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Global Energy Scenario and Impact of Power Electronics in 21st Century

Bimal K. Bose, Life Fellow, IEEE
AbstractPower electronics technology has gained signicant maturity after several decades of dynamic evolution of power semiconductor devices, converters, pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques, electrical machines, motor drives, advanced control, and simulation techniques. According to the estimate of the Electric Power Research Institute, roughly 70% of electrical energy in the USA now ows through power electronics, which will eventually grow to 100%. In the 21st century, we expect to see the tremendous impact of power electronics not only in global industrialization and general energy systems, but also in energy saving, renewable energy systems, and electric/hybrid vehicles. The resulting impact in mitigating climate change problems is expected to be enormous. This paper, in the beginning, will discuss the global energy scenario, climate change problems, and the methods of their mitigation. Then, it will discuss the impact of power electronics in energy saving, renewable energy systems, bulk energy storage, and electric/hybrid vehicles. Finally, it will review several example applications before coming to conclusion and future prognosis. Index TermsClimate change, electric/hybrid vehicles, energy, energy storage, future of power electronics, global warming, motor drives, power electronics, renewable energy systems.

I. I NTRODUCTION T IS well known that power electronics is based on high efciency and fast-switching silicon power semiconductor switches, such as diode, thyristor, triac, gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), power MOSFET, insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), and integrated gate-commutated thyristor (IGCT), and their applications include dc and ac regulated power supplies, uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, electrochemical processes (such as electroplating, electrolysis, anodizing, and metal rening), heating and lighting control, electronic welding, power line static volt ampere reactive (VAR) compensators [SVC, static var generator, or static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)] and exible ac transmission systems (FACTS), active harmonic lters (AHFs), HVdc systems, photovoltaic (PV) and fuel cell (FC) converters, dc and ac circuit breakers, high-frequency heating, energy storage, and dc/ac motor drives. Motor drive area may include applications in computers and peripherals, solid-state motor starters, transportation
Manuscript received October 17, 2011; revised January 3, 2012 and March 28, 2012; accepted May 25, 2012. Date of publication June 8, 2012; date of current version February 28, 2013. This paper was presented in part as an invited keynote address in Qatar Workshop on Power Electronics in Industrial Applications and Renewable Energy (PEIA2011), Doha, November 34, 2011. The Workshop was sponsored by the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society. The author is with the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-2100 USA (e-mail: bbose@utk.edu). Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TIE.2012.2203771

systems, home appliances, paper and textile mills, pumps and compressors, rolling and cement mills, machine tools and robotics, variable-speed constant-frequency systems, etc. The widespread applications of power electronics in global industrialization are bringing a kind of industrial revolution in the 21st century which has been somewhat unprecedented in history. We have already seen how computer, communication, and information technology advancements have turned geographically remote countries as close neighbors. In particular, the Internet communication has brought revolution in our society, bringing the whole world close together into a global village. Truly, we now live in a global society, where the nations in the world are being increasingly interdependent. What happens today in India or Egypt, for example, affects the USA and vice versa. In the present trend, it is expected that future wars in the world will be fought in economic front rather than in military front. In the global marketplace, free from trade barriers, all the nations in the world will face erce industrial competitiveness for survival and prosperity of living standard. In such an environment, power electronics with motion control will play a dominant role in the 21st century. Moreover, as the energy price increases and environmental regulations are tightened, power electronics applications will spread in every corner of industrial, commercial, residential, transportation, aerospace, military, and utility systems. The role of power electronics in this era will be as important as that of computers, communication, and information technologies, if not more. It may be relevant to mention here that the author recently published two survey papers [1], [2] of which the rst paper has no relevance to the content of this paper. This paper is comprehensive and mainly deals with the discussion of energy systems. The technology advancement and trends are briey reviewed in the Future Scenario of Section VI which can be considered as supplementary to the second paper [2]. II. E NERGY S CENARIO Let us discuss, in the beginning, with the global energy scenario [6][9]. We have come a long way in the history of our industrial civilization. Prior to industrial revolution, which started in 1785, we were essentially in the muscle age when our energy primarily came from human and animal muscles. In those days, world population was small, life was simple and unsophisticated, and the environment was relatively clean. The mechanical age, or the age of steam and heat engines, started with industrial revolution. Then, the electrical age started in the late nineteenth century by the commercial availability of electricity and, particularly, by the invention of commercial

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Fig. 2. Idealized fossil and nuclear energy depletion curves of the world (2008).

Fig. 1.

Global and U.S. energy generation scenario (2008).

induction motor. Then, the age of modern solid-state electronics started by the invention of the transistor in 1948. Commercial thyristor was introduced in 1958, setting the age of modern solid-state power electronics or what we often call The Second Electronics or Power Electronics Revolution. Then gradually came the age of integrated circuits (ICs), computers, communication, and roboticsand now, we live in the Internet age. During the mechanical, electrical, and electronics ages, the energy consumption in the world was growing by leaps and bounds to cater the need of growing global population and the quest for higher living standard. So far, we hardly paid any attention to the adverse effect of energy consumption, i.e., environmental pollution. Fig. 1 shows the global energy generation (or consumption) scenario and the U.S. energy generation in the same perspective. Around 84% of the total energy in the world is generated by fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), 3% from nuclear plants, and the remaining 13% comes from renewable sources, such as hydro, wind, solar, biofuels, geothermal, wave, and tidal power. The U.S. energy generation pattern is essentially similar. About 41% of the U.S. energy comes from oil which is mainly used in automobile transportation. It is interesting to note that about 70% of the U.S. oil is imported from outside of which a bulk is from the Middle East, and this is the possible reason for so much turmoil there. Again, it is interesting to note that per capita energy consumption in the world is highest in the USA. With nearly 4% of the world population (313 million out of 7 billion), the USA consumes nearly 28% of global energy, and this reects a very high living standard (Switzerland has now the highest living standard). In comparison, China (now the worlds second largest economy) with nearly 20% of the world population (1.3 billion) consumes almost the same total energy as that of the USA. Of course, this scenario is changing fast because of the rapid industrialization of China.

Fig. 2 shows the idealized energy depletion curves of fossil and nuclear fuels of the world (updated from [10]), considering the present availability and the current rate of consumption. The world has enormous reserve of coal, and at the present consumption rate, it is expected to last around 200 years. Looking at the oil depletion curve, it appears to be near the peak now and is expected to be exhausted in 100 years. The recent rise of oil price is natural because the demand is rising and the supply is dwindling. The natural gas reserve is expected to last around 150 years. Natural uranium (U235) has very low reserve and is expected to last around 50 years. Of course, it is possible to generate new nuclear fuel in breeder reactor. How will we y our airplanes and run our automobiles when oil gets totally exhausted? Of course, some fossil fuels can be converted from one form to another which may be expensive. With proper conservation, the curves in the gure can be attened. Discovery and exploration of new fuel resources, particularly offshore oil and gas, can provide new resources. It is believed that the Arctic Ocean contains the worlds 25% oil and gas reserves, the exploration of which can be expensive. Note that Fig. 2 does not include renewable energy resources, which will theoretically extend the energy depletion curve to innity. It is no wonder that, because of competitive costs and extensive availability and because they are environmentally clean in nature, renewable sources are now getting so much emphasis all over the world. Recent study (will be discussed later) has indicated that renewable energy alone with adequate storage can supply all the energy needs of the world. Again, fusion energy does not yet show any promise for the future. Fig. 3 shows electricity generation by different fuel types for a few selected countries of the world. For example, in the USA, 40% of the total energy is consumed in electrical form of which nearly 50% comes from coal, 2% from oil, 18% from natural gas, 20% from nuclear plants, and the remaining 10% comes from renewables (mainly hydro). The gas-generated electricity is being favored more (with the corresponding decrease from coal) because of the recent availability of cheap and abundant shale gas. Japan had 31% electricity from nuclear resource, but the recent

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Fig. 3. Electricity generation by fuel types of some selected countries (2008).

Fig. 4. Per capita CO2 emission versus population of some selected countries.

nuclear accident in the Fukushima-Daiichi plant is altering the scenario, emphasizing more on renewable resources. Interestingly, the worlds two most fast developing economies (China and India) generate most of the electricity by burning coal. III. C LIMATE C HANGE P ROBLEMS M ETHODS OF M ITIGATION Unfortunately, burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) generates pollutant gases (SO2 , CO, NOX , HC, and CO2 ) that cause environmental pollution problems. For example, acid rain that destroys vegetation is caused by SO2 and NOX , and urban pollution is caused mainly by automobile exhaust gases (CO, NOX , and HC). The more dominant effect of fossil fuel burning is the climate change problem [6] that is mainly caused by CO2 [also methane (CH4 ) and other gasescalled greenhouse gases (GHGs)], which traps solar heat in the atmosphere. The United Nations (UN) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has ascertained with 90% certainty that manmade burning of fossil fuels causes climate change problem. Fig. 4 shows the per capita CO2 emission versus population of some selected countries in the world. The horizontal axis shows the population of the countries, and the vertical axis shows the

CO2 emission per person (in tons/yr.). It is interesting to note that the USA has the highest per capita emission in the world (excluding some Middle-East countries), and Canada is very close. Next is Australia, and the European nations, as well as Russia and Japan, are typically less than 50% of that of the USA. Although Switzerland has the highest standard of living, its emission level is moderate, as shown. The total emission in a country, given by the area of the rectangle, is very important. The standard of living in China is much lower than that of the USA, and its per capita emission is very low. However, because of large population, the total emission in China is large and, in fact, exceeded that of the USA from 2006. The USA refuses to accept mandatory emission control unless China takes adequate remedial action. On the other hand, China blames the USA and other industrialized nations for creating this mess and is not willing to sacrice its growing standard of living by reducing energy consumption. Interestingly, Brazil has good standard of living but low per capita emission. In Brazil, typically 90% of energy (in electrical form) comes from hydro, it has large CO2 sinking Amazon rain forest, and 50% of its automobiles run on renewable sugarcane-based biofuel. Biofuels are said to have carbon neutralization effect because they absorb CO2 during plant growth but emit CO2 at burning.

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What are the effects of climate change? As mentioned before, GHG causes the Earths atmosphere to accumulate solar heat and raise its temperature that may be a few degrees in 100 years. Note that a signicant amount of global warming is caused by water vapor and cloud that act as bias and help to sustain plant and animal life on Earth. Climate scientists are trying to model the climate system (extremely complex) and predict atmospheric temperature rise by extensive simulation study on supercomputers. The most serious effect of global warming is the melting ice in the Arctic, the Antarctic, Greenland, the Himalayas, and thousands of glaciers around the world that will cause the inundation of low-lying areas. In fact, the study has shown that Arctic ice shrank by 500 000 mi2 in 2006 alone, which is three times faster than the computer prediction by climate scientists. This is very bafing to the scientists. The melting of ice is raising the sea level with the potential to ood the low-lying areas. It has been estimated that about 100 million people live within 3 ft of the sea level, and they will experience ooding of their habitats. Again, with the projected rise of the sea level, it is estimated that 50% of Bangladesh will be under water in 300 years, which will displace 75 million people. It has been predicted that, if all the ice in Greenland and Antarctica melts, the sea level will rise by 200 ft. The city of Manhattan in New York will be under 200-ft water if all the ice in two polar ice caps melts. The Arctic region will be virtually free from ice by 2070. The melting of the Arctic ice is removing the habitats of polar bears and penguins with the expected extinction of these species. The highly sensitive corals in the sea are dying due to higher water temperature and acidity of dissolved CO2 . Aside from sea level rise, climate change will bring severe droughts in tropical countries (like Africa and India). This will damage the agriculture and vegetation, bring hurricanes, tornadoes, heavy rains, and oods, and spread diseases. For example, according to UN, Indias agricultural production is expected to decrease by 38% by 2080 due to drought, but carbon fertilization will offset it by 9%. Again, according to UN estimate, if all fossil fuel burning is completely stopped today, the ocean level will rise by 4.6 ft in the next 1000 years. All these climate change effects will bring tremendous unrest and instability in the world. Considering the serious consequences, the UN Kyoto Protocol emerged in 1997. Under this treaty, each member country is required to limit emission within a certain quota. Unfortunately, the Kyoto Protocol implementation is not being very successful in the recent years. How can we solve or mitigate the climate change problems? The methods can be summarized as follows [7], [8]. 1) Promote all of our energy consumption in electrical form. Centralized fossil fuel power stations can use emission control strategy effectively. 2) Cut down or eliminate coal-red power generation. Else, develop clean coal technology with CO2 capture and underground sequestration. 3) Increase nuclear power(?). Nuclear power has usual safety and radioactive waste problems. (The trend is tending to reverse after the recent Fukushima-Daiichi nuclear power plant accident in Japan.)

4) Since trees absorb CO2 , preserve rain forests in the world, and promote widespread forestation. 5) Control human and animal population since they exhale GHG. Moreover, larger population means more energy consumption. This method is not easy. 6) Promote the generation of environmentally clean energy. 7) Replace internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles by electric vehicles (EVs)/hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). 8) Promote mass electrical transportation. 9) Save energy by more efcient generation, transmission, distribution, and utilization of electricity, which is the goal of future smart grid [11], [12]. 10) Finally, energy wastage must be prevented, and its consumption should be economized to make the lifestyle simpler. It has been estimated that almost 33% of energy in the world can be saved by this method. There are, of course, a few benecial effects of climate change. As mentioned before, 25% of the worlds oil and gas reserves below the Arctic Ocean will be available for exploration. The carbon fertilization effect will benet agriculture and plants. The melting of polar ice caps will open new transoceanic shipping routes. In addition, the melting of ice will recover new lands that will be available for habitation and agriculture.

IV. I MPACT OF P OWER E LECTRONICS Let us now fall back to power electronics and explain why it is so important today not only for industrialization and general energy systems but also for energy saving and, thus, for mitigating climate change problems. As you know, power electronics deals with conversion and control of electrical power with the help of power semiconductor devices that operate in switching mode, and therefore, the efciency of power electronic apparatus may approach as high as 98%99%. With the advancement of technology, as the cost of power electronics decreased signicantly, size became smaller, and the performance improved; power electronics applications are proliferating in industrial, commercial, residential, aerospace, military, utility, and transportation systems. In industrial systems, power electronics helps productivity improvement with the improvement of product quality. Another important role of power electronics, which is getting strong emphasis recently, is the energy saving. This will be discussed separately. In addition, the impact of power electronics in renewable energy systems, bulk energy storage, and electric/hybrid vehicles is signicant in solving our energy shortage [13], which will be discussed next.

A. Energy Saving The high efciency of power electronics-based energy systems has been discussed before. Saving of energy gives the nancial benet directly, particularly where the energy cost is high. The extra cost of power electronics can be recovered within a reasonable period. In addition, reduced consumption

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means reduced generation that indirectly mitigates the environmental pollution and climate change problems. Power electronic control instead of traditional rheostatic or motor/ generator set control is obviously more efcient. In many parts of the world, rheostatic speed control of subway drives is still used. According to the Electric Power Research Institute of the USA, nearly 60%65% of grid-generated energy in the USA is consumed by electrical motor drives, and 75% of these are pump, fan, and compressor-type drives. The majority of the pumps and fans are used in industrial environment for the control of uid ow. In such applications, the traditional method of ow control is by variable throttle or damper opening, where an induction motor coupled to the pump runs at constant speed (in the USA, 96% of large drives still use this traditional method). This method causes a lot of energy wastage by uid vortex. In such applications, variable-frequency motor speed control with fully open throttle can save around 20% energy at light load. Again, converter-fed machine efciency can be improved further by ux programming at light load. Power electronicsbased load-proportional speed control of air conditioner/heat pump can save energy by up to 20%. One popular application of power electronics in recent years is variable-frequency drive in diesel-electric ship propulsion, which can save considerable amount of fuel compared with the traditional diesel-turbine drive. It has been estimated that around 20% of grid energy in the USA is consumed in lighting. Power electronics-based compact uorescent lamps (CFLs) are typically four times more efcient than incandescent lamps, besides having longer (ten times) life. Some countries have already banned incandescent lamps. Currently, the emerging solid-state LED lamps consume 50% less energy than CFLs and have ve times longer life. High efciency induction and microwave cooking also save a lot of energy. The smart or intelligent grid of tomorrow will extensively use state-of-the-art power electronics, computers, and communication technologies and will permit optimum resource utilization, economical electricity to customers, higher energy efciency, higher reliability, and improved system security. In fact, indirectly, one goal of the smart grid is to gradually transition us toward future carbon-free society. It has been estimated that the widespread efciency improvement by power electronics and other methods with the existing technologies can save 20% of the global energy demand, and another 20% can be saved by preventing waste. B. Renewable Energy Systems As mentioned before, renewable energy resources, such as hydro, wind, solar, biofuels, geothermal, wave, and tidal powers, are environmentally clean and abundant in nature and therefore are getting tremendous emphasis all over the world. Scientic American has recently published a paper [16] by Stanford University professors that predicts that renewable energies only with adequate storage can supply all the energy needs of the world. Another study by UN IPCC reports that 50% of the total world energy can be met by renewable resources by 2050. After the recent nuclear accident in Japan, both Japan and Germany (Germany will exit from nuclear power by 2022) are planning to heavily emphasize

renewable energy. The wind and solar resources, which are heavily dependent on power electronics for conversion and control, are particularly important to meet our growing energy needs and mitigate the climate change problems. Note that solar energy can be two types: One is thermal through solar concentrators that generates steam and operates turbogenerators to generate electricity (like conventional steam power plant), and the other is PV generation of electricity by silicon semiconductor. 1) Wind Energy Scenario: In a modern wind generation system, the energy from the wind is converted to electricity by a generator coupled to a variable-speed wind turbine. The variable-voltage variable-frequency power is then converted to constant voltage and frequency by a converter system before feeding to the grid. The world has enormous wind energy resources, and they are the most economical green energy. According to the estimate of the European Wind Energy Association, the exploration of only 10% (Stanford University estimate is 20%) of the available resource can possibly supply all the electricity needs of the world. Recent technology advances in variable-speed wind turbines, power electronics, and machine drives have made wind energy very competitivealmost equal to that of fossil fuel power. Wind and PV energy are particularly attractive to the one-third of the world population that lives outside the electric grid. Among the developing countries, for example, China and India have large expansion programs for wind energy. Currently, in terms of percentage energy consumption, Denmark is the leader with 25% of wind energy, which is expected to rise to 40% by 2030. In terms of installed capacity, China is the leader, and the USA occupies the second place (close to Germany and Spain) with a total penetration of slightly more than 3%. The USA has the ambitious goal of increasing it to 20% by 2030. The wind potential of the USA is so huge that it can meet more than twice its current electricity need. The state of North Dakota alone has 2.5 times the total potential capacity of Germany. One drawback of wind energy is that its availability is statistical in nature and may require backup power from fossil or nuclear power plants. Of course, surplus wind generated energy can be stored (storage will be discussed later) for lean time utilization. Offshore wind farms generally give higher energy output than onshore farms, although their installation and maintenance are more expensive. 2) PV Energy Scenario: PV devices (crystalline or amorphous Si, CdTe, and copper indium gallium selenide) convert sunlight directly into electricity. The generated dc is then converted to ac and fed to the grid or used in autonomous load. The PV devices are static, safe, reliable, and environmentally clean (green) and do not require any repair and maintenance like wind power systems. However, in the current state of the technology, PV energy is generally typically three times more expensive than wind energy, but it truly depends on the utilization factor. Although, currently, PV energy is more expensive than that of solar thermal, with the present trend of aggressive research, the price is falling sharply to be more competitive in future. The PV energy is expected to have signicant expansion around the world. The IEEE has ambitious prediction that, by 2050, PV will supply 11% of the global electricity demand. The lifetime

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Fig. 5.

FC-based EV showing H2 generation methods.

of PV panel is typically 20 years, and conversion efciency is typically 15% with the commonly used thin-lm amorphous silicon. PV power has been extensively used in space applications, although their applications are recently expanding to rooftop installation and off-grid remote installations like wind power. Japan has very aggressive role in PV research and applications because it does not have much indigenous energy resources and energy is expensive there. The recent accident in the Fukushima-Daiichi nuclear reactors is now putting Japans emphasis shift from nuclear to PV resources. Unfortunately, like wind power, PV is also sporadic and therefore requires backup energy sources or bulk storage, or else, the recent smart grid concept can shift the energy demand curve to match with the available curve. Currently, there are ambitious plans to explore solar energy from the African deserts like Sahara and Kalahari through extensive PV installations [14] and tying to the European grid through HVdc transmission. 3) FC Energy Scenario: In an FC, H2 gas is the fuel, and it combines with oxygen to produce electricity and water. The FC stacks can be considered as equivalent to series-connected lowvoltage batteries. The dc voltage generated by FC is normally stepped up by a dcdc converter and then converted to ac by an inverter for ac power supply. An FC is characterized by high output resistance and sluggish transient response (due to polarization effect). H2 can be generated from water by electrolysis or from hydrocarbon fuels (gasoline and methanol) through a reformer. An FC can be dened as a clean energy source if H2 is generated from a clean energy source. FC is safe and static and has high efciency (typically 54%). The FC types can be classied as proton exchange membrane FC (PEMFC), phosphoric acid FC, direct methanol FC, and solid-state FC.

All of them are available commercially, but PEMFC is the most economical with high power density and low temperature (60 C100 C) and therefore is important for FC-based electric cars. FCs can also be used for building cogeneration, distributed power source for utility system, and UPS system or as portable power source. Although it is bulky and expensive in the present state of the technology, extensive R&D is recently reducing the cost of FC dramatically. Fig. 5 shows the principle of FC-based EV that also summarizes different methods of H2 generation. In an FC vehicle, a PEMFC usually generates the dc power, which is boosted by a dcdc converter and then converted to variable-frequency variable-voltage power for driving an ac motor. Since FC cannot absorb vehicle regenerative power, a battery or ultracapacitor (UC) is needed at the FC terminal [through another dcdc converter (not shown)]. The battery/UC also supplies power during acceleration because of sluggish FC response. The H2 fuel is supplied from a tank, where it can be stored as cryogenically cooled liquid or compressed gas. H2 is usually generated from water using electricity from the grid, or from environmentally clean source, such as wind, PV, or nuclear. It can also be generated from coal through coal gasication (integrated gasication combined cycle), where the by-product CO2 gas is sequestered in underground storage, as indicated. The O2 for the FC is obtained from air through a compressor. C. Bulk Energy Storage As mentioned before, renewable energy sources, such as wind and PV, are statistical in nature because of the dependence on weather conditions (and the time of the day) and

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therefore require storage of surplus energy to match with the energy demand curve on the grid. As mentioned before, to avoid expensive grid energy storage, the smart grid concept can be used, where smart metering can condition the demand curve (demand-side energy management) to match with the available generation curve by offering lower tariff rate. For example, EV battery charger, water heater, washer/dryer loads, etc., can be shifted to off-peak hours, when electricity is cheaper. There are various methods of grid energy storage [19][22] which can be briey summarized as follows. 1) Pumped storage in hydroelectric plantIn this method, hydrogenerators are used as motor pumps to pump water from tail to head and store at high level using the cheap off-peak grid energy. During the peak demand, the head water runs the generators to supply the demand. It is possibly the cheapest method of energy storage but is applicable only with proper site facilities. Otherwise, it may be expensive. The typical cycle energy efciency may be 75%, and cost may be less than $0.01/kWh. Currently, there is over 90 GW of pumped storage facility around the world. A new concept in this method is to use wind turbines or solar cells to directly drive water pumps for energy storage. 2) Battery storageHistorically, this has been the most common form of energy storage for the grid. In this method, electrical energy from the grid is converted to dc and stored in a battery. Then, the stored energy is retrieved through the same converter system to feed the grid. Although very convenient with high cycle efciency (typically 90%), battery storage is possibly the most expensive (typically > $0.1/kWh). Leadacid battery has been used extensively, but recently, NiCd, NaS, Li-ion, and ow batteries (such as vanadium redox) are nding favor. For example, General Electric (GE) installed 10-MVA leadacid battery storage in the Southern California Edison grid in 1988. The worlds largest battery storage was installed by ABB in Fairbank, Alaska, in 2003 that uses NiCd battery with a capacity of 27 MW for 15 min. Flow batteries have fast response and can be more economical in large-scale storage. 3) Flywheel (FW) storageIn FW storage, electrical energy from the grid is converted to mechanical energy through a converter-fed drive system (operating in motoring mode) that charges a FW, and then the energy is recovered by the same drive system operating in generating mode. The FW can be placed in vacuum or in H2 medium, and magnetic bearing can be used to reduce the energy loss. Steel or composite material can be used in FW to withstand high centrifugal force due to high speed. FW storage is more economical ($0.05/kWh) and has been used, but mechanical storage has the usual disadvantages. Recently, wind turbines have been used with direct coupling to FW system to achieve better efciency. 4) Superconducting magnet energy storage (SMES)In this method, grid energy is rectied to dc, which charges

5)

6)

7)

8)

SMES coil to store energy in magnetic form (1/2 L I2 ). Then, energy is retrieved by the reverse process. The coil is cooled cryogenically so that dissipation resistance tends to be zero, and the energy can be stored indenitely. Either liquid helium (0 K) or high-temperature superconductor (HTS) in liquid nitrogen (77 K) can be used. The cycle efciency can be higher than 95%. SMES storage is yet very expensive. UC storageA UC (also called supercapacitor or electrical double layer capacitor) is an energy storage device like an electrolytic capacitor (EC), but its energy storage density (Wh or 1/2 CV2 /kg) can be as much as 100 times higher than that of EC. UCs are available with low-voltage rating (typically 2.5 V) and capacitor values up to several thousand farads. The units can be connected in seriesparallel for higher voltage and higher capacitance values. However, the Wh/kg of UC is low compared to that of a battery (typically 6 : 120 ratio for a Li-ion battery). The power density (W/kg) of UC is very high, and large amount of power can cycle through it (see Fig. 5) without causing any deterioration. In the present state of technology, UCs are yet expensive for bulk grid energy storage. Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) storageThis is somewhat a new concept for bulk energy storage assuming that a large number of battery EVs are plugged in the grid. A plugged-in EV can sell electricity to the grid during peak demand and then charge the battery during off-peak hours. V2G technology can be used, turning each vehicle with its 2050-kWh battery pack into a distributed loadbalancing device or emergency power source. However, the main disadvantage is that the battery life is shortened by chargedischarge cycles. H2 gas storageH2 gas can be used as bulk energy storage medium and then used in FC or burned as a fuel in IC engine. This idea has generated the recent concept of hydrogen economy, i.e., H2 as the future clean energy source. As mentioned before, H2 can be generated easily from abundantly available sporadic sources like wind and PV and stored as compressed or liqueed gas with high density amassable fuel. Of course, it can be generated also from hydrocarbon fuels with underground sequestration of undesirable CO2 gas. Bulk H2 production using biomass and its underground storage in caverns, salt domes, and depleted oil and gas elds are now being investigated. The overall energy efciency of H2 storage cycle may be 50% to 60%, which is lower than that of battery or pumped storage systems. Compressed air energy storage (CAES)CAES is another grid energy storage method, where off-peak or renewably generated electricity is used to compress air and store underground. When electricity demand is high, the compressed air is heated with a small amount of natural gas and then burned in turboexpanders to generate electricity. CAES system has been used in Europe. The idea of using wind turbines to compress air directly is oating around.

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Fig. 6.

Comparison of battery EV with FC EV (300-mi range).

D. Electric/Hybrid Electric Vehicle Scenario Petroleum fuel price increase and environmental (particularly urban) pollution control are the main motivations for worldwide R&D activities in EV/HEV for more than the last three decades. In an EV, generally, battery is the energy storage device. The dc is converted to variable-frequency variablevoltage ac to drive an ac motor (induction or synchronous). The braking energy can easily be regenerated to recharge the battery. In a HEV, battery is the energy storage device. This is assisted by a power device which is usually a gasoline IC engine. While range is the main problem in pure EV, there is no such problem in HEV. The power electronics and motor drive technology for EV/HEV is somewhat mature with reasonably low cost. Unfortunately, however, todays battery technology is not yet mature in spite of prolonged R&D. It is expensive and bulky with large weight and has limited cycle life, and charging takes several hours. Although Nimetal hydride (MH) batteries are extensively used, recently, Li-ion batteries have penetrated in the market. The latter has more than twice the storage density than the former but is twice expensive. It appears that Li-ion (or Li based) is the battery of the future, and currently, there is large emphasis for its research in the USA. The HEVs will disappear from the market when economical EVs with long range are available. Currently, a number of EVs and HEVs are commercially available in the market. Among the HEVs, Toyota Prius II (non-plug-in) with NiMH battery (1.2 kWh), gasoline engine (57 kW), and interior permanent magnet synchronous motor (IPMSM) drive (50 kW) is the most popular in the market with an approximate price of $28 000. Soon, a plug-in version with Li-ion battery will be introduced. Pure EV has a long history. Currently, Tesla Roadstar in the USA sells EV (Li-ion battery, 215 kW, 3.5-h charging, and 245-mi range) at a price over $100 000 to rich people. The battery life is typically 100 000 mi. Some examples of recent introductions in the market are Nissan Leaf and Chevy Volt, both of which use Li-ion battery. Leaf is pure EV (100-mi range) with a price of $32 780 of which the

battery cost is around $18 000. Volt is HEV (price of $40 280), where the battery is charged by an ICE. In pure EV mode, its range is only 40 mi but can extend to 360 mi with ICE charging. More EVs/HEVs will be introduced in future. E. Comparison of Battery EV With FC EV Since R&D for both battery EV and FC EV are progressing in parallel, it is worth making comparison between the two technologies. Fig. 6 summarizes this comparison [23] in todays technology for mass production with identical 300-mi range and assuming that both deliver 60 kWh to the wheels. The battery EV is assumed to have the battery charging from clean wind energy (although, currently, it is mostly from coal or nuclear), which is required to supply 79 kWh with a power line efciency of 92%, battery charging efciency of 89%, battery efciency of 94%, and drive train efciency of 89%, as indicated in the gure. Typically, 6 kWh of regenerated energy has been considered in this calculation. The total energy efciency of battery EV is calculated as 68%. The estimated cost of the vehicle is $20 000 with battery cost of $0.16/W and $250/kWh. The FC EV is also assumed to have primary energy from wind turbines. Considering all the efciency gures of FC-EV line, the total energy efciency is only 30%, i.e., 202 kWh is to be supplied from wind turbines. Note that auxiliary storage of FC EV has been ignored for simplicity. The corresponding cost gures for FC EV are indicated in the gure. In summary, FC EV is 38% less efcient, has 43% more weight, and is 50% more expensive. Considering the disadvantages, FC-EV research has recently been backed down in the USA. V. S OME E XAMPLE A PPLICATIONS A. HVDC System for Wind Park Interconnection Wind power can be available either from onshore or offshore installations, where a cluster of wind turbine generator

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converter uses sinusoidal PWM with zero sequence injection to maintain maximum modulation index so that the dc voltage is maximum and efciency and power can be maximum. There are a number of such HVdc-based wind park installations around the world. Siemens uses such system (HVDC PLUS) using IGBT-based multilevel converters [25].

B. FACTS for P and Q Control The real (P) and the reactive (Q) power of a transmission system can be controlled by power electronics-based FACTS. The basic power electronic unit of FACTS is STATCOM, which is a solid-state version of a rotating synchronous condenser. The traditional STATCOM uses thyristor-controlled reactor with parallel capacitor and thyristor-switched capacitor-bank-type static VAR compensator (SVC). In recent years, high-power STATCOMs have been developed using GTO-based multilevel (three-level) voltage-fed converters and applied in utility systems. Fig. 8 shows the FACTS that has been recently installed by Siemens for New York Power Authority (NYPA) [26]. The main diagram shows a transmission line with receiving terminal and sending terminal along with the FACTS equipment consisting of two STATCOMs (CONV-1 and CONV-2), and the phasor diagrams explain their operation. Both the CONVs are identical, and each consists of GTO-based three-level 48-stepped 100-MVA voltage-fed converter with capacitor on the dc side and coupled to the line by means of a transformer as shown. With the switch S open, CONV-1 is a shunt STATCOM that can operate as three-phase variable capacitor or inductor, as explained by the phasor diagrams (a) and (b) on the left. Therefore, CONV-1 alone can be used to control the sending end bus voltage V3 or the ow of Q in the sending source. The CONV-2 injects series voltage Vi as a phasor so that V2 = V3 + Vi . The phasor diagrams on the right indicate that Vi is aligned perpendicular to the line current I1 but subtracts and adds, respectively, from the sending terminal voltage V3 . In (c), the current lags the injected voltage by 90 , i.e., the line current is reduced by equivalent series inductance effect. On the other hand, in (d), the current leads the injected voltage by 90 , i.e., the line current is increased by equivalent series capacitance effect. Note that, in either cases, CONV-2 controls the P and Q of the line but does not require any input dc power (S is open). The universal-power-ow-control characteristics of CONV-2 are explained by the phasor diagrams of (e), which indicates that the arbitrary d and q component of voltage (within the total limited magnitude of Vi ) can be injected in series to control P and Q independently. In such a case, real power has to ow through CONV-2, as shown by the current Id on the dc side with the switch S closed. This means that CONV-1 supplies the real power Vd Id which is circulated in CONV-2, but in addition, it can control the Q ow independently. This exible P and Q control features in a segment of a transmission system are extremely important. The transient response of the STATCOMs to supply and absorb energy pulses is very fast, and therefore, they can control transient stability and generator oscillation problems of the system.

Fig. 7. HVDC system with voltage-fed two-level IGBT converters for offshore wind park interconnection (simplied diagram) (ABB HVDC Light NordE.ON 1).

units (called wind farm or park) pool the power together and then are interconnected to the grid. Generally, wind parks are located away from load centers and therefore require highvoltage transmission before connecting to the grid. A number of wind power systems with HV transmission have been built around the world. Fig. 7 shows the simplied diagram of HVDC transmission system (NordE.ON1) [24] for the worlds largest offshore wind park (450 MW) in the North Sea that is interconnected to the German grid. It has been recently built by ABB using HVDC Light technology, as indicated in the gure. The wind park feeds ac power at the sending station, where the voltage is boosted by a three-winding transformer (to supply auxiliary power), and feeds a back-to-back voltagefed PWM converter system (only the sending end is shown in simplied form) before connecting to the ac grid at the receiving station on the right. The intermediate double-circuit HVdc transmission system at 150 kV is 200 km long (with 128 km undersea and 75 km underground). The cable transmission has the usual advantages of better efciency, less cost, and absence of visual effect and the harmful effects of electric and magnetic elds compared to overhead transmission. Each converter unit is a three-phase two-level PWM voltage-fed IGBT module converter (only half-bridge is shown), where a large number of matched high-voltage devices (4.5 kV) are connected in seriesparallel (multichip wafer) to share the large voltage and power. Note that multilevel converters and IGCT devices (invented by ABB) are not used in the installation. Although IGBT conduction drop is higher, it has the advantages of continuous current limiting, higher switching frequency (2.0 kHz in this case), and faster turn-on and turnoff capability to force the proper voltage and current sharing during switching. The voltage-fed converter system has the usual advantages of multiterminal capability, control of active (P) and reactive (Q) power independently, and mitigation of icker or grid voltage instability by fast Q control. In the absence of P, either sides can be used as a STATCOM. The three-winding power transformer uses on-load tap changing to maintain the converter voltage maximum irrespective of supply voltage variation. The

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Fig. 8.

FACTS (NYPA).

Fig. 9.

Commercial DTC ac motor drive (ABB ACS6000).

C. Medium-Voltage High-Power DTC Drives (ACS6000) ABB Company in Europe commercially introduced direct torque and ux controlled (DTFC or DTC) induction motor drives in the mid-1990s as an improvement of traditional volts/hertz controlled drives. In DTC control [42], the machine stator ux and torque are controlled simultaneously through respective hysteresis-band controls and selection of optimum space vector for PWM control of the inverter. The DTC control is fast (comparable to vector control), and its implementation is simple, although there is pulsating torque problem. Recent R&D has made improvement of this problem. Fig. 9 shows the converter congurations for the ABB ACS6000 class of medium-voltage (up to 3.3 kV) high-power (327 MW) induction or synchronous motor drives which are normally used in mine hoists, conveyors, pumps, marine propulsions, etc. The converter system uses phase-leg power electronic building

block with water cooling for size reduction. Three-level diodeclamped IGCT converters are used for the drives. The nonregenerative drives use 12 (or six) pulse diode rectier in the front end (top gure), whereas the regenerative four-quadrant drives use PWM rectier in the front end (bottom gure). In both cases, the line side satises the IEEE 519 and IEC61000 harmonic standards. Depending on the application, either single motor or multimotor drive units with common dc link can be used. All the systems use fuseless and encoderless designs. (Recently, the product has been withdrawn from the market.)

D. AFPM Machine Direct Drive With Vector Control for EV Drive Axial ux permanent magnet (PM) (AFPM) synchronous machines are recently showing a lot of promise, particularly for

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Fig. 10. Axial ux PMSM direct drive of EV with vector control.

direct drive applications, where the machine is coupled directly on the mechanical system. For example, in EV/HEV applications, AFPM machines can be mounted on two or more wheels, thus eliminating mechanical gears and differential which are used in single radial machine drive system. This gives higher efciency, less weight, and improved reliability. For direct drive, of course, the machine has the usual size and weight penalty. For EV/HEV application, the drive should operate in four quadrants with constant torque and eld-weakening modes. The stator disk of AFPM machine is usually toroidal in shape with radially mounted winding coils in slots. The rotor disk is annular with NdFeB magnets mounted on the surface. The machine characteristics are similar to that of surface-PM radial ux sinusoidal permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), but with higher torque or power density and improved efciency and reliability. The machine cogging torque is reduced by short-pitched trapezoidal magnets and slot magnetic wedge. The latter increases stator inductance and helps in enhancing the eld-weakening region. Fig. 10 shows an AFPM motor application for direct wheel drive of EV [34], [35]. The picture of the motor mounted on the EV wheel is shown on the top right. The drive system uses direct vector control with stator ux orientation. The machine has small armature reaction effect and therefore operates at nearly constant ux in efciency-optimized lookup table on torquespeed curves (which are a function of dc link voltage Vd ), shown on the upper left. Ideally, these data

permit satisfactory operation in constant torque as well as in eld-weakening regions with current control mode. In constant torque region, T e = f (iqs ), whereas in eld-weakening region, Te = f (iqs , ids ). The iqs and ids current control (called synchronous or dc current control) loops generate the respective voltage commands (vqs and vds ) through proportional-integral (P-I) regulators, which are added with the feedforward counter electromotive force signals to enhance the close loop responses. These voltages are then vector rotated, converted to three phases, and fed to the inverter that uses space-vector PWM (SVM). The lower portion of the gure shows the modulation index (M) control to prevent saturation to square-wave mode and compensate motor parameter variation effect. The ideal M and actual M are calculated and controlled in close loop manner by injecting ids with the lookup table generated ids , as shown in the gure. Standard symbols are used in the gure [3]. VI. C ONCLUSION AND F UTURE S CENARIO This paper gives a comprehensive review of the worlds energy scenario and the climate change problems due to manmade fossil fuel burning along with the possible mitigation methods. Then, it discusses the growing impact of power electronics on energy saving, renewable energy systems, bulk storage of energy, and electric/hybrid vehicles in the 21st century, in addition to the general trends of global industrialization. Finally, several example applications are described.

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Power electronics has now been established as a major discipline in electrical engineering, and with the maturing trend of the technology, the 21st century will nd tremendous emphasis on applications, applications and applications. It is now tending to merge as a high tech frontier in the classical power engineering domain. For so long, power electronics engineers have been very proud of their profession, but eventually, they will lose their identity and be identied as power engineers. It appears that the role of power electronics in our society in the future will be as important and versatile as computers and information technology today, if not more. In fact, computers, information technology, power electronics, and power systems will tend to merge to eventually emerge as a complex interdisciplinary technology. This trend is being evident by the new emergence of smart grid technology. Power electronics will eventually be an important element in the industrialization and energy policies of different nations of the world. What is the future scenario in power electronics technology? As the technology is maturing in recent years, we expect to see increasing emphasis on incremental application-oriented R&D in modularization, modeling, system analysis, simulation, design, and experimental evaluations. This trend is already evident in the recent conference and journal publications. In general, some advances and trends of power electronics can be summarized as follows. In power semiconductor devices, IGBT has now emerged as the dominant device in medium to high-power applications, whereas power MOSFET has become universal in low-power high-frequency applications. The IGCT is tending to lose the race with IGBT in the high-power area. Silicon-based bipolar junction transistor and GTO devices are already obsolete, and phase-controlled thyristors show the trend of obsolescence in the future. Large bandgap devices (such as SiC, GaN, and thin-lm diamond in the long run) are expected to bring renaissance in power electronics, particularly in high power for drives and utility system applications [37]. SiC-based Schottky barrier diodes (1200 V, 50 A) and power MOSFET half bridges (1200 V, 100 A) with bypass diodes are already available in the market. In fact, SiC MOSFETS with voltage rating up to 6 kV, when available, will wipe out most of the silicon-based power devices from the market. High-voltage high-power SiC MOSFET (up to 10 kV), IGBT (up to 25 kV), GTO (up to 40 kV), junction barrier Schottky (JBS), and p-i-n diodes (up to 10 kV) are yet in laboratory, and their emergence will create signicant impact in high-power applications. Attempts are now being made to replace high-power bulky 60-Hz transformer by solid-state high-frequency-link power transformer using SiC power devices [12]. GaN-on-Si power devices have all the advantages of SiC devices but show signicant potential for cost reduction. Power quality and lagging displacement power factor (DPF) problems are making the phase-controlled classical power electronics obsolete, promoting the active PWM line-side converters. Of course, AHFs and static VAR compensators tend to mitigate these problems. In the authors view, AHF will tend to be obsolete in the future. Among all the classes of converters, the voltage-fed class is becoming universal, replacing the present current-fed and cycloconverter classes. Multilevel (particularly the three-level diode-clamped type) voltage-fed converters

are showing increasing popularity in high-voltage high-power utility systems and drive applications. Cascaded H-bridge (CHB) or half-bridge topology has the advantage of modularity and fault-tolerant applications. Traditional matrix converters have been on and off many times since its invention in the 1980s, and in the authors view, its future promise appears to be low. SVM is being increasingly popular over sinusoidal PWM, and currently, there is a trend of SVM algorithm simplication for multilevel converters. Evidently, soft-switched converters for motor drives and other high-power applications have lost the promise except for high-frequency-link applications. The future emphasis on converters will be mainly on modularization and system integrationsimilar to the trend of very large scale integration technology. Evidently, power electronics will play an important role in the smart grid, as mentioned before. With the dominance of distributed renewable energy sources and bulk energy storage devices, maintenance of system frequency and bus voltages with optimum resource utilization, economical electricity supply to consumers, high system energy efciency, high system reliability, and fault-tolerant operation will require extensive system studies [39]. Electrical machines and drives, although practically a mature technology, incremental research will continue on performance optimization, precision parameter estimation and fault diagnosis for fault-tolerant control. With rising energy cost, PMSMs (with NdFeB magnet) will nd increasing acceptance, although they are more expensive than induction machines. In particular, IPMSM is more attractive for large eld-weakening applications. If magnet cost is sufciently low, PMSMs will dominate over induction motors in general industrial applications. Unfortunately, at present, China (which is the major source of NdFeB magnet, controlling 97% of the world supply) is restricting the world market supply and raising the price. Axial ux PMSM will nd application in direct drive, particularly for electric vehicle and wind generation system. Again, for high-power applications, wound-eld SMs remain popular. In the authors view, switched-reluctance-motor drives do not show any future promise in the majority of applications and have the clear trend of obsolescence. The majority of electrical machines will have converters in the front end in the present trend of decreasing converter cost, and integrated machine-converter-controller (particularly in the lower end of power) remains a clear trend. Among all the drive control techniques, the scalar control techniques (including DTC control) will be obsolete, and vector control will emerge as the universal controller. The cost differential in the complex vector drive and simple scalar control is hardly noticeable because only the software is more complex in the former, whereas the control hardware essentially remains the same. MATLAB/Simulinkbased simulation, particularly real-time simulation with hardware in the loop, is getting more emphasis. Although sensorless vector drive is already available commercially, near-zero-speed (or zero-frequency) precision speed or position estimation remains a challenge because of the need for machine saliency, complex signal processing with externally injected signal, and parameter variation problem. The estimation is more complex for induction machines compared to PMSM (which has builtin saliency). However, zero-frequency sensorless PMSM drives have been commercialized recently. With the present trend of

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DSP and eld programmable gate array (FPGA) [or application specic integrated circuit (ASIC)], a single chip control of sensorless vector drive with fault-tolerant control is not far away. As articial intelligence (AI) technology matures, intelligent control and estimation (particularly based on neural networks) will nd increasing acceptance in power electronics, particularly in the robust control of drives. With the maturing DSP and FPGA technologies, predictive control of power electronic systems based on plant model and system variables with well-known developed theory is showing a comeback for enhanced system performance [47], [48]. Finally, R&D in FCs, PV cells, batteries, passive circuit components, HTS, DSPs, and ASIC chips, although does not fall in the mainstream of power electronics, will signicantly impact power electronics evolution in this century. R EFERENCES
[1] B. K. Bose, Neural network applications in power electronics and motor drivesAn introduction and perspective, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 1433, Feb. 2007. [2] B. K. Bose, Power electronics and motor drivesRecent progress and perspective, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 581588, Feb. 2009. [3] B. K. Bose, Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2001. [4] B. K. Bose, Power Electronics and Motor DrivesAdvances and Trends. Burlington, MA: Academic, 2006. [5] B. Wu, High Power Converters for AC Drives. Piscataway, NJ: Wiley, 2006. [6] Global warming, [Online]. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ global_warming [7] B. K. Bose, Global warming, IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 117, Mar. 2010. [8] B. K. Bose, Energy, global warming and power electronics, in Proc. 4th Nat. Power Electron. Conf., Roorkee, India, Jun. 11, 2010. [9] B. K. Bose, Energy, environment and power electronics, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 688701, Jul. 2000. [10] J. R. Roth, Long Term Global Energy Issues in Industrial Plasma Engineering, vol. 1. Philadelphia, PA: Institute of Physics, 1995. [11] A. Ipakchi and F. Albuyeh, Grid of the future, IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 5262, Mar./Apr. 2009. [12] J. Wang, A. Q. Huang, W. Sung, Y. Liu, and B. J. Baliga, Smart grid technologies, IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 623, Jun. 2009. [13] I. Omura, Future role of power electronics, in Conf. Rec. Int. Conf. Integr. Power Electron. Syst., 2010, pp. 19. [14] Desertec Foundation, [Online]. Available: http://www.desertec.org [15] F. Trieb and H. Muller-Steinhagen, The deserter conceptSustainable electricity and water for Europe, Middle East and North Africa, pp. 2546, 2007, Desertech Whitebook. [Online]. Available: http://www. desertec.org [16] M. Z. Jacobson and M. A. Delunocchi, A path to sustainable energy by 2030, Sci. Amer., vol. 282, pp. 5865, Nov. 2009. [17] IPCC summary for policy makers, Special Report-Renewable Energy Sources, UAE, May 58, 2011 2011, 58, 2011. [18] B. Wu, Y. Lang, N. Zargari, and S. Kouro, Power Conversion and Control of Wind Energy System. Piscataway, NJ: Wiley, 2011. [19] Grid energy storage, Jun. 10, 2012 [Online]. Available: http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/grid_energy_storage [20] S. Lukic, Charging ahead, IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 2231, Dec. 2008. [21] S. Vazquez, S. Lukic, E. Galvan, L. G. Franquelo, and J. M. Carrasco, Energy storage systems for transport and grid applications, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 12, pp. 38813895, Dec. 2010. [22] S. Bahramirad and H. Daneshi, Optimum sizing of smart grid storage management in a microgrid, in Proc. IEEE PES ISGT , 2012, pp. 17. [23] S. Eaves and J. Eaves, A cost comparison of fuel-cell and battery electric vehicles, J. Power Sources, vol. 130, no. 1/2, pp. 208212, May 2004. [24] ABB, Its time to connect, Tech. Description HVDC Light Technol., Mar. 2008.

[25] Siemens HVDC PLUS-Technology, benets, and applications, May 2007. [Online]. Available: http://www.Siemens.com [26] S. Bhattacharya, B. Fardenesh, B. Shperling, and S. Zelingher, Convertible static compensator: Voltage source converter based FACTS application in the New York 345 kV transmission system, in Conf. Rec. IPEC, Niigata, Japan, Apr. 2005. [27] B. B. Jensen, Mission impossible? 100% renewable energy society: The European storyDenmark, in Proc. IEEE ECCE Conf., Sep. 21, 2011. [28] M. Liserre, R. Cardenas, M. Molinas, and J. Rodriguez, Overview of multi-MW wind turbines and wind parks, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 10811095, Apr. 2011. [29] R. Teodorescu, M. Liserre, and P. Rodriguez, Grid Converters for Photovoltaic and Wind Power Systems. Piscataway, NJ: Wiley, 2011. [30] Solar powerA painful eclipse, Economist, Oct. 15, 2011. [Online]. Available: http://www.economist.com/node/21532279, 15, 2011. [Online]. Available: http://www.economist.com/node/21532279 [31] ABB Group, Automation and power technologies, 2012. [Online]. Available: http://ABB.com [32] A. Emadi, Y. J. Lee, and K. Rajashekara, Power electronics and motor drives in electric, hybrid electric, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 22372245, Jun. 2008. [33] B. K. Bose and V. C. Jones, A frequency step up cycloconverter using power transistors in inverse series mode, Int. J. Electron., vol. 41, no. 6, pp. 573587, 1976. [34] K. M. Rahman, N. R. Patel, T. G. Ward, J. M. Nagashima, F. Caricchi, and F. Crescimbini, Application of direct-drive wheel motor for fuel cell electric and hybrid electric vehicle propulsion system, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 11851192, Sep./Oct. 2006. [35] K. M. Rahman, S. Hiti, N. R. Patel, T. G. Ward, J. M. Nagashima, F. Cresimbini, and F. Caricchi, Gearless wheel motor drive system, U.S. Patent 7 262 536, Aug. 28, 2007. [36] S. Kouro, M. Malinowski, K. Gopakumar, J. Pou, L. G. Franquelo, B. Wu, J. Rodriguez, M. A. Perez, and J. I. Leon, Recent advances and industrial applications of multi-level converters, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 8, pp. 25532580, Aug. 2010. [37] A. Hefner, R. Sei-Hyung, B. Hull, D. Berning, C. Hood, J. M. OrtizRodriguez, A. Rivera-Lopez, D. Tam, A. Adwoa, and M. HernandezMora, Recent advances in high-voltage, high-frequency silicon-carbide power devices, in Conf. Rec. IEEE 41st IAS Annu. Meeting, Oct. 2006, vol. 1, pp. 330337. [38] J. Holtz, Sensorless control of induction machinesWith or without signal injection? IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 730, Feb. 2006. [39] J. M. Carrasco, J. M. Franquelo, L. G. Bialasiewicz, E. Galvan, R. C. P. Guisado, M. A. M. Prats, J. I. Leon, and N. Alfonso, Powerelectronics systems for the grid integration of renewable energy sources: A survey, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 10021006, Aug. 2006. [40] H. Akagi, Large static converters for industry and utility applications, Proc. IEEE, vol. 89, no. 6, pp. 976983, Jun. 2001. [41] M. P. Kazmierkowski, L. G. Franquelo, J. Rodriguez, M. A. Perez, and J. S. Leon, High performance motor drives, IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 626, Sep. 2011. [42] G. S. Buja and M. P. Kazmierkowski, Direct torque control of PWM inverter-fed ac motorsA survey, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 51, no. 8, pp. 744757, Aug. 2004. [43] D. Casadei, F. Profumo, G. Serra, and A. Tani, FOC and DTC: Two viable schemes for induction motors torque control, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 779787, Sep. 2002. [44] J. Rodriguez, L. Franquelo, S. Kouro, J. Leon, R. Portillo, M. Prats, and M. Perez, Multi-level converters: An enabling technology for high-power applications, Proc. IEEE, vol. 97, no. 11, pp. 17861817, Nov. 2009. [45] J. Rodriguez, S. Bernet, P. K. Steimer, and I. E. Lizama, A survey on multi-point clamped inverters, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 7, pp. 22102230, Jul. 2010. [46] B. K. Bose, The past, present, and future of power electronics, IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 714, Jun. 2009. [47] P. Contas, P. Quaroz, and J. Rodriguez, Predictive control of a gridconnected cascaded H-bridge multilevel converter, in Proc. 14th Eur. Conf. EPE, 2011, pp. 17. [48] M. A. Perez, E. Fuentes, and J. Rodriguez, Predictive current control of acac modular multi-level converters, in Proc. ICIT , 2010, pp. 12891294. [49] SIMULINK Users Guide, The MathWorks, Inc., Natick, MA, 1997. [50] M. Liserre, T. Sauter, and J. Y. Hung, Future energy systems, IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 1837, Mar. 2010.

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Bimal K. Bose (S59M60SM78F89LF96) received the B.E. degree from Bengal Engineering College (currently the Bengal Engineering and Science University) (BESU), Calcutta, India, in 1956, the M.S. degree from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, in 1960, and the Ph.D. degree from Calcutta University, Calcutta, in 1966. He held the Condra Chair of Excellence (Endowed Chair Professor) in Power Electronics at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville (19872002), where he was responsible for teaching and research program in power electronics. Concurrently, he served as Distinguished Scientist (19892000) and Chief Scientist (19871989) of Electric Power Research InstitutePower Electronics Applications Center, Knoxville. Prior to this, he was a Research Engineer in the General Electric Corporate Research and Development (now GE Global Research Center), Schenectady, NY, for 11 years (19761987), an Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering with Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, for ve years (19711976), and a faculty member at BESU for 11 years (19601971). He is specialized in power electronics and motor drives, specially including power converters, PWM techniques, microcomputer/DSP control, electric/hybrid vehicle drives, renewable energy systems, and articial intelligence (expert system, fuzzy logic, and neural network) applications in power electronics and motor drives. He has been a power electronics consultant in a large number of industries. He holds an Honorary Professorship in Shanghai University (1991), the China University of Mining and Technology (1996), Xian Mining University (1998), and the Huazhong University of Science and Technology (2003). He has authored/edited seven books in power electronics: Power Electronics and Motor DrivesAdvances and Trends (Academic Press, 2006), Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives (Prentice Hall, 2002), Power Electronics

and AC Drives (Prentice Hall, 1986), Power Electronics and Variable Frequency Drives (Wiley/IEEE Press, 1997), Modern Power Electronics (IEEE Press, 1992), Microcomputer Control of Power Electronics and Drives (IEEE Press, 1987), and Adjustable Speed AC Drive Systems (IEEE Press, 1981). He has given tutorials, keynote presentations, and invited seminars extensively throughout the world, particularly in IEEE-sponsored programs and conferences. He has authored more than 250 papers and is the holder of 21 U.S. patents. Dr. Bose is a recipient of a number of awards, including the IEEE Power Electronics Society Newell Award (2005), IEEE Millennium Medal (2000), IEEE Meritorius Achievement Award in Continuing Education (1997), IEEE Lamme Medal (1996), IEEE Industrial Electronics Society (IES) Eugene Mittelmann Award (for lifetime achievement in power electronics and motor drives) (1994), IEEE Region 3 Outstanding Engineer Award (1994), IEEE Industry Applications Society (IAS) Outstanding Achievement Award (1993), Calcutta University Mouat Gold Medal (1970), GE Silver Patent Medal (1986), GE Publication Award (1985), and a number of IEEE prize paper awards. He also received the Distinguished Alumnus Award (2006) from BESU. He has served the IEEE in various capacities, including Chairman of the IES Power Electronics Council, Associate Editor of the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON I NDUSTRIAL E LECTRONICS , IEEE-Annual Conference of IEEE Industrial Electronics Society Power Electronics Chairman, Chairman of the IAS Industrial Power Converter Committee, IAS member of the Neural Network Council, Vice-Chair of the IEEE Medals Council, member of IEEE-USA Energy Policy Committee, member of the IEEE Fellow Committee, member of Lamme Medal Committee, member of IEEE Power Engineering Medal Committee, member of IEEE Awards Board, etc. He has served as a Distinguished Lecturer of both the IAS and IES. IEEE IES Magazine published a special issue (June 2009) Honoring Dr. Bimal Bose and Celebrating His Contributions in Power Electronics.