US online college students Studied the connections between motivation, learning strategies, 90 tenth grade science achievement, and task structure students Examined the reasons students enroll in online courses Studied the changes in students performance goals over two years Studied the motivational proles of high- and low-performing students 138 high school students 475 sixth- and seventhgrade mathematics students 672 community college students 236 college students Examined the connection between learners resourcefulness and 492 American adults persistence Created motivation proles of online learners Examined the relationship between social goals and learning goals with respect to motivation 174 college students 459 French high school students Researched the connections between student procrastination and 498 French-Canadian motivation junior college students Investigated the relationship between achievement, domain, self-perceptions, goals, and motivation Examined the relationship between students levels of intrinsic 1,062 French-Canadian motivation and academic persistence junior college students Researched the connections between autonomy and motivation 72 fourth- and fth-grade private school students Identied patterns of motivating events among high achieving college students 460 University of CaliforniaBerkeley students Students who were allowed autonomy displayed higher motivation and overall learning Extrinsic motivators were most highly motivating for this population

Construct

Method

Author(s) and year

Motivation Quantitative Ames and Archer Researched the relationship between students chosen learning (1988) strategies and their perceptions of classroom goals

Assor et al. (2002)

Bembenutty (2008)

Bouffard and Couture (2003)

Grant and Dweck Studied the effect of failure scenarios on students learning (2003) goals

Harackiewicz et al. (1997)

Lim (2004)

Lodewyk et al. (2009)

MacBrayne (1995)

Middleton et al. (2004)

Payne (2006)

Ponton et al. (2005)

Qureshi et al. (2002)

gner et al. Re (2007)

Rosen and Conducted a meta-analysis of constructivist and positivist Salomon (2007) mathematics courses

cal et al. Sene (1995)

Steinmayr and Spinath (2009)

Vallerand and Bissonnette (1992)

Cordova and Lepper (1996)

J Sci Educ Technol (2010) 19:215236

Covington and Dray (2002)

Table 1 continued
Purpose of study Sample Findings

Construct

Method

Author(s) and year Examined the complex academic and social goal structures of middle school students Studied the experiences of Taiwanese students in a constructivist 19 Taiwanese college science class students Researched the domain specicity of academic motivation and self-efcacy Researched the transferability of motivational and efcacious beliefs across domains Researched the domain specicity of intrinsic motivation Examined the connections between self-efcacy, locus of control, 391 high school students perceived task value, strength of intrinsic goals, and selfregulation 33 adult snake phobics 111 adults employed full time in electrical career elds 800 community college students 98 rst-grade through third-grade students 389 Korean high-school girls 454 Korean middle- and high-school students 86 middle school students Students cognitive and affective goals were interconnected

Dowson and McInerney (2003)

Syh-Jong (2007)

Students found the (new) constructivist methods preferable As children aged, academic motivation tended to shift toward either verbal or nonverbal subjects Performance goals were highly correlated across domains; self-efcacy only mildly correlated across domains Childrens intrinsic motivation in the domains of reading and mathematics were only moderately correlated Self-regulating strategies were correlated with strength of intrinsic goals, perceived task value, perceived locus of control, and selfefcacy Efcacy expectations were strongest when personal treatment methods were used Learners with lower mastery goals completed online training activities more quickly than learners with higher mastery goals A wide variety of factors inuenced the academic motivation of adults

Self-efcacy

Quantitative Bong (2001)

J Sci Educ Technol (2010) 19:215236

Bong (2004)

Gottfried (1990)

Sungur (2007)

Qualitative

Bandura (1977) Examined the effects of personal and vicarious treatment experiences on reported efcacy expectations

Adult learning Quantitative Ely et al. (2009) Investigated the relationship between goal orientations and time spent on self-paced online training activities and motivation

Governanti and Examined factors that impact the decision of adult learners to enroll in education programs Clowes (1982) 30 adult learners Researched the ways in which adult motivation is shaped by cultural experiences, including experiences of gender, class, and ethnicity Examined connections between help-seeking, performance 198 college students attributions, and understanding of academic assistance benets Studied the relationship between help-seeking, self-esteem, and self-handicapping behavior 63 pre-service teachers

Qualitative

West (1995)

Individual life experiences had a profound impact on adult motivation

Help-seeking

Quantitative Ames and Lau (1982)

Students with a history of low performance who attributed their performance to help-relevant factors were most likely to seek academic assistance A positive correlation was found between self-efcacy and help-seeking attitudes. A positive relationship was found between help-seeking and achievement, exclusive of other parameters Use of a study plan and self-monitoring were positively correlated with exam performance 612 university students 149 microcomputer applications students 40 adult, online nursing students 79 third- and fth-grade children A curvilinear relationship existed between academic needs and actual help-seeking behavior Adult students perceived more need for academic assistance than traditional age students Nontraditional students rely heaving upon inuences outside of formal, higher education to enhance their learning Intrinsically motivated children requested forms of assistance conducive to deep learning; extrinsically motivated children displayed no preference

Bembenutty (2006)

Blaylock (2007)

Investigated the relationship between several parameters on help- 116 college students seeking and achievement in a multimedia learning environment (under-graduate and graduate) Researched the relationship between taught strategy employment 19 community college and exam performance students

Cukras (2006)

Karabenick and Investigated the relationship between the need for academic Knapp (1988) assistance and actual help-seeking behavior Examined the relationship between students ages and their perceived need for academic assistance

Webler (1992)

Qualitative

Holley and Investigated the involvement, knowledge acquisition, and Taylor (2009) investment behaviors of online nursing students

123

Nelson-Le Gall Examined the relationship between help-seeking and motivation among African-American children and Jones (1991)

231

232

Table 1 continued
Purpose of study Examined the relationship between students use of study strategies and students grade point averages Investigated the factors that effected the academic motivation 1 high school student of one high school student (single case study) Examined the help-rejection behaviors of college students placed on academic probation Measured the effect of autonomy on learning chemistry 137 college students enrolled in organic chemistry 67 college students 20 college students Sample Findings Students with higher GPAs could name specic strategies and contextrelevant adaptations, while students with lower GPAs could not Perceived task difculty was related to reliance on self-handicapping strategies Students who rejected help suffered from low self-esteem and low belongingness perceptions Teacher support of student autonomy directly predicted nal grades

123
Examined the effectiveness of two laboratory approaches for 144 college students non-science majors Studied the impact of an online feedback system for general chemistry students Measured the relationship between condence, interest, and achievement in science Examined the impact of a cooperative learning model on achievement in general chemistry Investigated the impact of using Moodle to supplement physics instruction Studied the effectiveness of four different extrinsic motivators 400 college students in general chemistry. enrolled in general chemistry Measured the relationship between computer animation and conceptual understanding in chemistry Conducted a case study of issues-directed chemistry and biology courses Investigated the impact of integrating online activities into a science curriculum Examined the impact of demonstrations on student learning Examined the relationship between cooperative learning, students achievement, motivation 210 college students College business students A 7th grade science class in Taiwan 2 high school chemistry classes 26 physics students at a Spanish university 108 college students enrolled in general chemistry 1,044 Taiwanese high school students 735 college students enrolled in general chemistry Non-science majors preferred computer-based laboratory instruction to benchtop labwork Students who engaged with the online feedback system earned higher nal grades in general chemistry A signicant correlation existed between condence, interest, and achievement in science Cooperative learning had a positive impact on student achievement Use of the online learning management system was positively correlated with student exam performance Quizzes were the most effective extrinsic motivator of the methods examined Computer animation had a positive impact on students ability to understand chemistry concepts Issues-directed teaching and learning was effective for non-science majors Online exploratory activities were time consuming, but motivated students to think creatively about science Demonstrations had a positive impact on student learning 168 high school chemistry Students achieved higher scores but demonstrated lower motivation students levels Students engaged in PBL demonstrated higher achievement, motivation, and condence than students in the control group Studied the relationship between problem-based learning 40 high school students (PBL), understanding of chemistry concepts, and motivation

Construct

Method

Author(s) and year

Simpson (1996)

Mixedmethods

Miller and Atkinson (2001)

Silverman and Juhasz (1993)

Chemistry Quantitative Black (2000) education

Carvalho-Knighton and Keen-Rocha (2007)

Chambers and Blake (2007)

Chang and Cheng (2008)

Doymus (2007)

Martin-Blas and Serrano-Fernandez (2009)

Mazlo and Dormedy (2002)

Sanger et al. (2007)

Qualitative

Adams and Philips (1991)

Jang (2009)

Milne and Otieno (2007)

Mixedmethods

Shachar (2004)

J Sci Educ Technol (2010) 19:215236

Tarhan and Acar (2007)

J Sci Educ Technol (2010) 19:215236

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