Solar Drying: V. Belessiotis, E. Delyannis

Solar drying
V. Belessiotis
*
, E. Delyannis
Laboratory of Solar & Other Energy Systems, NSRC DEMOKRITOS, P.O. Box 60228, 153-10 Aghia Paraskevi, Greece
Available online 16 July 2010
Communicated by: Associate Editor Yogi Goswami
Abstract
Solar radiation use for drying is one of the oldest applications of solar energy. It was used since the dawn of mankind mainly for
food preservation but also for drying other useful materials as cloths, construction materials, etc. The rst installation for drying
by solar energy was found in South France and is dated at about 8000 BC. Solar heat was the only available energy source to
mankind until the discovery and use of wood and biomass. Until to day in remote small communities, not only in the so-called
third world regions, but also in the western countries, people take advantage of solar radiation to dry and preserve small amounts
of food.
Solar drying has not yet widely commercialized. Solar dryers are equipment, generally of small capacity and based rather on empirical
and semi-empirical data than in theoretical designs. The majority of the numerous solar dryer designs, which are available, are used
mainly for drying of various crops either for family use or for small-scale industrial production.
In this chapter on Solar Drying various direct and indirect solar drying applications and some of the numerous solar dryers are
described. A very short historical description of solar drying through the centuries is also given. Some drying phenomena, independently
of the type of energy used, and the general laws that govern drying methods by convection are shortly analyzed in order the reader to
easily follow the details of the solar drying procedure. Special solar collectors used in drying and methods of coupling to the various solar
dryers are described as an indirect solar thermal energy source. At the end an example of drying of grapes to produce black current rai-
sins, by indirect solar radiation, is given as well.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Mollier diagram; Economics of solar dryers; Agricultural crop preservation; Hot box chamber; Greenhouse dryer analysis; Semi-cylindrical
plastic dryer
1. A brief historical overview
Drying by exposure to the Sun is one of the oldest meth-
ods using solar energy, for food preservation, as vegetables,
fruits, sh, meat, etc. Already from the prehistoric times
mankind used the solar radiation as the only available ther-
mal energy source to dry and preserve all necessary food-
stus for winter time, to dry soil bricks for their homes
and animal skins for dressing.
Arian (2nd century AD; Translation, 1966) describes
that when Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander the Great,
was sailing with his eet across the Macran Coast (to day
in the border of Iran/Pakistan), they arrived in a place
called Mahi Khoren which in Persian means sh-eaters
(ichthiophagi). They dried large shes by exposure to the
sun and pound the dried sh to our to produce bread
and cakes. Until to day exist about the same drying situa-
tion in this region.
The rst known drying installation has been found in
South of France and is dated from about 8000 BC. It
was a stone paved surface and used for drying of crops.
Breeze or natural moderate wind velocities were combined
0038-092X/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2009.10.001
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 1 65 03 815; fax: +30 1 65 44 592.
E-mail address: beles@ipta.demokritos.gr (V. Belessiotis).
www.elsevier.com/locate/solener
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Solar Energy 85 (2011) 16651691
with solar radiation to accelerate drying (Kro ll and Kast,
1989).
Various other installations around the world have been
found dated between the years 7000 and 3000 BC. There
were various combined installations, solar radiation natu-
ral air circulation, for drying mainly food. In Mesopotamia
have been found sites, of solar and air drying colored tex-
tile material and for solar air drying of written clay plates.
The rst, exclusively air drying installation for crops was
found in Hindu river valley and is dated about 2600 BC
(Kro ll and Kast, 1989).
The well-known Greek philosopher and physician, Aris-
totle (384322 BC), who described in detail the drying phe-
nomena, gave, for rst time, theoretical explanations of
drying.
Later on, biomass and wood were used to re primitive
furnaces to dry construction material, etc., as bricks, but
food was exposed only to direct solar radiation. The indus-
try of conventional drying started about the 18th century
and about the same time started can industry for some
types of food for preservation as well. Despite all these dry-
ing by exposure to the sun continued to be used for small
amounts of agricultural products.
2. Introduction
Drying (or dewatering) is a simple process of excess
water (moisture) removal from a natural or industrial
product in order to reach the standard specication mois-
ture content. It is an energy intensive operation. Especially
essential is to reduce the foodstu moisture content, as
these have in general a water content much higher (around
2580%, but generally for agricultural products around
70%) than the one suitable for long preservation. Reducing
moisture content of foodstu down to a certain level slows
down the action of enzymes, bacteria, yeasts and molds.
Thus food can be stored and preserved for long time with-
out spoilage. Another case of drying (or dewatering) is the
total removal of moisture until food has no moisture at all.
Dehydrated food, when ready to use, is re-watered and
almost regains its initial conditions.
The widest among drying methods is convective drying
(whereby heating takes place by convection between the
hot air and the products surface), i.e. drying by owing
heated air circulating either over the upper side, bottom
side or both, or across its mass. Hot air heats up the prod-
uct and conveys released moisture to atmosphere. Thus
Nomenclature
a,b parameters of equation (8A) []
C the Langmuir Constant
C investment value at the end of the payback time
[]
D annual displaced conventional energy []
E accumulative yearly cost []
E annual ination []
I incident solar energy [W m
2
]
I accumulated yearly cost []
K constant of sorption enthalpies []
_ m mass ow rate of moisture [kg s
1
]
m
d
mass of dry material [kg]
m
w
mass of wet material [kg]
mC mass of wet material []
n number of molecules []
n years []
Q heat [kJ]
_ q heat ux [Wm
2
]
R annual interest rate []
p
w
partial water pressure [Pa]
p
+
w
partial water pressure [Pa]
S annual savings []
T thermodynamic temperature [K]
t time [s]
V volume [m
3
]
X crop (food material) moisture content dry ba-
sis(kg moisture per kg of dry material) [kg kg
1
]
X
eq
equivalent moisture content [kg kg
1
]
X
mon
crop mono-layer moisture content [kg kg
1
]
X
t
humidity at the end of drying time[kg kg
1
]
W crop (food material) moisture wet basis (kg
moisture per kg wet material)%
Greek letters
a absorptivity []
a
w
activity of water []
q density [kg m
3
]
Dh enthalpy of vaporization [kJ kg
1
]
DN temperature dierences [K]
u relative humidity [%]
Subscripts
a ambient
air air
c,e convective, evaporative
dr drying
in inlet
L losses
l
w
long wave
max maximum
m mean
r reexion
out outlet
s soil
T total
w water
1666 V. Belessiotis, E. Delyannis / Solar Energy 85 (2011) 16651691
drying psychrometry is of importance because it refers to
the properties of airvapor mixture that controls the func-
tion of drying. In direct solar drying called sun drying
the product is heated directly by the suns rays and mois-
ture is removed by natural circulation of air due to density
dierences. Two basic moisture transfer mechanisms are
involved in drying:
1. Migration of moisture from the mass inside to the
surface.
2. Transfer of the moisture from the surface to the sur-
rounding air, in the form of water vapor.
Solar radiation, in the form of solar thermal energy, is
an alternative source of energy for drying especially to
dry fruits, vegetables, agricultural grains and other kinds
of material, as wood, etc. This procedure is especially appli-
cable in the so-called sunny belt world wide, i.e. in
regions where the intensity of solar radiation is high and
sunshine duration long. It is estimated that in developing
countries there exist signicant post harvest losses of agri-
cultural products, due to lack of other preservation means,
that can be saved by using solar dryers.
Drying by solar energy is a rather economical procedure
for agricultural products, especially for medium to small
amounts of products, to preserve excess of production. It
is friendly to the environment. It is still used for domestic
up to small commercial size drying of crops, agricultural
products and foodstu, such as fruits, vegetables, aromatic
herbs, wood, etc., contributing thus signicantly to the
economy of small agricultural communities and farms.
Drying by solar radiation can be divided into two main
categories:
(a) Direct, or open-air sun drying, the direct exposure to
the sun.
(b) Indirect solar drying or convective solar drying.
Food materials and crops are very sensitive to the drying
conditions. Drying must be performed in a way that does
not aect seriously their color, avor, texture or nutritional
value. Thus the selection of drying conditions, as tempera-
ture, is of major importance. Many products need pretreat-
ment, similar to pretreatment applied to conventional
drying systems. For solar drying some products are pre-
treated to facilitate drying or to keep their avor and
texture.
Outdoor sun-air heating suits to fruits. Their high sugar
and acid content makes the direct sun drying safe. In the
contrary vegetables have low sugar and acid content
increasing the risk of spoilage during sun- and open-air
drying.
Solar dryers are more or less simple devices. They range
from very primitive ones used in small, desert or remote
communities up to more sophisticated small size industrial
installations, although the latter are still very few and
under development, e.g. for drying of timber (Fig. 10).
Until to day they have been not yet standardized and/or
widely commercialized and in many cases they are con-
structed on experience base rather than in scientic design
and technical calculations.
3. Brief description of drying principles
Only a short description of the main phenomena that
govern drying process by hot air circulation is given in
order to introduce or to refresh the memory of the reader
to the principles of drying. These principles are applied,
in general, to mechanical conventional drying and here
concern mainly indirect solar drying. In general, must be
noted that conventional drying principles and phenomena
are independent of the type of energy used. Ekechukwu
(1999) gives a comprehensive review of fundamental princi-
ples and theories governing the drying process.
The larger portion of energy consumed during drying is
for transforming liquid water into its vapor (2258 kJ/kg at
101.3 kPa). Water may be contained in various forms e.g.,
as free water, bound water, etc., which is related directly to
the drying rate. Free or loose held water is regarded as
unbound and the product is non hygroscopic. Bound mois-
ture is trapped in closed capillaries and the material is
called then hygroscopic.
Moisture content is expressed either on dry or wet basis,
e.g. moisture content in wet (W) basis is the weight of mois-
ture per unit of wet material:
W =
m
w
m
w
m
d
kg per kg of mixture (1)
and on dry basis (X), is expressed as the ratio of water con-
tent to the weight of dry material:
X =
m
w
m
d
kg of water per kg of dry material (2)
where are: m
w
mass of water and m
d
mass of dry solid.
The most convenient way to express moisture for math-
ematical calculations is on dry basis but for agricultural
products moisture content normally is expressed in wet
basis.
3.1. Drying rate
A very important quantity is the drying rate, determined
by the temperature and moisture content of the product as
well as the temperature, relative humidity and velocity of
the drying air. Agricultural products are hygroscopic and
thus drying rate is of main importance. Drying rate has
usually two dierent phases:
v Phase I, an initial constant-rate period during which sur-
face is saturated with vapor and evaporation takes place
continuously as at the materials surface is enough water
to evaporate.
v Phase II, the falling rate period, when surface is not
vapor saturated, i.e. at the critical point. Moisture
V. Belessiotis, E. Delyannis / Solar Energy 85 (2011) 16651691 1667
diusion is controlled by internal liquid movement while
surface becomes continuously depleted in water.
A second falling period is dened as well:
v Phase III, the second part of falling rate period, where
the moisture content continues to decrease until equilib-
rium is achieved and drying stops. This second falling
period concerns hygroscopic products.
For the majority of the products drying stops before
phase III is reached. The drying time of each period
depends on the nature of the product and the drying
conditions. Many food products do not show at all a
constant-rate phase as many crops have initial mois-
ture content near the critical point and reach quickly the
critical point C, (Fig. 1) where starts phase II.
Fig. 1 gives a general view of the three phase curves. AB
is the time spent in order to heat up the material until the
drying temperature is achieved. BC is the constant-rate
drying, CE the falling rate drying where ow of moisture
from mass interior is decreased continuously. C is the crit-
ical point where surface is not any more saturated and the
falling rate period starts. In point E there is still moisture
inside the product, moisture content movement takes place
slowly by diusion and drying can stop e.g. at point D
when the nal moisture content is reached. Finally for
hygroscopic material the curve is asymptotic and drying
stops when equilibrium is reached. The drying period of
these regimes, for hygroscopic products depends on the ini-
tial moisture content and the prescribed, moisture content,
for safe storage.
3.2. The water activity, a
w
Water activity a
w
, is of great importance for food pres-
ervation as it is a measure and a criterion of microorganism
growth and probably toxin release, of enzymatic and non-
enzymatic browning development, etc. For every food or
agricultural product there exists an activity limit below
which microorganisms stop growing. Beuchat (1981) refers
that the vast majority of bacteria will grow at about
a
w
= 0.85, mold and yeast about a
w
= 0.61, fungi at
a
w
< 0.70, etc. In these cases water activity is regulated in
detail, after drying by the addition of some solutions of
sugars, starch, etc. Water in food and agricultural crops,
is in the form of a solution which contains salts, sugars,
carbohydrates, proteins, etc., which at constant tempera-
ture are in thermodynamic equilibrium. The water activity
is then given by the following equation:
a
w
= (p
w
=p
+
w
)
T
~ u (3)
where p
w
is the partial pressure of water solution and p
+
w
is
partial pressure of pure water, at the same temperature. u
is the relative humidity of the material at the same
temperature.
3.3. The equilibrium moisture content
The equilibrium moisture content refers to the moisture
content when the vapor pressure exerted by the moisture of
product equals vapor pressure of the nearby ambient air.
This means that moisture desorption from the product is
in dynamic equilibrium with the absorption of the environ-
mental air moisture contain. Relative humidity at this
point is known as the equilibrium relative humidity,
and is characterized by the curves of moisture content plots
against equilibrium humidity known as moisture equilib-
rium isotherms. These describe sorption phenomena but
only few found universal acceptance.
3.4. Sorption isotherms
Sorption isotherms are graphical representations of the
relationship between moisture content at the corresponding
water activity a
w
, over a range of values at constant tem-
perature. Fig. 2 presents the absorption and desorption
isotherms. It is obvious that has a slight hysteresis in
re-absorbing water when the product has been dried. In
literature there exist numerous mathematical models,
Fig. 1. Drying rate curves for phase I, II and III.
theoretical, empirical and semi-empirical relationships,
developed for various agricultural products, crops, grains,
etc. The three models most widely used in food drying
are described here.
3.4.1. The sorption equations
To describe sorption phenomena a number of mathe-
matical equations have been proposed but only the BET
and GAB equations are widely accepted especially for
crops. They are based on the theory of water molecular lay-
ers absorbed onto the materials surface, a modication for
multi-layer absorption, of the Langmuirs (1918) water
molecular mono-layer equation:
a
w
1
X

1
X
mon

=
1
C X
(4)
where are: X, the moisture content at the observation time
period, {
mon
, the mono-layer moisture content and C is the
Langmuirs constant.
As shown in the schematic model of Kei on Fig. 3 (Toei,
1996), it is assumed that, with respect to the externally
exposed molecules on each layer within the multi-layer,
dynamic equilibrium between Langmuirs adsorption
desorption rates still holds for the exposed molecules on
each layer.
3.4.2. The BET equation
The BET (Brunauer et al., 1938), equation is a modica-
tion of the previous Lagmuir equation, widely accepted for
foods. The equation has the form:
a
w
(1 a
w
) X
=
1
X
mon
C

C 1
X
mon
C
a
w
(5)
Chirife and Inglesias (1978) found that for a variety of food
has reliable application over the region of water activity a
w
,
0.45 < a
w
< 0.50. Brunauer (1945) expressed later on a
modied BET equation, to calculate the humidity content,
assuming n layers of absorption:
X =
X
mon
C a
w
(1 a
w
)

1 [n 1[ a
n
w
n a
n1
w
1 (C 1) a
w
C a
n1
w

(6)
3.4.3. The GAB equation
The GAB (Guggenheim, 1966; Anderson, 1946; de Boer,
1953) equation is the most widely accepted isotherm model
as it ts isotherms of products in a range of water activities
from a
w
= 0 up to a
w
= 0.99 (Van der Berg, 1981, 1984). It
is an extension of the Langmuir and BET theories:
X
X
mon
=
C
b
K a
w
(1 K a
w
) (1 K a
w
C
b
K a
w
)
(7)
where C
b
and K are constants related to the sorption
enthalpies. When K is unity, equation (7) becomes the
BET equation.
Singh and Singh (1996) analyzed in detail the validity of
the GAB model for isotherms of a variety of food prod-
ucts. They have tabulated, estimated parameters for GAB
model obtained by various authors and compared them
with model prediction values from the literature.
zone (X = X
eq
; T = T
in
): B
: drying zone: C
: not dried zone (X = X
in
; T = T
out
)
3.5. Thin layer drying and deep bed drying
Drying rate is controlled by the external factors of the
process and the internal mechanisms. Apart from the exter-
nal factors, the type and size of the product also aect the
drying rate. Thus many products, as fruits, vegetables,
sliced fruits, are better to be dried in thin layers, but grains,
as corn, beans, etc., can be dried in deep beds, in dryers, or
into bins.
3.5.1. Thin layer solar drying
There exist many theoretical and empirical equations for
thin layer drying that predict the drying performance for a
variety of agricultural products. In general they are based
on the assumption that the ratio of air volume to the crop
volume is innitely large. Considering this assumption dry-
ing rate depends only on the properties of the material to
be dried, its size, the drying air temperature and the mois-
ture content. As an example, an empirical equation predict-
ing drying time is given which is valid for temperatures
from 6080 C for solar drying, up to 140 C for conven-
tional and hybrid solar drying (Eissen, 1984):
Fig. 2. Sorption isotherms. (A) Absorption curve. (B) Desorption curve.
Fourth
layer
Third layer
Second
X
0
X
1
X
2
X
3
Fig. 3. Shenatic model of BET theory.
t = a ln[(X
t
X
eq
)=(X
in
X
eq
=)[ b [ln((X
t
X
eq
)=(X
in
X
eq
))[
2
(8)
where are:
t Drying time [s]
X
eq
The humidity at the equilibrium [kg kg
1
]
X
in
The initial moisture content ]kg kg
1
]
X
t
The humidity at the end of the drying time [kg kg
1
]
The parameters a and b are given by the following numer-
ical equations:
a = 1:86178 0:00488T; b = 427:2640e
00301T
(8A)
Where T is in degrees Celsius (C).
3.5.2. Deep bed solar drying
Fig. 4 presents a deep bed drying sketch, where drying
takes place in zones (Ekechukwu, 1999). It is obvious that
the lower zone dries rapidly. Air moving up, to the upper
zones, increases in moisture content and cools due to evap-
oration. Thus a gradient of temperature and relative
humidity is formed between the lower and the upper zone,
which is a measure of the drying rate. Final moisture con-
tent is the mean moisture of the zones. The critical drying
factors are: air ow rate (the most important factor), dry-
ing air temperature and the beds depth. By adjusting these
parameters, a moderate drying operation can be achieved
without over-drying in the lower material zone. Jain
(2005a,b) presents a transient analytical model for packed
bed thermal storage for crop drying applications.
3.6. The psychrometric charts
Psychrometric charts are useful tools that translate air
water vapor data into convenient graphic form. In large
conventional drying systems psychrometric charts have
been replaced by direct computer calculations, nevertheless
their use is still a quick and reliable estimation and check in
small and medium drying installations. They rely on the
fact that in drying processes the rate at which water evap-
oration occurs depends on vapor concentration in the sur-
rounding air.
There exist some forms of psychrometric charts for air
water vapor mixtures, at equilibrium, especially modied
for drying purposes. The charts used in USA and in coun-
tries following the same unit system are based on dry bulb
temperature (in degrees F) and humidity content of the air,
as coordinate, with various parameters. In Europe and
countries following the SI system, the charts are based on
humidity-enthalpy coordinates with relative humidity and
temperature as parameters. They are known as Mollier
charts and are very useful for the prediction of drying.
An example showing on how a Mollier xh chart is used
is presented in the example for drying of grapes, later in
this chapter.
4. Direct solar drying
Open-air solar drying uses solar radiation to heat
directly the material. It is a process used for millennia to
preserve food, a natural convection drying procedure, as
the air movement is due to density dierences. It is divided
into two categories:
1. The outdoor direct incidence solar radiation onto the
surface of the material and,
2. Through a transparent cover which protects partly the
foodstu from rain and other natural phenomena i.e. a
passive solar drying method.
The technique of direct solar drying involves the spread
out of the product to be dried (Fig. 5), in a thin layer, if
possible, on large outdoor free threshing surfaces, where
it is left until has been dried up to the desired moisture con-
tent. From time to time, during the day, the material has to
be turned over to accelerate drying permitting trapped
moisture to escape. The drying surface is made, generally,
from concrete paved oors lined with poly-ethylene nets,
but sensitive food material is put on perforated trays. It
is extensively performed for grapes, gs, and various fruits.
As it is obvious drying rate is very low. The crops must
remain outdoors for long periods of time, usually 10
30 days, depending on its nature and the weather condi-
tions of the site.
During drying treatment solar radiation is falling on the
crop surface and simultaneously moisture is transferred
from the material to the ambient air. A part of the solar
radiation is lost to the atmosphere and to the surrounding
soil. Heat and moisture transfer take place by natural con-
vection and diusion respectively and both depend on
weather conditions and solar radiation intensity but also
from the environmental wind velocity which by low ow
rates accelerates drying. Due to these factors direct solar
drying is an unsteady state operation.
D
E E
C
B
A
P
Fig. 4. Deep bed drying zones of grains. D, bed height; P, plenum
chamber; A, dried.
Most of the time, the material must remain for long time
outdoors. During this time period the farmers goods are
subject to all weather changes and natural attacks, as
insects, hail, etc. If rain is expected, the crops can be pro-
tected by removable plastic covers (Fig. 5).
There exist however, cases of complete or partly deteri-
oration of crops due to sudden storms, heavy rains or hail
that harms even the plastic cover. Very sensitive crops are
spread on trays covered with transparent material and are
dried by the suns radiation and natural air circulation (see
Section 8.1).
Fig. 6 presents another type of direct solar drying where
the material (Sultana grapes) is not on direct exposure to
the suns rays but is rather dried in partial, in the shadow.
The grapes are hanged on wires forming shelves in scaold-
ings open to all sides except the roof. They are dried by free
air circulation and indirect solar heating. After the grapes
have been semi-dried they are transported manually to a
nearby concrete threshing oor, and are sprinkled with
7% potassium solution containing 0.4% olive oil (Fig. 7),
to soften the skin cells and the nal drying is performed
on the threshing oor by direct contact with the suns radi-
ation. The same technique was applied to tobacco drying
and still in some places for drying tomato slices.
Both procedures are used in Greece, even today, to treat
commercial black Corinthian and sultana seedless type
grapes. There existed about 120,000 open-air drying thresh-
ing areas which are used for the production of about
140,000 t/year black currant and sultana raisins, (Belessio-
tis and Delyannis, 1989) but the last years their number
started to decrease signicantly.
Pangavhane and Sawhney (2002) present a similar way
of shadow drying of sultana seedless type grapes in Austra-
lia and for Thompson seedless type in India where drying
takes place in scaolds almost the same as these shown in
Fig. 2. They call Rack type solar dryers. A similar type
of solar grape drying is applied in Afghanistan to dry local
Fig. 5. Direct solar drying of black Corinthian seedless grapes on an outdoor threshing concrete surface.
Fig. 6. Preliminary drying of seedless grapes (Sultana type) in shadows.
The grapes are hanging on wooden girders and dried by natural
circulation of air and indirect solar radiation in the open scaolding.
Fig. 7. Semi-dried sultana raisins during sprinkling with potassium
solution. Then it is left to dry in the concrete oor in open-air and
incident solar radiation.
type grapes. The shadows are put inside rectangular houses
with at roofs, called Soyagi-Hana (that means shade
house). The walls have holes to promote hot air circulation.
Fig. 8 presents the exposure to solar radiation halves of
peaches to be dried, in South Africa (McVeigh, 1999). The
peaches are spread in trays and put in an outdoor surface.
Fig. 8 presents the same portion of halves peaches, as
Fig. 7, after drying. Open-air drying has been replaced suc-
cessfully by hot air drying in small chamber dryers heated
by electricity.
Direct solar drying is generally based on experience. As
it is obvious scientic control of nal moisture content is
not possible and the only available control is the farmers
experience. Drying rate is given by the ratio of ow rate
density of solar radiation (W m
2
) to the enthalpy change:
_ m = _ q=Dh kg of water per second per m
2
of drying surface
(9)
The energy needed for direct solar drying, according to
Fig. 9 (Jain and Tiwari, 2003), is calculated by the energy
balance as:
I = _ q
in
= _ q
dr
_ q
s
_ q
L
(10)
where _ q
L
is given by the sum of solar heat losses as:
_ q
L
= _ q
lw
_ q
r
q
c;e
(11)
where are:
I
T
Total incident solar radiation [W m
2
]
q
c,e
Convective and evaporative losses due to
wind movement
[W m
2
]
q
dr
Absorbed heat for drying [W m
2
]
q
L
Total heat losses [W m
2
]
q
lw
Long wave heat losses [W m
2
]
q
r
Heat losses due to reection [W m
2
]
q
s
Heat losses to the soil [W m
2
]
Even this simple equation is not used by unskilled person-
nel as in most direct solar drying procedures there exist not
solar intensity or other measurements.
Jain and Tiwari (2003), present a sketch of the working
principles of open solar drying and a mathematical model
which predicts the crop temperature, the moisture removal
rate and the equivalent solar temperature. Fig. 9 gives the
energy balance during open-air drying.
During drying, only part of incident solar radiation is
absorbed by the product, the rest is reected back to the
atmosphere. The portion that is absorbed and the corre-
sponding wavelength, depend on the color of the product.
In general mean absorptivity, a, is for:
Dark color material a = 0.9
Grey material and red or green color substances a = 0.70
Light color substances a = 0.50
Direct solar drying has some disadvantages concerning
both quality and quantity due to losses, attacks by insects,
etc., thus in recent years direct sun drying is replaced by
mechanical dryers heated indirectly by solar energy.
4.1. Advantages and disadvantages of direct solar drying
This technique changed very little from its early prehis-
toric uses. The suns free energy for drying in open-air is
counterbalanced by a multitude of disadvantages, which
reduce not only the quantity but also the quality of the nal
product (Belessiotis and Delyannis, 2009)
1. There exist no scientic observations during the long
period of drying. The whole procedure depends on expe-
rience of the unskilled personnel.
Fig. 8. Solar drying of peaches halves in South Africa. (A) By exposure directly to sun. (B) In a mechanical dryer.
Fig. 9. The principle of open-air solar drying of crops.
2. It is not possible any scientic control of nal quality
and moisture content which depends only on observa-
tions by experience.
3. It is a very slow rate operation. According to the nature
of product and weather conditions, drying takes place
from few days up to one month. Drying rate depends
on solar intensity uctuations but also on environmental
air humidity of the site.
4. The product is exposed directly to all kinds of weather
changes, as rain, hail, and strong winds, etc., that can
rot or destroy totally the material. These conditions
are especially hazardous to sensitive agricultural prod-
ucts. Most drying threshing oors are provided with a
transparent plastic cover (Fig. 4) but it is not always fea-
sible, especially in sudden weather changes, to protect
the material by quick covering. Bad weather conditions
on the other hand facilitate growing of bacteria, molds,
etc.
5. They have very large qualitative and quantitative losses
due to all weather and natural attack conditions closely
related to the open-air procedure, as dusting, rotting
when weather conditions are not favorable, attacks by
insects, etc., fermentation of juice from broken crops,
decrease of sugar from breathing and ecchymosis in
the case of fruits, attacks by rodents, birds and other
unpredictable conditions.
Against all these disadvantage direct solar drying is an
economic drying procedure that needs very small initial
capital and low, unskilled personnel salaries for operation.
Despite all these disadvantages the selection of sunny days
and continuous observation, by experience, of drying pro-
gress, especially for foodstu that need short time drying,
the nal product can be very good. Murthy Ramana
(2009) refers that more than 80% of food produced by
small farmers in developing countries, is dried by natural,
i.e. direct sun drying.
5. Indirect solar drying
Indirect solar drying is a rather new technique, not yet
standardized or widely commercialized, that involves some
thermal energy collecting devices and dryers of special tech-
niques. There exist several types of dryers size, the con-
struction technique of which fulll the special drying
requirements of food products, many of which still operate
rather based on experience than on scientic basis.
5.1. Advantages and disadvantages of indirect solar drying
Indirect solar drying technique has almost only advanta-
ges. Its only disadvantage is the high initial capital cost for
the dryer, the collector eld and all necessary auxiliary
equipment, as ducts, pipes, blowers, control and measure-
ment instruments, and more or less skilled personnel to
operate drying process. The advantages are (Belessiotis
and Delyannis, 2009):
1. Drying rate is high. Agricultural products are dried
within 1530 h instead of e.g. few days.
2. Drying can be controlled scientically, ensuring the
proper moisture content of the nal product, according
to the specications. Thus the dried product can be
stored for long times.
3. No losses at all, as the product is not subject to any nat-
ural phenomena.
4. For the same quantity of material they need smaller sur-
face areas due to trays accommodation in stacks, one
upon the other, inside the dryers.
5. Increased productivity, as dryers can be loaded again
within few hours.
6. Flexibility of the dryer to accept similar seasonal crops,
thus expanding operation of the system almost around
the year.
7. The high initial capital and operating cost counterbal-
ance, partly, the direct suns drying.
6. Mathematical models and applications for conventional
and free-air
To optimize drying accurate simulation models are
needed in order to predict the performance of each item
to be dried under the conditions each time applied, i.e. tem-
perature, humidity and velocity of the drying air. To
develop the model the parameters of each model, i.e. heat
transfer coecient, drying constants, etc., are directly
related to the above drying conditions.
In the literature there exist numerous studies on drying
kinetics and models for agricultural products, crops and
fruits and the corresponding dryers which are mainly of
small or medium capacity. In general drying kinetics and
other drying phenomena does not dier from these occur-
ring in typical mechanical commercial dryers. The dier-
ence is in the product. Agricultural products are organic
substances and drying kinetics is very complicated due to
dependence from several parameters. Even for one and
the same product, e.g. prunes, drying depends not only
from the type of fruit but also from its physical conditions,
as if it is ripen or not, the site of culture and the initial
moisture content. Thus for the same item a model may dif-
fer slightly from another one. In addition pertinent knowl-
edge of the products properties is of great importance. Due
to the large amount of references on agricultural products
some of the more recent studies are referred in this paper.
The in between 1975 and 1986 signicant developments on
crop drying are reported by Mu hlbauer (1986) and Esper
and Mu hlbauer (1998), pointed out that food losses for
small farms in developing countries is a problem which
may be overcome by preservation by solar drying.
An extended study on Greek sultana grapes, the way of
conventional drying by farmers in Crete (island in Greece),
all properties of grapes and raisins and a new air drying
method are described in detail by Eissen (1984) and Eissen
and Mu hlbauer (1981, 1985). Umarov and Ikramov (1978)
give features of fruit and grape drying by solar radiation.
Mahmutoglu et al. (1996a,b) present a study on the eects
of pretreatment and types of dryers for sultana grapes solar
drying. Yaldiz et al. (2001), give a mathematical modeling
for solar sultana grapes drying as well. For sun drying of
grapes Pangavhane and Sawhney (2002) describe the devel-
opment trends, methods and typical installations and Fad-
hel et al. (2005) performed tests on sultana grape variety by
three dierent processes. The modeling and a numerical
simulation code for solar drying to predict the batch drying
performance of foods is described by Ratti and Mujumdar
(1997). Nabikhanov et al. (1991), proposed a two stage
technology for drying of agricultural products. Using pre-
liminary solar drying at the site where the raw material
grow and centralized microwave nal drying. For fruits
and vegetables there exist many investigations as these by
Sharma et al. (1990, 1992) who developed and investigated
an indirect-type solar dryer for fruits and vegetables. Also
Sharma et al. (1993) investigated dierent solar dryers for
fruits and vegetables. Karathanos and Belessiotis (1997)
made extended experiments on sun and articial air drying
kinetics for various fruits, as sultana grapes, gures plums
and apricots. Their experiments resulted in superior quality
products. El-Sebaii et al. (2002) also, present drying kinet-
ics of seedless grapes, gs, tomatoes and onions in an indi-
rect solar dryer. Aldasheva et al. (1999) experimented on
kinetics of solar drying of vegetables.
Khairiddinov et al. (2000) present the results of their
experimental studies of external heat and moisture transfer
in convective drying of vegetables. A comparative study of
natural and solar drying for preservation of fruits and veg-
etables is given by Gallali et al. (2000). They present the
evaluation data for grapes, gs, tomatoes and onions.
Ivanova and Andonov (2001) present a model of the tem-
perature-humidity process in a chamber dryer to study
the combined fruit and vegetable dryer.
In general for crop drying Luz et al. (1987) presented a
multipurpose solar dryer especially designed for arid zones.
Ayensu (1997) reports a solar drying system constructed
from local materials in Ghana to use for dehydration of
food crops. A mathematical model is developed by Karim
and Hawlader (2005) especially for drying of tropical fruits.
They take in account shrinkage of the material and shrink-
age dependent eective diusivity. McDoom et al. (1999)
performed an energy saving investigation for drying of
coconuts and cocoa. Santos et al. (2004) developed a solar
collector suitable for solar crop drying. Mahmutoglu et al.
(1996a,b) studied the eects of pretreatment on the drying
rate, the quality and the storage stability of apricots. For
apricots Sarcilamz et al. (2000) developed a rotary column
cylindrical solar dryer as well and Togrul and Pehlivan
(2002), give for thin layer apricots a mathematical model.
Mathioulakis et al. (1998) performed drying tests of several
fruits using an industrial batch type, tray air-dryer. They
give a simulation of the air movement by computational
uid dynamics.
Hong Xing-He (1992) investigated the inuence of rela-
tive air humidity on moisture exchange between material
and air in solar drying chambers, for crops. He concludes
that maintaining constant air humidity has a number of
advantages. Mu ller et al. (1989) developed a greenhouse
type dryer for medicinal plants and herbs and Wisniewski
(1997) investigated the potential of drying medical plants,
especially wild ones at remote areas by using solar energy.
He concludes that the procedure is economically promis-
ing. For herbs and spices Janjai and Tung (2005) studied
the performance of a solar dryer using hot air from a roof
integrated solar collector. A prototype model is presented
by O
zis ik et al. (1980) for heat and mass analysis for grain
drying.
Ziegler and Richter (1998), give a heat and mass transfer
model for the analysis of a solar assisted deep bed drying of
hygroscopic bulk material, as grains, hay, wood chips, etc.
The developed program was applied to the storage of solar
heat using a layer of wheat, 50 cm thick, acting as desic-
cant. Kim et al. (1999) gives a heat and mass transfer model
of spherical bodies under natural convection. The model
has application in apricots, plums, grapes, gures and
other material with almost spherical form.
Klynchev et al. (2000), studied the problem of heating
temperature determination and the drying rate for the 1st
phase period both for open-air solar drying and in solar
dryers. They developed a model to predict eciencies. They
conclude that for open-air drying the rates vary consider-
ably and depend almost linearly on the incident radiation.
The model gave eciencies for free and forced air drying of
3550% at incident solar radiation I
s
> 200. Khairiddinov
et al. (1999), investigated the thermo-physical characteris-
tics of vegetables during solar drying. Shrinkage, density,
heat capacity, thermal diusivity and conductivity were
investigated as functions of moisture content and tempera-
ture of the vegetables. Ergashev (1999) studied the solar
drying kinetics of eggplants, sweet peppers and other crops
in a solar dryer and in open-air drying as well. Karathanos
and Belessiotis (1999), investigated the application of an
equation of drying data in thin layer drying of raw and
semi-dried fruits. Jain and Tiwari (2004) present models
for the thermal behavior of crops during open-air and
forced convection drying. The models have been evaluated
experimentally.
Togrul and Pehlivan (2004) studied open-air drying fac-
tors for apricots, grapes, peaches, gures and plums. They
present an open-air drying model of the studied experimen-
tal curves. They compare their results with 12 dierent
models to nd the best tting curve. The inuence of drying
conditions on drying constants and the moisture diusivity
during thin layer drying of gures was investigated by
Babalis and Belessiotis (2004). The investigations showed
that drying kinetics is signicantly aected by temperature
but air ow has limited inuence on the drying process.
Timumi et al. (2004), give a drying simulation model which
provides information about the inuence of various impor-
tant parameters on the drying phenomena of agricultural
products. Khiari et al. (2004) investigated the water behav-
ior inside the mass of product when using solar tunnel
dryers. Water mass transfer was analyzed and simulated to
build a real simulation tool that helps in the design and
automation of solar industrial tunnel dryers and the pres-
ent status of agricultural crop drying in Turkey is discussed
in a paper by O
ztekin et al. (1999). Sodha et al. (1985)

performed an extensive experimental study for open sun
drying and a cabinet type dryer.
Koyuncy (2006a) developed and tested natural convec-
tion, greenhouse type dryers with and without chimneys.
He found that chimneys provide better natural circulation
of air than dryers without chimneys. Murthy Ramana
(2009) reviews various aspects of small-scale dryers for
food products and presents new types of dryers with
improved technologies; An evaluation of solar dryer per-
formance is as well presented.
7. Techniques of solar drying
Here, only some guidelines of pretreatment and of solar
drying procedure, are given. Details can be found in the
chapter on drying fruits and vegetables by Jayaraman
and Das Gupta (1998). It is of importance to take into con-
sideration that, in order to establish the suitable drying
conditions, e.g. temperature and pretreatment procedure
in relation to the dryer in use, experimentation is necessary.
7.1. The suitable temperature
Temperature is of importance for agricultural products
in order to keep the nutrient values, i.e. vitamins sensitive
to heat, and retain color, avor, etc. The lower drying tem-
perature starts from 30 C (85 F), but around these temper-
atures drying rate is very slow and there is risk of spoilage
or molding. In sun open-air drying, temperature variations
are subject to the intensity of solar radiation and are not
easily controlled. Temperature, range from 40 C (140 F)
to 70 C (158 F) and in some special cases, up to 80 C
(176 F), without an intermediate heat storage unit, i.e. by
using direct heating from the heat source. Thus tempera-
ture depends directly on solar radiation intensity. In cases
of high radiation intensities temperature can be regulated
by mixing hot air with the necessary amount of fresh air
from the atmosphere.
In general, the majority of food can be dried at a mean
temperature of 60 C (140 F). Some products need lower
drying temperatures at the beginning, e.g., apricots, and
after being semi-dried temperature can be raised up to a
certain suitable point. This technique helps to keep the skin
of the crop soft, as in many cases higher temperature
harden this skin.
7.2. Pretreatment of crops for solar drying
Many crops, fruits and vegetables are grown near the
soil and are susceptible to the activity of various microor-
ganisms. They must, immediately after harvest if possible,
to be treated and dried. This applies for both methods,
direct and indirect drying. Pretreatment helps to slow down
the activity of microorganisms, soften the skin, etc. In gen-
eral are simple methods based on experience. The main
steps for agricultural products to keep good quality are:
(Jayaraman and Das Gupta, 1998):
1. Selection of the best quality of crops after harvest. They
must be ripe, rm and without scratches.
2. Must be washed thoroughly to decrease microorganisms
to a minimum. Microorganisms, when exposed again for
long time to the atmosphere, grow up very fast.
3. With respect to the type of product they must be shelled,
peeled and/or sliced.
4. Blanching is a procedure that treats many products.
Consists in dipping the crops in boiling water solution
or they are treated by steam. Blanching destroys
enzymes and helps retain color.
5. Sulfuring is an old method of treating the crops by
sodium sulte solution or solutions of sodium bisulte
or metabisulte. Another, old method is by burning sul-
fur and uses the fumes for sulfuring. It helps preventing
losses in color, avor and nutrients, as vitamins, etc. act-
ing also as a disinfectant.
6. Treatment with ascorbic acid solution in order to pre-
vent browning of fruit or fruit slices, e.g. apples, is used.
In general every crop has its own optimum conditions of
pretreatment when drying. The authors believe that the
instructions given by the El-Paso Solar Energy Association
(www.epsea.org/dry.html) provides useful guidelines for
solar drying:
v Most of the resources recommend pretreatment of food
such as blanching (boiling/steaming).
v Washing thoroughly the products.
v Eective drying is accomplished with a combination of
heat and air movement.
v 8090% of moisture content must be removed.
v Direct sunlight is not recommended.
v Drying process must not be interrupted, or allowed to
freeze.
v Typical drying period ranges from 2 to 3 days depending
on the sun, air movement, humidity, quantity and type
of product.
v For uniform drying the trays must be rotate 180 daily.
Dried product must moved to bottom of the drying unit.
v Before storing the product must be cooled completely.
v Recommended material of the trays: stainless steel rack,
wood slats with cheesecloth cover, Teon, Teon coated
berglass, nylon, food grade plastics.
8. Solar drying technology
Solar dryers are more or less simple devices. They range
from very primitive ones used in small, dessert or remote
communities up to more sophisticated industrial installa-
tions, although the latter are still very few and under devel-
opment, e.g. for drying of timber (Fig. 10).
8.1. Classication of solar dryers
It is not an easy task to classify, reliably, solar drying
equipment as there are a lot of congurations many of
which are empirical constructions. They can be classied
by various modes, as according to the type of dryer, to
the operation temperature or the material to be dried, to
type of operation, e.g., batch or continuous, etc. Leon
et al. (2002) gives a systematic classication based on
design and mode of utilization of solar energy (Fig. 11).
In this classication a new mode of solar dryers may be
added, the hybrid solar dryer one, that combines solar
energy with an auxiliary energy source, mainly a gas, as
propane, conventional fuels or biomass. A comprehensive
review on various designs, construction and operation
principles of a wide variety of solar energy drying is given
by Ekechukwu and Norton (1999a). They also present a
complete classication according partly to the type of
dryer.
According to the drying process, e.g. direct or indirect,
solar dryers may be classied as passive and active ones:
(a) Passive dryers are heated directly from the suns radi-
ation with or without natural air circulation, and
(b) Active (or forced convection) solar dryers, where hot
drying air circulates by means of a ventilator.
Despite the numerous congurations, especially of the
forced circulation dryers they consist almost from the same
individual parts, which are:
v A space for the material to be dried, as a chamber, tun-
nel, etc.
v A heating system to heat the drying air, e.g. a solar
collector.
v An air circulation system, e.g. ventilators, fans, etc.
v Pipes, velocity measurement, e.g. rotameters and auxil-
iary parts.
v A control and measurement system.
v When water is used as heating medium, a heat exchan-
ger is needed and for larger drying systems eventually
a storage device.
In this paper, some of the big variety of dryers are
described, which found an application either in small or
large capacities, or are yet in experimental or pilot-plant
stage. It is important to notice that integral characteristics
of dryers and of the dried products are determined
experimentally.
8.2. Passive solar dryers
Direct or passive drying of crops is still in common prac-
tice in many Mediterranean, tropical and subtropical
regions especially in Africa and Asia or in small agricul-
tural communities. Passive solar dryers are hot box units
where the product in the hot box is exposed to the solar
radiation through a transparent cover. Heating takes place
by natural convection, through the dryer transparent cover
or in a solar air heater.
The passive type solar dryers are primitive, inexpensive
constructions, easy to install and to operate especially at
sites where not electrical grid exists.
8.2.1. Cabinet and greenhouse type dryers
The simplest passive solar dryers are of the chamber (or
cabinet) greenhouse type. In Fig. 12 two types of very sim-
ple solar passive dryers are presented. In A: a tent dryer
covered with transparent plastic material at the southern
side (a) and black poly-ethylene cover at the northern side
(bp). The other sides (os) are uncovered for easy air circu-
lation. The product is spread on the plate (mp), or it lies in
a thin layer onto a tray. Fig. 12B is a similar type dryer
covered with transparent glass covers (a) and shelters (sh)
for the air ow. Humid air is exhausted from the top of
the cover (ao).
A variation of the above chamber dryers of Fig. 12, pre-
sented in Fig. 13A, is the cabin dryer. It resembles an asym-
metric solar still unit oriented northsouth. The cover (a) is
Fig. 10. The Australian Timber dryers with collectors on the top. (Solar
dryers Astra, www.rosegum.com.au).
Active dryers
(Forced circulation)
Passive dryers
(Natural circulation)
Direct Indirect Mixed mode
Box-type dryers Cabinet dryers
Tunnel dryers
Solar dryers
Fig. 11. Classication of dryers and solar heating modes according to
Leon et al. (2002).
made from glass or transparent plastic material. The mate-
rial to be dried (m) is spread on perforated plates, through
which the air circulates by natural convection and nally
leaving the drying chamber from the upper north side
(n). Bottom and side walls (w) are opaque and well insu-
lated (Imre, 1998). Fig. 13B presents a similar, greenhouse
type dryer, made of wooden frames and covered at the bot-
tom with a chicken wire (w) to allow free air ow. The
transparent cover (a) is removable to permit operation with
direct solar radiation, but even when covered drying tem-
perature is about 5 C higher than the one of the ambient
temperature (Hadley, 1993). Cabinet dryers are simple
and inexpensive. They are suitable for drying agricultural
products, spices, herbs, etc. They normally are constructed
with a drying area of 12 m
2
and capacities of 1020 kg.
Another type of chamber greenhouse type dryer is given
in Fig. 14 A. It is a dual purpose tool, used as a fruit dryer
at summer and beginning of autumn, while in winter and
spring acts as a greenhouse for vegetable growing and seed-
lings (Kholliev et al., 1982). The transparent surface faces
southward, and consists of a single layer of glass during
drying period.
In winter it is covered with a second layer of poly-ethyl-
ene on the side, to reduce heat loss. The forward part of the
drying chamber, in order to achieve additional heating a
blackened surface is employed. The drying regime is cre-
ated under the action of solar energy passing through the
transparent surface. The highest incident solar radiation
penetrates inside the incline transparent surface (39 ) when
the sun is low in the sky. Kholliev et al. (1982) gaves math-
ematical expressions to compute the penetrating solar radi-
ation and the air temperature as well.
A modication of the previous described greenhouse
type dryer consists of an additional chamber (Fig. 15B).
The inclined transparent cover has an inclination of 60
o
,
instead of 39
o
of the one depicted in Fig. 15A, and consists,
of a single glass cover when used as a dryer or covered from
the inside during winter time with a poly-ethylene sheet to
prevent heat loss. The dryer comprises a frame for the
multi-trays housing as well. Sadykov and Kharaiddinov
(1982). Most of the passive solar dryers are modications
of the above described congurations.
Other works on cabinet dryers comprise: an evaluation
of the performance of dryers by introducing transient equa-
tions for the dierent components of the system (Sharma
Fig. 12. The tent dryers. (A) Passive dryer covered by transparent plastic
material only in two sides. (B) Passive solar dryer glass covered.
Fig. 13. (A) Cross section of a greenhouse type solar dryer. (B) The wire basket type solar dryer.
Fig. 14. (A and B) Solar dryers of greenhouse type. They dry fruits and
vegetables during summer and autumn. In winter and spring periods are
used as greenhouses.
et al., 1990), the static and dynamic performance using an
analytical method by Isaev and Khairiddinov (1994), and a
new type solar dryer for agricultural products by Tiris et al.
(1994). Goyal and Tiwari (1997, 1999) presented a study
for thermal performance of a cabinet dryer having a reverse
at-plate absorber and Tiris et al. (1995) investigated the
thermal eciency of their new type solar dryer presented
in 1994 and experimented in a new small-scale solar dryer
(1996).
8.2.2. Passive solar dryers with natural convection
The previously described dryers are of low capacities
because they can only handle one layer of product. To
increase capacity, keeping constant the available area, the
trays containing the material must be accommodated in
more than one independent layers, one upon the other.
This results in creating an additional resistance to the
movement of air by natural convection through the
multi-layer bed of products. Thus the vertical ow of air
must be increased without the use of a ventilator. To
achieve this, the so-called chimney eect may be used.
Fig. 15 present a multi-layer dryer (Selc uk et al., 1974)
which is called shelf-type solar dryer. It is oriented south-
wards having the top and south wall covered with a trans-
parent material (a). The thermal eect is increased by the
use of an air heater (c), which helps the chimney eect to
be developed. Humid air is exhausted from the northern
wall (n), of the dryer. North wall (w) is well insulated.
The material is spread on the trays inside the dryer (d).
The authors give also a detail quasi steady state analysis
and a performance evaluation for shelf-type solar dryers.
For large amounts of material to be dried, up to
1000 kg, chimney has to be taller for proper air circulation.
Fig. 16 presents a typical chimney solar dryer. A modica-
tion of the dryer presented in Fig. 15, having a high chim-
ney for the exhaust of the humid air and a type of similar
dryer is presented in Fig. 17 (Coulibaly et al., 1988). The
dryer has a free space A, where water vessels (s), acting
as heat stores, for night operation. Air heater (c), and south
facing inclined wall (w), are covered with a transparent
sheet. The bottom (b) is perforated for easy air circulation
and the walls facing north (w) and part of the one facing
south (w), are well insulated. The dryer (d) is used for dry-
ing various fruits and vegetables. A similar construction,
for bananas drying, is presented in the photograph of
Fig. 18.
Chimney dryers are suitable for remote and/or small
agricultural communities for in site drying immediately
after harvest. They have the advantage to operate on nat-
ural convection basis having no need of any auxiliary
energy, as electricity, use. They are inexpensive construc-
tions and easy to operate. Usually they do not need foun-
dations. Their disadvantage is the height restriction of the
chimney, especially in places with strong winds. Smaller
chimneys aect the air ow rate and thus the drying rate
of the material.
Fig. 15. A shelf-type solar dryer.
Fig. 16. A typical cabinet solar dryer with chimney.
Fig. 17. Chimney type solar dryer with water vessels for heat storage.
Fig. 18. A banana chimney solar dryer in Belize (Hadley, 1993). It is used,
in South America for drying 90 kg/d bananas. Drying surface is 10 m
2
and
the chimney has a height of 4.6 m.
Ekechukwu and Norton (1995, 1997a,b) present a
design of a solar chimney for natural circulation dryer
and a theory on the performance evaluation of solar chim-
neys for natural circulation as well. dos Bernardes et al.
(2003) gave thermal and technical analyses and a numerical
model of solar chimneys. Bassey et al. (1994) present the
results of an experimental study in which the eects of heat-
ing air in a chimney tted to the dryer and the eects of the
collector gap on the dryer performance have been mea-
sured while Bala and Woods (1995), presented a technique
for optimization of natural convection solar dryers. Simate
(2003) presented a comparison of optimized mixed-mode
and indirect-mode natural convection solar dryers.
8.3. Forced convection solar dryers
Forced convection solar dryers (or active solar dryers)
are suitable for larger amounts of material. They use either
a direct absorption system through transparent covers or a
system connected to solar collectors using indirect solar
heat. Many times they are hybrid systems by using auxil-
iary sources of energy as conventional fuels, biomass,
gas, etc., when available, avoiding some disadvantages of
the passive solar dryers, therefore. Forced convection solar
drying systems are more complicated and more expensive
than passive systems as they need fans, ventilators for air
circulation and piping loops. Belghit et al. (1997) gives a
mathematical model for simulating the behavior of solar
crop dryers in forced-mode operation.
8.3.1. Chamber greenhouse type forced convection dryers
Fig. 19A presents a typical forced convection dryer sim-
ilar to the passive type one of Fig 15. Drying air is heated
passively, by penetration of solar radiation through the
transparent cover (a) facing southwards.
The air is circulated owing through the bed of the
product (m) and exhausted from the northern, well insu-
lated, wall at its bottom (b). Northern wall is well insulated
as well (Ekechukwu and Norton, 1999a).
The dryer in Fig. 19B is similar to that in Fig. 16. Inside
the chamber plates (p), to support the trays with the mate-
rial, are built. Air circulation is achieved by an electrically
driven ventilator (e) operated by a photovoltaic module
(d). The air is exhausted on the top of the dryer (f) through
a short chimney (g). It is suitable to support drying of var-
ious agricultural products produced in small farms, e.g.
fruits, herbs, seeds, mushrooms, etc. The authors (Farkas
et al., 1999) gave some measurement results for apple dry-
ing. The same authors (Farkas et al., 1998) presented the
main thermo-hydrodynamical characteristics and a model-
ing of a modular solar dryer. Vlachos et al. (2002) pre-
sented a low cost tray dryer equipped with a solar air
collector, storage and solar chimney.
Another type of solar drying chambers is presented in
Fig. 20A and B. The collectors are constructed on the
inclined roof and the walls facing southwards. In the type
of dryer in Fig. 20A, a fan (d) circulates the air from the
collectors (c), through the channel (ch), forcing it through
the static bed of the material (e). The dryer is suitable for
drying various grains and hay. Humid air exits from the
roof space through the side wall openings. The disadvan-
tage of these type of dryers is that the grains at the bottom
of the bed may probably be over-dried. The dryer in
Fig. 20B operates on the same principle but air circulation
is on the opposite direction and has the possibility of using
auxiliary heat source when needed. The disadvantage of
this type of dryers is that that grains at the bottom of the
bed may be over-dried (Imre, 1998).
In a similar way of drying, instead of a chamber, a bin
is used. This system of drying was applied in Brazil to dry
beans. The bin had an 1.0 m diameter and a bed depth of
0.80 m. Drying air is heated in a solar collector and
circulates with a ow rate of 0.13 m s
1
. For this type of
grain drying a mathematical mode was developed by the
authors (Roa and Macedo, 1976). Pathil and Ward
(1989) used a bin as a dryer to dry rapeseed, also. The
grain bed (b) has depths of 12 m. They presented a
simulation model also and found that if relative humidity
is over 70% a humidistat (B), has to be used for natural air
drying. In conjunction with solar drying this system helps
to avoid rewetting at the bottom of the bin and reduces
the number of fan-hours (Fig. 21). Bins are used for
Fig. 19. (A) Forced circulation air solar dryer with passive heating system. (B) Forced circulation solar dryer with a solar heater and chimney.
various grains, as corn, peas, etc., in deep bed drying
procedure.
Chamber solar dryers are also constructed for drying of
timber. Fig. 22 gives the cross section of a solar timber
dryer, (Imre, 1998). The chamber is constructed on con-
crete foundations. The roof (a), the wall facing southwards
(a) and the side walls (a) are made of special, two layer
transparent plates. The wall facing north (w) is well insu-
lated. The inside space comprises a ventilator (v) for air cir-
culation, a black painted aluminum absorber (b), having
adjustable an angle of inclination (i) and a stack for the
material (s). Fresh air circulation and recirculating portion
are regulated by the ap valves (f). The black painted
absorber acts as air heater.
Fig 10 shows a modern, Australian, commercial timber
chamber dryer. It comprises, on the roof, a collector eld.
The system has the possibility to use any other auxiliary
energy source, in case of insucient solar radiation.
The active greenhouse type dryer (Fig 23) is built inside
a semi-cylindrical outer shell. The semi-cylindrical struc-
ture acts as a solar heater. It consists of an exterior trans-
parent cover, as the collector glazing (a), and an inner semi-
cylindrical black absorber sheet (b). A fan (f) circulates the
air through the air duct (c) to the material and the moist air
is nally exhausted from the top of the transparent cover
(o) (Ekechukwu and Norton, 1999a; Jain and Tiwari,
2004).
8.3.2. Solar dryers with greenhouses type collectors
These types of solar dryers use long transparent plastic
tunnels as air heaters. They are of the mixed-mode solar
heaters combining passive air heating with forced air
circulation.
A German solar drying chamber, which consists of a
long tunnel type plastic collector, is presented in the
photograph of Fig. 24A. In Fig. 24B the cross section of
Fig. 20. (A & B) Forced circulation chambers with collectors built on the roof and the southern wall.
Fig. 21. Schematic of solar and solar-natural drying system. It uses a
humidistat and a bin.
Fig. 22. A solar dryer for timber.
Fig. 23. Semi-cylindrical plastic absorber greenhouse type active solar
dryer.
the system is presented. The dryer (d) is a 1.8 m high cham-
ber having nine tray layers with 1.5 m
2
surface each and are
situated at the top of the plastic tunnel (d). The solar heater
consists of a transparent poly-ethylene sheet (a) supported
by stainless steel bows (Fig 25). The tunnel has 78 m length,
4 m width and 2.1 m height. Its inclination is 18, facing
southwards. The bottom of the tunnel is covered with a
black absorbing plastic sheet (b). A ventilator (v) circulates
the heated air up to the dryer. The system is used for drying
fruits, vegetables, aromatic herbs, e.g. dill, laurel, etc.
(BINE, 1990).The photograph of Fig. 25 gives a view of
the tunnels inside and the place of the various steel bows.
A similar, greenhouse type solar heater is presented in
Fig. 26 (Fohr and Arnaud, 1992; Pangavhane and Sawh-
ney, 2002). The solar collector consists of a 50 m length
and 2 m high transparent greenhouse (g), having a black
absorbing sheet at the bottom (b).The dryer (d) has a
multi-layer wooden stack (t), trays for the material and
a fan (f) for the air circulation. The authors presented a
detail analysis of this system used for drying grapes.
Another type of greenhouse solar heater (h) is presented
in Fig. 27 (Bolin et al., 1978). The system has the capability
to recirculate part of the exhaust air (r). The heating tunnel
is made of a transparent poly-ethylene tube (a) which acts
as glazing and a second black absorbing tube, inside the
rst (b). Fresh air circulates by means of a ventilator (v).
The heater tube has a length of 24 m and a 0.9 m diameter.
Between the tow tubes there is a 5 cm air layer acting as
insulation.
Fig. 24. (A) Photograph of the solar heating tunnel with the dryer on the top. (B) Schematic of the drying system.
Fig. 25. The inside of the collector tunnel with the stainless steel bows the
poly-ethylene cover hemi-spherical and the black plastic sheet in the
bottom.
Fig. 26. Greenhouse solar heater and dryer with forced air circulation.
Fig. 27. Solar greenhouse type heater using partial recirculation.
8.3.3. Tunnel dryers
Tunnel solar dryers are used for larger amounts of mate-
rial and are almost near to be commercialized. They consist
of a transparent roof and transparent side walls, mainly in
hemi-spherical mode. Inside the tunnel chariots with sev-
eral stacked trays containing the material to be dried, are
moving. Hot air ows though the trays containing the
material. The chariots are either stable during the drying
cycle or they can be moved manually. They operate simi-
larly as the conventional batch chamber dryers.
Fig. 28 shows a typical tunnel dryer with chariots. Solar
radiation is collected in long tubes (c) made of clear trans-
parent poly-ethylene tube, the same construction as in pre-
vious dryer depicted on Fig. 27. The collector tubes are
situated on the top of the tunnel dryer because of their
light-weight construction. A ventilator (v) circulates the
heated air through the chariots containing the trays with
the material (h). The system is provided with auxiliary heat
(au), also (Bolin et al., 1978).
A tunnel dryer of the greenhouse type, is presented in
Fig. 29A. The system consists of a plastic greenhouse trans-
parent cover (a), containing the drying tunnel (t) made of
transparent plastic walls also. Both right and left spaces
of the tunnel (c) are available for the collectors. Inside
the drying tunnel, chariots with several stacked trays con-
taining the material (e), are moving manually. The tunnel
has a system facilitating continuous product charge and
discharge, improving therefore material handling.
Fig. 29B shows a schematic view of the tunnel inside of
the solar dryer. Air from the collectors enters the system
underneath of the transparent plastic cover (b) and ows
through the trays containing the material (m), leaving the
system at the northern end of the tunnel (o). Part of the
air recirculates (r). The chariots enter from the north side
of the tunnel (o). Part of the air recirculates (r). The char-
iots enter from the north side of the tunnel (n) and exit
from the south side (s) (Condori et al., 2001). An analytical
study for the performance of greenhouse type dryers (single
and double chamber systems) is presented by Condori and
Saravia (1998, 2003).
A tunnel dryer of the greenhouse type, is presented in
Fig. 29A. The system consists of a plastic greenhouse trans-
parent cover (a), containing the drying tunnel (t) made of
transparent plastic walls also. Both right and left spaces
of the tunnel (c) are available for the collectors. Inside
the drying tunnel, chariots with several stacked trays con-
taining the material (e), are moving manually. The tunnel
has a system facilitating continuous product charge and
discharge, improving therefore material handling.
Fig. 29B shows a schematic view of the tunnel inside of
the solar dryer. Air from the collectors enters the system
underneath of the transparent plastic cover (b) and ows
through the trays containing the material (m), leaving the
system at the northern end of the tunnel (o). Part of the
air recirculates (r). The chariots enter from the north side
of the tunnel (n) and exit from the south side (s) (Condori
et al., 2001). An analytical study for the performance of
Fig. 28. Tunnel dryer for fruits. h, chariots with trays and the material; c,
poly-ethylene tubes; v, ventilator; b, auxiliary heat gas burner.
Fig. 29. (A) Tunnel dryer covered by transparent plastic sheet, with chariots for the material. (B) Cross section of the tunnel dryer.
greenhouse type dryers (single and double chamber sys-
tems) is presented by Condori and Saravia (1998, 2003).
When choosing solar dryers the most important charac-
teristics to be considered are:
v Low capital and operation cost.
v High load ratio.
v Use of commercially available technology.
v Achievement of uniform material drying.
v Have a high throughput of fruit or other crops.
v Have simple mechanical material handling system.
Khiari et al. (2004) developed a mathematical model for
thin layer drying in tunnel dryers, that apply for various
kinds of crops, as apples, carrots, etc. and Fuller and Char-
ters (1997) referred on a solar tunnel dryer which is
equipped with a microcomputer system to control exhaust
fan, Maharatra and Imre (1997) performed a sensitivity
analysis to examine the eect of dierent time dependent
and time independent input parameters of a directly irradi-
ated tunnel type solar dryer for agricultural products.
9. Heat storage for drying systems
Energy storage is essential for places with either high or
low radiation intensity and in cases where harvest products
should be dried in continuous operation, immediately after
harvest. By using storage devices increases initial capital
cost as well as operation cost. To avoid unnecessary
expenses storage must be applied in the following cases:
v When solar intensity is high and energy must be stored
in order to avoid over-drying of the product at higher
temperatures.
v When the agricultural product is very sensitive in tem-
perature. By storing excess of solar energy temperature
can be easily regulated and controlled.
v When drying operation has to be continued over night.
This case concerns sensitive products that must be dried
immediately after harvest.
The two most common methods of heat storage include:
1. Heat storage by means of a working uid in the
collector.
2. Direct heat storage by irradiation.
In the rst case sensitive heat in water can be stored, if
water is used as the collector working uid or, when air
is used, in an inexpensive solid medium, like pebbles, rocks,
etc. (Fig. 30).
When water is used as the heat transfer medium an
intermediate heat exchanger is necessary. In Fig. 31 a dry-
ing system using water as heating and storing medium, is
presented. The water is heated inside the collector (c),
and stored by heating the drying air in the heat exchanger
(h), returning therefore either in the storage tank or back to
the collector, depending on the day time or the solar radi-
ation intensity. The hot air ows directly to the dryer (d).
Pumps (p) and valves (v) regulate the water ow.
When air is used as heat transfer medium a heat exchan-
ger is not necessary and the air heated from the collector is
forwarded directly to the dryer or through the storage,
where heat is stored in rocks, as sensitive heat (Fig. 33).
Storage by direct heat irradiation uses either a phase
change material or collectors of the hybrid, liquid/air type.
In Fig. 32 a cross section of the two types of direct irradi-
ation collectors/storage systems are shown (Ayensu and
Asiedu-Bonzie, 1986).
A greenhouse type solar dryer with pebble accumulator
is presented in Fig. 33. The north and side walls are con-
structed from brick and south facing inclined wall is cov-
ered by ordinary window glass (a). Space (b) contains the
heat accumulator, which is a cylindrical reservoir, lled
Fig. 30. A typical, mixed-mode, natural circulation solar dryer with
integrated heat storage. a, transparent cover; i, straw insulation; t, trays
with the material; s. pebble storage space.
Fig. 31. Drying system with water as working and storage uid.
with pebbles (ac), and the air heater. Both form a hot box
chamber. A black metallic sheet (s) is mounted parallel to
the transparent cover, forming a quasi heat collector
protecting the same time the material from direct exposure
to the solar radiation. The upper part of the drying cham-
ber (d) is connected to the accumulator, by a pipe (e),
where humid warm air release part of its heat before
exhausted to ambient, while the air pipe below the chamber
is connected to the air heater (e). An amount of 500 to
600 kg of apricots, tomatoes and other fruits and vegeta-
bles can be dried per drying cycle (Komilov et al., 1993).
Many other designs of dryers are reported for solar dry-
ing of a variety of products: for low temperature drying.
Arata and Sharma (1991) gave a preliminary heat transfer
analysis for fruit dryers and in the second part of this work
Arata et al. (1993) investigated solar dryers of various
agricultural products. Arinze et al. (1996) report the design
features and the experimental functional performance of a
new mobile solar grain dryer suitable for commercial use.
Mumba (1995) reports on a solar dryer which incorporates
a directly coupled PV powered d.c. fan. The dryer of 90 kg
capacity was designed for regions without electrical grid.
Leon et al. (2002) gave a detail review of parameters
used in testing and evaluating dierent types of solar food
dryers. Based on this review a methodology was developed.
Bennamoun and Belhamri (2003) reported on a simple, e-
cient and inexpensive solar batch dryer for agricultural
products since Singh et al. (2004) presented a design of a
low cost solar dryer for use directly on site of a farm.
10. Hybrid solar dryers
Hybrid solar dryers combine solar radiation energy with
an auxiliary conventional source of energy.
They can be operated either only by solar energy, only
by conventional energy sources or by both. In most of
the cases hybrid solar drying systems are medium to large
capacity installations and operate by a solar ratio in the
range of 5060%.
A tunnel dryer combining solar radiation and gas as
auxiliary heat source is already presented in Fig. 27. Solar
radiation is collected in long tubes (c) made of clear poly-
ethylene sheet on top and side walls and opaque black
poly-ethylene one at the bottom, the later acting as heat
absorber also (Bolin et al., 1978). Bena and Fuller (2002)
described a direct-type natural convection solar dryer com-
bined with a simple biomass burner. It is suitable for drying
fruits and vegetables in regions without electricity.
Fig. 34 presents a hybrid solar dryer, a modication of
the dryer in Fig. 27 with auxiliary source of heating. Ambi-
ent air (a) ows through a heat exchanger (he) where is
heated up to the necessary drying temperature, by combus-
tion gas (g). Part of the used air is exhausted from the north
wall (n) of the dryer and the rest is recycled through the
recycling tube (rt). Cooled gas exits through the chimney
(cn) to the ambient (Condori et al., 2001).
Hybrid solar dryers were developed the recent years, due
to signicant increase of agricultural production. Thus the
Fig. 32. Integrated direct heat storage by irradiation. a, latent heat.
Fig. 33. Solar dryer with heat storage and air heater.
Fig. 34. Modication of g. 31solar tunnel with an additional auxiliary heat source.
operation, especially for large amount of material was swift
from open-air drying to larger active solar drying systems,
especially to hybrid systems, in order to overcome energy
demand.
On the other hand the increased agricultural production
need immediate drying for preservation and as previously
described in Section 4 there are a lot of advantages in favor
of active solar drying. When drying in active systems, solar
or hybrid, the characteristics and especially the drying
behavior of the agricultural products, need to be exactly
known.
In the of Solar and other Energy Systems Laboratory
(SESL) of the National Center for Scientic Research
(NCSR) Demokritos, a number of dryers have been
developed, to promote active drying of grapes, gures
and other fruits that until today were, and in some cases
still are, dried by open-air solar drying method. Drying
by active hybrid dryers save to the economy of the farmers
almost 40% or more, depending on various parameters,
meanwhile the quality is the best.
In Fig. 35 a photograph of a hybrid solar dryer of
3600 kg capacity for drying various crops and fruits, is pre-
sented. It is a pilot dryer, developed and installed at the
premises of the SESL/NCSR Demokritos, to study dry-
ing phenomena of agricultural products. Fig. 36 presents a
cross section of the dryer with air circulation. The 3600 kg
system has propane as an auxiliary energy source.
11. Solar collectors for solar dryers
Primary energy source for forced convection solar dry-
ers, are solar collectors. For drying purposes either at-
plate or evacuated tube collectors are suitable, depending
on the temperature required. For passive solar dryers, sim-
ple air heaters made of transparent plastic lms, are su-
cient. They are inexpensive, easily constructed and
operated. More sophisticated solar systems are connected
to conventional solar collectors similar to those used in
space heating or domestic warm water systems.
The design of suitable air solar collectors for drying sys-
tems is one of the most important tasks that control the
economy of the system. For low temperature applications,
which is the case of most foodstu [temperature dierence
D(T
d
T
a
) < 40 C], single glaze collectors are sucient
and techno-economically more appropriate. For drying
purposes the preferable conventional type of collectors
are using plastic or metallic tubes having blades. Normally
in most cases for higher performance only metallic tubes
are used.
Solar drying is a batch operation, in most of the cases.
Only few larger capacity solar installations use continuous
operation. During batch operation energy demand is
unsteady because at the start up drying energy demand is
high, decreasing towards the end. This has an impact on
the design and dimensioning of the collector eld requiring
exact calculations to determine the higher energy demand
during the start up of drying period, with respect to the
duration of drying, the suitable temperature and the air
characteristics. Air characteristics include drying tempera-
ture, relative humidity and ow rate. Fig. 37 presents atyp-
ical drying system with collector eld (c) and a sensible heat
storage device for air (Niles et al., 1978).
11.1. Recent works on solar drying collectors
A lot of studies have been performed for collectors and
heaters used for solar dryers. Chakraverty and Das (1990)
developed an integrated array of solar collector modules
(10 small collectors with a number of common parti-
tions among themselves). Garg et al. (1991) presented a Fig. 35. General view of an experimental dryer for agricultural products.
Gas-Gas Heat
Exchanger
Basement
plenum
Gas burner
Suction
fan
Pressure fan
Fig. 36. Diagram of air circulation inside the dryer.
theoretical study for a solar PV-thermal (hybrid) system
consisting of a at-plate solar air heater mounted with
solar cells and a plane booster. Imre (1998) gives detail
analyses for solar collectors used in drying systems and
for general analytical study of solar collectors Due and
Beckmans book (2006) and Goswami et al. (1999) are
the most suitable ones.
Hachemi et al. (1998), used at-plate and oset plate n
absorber-plate collectors to improve thermal performance
of a dryer. A dierential equation for this system is pre-
sented; Iskandanov (1999) presents a calculation procedure
for the thermal eciency of solar plants with distributed
solar type air-collectors. Ekechukwu and Norton (1999b)
gave an extended review on solar drying systems with
emphasis to solar collectors for drying systems. They gave
an evaluation performance technique for at-plate collec-
tors and presented, in tabular form, the properties of plas-
tic lms and of other transparent material suitable for
drying systems. Torres-Reyes et al. (2002) discussed a ther-
mal performance analysis with semi-empirical models for
thermal characterization of an experimental indirect solar
device. They also describe a simplied method to design
solar collectors based on the determination of minimum
entropy generation.
Abu-Hamdeh (2003) gave a mathematical model for
predicting thermal eciency, heat gain and outlet air tem-
perature of a covered plate attic solar collector. Karim and
Hawlader (2004) present an experimental study of three
types of solar air-collectors (at-plate, nned and V-corru-
gated) for drying applications. The same authors (Karim
and Hawlader, 2006), gave the results of a performance
study on V-groove solar air collector for drying applica-
tions. Jain and Jain (2004) evaluated the performance of
a tilted multi-pass solar air heater with thermal storage
for deep drying applications. Chemhki et al. (2004) studied
the thermal behavior of a solar air heater as a source of
energy for drying of agricultural products. Jain (2005a,b)
presents a periodical analysis of multi-tray crop drying
attached to an inclined multi-pass solar air heater with
in-built thermal.
Some more recent work comprise: The development and
performance of four advanced solar assisted, forced con-
vective solar dryers (Othman et al., 2006). They use
improved V-groove solar absorbers to increase thermal e-
ciency and a 10 kW auxiliary heat source for continuous
operation. Koyuncy (2006b), presented various designs of
at-plate solar energy air heating collectors for low temper-
ature (temperature increase >40 C above ambient). Each
collector consisted of a frame constructed of hardboard,
vent holes, insulation material, absorbing surfaces of black
coated aluminum sheet and clear plastic glazing. The col-
lectors are ideally suited for crop drying applications. A
theoretical analysis of the collectors is presented.
12. Economics of solar drying systems
The economies of solar dryers depend on the cost of the
overall drying system and the gain from solar energy utili-
zation, i.e., from the economy of energy. Solar energy uti-
lization has some advantages in favor, especially in periods
when fuel price increase considerably. It is an energy source
clean and friendly to the environment, quite, widely avail-
able and according to our measures, inexhaustible. It has
been said that is free and in fact it is free of charge but
still the technological achievements are not developed to
a stage that spread out solar radiation can be concentrated
and used in competitive prices to conventional sources of
energy.
The main reasons for selecting solar energy for drying
may be two:
v Energy saving. This is achieved in the cases where in the
drying system, energy fraction is higher than auxiliary
energy.
v The lack of availability of conventional energy sources
to remote and rural areas, or the high cost of transpor-
tation of fuel to those areas.
For drying systems is not easy to predict the economics
in general, as there are many small solar dryers, in general
based on experience. These simple systems are of low cost,
especially the passive ones. Larger active drying systems
are more complicated and require substantial initial capital
investment, cost compared to the large conventional
systems which are standardized and commercialized.
On the other hand drying methods are intensive energy
Fig. 37. A typical system of industrial air solar drying of crops with collector and heat storage using rocks as a storage medium.
installations. The decision to invest on a solar system must
have as basis the anticipation of some economic return dur-
ing the estimated life time of the whole system.
For solar drying systems Boer (1978) gave equations for
the determination of the payback time The equations were
modied by Imre (1998) and they dene the accumulated
saving S, the capital investment I and the accumulated cost
E. Payback is estimated as the period when initial cost and
annual expenses (including compound interest for opera-
tion and maintenance) equal total savings.
If the annual interest rate is r, D is the annually dis-
placed conventional energy of the solar assisted dryer and
e the annual ination rate per year for n years life time
of the system, the savings are:
S =
(1 r)
n
(1 e)
n
r e
D = 1 E (12)
After the n years the capital investment cost I, will be:
I = C (1 r)
2
(13)
where C is the value of the investment at the end of the pay-
back time. Considering an annual xed charge rate mC and
an ination rate of i the accumulated yearly cost is:
E =
m C(1 r)
n
m C(1 i)
n
r i
(14)
When D and C are known and the ratio D/C, of the annu-
ally displaced cost to the rst cost, is plotted against the
payback years, for various values of e, m, r and i the curves
of Fig. 40 are obtained (Imre, 1998). A good economic
evaluation of solar energy systems is also given by Clark
(1976). Chua and Chou (2003) present low cost drying
technologies suitable for rural farming areas and Chandr-
asekar and Kandpal (2004) gave possible combinations,
as solar heating, solar home lighting and solar drying sys-
tems and their nancial and scal incentives on the eective
capital costs of solar energy technologies for users (see
Fig. 38).
13. An example of grapes drying
It is to dry 1000 kg of black seedless Corinthian grapes
to produce black currant raisins. The following character-
istics of drying air and grapes must be accounted for:
1 Initial humidity of grapes W
in
(wet
basis)
75%
2 Final humidity of raisins W
out
(wet
basis)
14%
3 Maximum allowed temperature T
max
70 C
4 Estimated drying time (by
experiments)
t 28 h
5 Ambient temperature T
a
25 C
6 Relative humidity of air u 60%
Based on wet material moisture content, as is the basis for
agricultural products, the water that has to be moved is:
_ m
w
=
W
in
W
out
100 W
out
=
75 14
100 14
~ 0:71 kg per kilo grapes (15)
The time need to remove the necessary water from the
1000 kg of grapes was about 28, and the removed amount
is: 0.71 1000 = 710 kg. The amount of grapes that dry is:
1000/28 ~ 35.7 kg/h. The drying rate, m
v
, i.e. the humidity
removal is:
_ m
v
= 35:7 0:71 = 25:35 kg=h (16)
From the enthalpyhumidity diagram of Mollier (Fig. 39)
for air temperature 25 C and relative humidity f = 60%
the absolute humidity is 12.0 g/kg (lines ABBC) and en-
thalpy, 56 kJ/kg (line BK). For air 70 C relative humidity
is ~6.5% (line BD) and enthalpy is ~100 kJ/kg (line DN).
From the curve of Fig. 40 for nal humidity of raisins
14%, water activity a
w
, is 0.57 and thus mean relative
humidity of air is:
The sorption curves of Fig. 40 have been plotted from
many experimental tests on black Korinthian grapes. From
this curve, for nal raisin humidity 14% the corresponding
water activity is a
w
~ 0.57 (lines cd, de).
u
m
= (100 57)=2 = 78:5% (17)
From enthalpy-humidity diagram of Fig. 39, for mean air
humidity 78.5% (point E), the air humidity at the exit of
the dryer is 28 g/kg (line ED) and the corresponding tem-
perature 35 C (line EG). Thus the air needed for drying
the 1 kg of grapes is:
V
air
=
_ m
w
q
air
(x
m
x
a
)
=
25:36
1:227 (28 12:0)
= 1:2913 m
3
h
1
(18)
and for the 1000 kg grapes is: 1.2913x10
3
= 1291.3 m
3
h
1
Finally, the heat that is needed to increase up drying air
temperature from 25 to 70 C, without taking into consid-
eration heat losses is: Fig. 38. Curves of ration D/C as function of the payback years.
Q = q
air
(h
2
h
1
) V
air
= 1:227(100 56) 1291:3
= 69:4 10
3
kJ h
1
(19)
For the 28 h drying period the energy consumption is:
69.4 10
3
28 = 1952 10
3
kJ = 1952 MJ. The collector
area required can be calculated from this value, by taking
into consideration the solar collection eciency and the
corresponding heat loss.
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Dr. Belessiotis graduated from the Patras University, Greece, Department
of Physics with post graduated studies in England awarded by the
DEMOKRITOS Center and in Germany awarded by the of Ministry of
Research and Technology. He is Ph D. of the School of Mechanical
Engineering of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece and since
1982 Head of the Laboratory of on Solar and other Energy systems
which specializes in Renewable Energy Sources and Energy savings. His
specic research interest are: Thermal Engineering, Physical Processes and
Metrology of Physical Quantities with application to Renewable Energy
Sources and Energy Saving. Development of Methods, Simulation Models
and Measurement Procedures for the Measurement and Characterization
of Energy (Thermal) Products. Current research activities concern: (A)
Thermal Solar Energy: Experimental and theoretical investigation of
arrangements and systems for the exploitation of thermal solar energy,
focusing at: (a) new types of solar collectors (e.g. heat pipe, vacuum tube
of Dewar type, concentrating, etc.) with water, air or two-phase uid as a
working medium, presenting high performance and reliability in specic
applications, (b) the development of autonomous or hybrid systems for
the production of heat or cold or heat and desalted water, etc. (c) the
development or optimization of methods for the thermal-hydraulic char-
acterization of large scale thermal solar applications, as well as develop-
ment of models for the simulation and design of such systems. (B) Thermal
Storage Systems: Experimental and theoretical investigation of the ther-
mal-hydraulic behavior of underground or in-ground heat or cold storage
tanks, of metallic or non-metallic (e.g. cement) of various geometries shell,
with water or phase change materials as working medium. (C) Solar
Assisted Drying Processes: Investigation of the behavior of mechanical
driers of hot air and optimization through the analysis of heat and mass
transfer phenomena, experimental investigation of the optimum drying
conditions, design and development of hybrid as regards energy source
systems and development of simulation models for the drying processes.
Scientic responsible in many competitive research programs, funded by
external sources (total funding exceeds 5 mi. ), three books (two writers),
six prototype scientic publications to International Specialized Encyclo-
pedias (ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS and
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ENERGY), more than 200 publications in
international journals, international and national conferences, as well as
specialized studies Scientic Work: Scientic responsible in many com-
petitive research programs, funded by external sources (total funding
exceeds 5 mi. ), three books (two writers), six prototype scientic publi-
cations to International Specialized Encyclopedias (ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS and ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ENERGY),
more than 200 publications in international journals, international and
national conferences, as well as specialized studies.
Euridice-Emma Delyannis, Dr.-Ing. Chemical Engineer, Graduated from
Technical University Athens. Post-graduate studies at Kansas University,
Lawrence, Kansas, USA and at the University of Karlsruhe, Germany.
Served as assistant professor at the Department of Chemical Engineering,
Technical University, Athens. Scientic Secretary, 20 years, and repre-
sentative of Greece in the European Working Party on Fresh Water from
the Sea organizing Congresses on Desalination for the European feder-
ation of Chemical Engineers. She published many Proceedings, a book in
desalination (in Greek) and students books on chemical engineering and
papers on Desalination, especially in Solar desalination. She works also on
drying, especially solar drying and is consultant to the Laboratory of Solar
and other Energy Systems of the National Center for Scientic Research
(NCSR), Demokritos, in Athens, in the eld of desalination.

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Solar drying

ztekin et al. (1999). Sodha et al. (1985)

tude numerique dun sechoir

zay, G., 1996b. Eect of the

., Akyurt, M., 1974. Development, theoretical

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