3 Renewable Sources for Electricity Generation

Summary
A.M. Wolsky Argonne National Laboratory

Potential Impacts of HTSCs on Renewable Energy Technologies

J.G. DeSteese, J.A. Dirks, M.K. Drost, S.B. Merrick, R.M. Smith, and T A. Williams Pacific Northwest Laboratory

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II

Summary

This section transmission in $is

calls attention to the fact that more efficient electrical generation and will lower the cost of electricity derived from all forms of primary energy. advances In superconductivity wlll have a bC3iYYti irn~~& bn'th Vsk tit

respect,

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However, attention is also called to the great importance of storage in conjunction with generation from wind and solar energy. Advances in superconductivity promise to lower the cost of superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) and make it the lowest-cost form of storage. Thus, the total cost of a system including wind energy and SMES, or solar energy and SMES, would be lowered. Such combined systems should be compared with combined systems using SMES and conventional sources of electricity (e.g., off-peak power from coal or nuclear units). The result of this comparison will depend on the load profile, existing stock of generation capacity, fuel prices, and environmental regulation. (Section 7 describes SMES.) Advances in superconductivity may also reduce the cost of electricity delivered to the shoreline from ocean thermal energy conversion systems, if underwater superconducting transmission lines are less costly than underwater conventional transmission lines. Section 6 compares the cost of superconducting and conventional transmission underground.

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Potential impacts of HTSCs on Renewable Energy Technologies

3.1

BACKGROUND

This section summarizes a preliminary Pacific Northwest Laboratory assessment of the potential for superconducting materials and devices to change or enhance the future value of renewable energy technologies. The approach taken was to identify the possible interfaces between these technologies and high-temperature (greater than 70 K) superconducting subsystems and project the nature of resulting changes in overall system performance. Four impact categories were considered: neutral impact, enhanced energy storage capability, improved system integration, and new energy conversion potential. The value of incorporating superconductors appears to range from a neutral impact for the renewable technologies that are operated as base-load systems to the facilitation of advanced energy conversion opportunities that are impractical with normal conductors. The smallest impacts are in technologies such as geothermal energy conversion, where superconductors add no value to the intrinsic power or availability of the resource. In such a system, superconductors might replace conventional electric-power generating, transmission, protection, and control components: this is also possible with other thermal or hydroelectric power systems. Superconductors do not appear capable of improving the energy conversion process of intermittent resources, such as solar energy systems, but benefits are likely to be realized from superconductor-enhanced energy storage, stand-alone capability, and/or utility system integration. The highest value expected from superconductor applications was found to be in technologies where a new intrinsic capability might be provided in the energy conversion An example is the possible facilitation of magnetohydrodynamic conversion process. from resources such as biomass, where previously the magnet power required with lowconductivity, low-temperature working fluids would have made these concepts Finally, assuming that fusion power will become possible and can be impractical. the plasma containment and energy conversion considered a renewable resource, processes would be impractical without the incorporation of superconducting subsystems.

3.2 INTRODUCTION Recent indications that a new class of metallic oxide superconductors exhibit superconductivity at liquid nitrogen temperatures and above have fueled speculation on their practical value. Participants in the April 1987 meeting on superconductors held by

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the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Energy Storage and Distribution, were assigned to assess the benefits and changes that may be sssociated with hightemperature superconductors in a number of possible applications. Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL) was assigned the task of assessing the potential for the new superconductors to change or enhance the future performance and value of renewable energy technologies. This section presents the results of the PNL effort in this activity up to the July 1, 1987, deadline for the delivery of preliminary results.

3.2.1 Approach The approach taken was to review systems from a top-down perspective to identify possible opportunities for inserting or substituting high-temperature (greater than 70-K) superconducting subsystems in the place of normally conducting components. The nature of the resulting changes in overall system performance and other significant characteristics was projected at least qualitatively for all cases considered, and quantitatively when appropriate data were at hand.

3.2.2 Scope For the purposes of this assessment, the term renewable technologies was taken to mean electric power production from inexhaustible energy resources. These include hydropower, solar, wind, geothermal, ocean-thermal, ocean-mechanical, and biomass resources. Fusion power is also classified as a renewable technology in this assessment, because the deuterium fuel can be derived from seawater, an inexhaustible resource.

3.2.3 System Impact Classification From the overall system-level perspective, superconductors may have an impact on an electric-power-producing technology in four principal ways, according to the nature of the resource. The four impact categories considered were:
l l l l

Neutral impact, Enhanced energy storage capability, Improved system integration, and New energy conversion potential.

Neutral Impact

Some systems, such as the larger-scale geothermal power plants, produce an intrinsic base-load, grid-synchronized AC output. In renewable resource systems of this type, superconductors may replace conventional electric-power generating, transmission, protection, and control components in the same manner as is possible with regular fossilor nuclear-fueled stations. The resource side of the system is constrained by the geographical location, thermal power, and diversity of the source, which neither gains

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nor loses value from superconductors being incorporated in the balance of the system. In situations of this type, the value added by superconductors is identical to that achieved in systems powered by nonrenewable fuels. Inasmuch as superconductors make no difference to the performance of the energy conversion technology, impacts of this type are considered to be neutral.

Enhanced Energy Storage Capability Systems that convert solar energy to electric power typically produce an intermittent output, requiring energy storage if a constant output is desired. Energy storage in this type of renewable technology is a significant advantage that can increase system flexibility and, in some cases, reduce the delivered energy cost. Superconducting magnetic energy storage could enhance the storage potential of such systems and could, therefore, be a means of extending their overall performance and value.

Improved System Integration Intermittent power systems typically require energy storage and power conditioning to be compatible with end-use needs and/or utility integration. Superconducting generation, storage, and transmission can influence and enhance intermittent power technologies by introducing new system integration options. As an example, the ability of SMES to rapidly switch from charge to discharge or vice versa makes it attractive for use in controlling unstable systems. This may be needed at the grid interface to inhibit any plant output variations that might cause undesirable voltage fluctuations on the transmission system. The high round-trip cycle efficiency potential of superconducting systems could provide energy-management and cost advantages.

New Energy Conversion Potential The final category of impact is the potential for superconducting devices, such as high-field-strength magnets, to facilitate previously impractical energy conversion For example, low-temperature, low-conductivity, magnetohydrodynamic, and options. magnetofluid mechanical concepts would fall into this category.

3.2.4

Organization

Section 3.3 contains a portfolio of technology-specific reviews summarizing the potential influence of high-temperature superconductors on each of the renewable technologies considered. The technologies are reviewed in the following order:
l l l l l

Hydroelectric energy Solar salt gradient ponds Solar thermal central receiver concepts Solar thermal dish concept Solar photovoltaic cells

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l l l l l l

Geothermal energy conversion Wind energy conversion Ocean thermal energy conversion Biomass energy conversion Magnetohydrodynamic energy conversion Fusion power generation

The results of this assessment are summarized by the matrix in Sec. 3.4, which shows the overall impact of superconductors on the above systems according to impact category.

3.3

SUPERCONDUCTOR

IMPACTS ON RENEWABLE

ENERGY

TECHNOLOGIES

3.3.1

Hydroelectric

Energy

Technology

Description

Hydropower constitutes about 12% of the nations electric energy generation. Hydroelectric energy is converted from the fluid-mechanical energy of rivers, streams, and sometimes ocean water, by causing this water to flow through turbines located in a dam. The dam typically provides storage for large volumes of water, generally sufficient contain multiple generators and are for base-load or load-following use. Dams typically capable of delivering bulk power (loo-6,600 MW) to the transmission grid. A major exception to this generalization is the TVA system, which collects water from a number of sources through an elaborate system of penstocks. Smaller hydropower projects are often built without dammed storage on rivers, streams, and irrigation canals with variable water flow rates. Generators of this type generally have capacities of between 1 and 80 MW.

Current

System

Integration

Approach

Most hydroelectric energy is generated at the synchronous power frequency of the electric grid and is transformed to high voltages on site to supply bulk power transmission lines. Some hydropower projects also supply bulk power directly to large The smaller generators (more than 80 MW) are typically industrial users located nearby. base-loaded to the capacity provided by the stream flow, which may vary or even be interrupted during the year. Most of the generators in this class are connected to the utility grid and, in many cases, supply power that the utility is obliged to purchase under the requirements of the Public Utility Regulatory Policy Act (PURPA).

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Performance

Characteristics

Hydropower is the most flexible resource and can be brought on line within minutes of the start-up command. The water storage provided by dams and the ability to respond to rapid fluctuations in demand allow hydroelectric systems to be dispatched as load-following units. Hydroelectric systems are typically the lowest-cost base-load or load-following capacity available.

Impact of Superconductors The use of superconductors in hydropower systems can be expected mainly to improve generator efficiency, reduce electric losses, and increase the capacity in the power buses connecting generator outputs to the primary side of the transmission transformer. In large systems, generator efficiency may be improved by 24%. The size, efficiency, cost, and routing of bus ducts may be similarly improved. When practical materials and components are developed, superconductors should find relatively early application in the larger hydroelectric plants. This is because the existing facilities and caliber of personnel should be well suited to accommodate the complexity of whatever cryogenic refrigeration system may be required. There is less application potential at the lower end of the power range, where operations and There is probably a negligible prospect for personnel are typically less sophisticated. Dammed systems have inherent storage, and SMES applications in any hydroplants. storage systems are generally not cost-effective to implement on small systems. If storage were desirable where it did not already exist, comparisons between options in the 5,000-7,000 MWh, 660-1,000 MW energy storage and power ranges show that underground pumped hydropower storage would be much cheaper ($740/kW) than a SMES system ($1,90O/kW). However, in a few particular cases, a SMES system could possibly be viable despite its cost, if environmental restrictions were to eliminate pumped hydropower or other cheaper storage options. The transmission systems that deliver hydropower to load centers are potentially amenable to the use of superconductors, based on the operational and economic criteria that would apply to conventional systems.

3.3.2 Solar Salt Gradient Ponds

Technology Description The solar salt gradient pond is a device for trapping and storing solar energy. The salt gradient pond achieves this by means of a concentration gradient, where salinity increases from a low value at the pond surface to high salinity a meter or two below the surface. Hence, deeper waters are heavier than the water above them. This eliminates buoyancy-induced convection, impeding the upward movement of the warmed water. Buoyancy-induced convection is the major heat-loss mechanism in a solar pond.

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In practice, the salt gradient pond has three layers: a thin surface convecting zone, the salt gradient zone, and the storage zone located under the salt gradient zone. Useful energy is absorbed in the storage zone, resulting in the storage zone having a temperature substantially above ambient. In operating ponds, temperatures above 100C By extracting storage zone water from the have been achieved in the storage zone. pond, a heat source is made available for a low-temperature organic Rankine-cycle heat engine, which can be used to drive an electric alternator. Studies from the early 1980s project a levelized energy cost of about lOQ/kWh for large solar salt ponds.

Current System Integration Approach A solar salt gradient pond system is normally designed to deliver synchronized AC power directly to the grid without on-site electric energy storage.

Performance

Characteristics

The solar salt gradient pond concept is a low-temperature solar energy conversion concept that results in low efficiency. In many cases, however, the pond can be constructed at a very low cost, offsetting the efficiency penalty. The major feature of this concept, compared with other solar thermal concepts, is that the storage zone A solar salt gradient pond may take provides very large amounts of thermal storage. several years to warm up, but once it is warm, the plants output will not be affected by diurnal or short-term weather-induced variations in incident solar radiation. There will be a significant seasonal variation in output, but overall, a solar salt gradient pond power plant can be considered as a base-load power generator. For economical operation, solar power plants must be located in areas with high incident solar radiation, such as the southwestern United States.

Impact of Superconductors The impact of superconductors would be essentially neutral in this technology. Application potential would exist in the generator and transmission system according to the same criteria that apply to these components in nonrenewable base-load systems. Storage is an intrinsic feature of solar salt gradient ponds. Therefore, superconducting storage would add little value.

3.3.3 Solar Thermal Central Receiver

Concepts

Technology Description The central receiver concept calls for a field of mirrors or heliostats that completely or partially surround a tower-mounted receiver. The heliostats can move about two axes and track the sun as it moves through the sky, concentrating the incident solar radiation on the tower-mounted receiver. The reflected solar radiant energy is

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absorbed on the receiver, converted to thermal energy, and transferred to a heattransfer fluid. Molten salt, liquid sodium, and water/steam have been proposed as heattransfer fluids. The heat-transfer fluid is transported to ground level, where it is used to generate steam for a Rankine-cycle heat engine. The heat engine provides shaft power to a conventional electric generator. To extend the amount of time that a central receiver can provide energy, a storage subsystem is included. During operation, a fraction of the thermal energy in the heat-transfer fluid is used to charge a thermal storage unit. The stored energy is then available to generate steam for the heat engine during periods when solar radiation is not available. A similar system uses parabolic trough collectors to focus solar radiation on a linear receiver tube, where it is used to heat a heat-transfer fluid (such as oil). With the exception of the collector, the trough system is similar to the central receiver system. Statements regarding performance characteristics, current approach for end use integration, and impact of superconduction on the technology will apply equally to both trough and central receiver systems. Recent evaluations of solar thermal technology project a levelized energy cost of for central receiver plants. Trough systems are projected to be much more with levelized costs approaching 15@/kWh.

S-?C/kWh expensive,

Current

System

Integration

Approach

difficult system.

Only one prototype central receiver plant is in operation. Therefore, it is to predict the preferred approach for integrating this technology into a utility There are at least three options:
l

Quasi Base-Load. A central receiver power plant can be designed to operate with capacity factors equal to conventional base-load plants. This is accomplished by adding substantial thermal storage. Reasonable designs have been proposed with annual capacity factors up to 0.8. Unlike conventional plants, the solar plant (even with storage) is still vulnerable to unusual weather conditions, such as a long period of cloudy weather. Peak Load. A central receiver amount of storage and operated plant can be designed as a peaking plant. with a small

Hybrid. A central receiver plant can use fossil fuels to either increase the temperature of the Rankine-cycle heat source or replace solar energy during periods of low insolation. In the second case, storage is not required.

Performance

Characteristics

to have

Depending on the design of the plant, a central receiver facility can be designed a capacity factor between 0.25 (no storage) and 0.8 (maximum reasonable

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storage), but in all cases, the plant is vulnerable to unusual weather. The use of thermal because this type of storage is essentially is an advantage, energy storage commercialized and inexpensive ($12/kWh thermal). For economical operation, a solar power plant must be located in areas with high incident solar radiation, such as the southwestern United States.

Impact of Superconductors Superconductor application potential would exist in the generator and transmission system according to the same criteria that apply to these components in Because the solar central receiver can reach high nonrenewable base-load systems. capacity factors with inexpensive thermal storage, there appears to be little prospect Superconducting that electric energy storage, of any form, would be competitive. magnetic energy storage might be cost-effective in particular cases, such as the integration of a stand-alone power system for a remote community or industry not connected to the grid. Liquid-metal magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) systems have been considered for fluid. application with central receiver systems , using sodium as a heat-transfer Superconducting magnets can provide many times the magnetic field strength of The application of conventional magnets and can be more cost-effective. superconducting magnets could facilitate the use of liquid-metal MHD energy conversion in the central receiver concept, thereby greatly increasing its relative importance as a renewable resource.

3.3.4 Solar Thermal Dish Concept

Technology

Description

This concept involves an array of parabolic dish-shaped collectors that track the sun in two axes, redirecting the incident radiation onto individual receivers located at The cavity-type receiver absorbs the solar the focal point of each concentrator. radiation on the heater tubes of a small (about 2%kWe) heat engine. Stirling-cycle, and supercritical organic Rankine-cycle heat engines have been Brayton-cycle, proposed. In all cases, the heat engine drives a generator to produce electricity, which is transported to either a storage unit or the utility power grid. When storage is included, battery storage has typically been selected for use with solar dish concepts. An alternative solar thermal dish concept uses an array of dish receivers to produce thermal energy, which is then transported to a central heat engine. Thermal energy can be transported by a heat-transfer fluid or in a thermochemical transport system. Either way, the thermal energy generated by a large number of receivers is transported to a central Rankine-cycle heat engine, which generates electricity. To extend the amount of time that the dish concept can provide energy, a thermal storage system can be included. During operation, a fraction of the thermal energy from the dish

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array is used to charge storage. The energy is then available to generate heat engine during periods when solar radiation is not available.

steam in the

The dish systems using dish-mounted heat engines and electric storage have been extensively investigated, but electric storage using batteries has proved to be very expensive. The dish concept with a central heat engine is being considered as an alternative, but the thermal energy transport system has also proved to be expensive. The dish concept with a central heat engine has performance characteristics similar to those of a central receiver system, and the impact of superconductivity on this concept should be about the same: therefore, this discussion will concentrate on the dish system using small dish-mounted heat engines.

Current System

integration Approach

Two approaches for integrating the solar thermal dish concept into a utility system have been proposed. First, the dish system can be installed without any battery In this ease, the dish systems storage and feed power into the grid as it is produced. The second approach is to include a small amount of depend on system-wide storage. storage to allow the power to be delivered during peak demand periods, but the economics of battery storage are so unattractive that adding more storage will rapidly make the solar thermal dish concept uneconomical.

Performance

Characteristics

The solar thermal dish concept is characterized by high efficiency but is strongly Compared with other solar thermal concepts, penalized by expensive battery storage. the dish concept normally shows the lowest cost up to a capacity factor of 0.27. Above this capacity factor, storage must be included, and the cost of the concept soon exceeds Due to the modular nature of this concept, that of the other solar thermal technologies. it is particularly suitable for remote installations, but the lack of cost-effective electric storage again offsets this advantage. For economical operation, solar thermal dish power plants must be located in areas with high incident solar radiation, such as the southwestern United States.

Impact of Superconductors Superconductors could replace generation and transmission system components of the solar thermal dish system, with potential advantages similar to those achievable with Costsuperconductor applications to these components in nonrenewable systems. effective SMES would have a major impact, because the application potential of the solar thermal dish concept is currently limited by battery storage. Large-scale superconducting storage could improve grid-wide storage, eliminating the need for onsite battery storage. Small-scale superconducting storage could replace on-site batteries and improve the prospects for remote applications.

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3.3.5

Solar

Photovoltaic

Cells

Technology

Description

Solar photovoltaic cells convert solar power directly into DC electric power. The solar cell is a semiconductor (typically silicon or gallium arsenide) that exhibits a photoelectric effect when illuminated by sunlight. The freed electrons are gathered and transported from the cells by metallic contacts on each cells surface. The cells are arranged in modules, which can either be fixed (typically pointing due south with a tilt equal to the latitude of the installation) or mounted in arrays of modules that track the sun in one or two axes. Sun-tracking arrays can also employ devices to concentrate the solar radiation. Photovoltaic cells represent the least site-restricted solar technology. However, due to the periodic nature of the solar resource, a typical photovoltaic system operates at a capacity factor of 20-30%.

Current

System Integration

Approach

The use of photovoltaic cells in large-scale commercial power applications has been prevented, to date, by their high cost. Worldwide, in 1986, over 80% of the photovoltaic panels purchased for electric power production were used in stand-alone Photovoltaic cells are often the lowest-cost power alternative in remote applications. applications. Small stand-alone applications with constant or variable power demand (e.g., telerepeaters or railroad signals) are cost-effective and work very well with photovoltaic cells and battery storage. Larger stand-alone photovoltaic systems that could be used to power entire communities not connected to the electric power grid would require energy storage. However, the cost and efficiency of current electric energy storage technology (batteries) precludes their use in this application. Thus, photovoltaic systems of this type are currently considered as fuel-saver systems for more conventional generating technologies. Grid-connected photovoltaic systems would require DC-to-AC inverters and power conditioning. Currently envisioned plants would supply energy to the grid as it is produced (sun-following mode).

Performance

Characteristics

Fixed flat plate photovoltaic arrays have lower efficiency and capacity factors than tracking arrays; however, fixed arrays do not require complex tracking mechanisms. Most stand-alone (non-grid-connected) applications use this technology. One-axis tracking improves the performance of photovoltaic arrays over fixed arrays by allowing higher input (and hence output) during the day. The capacity factor is increased by more than 10% over that of a fixed array.

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Two-axis tracking maximizes the output of a photovoltaic array by always keeping the array normal to the suns rays. The capacity factor is more than 25% higher than that of a fixed array. Concentrating photovoltaic arrays use either mirrors or Fresnel lenses to concentrate the solar radiation on the cells. Concentrators are used with more efficient and more costly cells to decrease the number of cells required. However, the use of concentrators precludes using the diffuse portion of the solar radiation.

Impact of Superconductors The primary potential value of superconductors could be to provide costeffective energy storage for photovoltaic systems of most sizes (except very small standalone units, in which SMES would probably not replace batteries cost-effectively). The inherent DC output of photovoltaic systems is highly compatible with superconducting storage. Energy storage might be provided as either utility system-level storage or dedicated plant storage. Cost-effective SMES could vastly increase the potential market for power from large photovoltaic systems and would allow the output of the plant to be stored and dispatched by the utility at the time of its maximum need. Thus, instead of having the output be completely sun-following, a photovoltaic plant could be designed to operate at any capacity factor from the base-load to peaking mode. Superconducting devices may also have the potential to improve both the efficiency and economics of solar cell production (for example, as a component of the doping process).

3.3.6 Geothermal

Energy Convemion

Technology

Description

Geothermal technologies employ conventional steam-turbine generation to produce electricity from the naturally occurring heat sources below the Heat can be extracted from any part of the earth and used to raise earths surface. steam; however, extraction costs can be prohibitive if the resource is not close to the surface. Four geothermal resources currently under consideration are hydrothermal deposits (steam and hot water), geopressure, hot dry rock, and magma. The most economical method is to use the naturally occurring hydrothermal deposits found in areas near volcanic zones.
technology

Current System Integration Approach Currently, geothermal electric plants operate as grid-connected, base-load The average geothermal unit is available on-line more than 95% of the time.

capacity.

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Performance

Characteristics

Dry-steam (superheated steam with little or no liquid) geothermal resources can be directly coupled to a steam turbine. Wet-steam or hot-water resources that are under high pressure currently use flash systems to generate steam suitable for input to the turbine. Dual-flash, binary-cycle, and flow systems are also being developed to make lower-temperature sources economical. Geopressured geothermal technology is based on high-pressure geothermal resources (3,000-10,000 lb/in.2 above hydrostatic pressure). This technology is still in the research phase, but it would employ conventional electrical generation technologies. Hot-dry-rock geothermal technology is still in the research phase and would also employ conventional electrical generation technologies. Magma technology is still only a hypothetical concept, but it would most likely use conventional steam-turbine technology to generate electricity.

Impact of Superconductors The impact of superconductors on large-scale, grid-connected geothermal energy conversion appears, in general, to be neutral. The resource side of the system is constrained by the geographical location, thermal power, and diversity of the source, which neither gains nor loses value if superconductors are incorporated in the balance of Superconducting components may replace conventional electric power the system. generating, transmission, protection, and control components of geothermal plants in the same manner as is possible with regular fossil- or nuclear-fueled stations. The use of SMES could possibly allow geothermal plants to operate in a load-following mode, which could offer the potential of new stand-alone (non-grid-connected) development of the Superconducting magnets could possibly find application in devices smaller resources. that remove materials in geothermal fluids that cause corrosion and fouling.

3.3.7 Wind Energy Conversion

Technology

Description

Wind energy conversion systems extract power from the wind by the use of a wind turbine-alternator set. The kinetic energy of the wind is first converted into mechanical energy, and then electrical energy. The amount of power that can be obtained from the wind increases with the square of the blade diameter and the cube of the wind speed.

Current System Integration Approach The majority of wind turbines installed today have a rated output of between 50 and 100 kW and are deployed in arrays known as wind farms delivering AC power

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directly to the grid. Power-conditioning equipment relatively poor intrinsic quality of the power produced applications are limited to water pumping, because unpredictable. If wind power is used in a stand-alone high-cost battery storage is often required.

is often required to improve the by wind farms. Most stand-alone the resource is intermittent and electrical application, relatively

Performance

Characteristics

There are two basic types of wind turbines: vertical axis and horizontal axis. Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) are by far the most common type currently in use. They operate with the blade either up- or downwind and produce higher torques than the vertical axis wind turbines, which are suitable for providing mechanical energy or producing electricity. Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) are the most efficient variety, extracting the most power from the wind at any given speed. They also operate at higher speeds than other wind turbines, require no equipment to point them into the wind, and enable the generator to be located on the ground. Gusts of wind traveling across hundreds of generators in the wind farm pose special control problems for the facility operator to ensure system stability and maintain adequate power quality. Though fewer, larger wind turbines are expected both to enable lower-cost power production and to simplify the control of wind farms, multiple small turbines are currently preferred, because mass production techniques can be used in their manufacture. Turbines with outputs of up to several megawatts have been built, but technical problems have delayed their development towards commercialization.

Impact

of Superconductors

Due to the variability, seasonality, and unpredictability of wind resources, wind turbines are generally not considered for stand-alone applications. Thus, in this type of system, SMES would probably be of minimal benefit. However, in grid-connected applications, SMES could be used to interface wind turbines with the grid, permitting dispatch by the utility at the time of its maximum need. Power conditioning using superconducting components may become an efficient and cost-effective means of removing voltage and frequency transients induced by variations in wind velocity.

3.3-a

Ocean

Thermal

Energy

Conversion

Technology

Description conversion (OTEC) exploits the small thermal differential water and water at depths of about 1,000 m. There are currently under consideration: openand closed-cycle plants evaporate the warm surface water and use the drive a turbogenerator. Closed-cycle OTEC systems use

Ocean thermal energy (about 2OC) between surface two types of OTEC plants Open-cycle OTEC systems. resulting low-density steam to

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the warm surface water to boil a different working fluorocarbons), which then drives the turbogenerator.

fluid

(ammonia,

propane,

or

Current System Integration Approach OTEC facilities produce energy continuously with very little diurnal or seasonal variation in energy output. Shore-based OTEC generating stations often require prohibitively long lengths of large-diameter inlet pipe to transport cold water from suitable depths. Offshore plants may dispense with the need for an extremely long coldwater inlet, but they still require some method of transporting generated power to shore. With a suitable means of transmission, AC power may be generated and delivered directly to the grid. The best resource areas in the Gulf of Mexico are often more than 100 mi offshore, so the ability to transmit electricity to the grid remains one of the main limitations to current application of this technology. For this reason, the offshore production of many electric-energy-intensive products (e.g., aluminum, ammonia, chlorine, hydrogen, magnesium, methanol, etc.) has been proposed as a more costeffective use of OTEC power.

Performance

Characteristics

It has been estimated that more than 14 x lo6 MW may be generated through the conversion of less than 0.1% of the heat energy stored in tropical surface waters. This represents more than 20 times the current generating capacity of the United States. Desalinated water produced in open-cycle plants may be used for drinking water or irrigation in arid regions. In addition, cold-water return from an OTEC plant may be used to cool nearby buildings. Several serious drawbacks remain prior to commercialization of OTEC technology. Extremely large low-pressure turbine sizes are required to gather energy from the low-density steam generated in open-cycle systems, seawater is extremely corrosive to the heat-exchanger elements, and the removal of dissolved gases from the seawater through the OTEC process may alter the ecological balance of the surrounding region. The main drawbacks of the closed-cycle design have been fouling and corrosion of the large and very costly heat exchangers. Low-cost, easily deployable deep-water pipe and suitable means for transporting or storing the electricity generated offshore need to be developed before this resource can be fully exploited.

Impact of Superconductors There are several areas where advances in superconducting technology may contribute to improvements in the performance and operating efficiency of OTEC generating stations. Extremely large quantities of both warm and cold water must be pumped through an OTEC plant. Superconducting motors may improve the efficiency of the inlet water pumps. Significant frictional losses in the extremely large low-density steam turbines may be substantially eliminated through the application of

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superconducting magnetically levitated bearings. In addition, the cold inlet water may provide an excellent heat-sink for the superconductor refrigeration equipment. The lack of a suitable means of transportation of power generated in OTEC generating stations is presently a significant limiting factor to this technology. Excitation current losses in conventional AC transmission cables limit their usefulness to distances of less than 30 mi. The development of an undersea superconducting transmission cable may open new markets for OTEC-generated power. As the critical temperatures of the new generation of superconductor materials continue to rise, it may one day be possible to deploy superconducting power transmission cables cooled simply by the surrounding seawater. It may also be feasible to employ tankers equipped with giant SMES coils to store offshore OTEC-generated power for later transportation to shore.

3.3.9

Biomass Energy Conversion

Technology

Description

Biomass energy is derived from plant or animal matter. There are numerous methods of extracting this energy currently in practice, and others have been proposed. Biomass conversion can be used to produce heat or electricity near the feedstock source, or the feedstock can be converted to other, more-transportable fuels. The most common methods considered are direct burning; producing synthesis gas under oxygenated, aerobic, or anaerobic conditions; producing alcohols by hydrolysis and fermentation; or producing methane by anaerobic digestion.

Current System Integration Approach Due to the extremely high cost of transporting the biomass feedstocks and their generally low energy density, biomass facilities are typically located close to the feedstock source. Direct burning applications (e.g., wood-fired boilers) are typically used to raise steam for use in a process or for generating electricity. Other biomass processes that produce liquid or gaseous fuels typically have their output transported in fuel form to other end users. However, if biomass processes can be made economical, electricity may be made during the process, or the fuel may be used to generate electricity at the site.

Performance

Characteristics

Direct burning of biomass waste is often used to provide heat, steam, and electricity. Typical feedstocks are wood wastes and peat. When electricity or steam is being produced, conventional steam-boiler technology similar to that used in coal plants is used.

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Ethanol is typically produced by fermentation from feedstocks containing starch, The main differences between the fermentation processes occur sugar, or cellulose. because of the differences in the pretreatment the various feedstocks require. Methanol production from wood biomass is generally accomplished by wood gasification, modification and cleaning of the resulting gas, and then liquefaction. Methane from biomass is produced by anaerobic digestion by various types of animal manures, aquatic plants, sewage bacteria. Typical feedstocks are wet biomass: sludge, or food processing wastes.

Impact

of Superconductors will probably have a neutral impact on most biomass conversion systems that produce electric power directly are large enough, find beneficial application in associated generation and as is the case with other renewable and nonrenewable energy

Superconductors options. If the biomass may superconductors transmission components, systems.

3.3.10

Magnetohydrodynamic

Energy

Conversion

Technology

Description

In a conventional electric power generator, electric current and voltage are induced in conductors that are caused to move orthogonally to the direction of a magnetic field. In a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generator, a conducting fluid replaces the solid conductor windings in the conventional machine. Many device configurations and fluid systems have been proposed, including DC and AC machines energized by nuclear-heated inert gas plasmas, combustion products, liquid metals, and two-phase working fluids. In most concepts, the heated working fluid expands into a duct containing a magnetic field perpendicular to the flow direction. Electric current is generated in the fluid in a direction mutually perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the flow. Insulated electrodes built into the side of the duct collect the current and connect with power-conditioning equipment for delivery of energy to the grid.

Current

System

Integration

Approach

While MHD research and development has been going on for nearly 30 yr in the United States, no machine has been developed past the pilot plant size or connected to the grid on a continuous basis. The DOE-funded MHD experiment conducted by Mountain States Energy Corp. in Butte, Montana, has operated for about 150 h. The DC output (about 1.5 MW) of this coal-fired machine has been inverted to AC and supplied to the grid for short durations. Most MHD plant designs are large base-load systems, connected to the grid through inverters in the case of DC machines. Large DC machines could also supply DC bulk power transmission lines directly. MHD plants may be developed to

30

Applied

Superconductivity

generate AC power, possibly with a continuing need for power conditioning the synchronization, waveform, and harmonic quality of the output.

to improve

Performance

Characteristics

MHD operation in the United States to date has been less than that needed to encourage the expectation of near-term commercialization. The Soviet Union has, however, forged ahead in this area and has several experimental units. One is a 250-MW MHD system topping a gas-turbine/combined-cycle plant of equal size that is planned for on-line operation following an experimental evaluation period.

Impact of Superconductors The power of an MHD generator is proportional to the fluid conductivity and the square of fluid velocity and magnetic field strength. The one-to-two order of magnitude increase in magnetic field strength provided by superconductors over conventional magnets could improve the performance of essentially all MHD devices. However, of particular value, the availability of superconducting magnets opens up the potential for operation at lower MHD temperatures and with fluids of lower conductivity. The renewable energy technologies that may become attractive in combination with MHD conversion include biomass and waste combustion, ocean energy, and some solar thermal concepts. The use of superconductors in MHD systems would also be applicable to the power buses and the balance of the transmission system, according to criteria that would apply to conventional nonrenewable energy systems. There is probably a negligible prospect for SMES applications plants, because almost all concepts appear to be base-load systems. possible and economical to drive a low-temperature MHD generator and store the output in a shipboard SMES. in land-based MHD However, it may be by an OTEC source

3.3.11

Fusion Power Generation

Technology

Description

Nuclear fusion is the joining together, or fusing, of nuclei from light elements, such as the deuterium or tritium isotopes of hydrogen, to form a new atom (helium) with The mass difference between the fusion less mass than the sum of the reactants. products and the reactants is converted to heat, which can then be used to generate electrical energy. While nuclear fusion is not usually classified as a renewable resource, the abundant supply of deuterium fuel that can be easily extracted from sea water may enable fusion to become a virtually inexhaustible energy resource. Three primary methods are available These are high-energy laser-induced fusion, While great catalyzed cold nuclear fusion. for achieving controlled nuclear fusion. magnetic-confinement fusion, and muonstrides have been made in each of these

Renewable Sources for Electricity

Generation

31

technologies, output.

none

has

as yet

approached

the break-even

point

to yield

a net power

Current System Integration

Approach

One approach to nuclear fusion generation involves the use of high-energy lasers to compress a fuel pellet to an equivalent of more than lo6 atm pressure and over The development of higher-efficiency lasers is necessary prior to 100 x 106 Oc. achieving the break-even point where this technology approaches viability. Another option involves the generation of intense magnetic fields to confine the high-temperature plasma fuel until fusion occurs. Superconducting magnets offer the most plausible means of efficiently generating the intense magnetic fields necessary to enable this technology to become viable. A third approach, which is beginning to show great promise, is known as muon-catalyzed cold nuclear fusion. This method involves the generation of negatively charged muons with a particle accelerator. These particles bind to the hydrogen atoms and facilitate the fusion process. Cold fusion technology is presently limited by the efficiency with which the muons may be generated in the particle accelerator. Advances in accelerator design employing high-intensity superconducting magnets may soon enable commercial cold fusion generation to become a reality.

Performance Characteristics When fusion power generation becomes a reality, heat generated in the reaction process will most likely be used to generate steam to run a conventional turbogenerator. The ionized plasma produced may also be used to generate electricity magnetohydrodynamically.

Impact of Superconductors While laser-induced fusion is likely to experience little initial impact from advances in superconductor technology, both magnetically confined and muon-catalyzed fusion are likely to make significant use of advanced superconducting magnets. As fusion power generation becomes a reality, superconducting alternators and MHD generators should further enhance its performance and efficiency.

3.4

CONCLUSIONS

The principal impacts of superconductors on the 11 renewable energy technologies considered in this section are summarized in Table 3.1. The impact categories are (1) neutral impact, (2) enhanced energy storage capability, (3) improved system integration, and (4) new energy conversion potential, as discussed in Sec. 3.2.3.

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Applied Superconductivity

TABLE 3.1 Impact Matrix for Superconductors

in Renewable

Energy Technologiesa

Impact (1) (2) Enhanced Storage

Category (4) New Potential

Technology

Neutralb

(3) Improved System Integration

Hydroelectric energy Solar salt gradient ponds Solar central receivers Solar thermal dishes Solar photovoltaic cells Geothermal energy Wind energy systems OTEC systems Biomass conversion MHD conversion Fusion power generation

X X X X X X

(X)

(X) (Xl
(Xl

(X) (X)

(X) (X) (X)

X X

X
(Xl

X X

aThe

dominant impact category is indicated by an X for each technolSecondary, conditional, or hypothetical impacts are indicated by ogy. If the primary impact is neutral, secondary (X) where appropriate. impacts generally reflect special-case considerations.

bAll technologies with impacts in Category 1 (neutral) can benefit from superconductors replacing conventional electric-power generation, and control components in the same manner as transmission, protection, is possible with conventional fossilor nuclear-fueled systems.