Structures and Loads

In the conceptual p design g p phase it is not normal to undertake any detailed structural analysis; Structure is just used in estimating the MTOW; While in preliminary and detailed design phases, phases structural analysis is one of the most important aspects; First, loads must be determined, in order to obtain structural l dimensions, di i loads l d and d moments to which hi h the h structure will be subjected must be known, estimated, or calculated; Usually in the begining, convencional, simple analytical methods are employed rough approximations; Afterwards computacional, detailed methods are applied.

Types of loads (1)

Aerodynamic A d i - manoeuvre - gusts - controls - buffet - hail (19 mm) Landing di - vertical load factor - wheel acceleration - strut acceleration - wheel slide - one wheel - brakes Others O h - pressurization - bird strike - crash

Inertial - acceleration - rotation - dynamics - vibration flutter - flutter

Take off - catapult - aborted Rolling - runway bumps - turns

Motor - thrust - torque - gyroscopic effects - vibration - exhaust pressure - shock waves in exhaust - propeller stall - break

Types of loads (2)

Limit loads maximum loads that the aircraft is subjected during normal operation. Limit loads dont cause plastic/permanent deformation; Final loads maximum loads that the structure can withstand before rupture. Loads above limit loads cause plastic deformations; Safety Factor (SF) Final load = SF x Limit load. Usually in aerospace SF = 1,5; Quality Factor (QF) To account for inhomogeneities of materials, manufacturing, etc. Usually QF = 1,15. Admissible loads design g loads:
Admissible loads = Final loads/(SF x QF); Admissible loads = Limit loads/QF.

Types of loads (3)

Critical loads:

Types of loads (4)

Critical loads:

Aerodynamic loads (1)

Manoeuvring g loads :
Load factor nz = az/g.
n+ General aviation - normal General aviation - light General aviation acrobatic Homebuilt Transport Strategic bomber Tactical bomber Jet fighter 2,5 a 3,8 4,4 6,0 5,0 3,0 a 4,0 3,0 4,0 6,5 a 9,0 nn -1,0 a -1,5 -1,8 -3,0 -2,0 -1,0 a -2,0 -1,0 -2,0 -3,0 a -6,0

Aerodynamic loads (2)

Manoeuvring g loads:
V-n diagram:
n = 0,5V2SCLmax/W.
Structural limit

Stall

Stall

Aerodynamic loads (3)

Manoeuvring g loads:
Wing loads.

Aerodynamic loads (4)

Gust loads:
Cause an increment of the load factor:
= tg-1(U/V) = U/V; 0 5V2Sa = 0,5 0 5VSaU; L = 0,5 n = L/W = UVa/[2(W/S)].

Aerodynamic loads (5)

Gust loads:
Gust velocity:
U = KUde; K gust relief factor:
K = 0,88/(5,3+), M < 1; K = 1,03/(6,95+1,03), M >= 1;

mass ratio ( (aparent p mass): )

= 2(W/S)/(gca) = 2m/(caS);

Ude = 15,24m/s in cruise speed (VC); g speed p (VD) ( ); Ude = 7,62m/s in max design Ude = 20,00m/s in max speed in turbulence (Vg).

Aerodynamic loads (6)

Gust loads:
Gust velocity with altitude:

Aerodynamic loads (7)

Gust loads:
V-n diagram for gusts:

Aerodynamic loads (8)

V-n diagram: g

Aerodynamic loads (9)

Loads in lifting g surfaces:
Wing and horizontal stabilizer lift for equilibrium:
FV = 0; M = 0; Neglecting the influence of angle of attack and aerodynamic drag: La+LH-nW = 0; Ma+MH+(h-h0)cnW-lHLH = 0; Assuming M0 = Ma+MH and solving: La = {-M0+[lH-(h-h0)]nW}/lH; LH = [M0+(h-h +(h h0)cnW]/lH

Aerodynamic loads (10)

Loads in lifting g surfaces:
Lift distribution:

Aerodynamic loads (11)

Spanwise p lift distribution:
There are several methods to calculate:
CFD; VLM (vortex lattice method); Vortex line theory; Schrenk approximation (wings with no twist).

Schrenk approximation:
Average between eliptical and chord spanwise distributions.

Aerodynamic loads (12)

Spanwise p lift distribution:
Distribution due to angle of attack:
Trapezoidal chord distribution c(y) = cr[1-(2y/b)(1-)]; , ; Elliptical chord distribution ce(y) = 4S/(b)[1-(2y/b)2]0,5 Cl distribution:
Cl(y) = 0,5[c(y)+ce(y)]/c(y); Cl(y) = [c(y).c [ (y) e(y)]0,5/c(y). (y)

Aerodynamic loads (13)

Spanwise p lift distribution:
Distribution due to twist:
Cl distribution:
Cl(y) = a(r-0-2 2gy/b);

Determine r for: 2/S Cl(y)c(y)dy = 0.

b/2 0

Rate

Root Tip

Aerodynamic loads (14)

Spanwise p lift distribution:
Total distribution:
Cl distribution:
Cl(y) = Cl(y)+Cl(y);

Lift distribution:
K(y) = Cl(y)c(y)/(cgCL);

Load distribution:
wL(y) = 0,5V2Cl(y)c(y); Replacing Cl(y)c(y) and knowing that CL = L/(0,5V2S) :
wL(y) = K(y)L/b (y) [N/m]. [ ]

Aerodynamic loads (15)

Spanwise p drag g distribution:
Knowing the lift of the surface, the aerodynamic drag can be determined by the polar; Drag is higher near the wing tip due to the higher induced angle of attack.

Approximation average

average average

Aerodynamic loads (16)

Chordwise lift distribution:

Aerodynamic loads (17)

Chordwise lift distribution:

Aerodynamic loads (18)

Lift distribution due to control deflection:
The increment in the hinge moment due to the deflection of the control surface can be estimated by ( in degrees):
Cmc/4 0,01. /4 = -0,01

Aerodynamic loads (19)

Lift distribution due to control deflection :
For balancing loads:

Inertial loads
Inertial loads exist because of the accelerations that the aircraft is sujected to:

nWwing nWtiptank nWtiptank

Shear force and bending moment (1)

Lift

nWwing nWengine

Shear force and bending moment (2)

-w = dS/dy y = d2M/dy y2; S = - wdy = - wiyi; M = Sdy = Siyi.

Engine loads
The engine g loads being g transmitted to the engine g mount structure are:
Thrust; Propeller drag; Inertial loads; Torque; Gyroscopic effects;

In jet engines the high pressures in the air inlets and exhaust must be considered. considered

Structural forms (1)

Structural forms (2)

Types of structures (1)

Types of structures (2)

Types of structures (3)

Types of structures (4)

Types of structures (5)

Types of structures (6)

Types of structures (7)

Composite Materials (1)

Composite Materials (2)