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The evolution and development of arts marketing research

Ian Fillis
Business and Marketing Division, Stirling Management School, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to carry out a longitudinal review of arts marketing research. Design/methodology/approach The paper looks back at the origins of arts marketing research, identifying the initial areas of interest and traces its development as a recognised research domain. Findings Arts marketing research has evolved from being an application of marketing using long-held principles into a discipline where critical and creative approaches are now being used to generate more meaningful and actionable arts marketing theory. Research limitations/implications Although arts marketing research has developed in terms of rigour, depth and reach, there is still much unexplored potential to be realised. Practical implications The paper shows that effective arts marketing consists of a balance of addressing artistic needs and customer expectations. The marketing involved must acknowledge the merits of artistic philosophy, while also addressing the commercial realities of todays arts world. Originality/value Only a very small number of assessments of the state of arts marketing knowledge have been carried out. The paper develops both a longitudinal analysis of the origins and growth of this knowledge and provides suggestions for future research. Keywords Arts marketing, Research work, Entrepreneurialism Paper type General review

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Introduction: early arts marketing research This paper evaluates the growing domain of arts marketing research. It should not be viewed solely as a review of the literature on arts marketing but also as a personal perspective on the domain itself. The paper also considers future arts marketing research directions. I have been researching arts marketing since 1993 when I was completing my Masters thesis at the University of Ulster. At that time, the majority of work was North American in origin, with activities elsewhere in their infancy (Diggle, 1976; Raymond and Greyser, 1978; Diggle, 1984; Skinner, 1985; Yorke and Jones, 1987; Bradford, 1991; Cooper and Tower, 1993). Marketing had already been applied widely across profit and non-profit sectors in the USA for many decades (Kotler and Levy, 1969; Hunt, 1976; Shapiro, 1973; Kotler and Andreasen, 1991; Kotler and Scheff, 1997). The main concern that I identified then was the perception that the arts should exist as an individual entity without any involvement from the business world. I believed that one of the tasks of marketing was to help break down this barrier. The focus of my research, the use of marketings promotional mix in the visual arts, indicated a growth in the search for sponsorship and other sources of funding, although this was much more sophisticated in North America (Walton, 1988; Otker, 1988; Priestley, 1992). There was an emphasis on direct marketing activities (Miles, 1993; Hubbard and Little, 1988) and a reliance on public relations, publicity and other promotional tools (Kotler and Mindak, 1978; Kitchen and White, 1992). Customer and visitor analysis was in its infancy, mainly concentrating on the performing arts (Ryans and Weinberg, 1978; Andreasen and Belk, 1980). Arts retailing and merchandising was more advanced in North America, although outlets such as museum and gallery shops, cafes and restaurants were growing in the UK (Skloot, 1983).

Arts Marketing: An International Journal Vol. 1 No. 1, 2011 pp. 11-25 r Emerald Group Publishing Limited 2044-2084 DOI 10.1108/20442081111129842

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Over a 20-year period, Thomas and Cutler (1993) identified only 31 articles in mainstream marketing journals on the arts. Issues explored included audience analysis and segmentation, the marketing mix, marketing planning and policy issues. Bates (1983) investigated the market mechanisms surrounding international sales for oil paintings, concluding that there was a lack of research and poor statistical information. Today, this information is instantly available on the internet, with longitudinal sales records for individual artists practising a range of art forms. Holbrook (1980) was surprised by the lack of studies of high involvement artistic consumption compared with low involvement behaviour. There was no evidence of arts organisations embracing a marketing philosophy due to a fear of perceived complex administrative requirements, anti-management sentiment, not wishing to upset the status quo and the desire to keep a small but satisfied audience. There was also no indication of the need for a form of marketing which acknowledged the specific requirements of the industry. Instead, the implementation of aspects of mainstream marketing was prevalent. There was evidence of the use of product placement in the performing arts (Lister, 1993) and the advertising of exhibitions on lager bottle labels (Gabb, 1988). These practices are now much more prevalent and now include the promotion of individual artists. Arts organisations operated under different conditions to that experienced by commercial companies (Adizes, 1975) but todays business realities have impacted heavily on the arts and profitability has become a necessity for many. Two factors influencing the ability to operate in a free market are teleological differences such as the financial handicaps inherent in the pursuit of artistic goals, and technological differences in the methods of production. Attitudes towards marketing can both hinder and facilitate commercialisation. Artistic goals are concerned with the aesthetic growth of the artist and the audience, while business goals are economic, materialistic and growth oriented. Innovation in the arts is often concerned with exploration for its own sake while in business it leads to opportunities in increasing profits. The nature of risk is also different, with artistic risk often aligned to the creativity, ideas and design of the artwork rather than any commercial connection. Defining arts marketing The arts, culture, arts management and arts marketing are interconnected. The arts are shaped by intellectual achievement and reflect the belief systems of a society. The modern culture industry deals with consumers needs within industrial, political, economic and global settings (Horkheimer and Adorno, 1972). The way in which culture is expressed is determined by the systems of production and the dissemination of cultural messages in the form of products or services. Artistic products can be viewed as signifiers of a countrys culture. The arts consist of artefacts, images or performances that contain rich, complex, direct and symbolic meanings. They can be in the form of a creative production involving aesthetic value resulting from a particular skill and use of imagination. However, there is no commonly agreed definition of the arts due to the subjective evaluations made by the artist, critic, audience and other actors (Penrose, 1990). They can be viewed as an open concept and as an empirically based entity (Berleant, 1964). The arts stimulate the human senses, mind and spirit. Thinking in an arts-based way facilitates understanding of human activity and philosophy by visualising the relationship between the self and society on a number of levels, from informal personalised interactions to formalised relationships between individuals and institutions (Levinson, 1979).

A contemporary interpretation of arts marketing should acknowledge its foundations in the application of the marketing mix but it needs to move forward on its own terms, based around the interplay of market orientation and market creation within a much wider domain than originally determined. Fields such as popular and classical music, theatre, film, dance, opera, jazz, visual art, museum and gallery marketing, audience development and societal arts marketing now contribute to improved insight into consumer behaviour, branding and aesthetics in the wider world. Creativity and entrepreneurship now help shape a form of arts marketing that has the power to contribute not only to the arts but also to marketing within and outside the creative industries. Those working in arts marketing now need to assess the required balance of artistic and business risks in order to achieve their goals. The future for both marketing and art within this relationship should be to perform a more critical role in helping to shape more effective practices, which align to the needs of the artist, audience and wider society. Evrard and Colbert (2000) position arts marketing within arts management. They note the legitimacy of arts management at practitioner and academic levels, strengthened by the establishment of the AIMAC international conference in 1991. Arts management involves the promotion of appreciation of the arts, arts managerial knowledge and skills through education (Rentschler and Shilbury, 2008). Its remit now reaches beyond arts policy, cultural economics and cultural intervention into other sectors (Colbert, 2003). Arts management theory and practice has its roots in business, leisure and aesthetics, which, in turn, have their origins in sociology, economics and social psychology. The International Journal of Arts Management was founded in 1998 and the International Association for Arts and Cultural Management in 2000. Evrard and Colbert identify a crisis in the definition of art that has implications for its wider meaning, practice and consumption (Brown and Patterson, 2000; Dickie, 2000; Holbrook, 1998). Its growth as a global commodity, however, can be viewed as an opportunity for marketing research. Arts management can be informed by other managerial practices but it can also inform managerial domains elsewhere. The value dimension of marketing here is associated with utilitarian, functional aspects of art and hedonic, symbolic dimensions. The role of the consumer and the audience is obviously important when considering arts marketing practice but customer and market creation are equally valid. The notion of the arts consumer needs to be reinterpreted to include the self as producer (Cowen and Tabarrok, 2000). Determining what is meant by the domain of arts marketing is becoming more difficult as we integrate the arts with culture, leisure, entertainment and a variety of business disciplines (Colbert et al., 2001). Defining what we mean by art is a more fundamental issue. Referring to art as an industry has stimulated considerable debate, with some seeing it as no more than an industrial product, while others view it semiotically where the artwork possesses an aesthetic sign which is culturally defined (Anderson, 1991; Barrere and Santagata, 1999). Panofsky (1940) distinguishes between practical objects, which do not demand to be aesthetically consumed, and works of art which do. Both types of product are communication carriers and it is difficult to determine precisely when a communication carrier or utilitarian object becomes art. We not only need to define what we mean by art and the arts but also the relationship between artistic goods, the art market, arts management and economic management. Clancy (1994) segments the arts into Hiarts including plays, opera musicals and concerts, Pop as film, rock, pop

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and jazz music, Exper as art exhibitions, contemporary dance, literature and poetry and Trad as traditional music and folk dance. The growth of the arts marketing discipline The launch of Arts Marketing: An International Journal provides the opportunity to build on existing knowledge of arts marketing and move forward using a range of creative methodologies, which mirror those found in arts marketing practice. Other journals that publish papers in arts marketing include The International Journal of Arts Management and the Journal of Arts Management, Law and Society. Recent research in these and other outlets include a focus on consumer behaviour and customer retention (Bourgeon-Renault, 2000; Hume et al., 2007; Kubacki et al., 2007; Slack et al., 2008; Grappi and Montanari, 2009), fan-funded record labels (Chaney, 2009), museum value (Scott, 2008), branding (DAstous et al., 2007; Baumgarth, 2009), creativity (Fillis and Rentschler, 2005a), arts market research (Walshe, 1993), arts experiences (Radbourne et al., 2009; White et al., 2009) and the changing climate of museum and performing arts marketing (McLean, 1997; Kotler and Kotler, 1998; Rentschler, 1998; Mottner and Ford, 2008). Other areas include gender and equality issues (Rentschler, 2007), market orientation (Sorjonen, 2008), measuring service quality (Hume et al., 2006; Kubacki, 2008a; Raajpoot et al., 2010), visitor motivation (Slater, 2007), direct marketing (Rentschler and Wood, 2001; Arnold and Tapp, 2003), art networks (Jyrama, 2002) and the internet as a promotional and transaction tool (Clarke and Flaherty, 2002; Quesenberry et al., 2006; Benghozi and Benhamou, 2010). There is also a focus on arts marketing strategy (Colbert, 2009), internationalisation and international comparisons (Kubacki, 2008b; Fillis and Lee, 2011), relationship marketing (Conway and Whitelock, 2007; Rentschler and Radbourne, 2008), the impact of cultural policy and government funding (Lee, 2005; Kirchner et al., 2007), experiential marketing (Petkus, 2004), sponsorship (Rowley and Williams, 2008; Thomas et al., 2009), public relations (McDonald and Harrison, 2002) and the construction of visual arts marketing theory (Fillis, 2004a). The growing role of arts management research in general is identified by Rentschler and Shilbury (2008) who assess the impact of arts management journals, mirroring that found in marketing and management research. A key catalyst in the furthering of arts marketing research was the successful ESRC seminar series Rethinking Arts Marketing, which subsequently resulted in special issues of journals such as Consumption Markets and Culture, the European Journal of Marketing and the Journal of Marketing Management and an edited book, Marketing the Arts. Topics investigated include the consumption of symphony orchestra music (OSullivan, 2009), art vs market orientation (Harrison, 2009), art and branding (Schroeder, 2010), new audience development (Osborne and Rentschler, 2010), technology and museum experience (Vom Lehn, 2010), the impact of art on marketing (Fillis, 2009), the reaction to inauthentic artefacts (Hede and Thyne, 2010) and member schemes and involvement (Slater and Armstrong, 2010). This group of researchers is at the heart of much successful arts marketing research and will continue to produce innovative arts marketing research for many years. Arts marketing research directions Bradshaw (2010) reviews some of the relevant arts marketing literature in order to reconsider its methodologies and the relationships between art and marketing. He identifies a growing body of work urging arts marketers to continue to adopt long-accepted marketing principles in order to satisfy their customers (Bernstein, 2006; Hill et al., 2003;

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Kerrigan et al., 2004). Bradshaw notes the multi-directional impact of arts marketing, from positivist interpretations to more creative revisualisations where art and literary theory can be used to inform marketing. This position also sits comfortably with my own thinking on the meaning, practice and contributions of arts marketing, marketing in art and art in marketing (Fillis, 2009). He divides his review into sections on the consumption of art and the connection with aesthetics and the simultaneous production and consumption of art (Venkatesh and Meamber, 2008), marketing as art (Brown, 1996), art as marketing (Schroeder and Borgerson, 2002) and marketing interpreting art (Holbrook and Grayson, 1986). Bradshaw adopts a consumption focus while I concentrate more on the role of the artist and the organisation in shaping arts marketing, marketing theory and small business theory. The interface between art and marketing continues to expand. Macaulay and Dennis (2006), for example, develop a connection between jazz and marketing philosophy, while Dennis and Macaulay (2003) utilise the metaphor of jazz improvisation to develop an alternative understanding of marketing planning. Arts marketing and attitudes towards market orientation Marketing has been described as troubled, irrelevant, over-reliant on rules and formula-based thinking and focused on selling products rather than creating markets (Bennett and Cooper, 1979; Day and Montgomery, 1999). Interest in measuring market orientation has grown since the 1980s (Saxe and Weitz, 1982; Narver and Slater, 1990; Gebhardt et al., 2006) and this has now spread to the non profit organisation (Alvarez et al., 2002; Duque-Zuluaga and Schneider, 2008). The growing body of arts marketing research continues to identify the need for more specific arts-related marketing frameworks. Many marketing researchers now embrace the arts as a fertile data source for other domains of marketing. The role of creativity and entrepreneurship Both Belfiore and Bennett (2008) and Hirschman (1983) believe that the marketing concept does not match the behaviour and philosophy of the artist because of the personal values and the social norms that impact on the creative process. Instead of creating products in response to consumer demand, creators of aesthetic products often derive something that flows from the self. It is then up to the consumer to either accept or reject it. Creativity shaped by entrepreneurial thinking also has an impact (Colbert, 2003; Fillis, 2000; Fillis, 2002a, b, 2004b; Fillis and Rentschler, 2005a, b; Rentschler, 2007). Chartrand (1990), for example, views the artist as a risk-taking entrepreneur who is unwilling to conform to organisational thinking. This interpretation matches my own conceptualisation of the artist as owner/manager of a micro-business where there are a number of shared opportunities and barriers to growth. Meyer and Even (1998, p. 273-4) suggest that product-centred entrepreneurial creativity is really what occurs:
[y] the artist does not find products for the customer, but seeks customers for his products [y] art becomes a traded good once it is brought to the marketplace which, however, may not be the objective during the process of creation [y] the contemporary artist would assume the role of a financially dependent innovator and entrepreneur [y]

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The role of aesthetics Artists create mainly to express their subjective conceptions of beauty, emotion or some other aesthetic ideal (Becker, 1982; Holbrook, 1981). Aesthetic creativity is the

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central influence in the process, rather than any response to customer demand (Holbrook and Zirlin, 1983; Hirschman, 1983). This creative self-fulfilment results in intrinsic satisfaction, in addition to any functional utility or technical competence. Hirschman distinguishes between artistic and commercial creativity, since the values of the individual will ultimately determine creative orientation. These differences can be compared similarly to the philosophies of art for arts sake vs art for business sake (Fillis, 2006a). Hirschman (1983) considers the implications of adopting a product-centred marketing approach where self-oriented creativity dominates behaviour. Self-oriented artists create to communicate a personal vision with a view to acquiring peer approval and the potential for niche or mass audience appeal. By creating something that vividly expresses their values and emotions, the audience might then be persuaded to accept their perspective. The marketing concept can then be altered to incorporate self-oriented creativity and a wider variety of audiences where the artist/creator is seen as the initial consumer, with exchange relationships occurring internally. Interpretation and evaluation of the arts Reception of an artwork is intertwined with interpretation and realisation (Eco, 1977) and is distinct from other types of products and services:
The usual separation of manufacturer and consumer is [y] not applicable to artworks. It is replaced by a unique form of collaboration [y] that [y] includes all those involved in activities from the inception of an idea to the public reception thereof carried out according to a certain pattern of rules and practices mutually attuned to the production, distribution and reception of works of art (Meyer and Even, 1998, p. 271).

Harrison (2009) evaluates the difficulties which art has with fitting into a business world dominated by instrumental rationality and a dominance of managerialism, leaving little room for creative expression. One of the main reasons behind adopting corporate business models is the requirement by their funders to report back their achieved outcomes in a rationalist manner through reports and other outlets. This business-like approach also impacts on how the organisation develops its creative activities (Arts Victoria, 2006). A consequence is the clash of business and arts languages and their underpinning philosophies where profitability and artistic creativity often seem distant concepts. Harrison (2009) identifies a key difference between arts marketing and marketing in other sectors. Interpretation and evaluation of the arts tends to be an emotionally subjective experience, while elsewhere the product is presented to like-minded consumers who are expected to perceive and behave in neatly defined ways. This position aligns to my own perspective on arts marketing and its relation, small business marketing, where situation-specific, subjectivist approaches to doing marketing far outweigh general, objective marketing practices. Arts marketing research needs to embrace both hard and soft dimensions of evaluation. The creation of an artwork involves many creative inputs and its success will be judged in both qualitative and quantitative terms, depending on who is doing the evaluating. Limitations of the marketing concept The continued application of long-held marketing assumptions to arts marketing has perpetuated the theory vs practice gap. There has been an increasing call for more critical thinking concerning how successful the marketing concept is in explaining

actual behaviour of the organisation and the consumer, with Schroeder (1997, 2000) and Brown and Patterson (2000) drawing on the art world to illustrate how the gap may be narrowed. Many artists hold philosophical and practical difficulties with the notion of a market (Anderson, 1991), but the need to make a living often outweighs any attempt to adopt an art for arts sake philosophy. Cowen and Tabarrok (2000) see the choice artists face in marketing their work as between wishing to secure pecuniary, or monetary advantages from selling to the market or to acquire the non-pecuniary benefits of following their own tastes in creating what they want. Butler (2000, p. 344) also evaluates the limitations of the marketing concept in the arts, noting that conventional arts marketing texts promote the adoption of the marketing mix approach, which is of limited use to the arts marketing practitioner. He also discusses the merits of product-centred marketing and notes that the discovery of new art conveys the notion of something much more than development in that artists:
[y] produce or perform out of their own commitment to their field [y] artists are the ultimate manifestation of that absolute insult in the marketing schoolyard, namely the product orientation. But their internal focus [y] is what makes them artists [y] This may not be anti-marketing though (Butler, 2000, pp. 355, 359).

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Botti (2000) analyses the role of marketing in the process of artistic consumption and the spreading of artistic value among the various interested publics. This diffusion of value is the result of the interaction of product-centred and consumer-centred perspectives. Botti believes that marketing only becomes involved in the process once the artwork has been produced. This mirrors the conventional marketing concept where communication, publicity and public relations are traditionally seen as assisting the arts marketer to develop sales and inform audiences. However, marketing really begins at the initial construction of the artistic idea. Understanding how creativity interacts with entrepreneurial marketing behaviour is the gateway to understanding marketings role in the arts. The artist can be viewed as the owner/ manager of the artistic entity where internal marketing processes have been operating long before the artwork is produced. Creative marketing behaviour is ultimately driven by a set of competencies linked to the personality of the individual artist (Evrard, 1991). Arts marketing theory must therefore incorporate these factors. If artists always responded to the wishes of the marketplace, there would never be any meaningful progression of artistic thinking, new schools of thought, movements and development of theory. Conclusions Arts marketing research began with an early dominance by North American researchers but the rest of the world is now catching up. Marketing has made a number of contributions to the arts but the tension between the business and arts worlds still exists. From a position of limited arts marketing research in 1993, we have definitely moved forward. There is, though, still much remaining to be discovered, understood and embedded within arts marketing theory. Outlets such as Arts Marketing: An International Journal will facilitate the growth of arts marketing research. This paper has identified a growing number of areas relating to arts marketing from within and outside the arts and there is no reason why our knowledge cannot be further extended and deepened. The marketing utilised is becoming increasingly sophisticated and there is evidence that arts-specific marketing theory is now being constructed to match that of artistic practice.

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Recommendations for future research Research which provides historical insight into arts marketing practice and which identifies both stable and emerging theoretical constructs would be welcome; for example, a longitudinal investigation of artistic competencies. Aesthetic concerns should be considered alongside the need to attract sizeable audiences in order to generate income. Future research should therefore investigate the interplay between the aesthetic impact of innovative output and the perceived need for market orientation. It is hoped that this paper will simulate future work on assessing the current and future domains of arts marketing. Since artists and the art they create often consist of intangible factors and abstract concepts, they do not lend themselves well to conventional marketing research procedures. I have recommended elsewhere the use of other modes of enquiry such as the utilisation of entrepreneurial marketing, the biography and other narrative methods in order to better understand how the individual practises his or her own form of marketing (Fillis, 2003, 2006b, 2007; Fillis and Herman, 2005). Future work in this area should be encouraged since large amounts of relevant data remain hidden. Biographical data can be found in documented or filmed interviews with the artist and in journals, diaries, correspondence, autobiographies and biographies. Both art and marketing data are located within artistic sources; for example, I have acquired insight into idea generation, creativity and an improved understanding of the clashes between art for art sake vs art for business sake by attending plays and reading the texts concerning the lives of both fictional and real artists. There are clear connections with the previously mentioned domain of biography and narrative enquiry but there are also many other potential data sources yet to be uncovered. The marketing of the arts has formed part of art history and practice for centuries and yet it is only now emerging as an avenue for investigation with the discipline of marketing. Researching into artistic practice, arts marketing, small business marketing, entrepreneurship and creativity has persuaded me of the merits of historical research as well as contemporary data collection. There are parallels between art historical and marketing historical approaches. Future research that triangulates data from these and other qualitative and quantitative sources over time can contribute to the building of more robust arts marketing theory. Theoretical and managerial implications The paper has demonstrated that arts marketing research not only contributes to heightened understanding of specific arts marketing issues but it is also capable of making contributions to the wider domain of marketing in other sectors. It should serve as a call for improved understanding into the impact of arts marketing on marketing in general, with particular attention paid to the role of creativity, market creation and entrepreneurship in theory and practice. Customer-creating elements of marketing have been embraced to a degree within the arts but this can be developed further in parallel through the interrogation of the creative philosophy and practice of the intrinsically motivated artist. Blockbuster events certainly attract large audiences using long-held marketing techniques, but it should not be forgotten that many artists spend long periods of time convincing the public of their creative merits as they experiment with new techniques and representations. Undoubtedly the instrumental rationality identified by Harrison (2009) in the business world can also be found in the art world but the latter also contains high levels of creative expression that both shape and respond to the market.

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Thomas, E.G. and Cutler, B.D. (1993), Marketing the fine and performing arts: what has marketing done for the arts lately?, Journal of Professional Services Marketing, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 181-99. Thomas, S.R., Pervan, S.J. and Nuttall, P.J. (2009), Marketing orientation and arts organisations: the case for business sponsorship, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Vol. 27 No. 6, pp. 736-52. Venkatesh, A. and Meamber, L. (2008), The aesthetics of consumption and the consumer as an aesthetic subject, Consumption, Markets and Culture, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 45-70. Vom Lehn, D. (2010), Generating aesthetic experiences from ordinary activity: new technology and the museum experience, in OReilly, D. and Kerrigan, F. (Eds), Marketing the Arts: A Fresh Approach, Routledge, London, pp. 104-20. Walshe, P. (1993), Probing the potential or seriously taking the arts less seriously, Journal of the Market Research Society, Vol. 34 No. 4, pp. 437-52. Walton, C. (1988), Arts sponsorship: harmony or discord?, European Research, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 87-94. White, T.R., Hede, A.-M. and Rentschler, R. (2009), Lessons from arts experiences for service-dominant logic, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Vol. 27 No. 6, pp. 775-88. Yorke, D. and Jones, P.R. (1987), Museums and marketing techniques, Management Decision, Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 25-32. About the author Ian Fillis is a Senior Lecturer at Stirling Management School, University of Stirling. His research interests include small business marketing, the relationship between marketing, management, art and creativity, alternative research methodologies such as metaphor and biography, international and export marketing, and e-business. He has published in outlets such as the Journal of Marketing Management, European Journal of Marketing, International Small Business Journal, the International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing and the International Journal of Arts Management. As well as contributing to edited volumes, he has also written several research monographs. Ian Fillis can be contacted at: i.r.fillis@stir.ac.uk

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