Post Weld Heat Treatment

PT. Bainita Heat Industries in executing its services. Due to the need for on-site pre heat and post weld heat treatment services. From this modest beginning in heat treatment, PT Bainita Heat Industries has grown to become to leading supplier of heat treatment equipment and services, offering electrical and gas or oil fired heat treatment system to customer. Our services include local PWHT (for Pressure Vessel, Storage Tank, and Pipe), Preheating Local, Electrical Resistance Heating, Internal Firing by Gas, Internal Firing by Oil, Furnace ( Electrical, Oil Firing, Gas Firing ). We also provide field services for pre and post weld heat treatment to four main industry sectors-general engineering fabrication, power generation, petrochemical/refinery, and offshore/marine. PT Bainita Heat Industries a consider able experience on serving the customer. Our goal is to be heat treat solution for your steel. In our services, we are supported by professional engineer, qualified and experienced personel in Post Weld Heat Treatment Engineering and Strength Knowladge in Metallurgy and Material.

WHAT IS Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) ? Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) is the process of reheating a weld to below the lower transformation temperature at a controlled rate, holding for a specific time and cooling at a controlled rate.

WHY NEED FOR POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT (PWHT)? Residual Stress The development of residual stresses approaching or even exceeding the yield stress is possible when welding thick sections. These stresses are created when a weld cools and its contraction is restricted by the bulk of the material surrounding it. . For certain industry sectors, eg. Petrochemical, Chemical, Oil and Gas, etc. the existence of residual stress of this magnitude is completely unacceptable. Residual Stress can cause damage and failure for material. A small hydrogen crack, was sufficient to cause catastrophic failure under test conditions. It is therefore important when considering PWHT or its avoidance, to ensure that all possible failure modes and their consequences are carefully considered before any action is taken. Tempering Effect Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) will generally result in a modification of the microstructure of both the weld metal and heat affected zone. Effect on Mechanical Properties 1. The consequences of Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) compared with the as-welded condition 2. Yield strength is decreased slightly, the effect falling off fairly rapidly with time. 3. The tensile strength is decreased. 4. The ductility is increased. 5. Hardness levels are reduced. 6. Toughness is slightly reduced at short times but the effect can be significant over longer times Effect on Creep Properties For creep resisting material, Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) is required in order to fully develop the creep strength. This is especially true for thicker components such as headers. But a variety of conditions have to be met Other benefits 1. Improving the diffusion of hydrogen out of weld metal 2. Softening the heat affected zone and thus improving toughness (although not weld metal toughness) 3. Improving dimensional stability during machining. 4. Improving ductility. 5. Improving the resistance to stress corrosion cracking. 6. Reducing the effects of cold work.

Dear EXperts I have a query regarding PWHT requirement. PWHT requirment of pipe (Based on thickness) 19mm plate : 38 mm Why there is a different in PWHT requirement based on thickness for pipe and plate ? Regards

Inspector 1978 Your question if it is related to power plant requirements in variations in code limits for PWHT - yes different codes allow variations in limits for PWHT from thickness and also materials grades from P 1 to P 3. ASA B 31.1 Power Piping code gives exemptions based on hardenability criteria for materials (See Table 132 in B 31.1 2001 edition) ASA B 31.3 code for Process Piping requires PWHT for P1 to P 3 grade materials if thickness > 0.75". B 31.3 also specifies the minimum T.S criteria for PWHT . See Table 333.1.1- B 31.3 code. As additional criteria for P 3 material this code specifies a limit of 225 BHN for PWHT. Pressure vessel code exemptions from PWHT are also based (in part) on the hardenability of the materials. P Nos. (established by ASME Section IX for the general purpose of weldability) are used, although in this case they are not necessarily good criteria. A review of the strengths of the materials in Section IX reveals that P No. 1 materials may have minimum specification tensile strengths within the range of 45 to 95 ksi. Carbon equivalence is abetter and more reliable measure of the hardenability of materials than the P Nos. Preheat is also a consideration when determining the resultant hardness of weldments. As the temperature of the material prior to welding increases, the cooling rate (and therefore the hardness) will decrease. The Code exemptions for thicker materials usually require a minimum preheat. Generally variation in limits from Piping vs Pressure Vessel Plate PWHT is based on lower

hardenability, particular material grade, Tensile Strength, Pre heat operations before welding and choice of heat input from welding processes (variations from TIG/SMAW/Submerged Arc etc). Hope this helps C.V.Srinivasan Nishi Engineers Pvt Ltd India April 27, 2010 Email: nishi@vsnl.com >Dear EXperts > >I have a query regarding PWHT requirement. > >PWHT requirment of pipe (Based on thickness) 19mm > plate : 38 mm > >Why there is a different in PWHT requirement based on >thickness for pipe and plate ? > >Regards

[updated:LAST EDITED ON Apr-27-10 AT 02:32 AM (CDT)]The difference in PWHT requirements for pressure piping and pressure vessels depends upon the acceptable hardenability. For the case of pressure vessels, resulting hardenability of materials after welding is acceptable up to 38 mm and in pressure piping code ASME B31.3, it is advisable to post weld heat treat any weld above 20 mm so that the resulting residual stress and hardness should come within the acceptable range. Regards, Ashfaq Anwer http://forums.thepetrostreet.com >Dear EXperts > >I have a query regarding PWHT requirement. > >PWHT requirment of pipe (Based on thickness) 19mm > plate : 38 mm > >Why there is a different in PWHT requirement based on >thickness for pipe and plate ? > >Regards

4.7 Post-weld heat treatment 4.7.1 General a. When post-weld heat treatment of a vessel is to be carried out, such treatment is to consist of: o heating the vessel slowly and uniformly up to a temperature suitable for the grade of steel o maintaining this temperature for a duration determined in relation to the actual thickness tA of the vessel and the grade of steel o slowly cooling the vessel in the furnace down to a temperature not exceeding

400C, with subsequent cooling allowed out of the furnace in still air. b. As far as possible, vessels are to be heat treated in a single operation. However, when the sizes of the vessels are such that heat treatment requires several operations, care is to be taken such that all the parts of the vessels undergo heat treatment in a satisfactory manner. In particular, a cylindrical vessel of great length may be treated in sections in a furnace if the overlap of the heated sections is at least 1500 mm and if parts outside the furnace are lagged to limit the temperature gradient to an acceptable value. 4.7.2 Thermal stress relieving Upon completion of all welding, including connections of nozzles, doublers and fittings, pressure vessels of classes 1 and 2, boilers and associated parts are to be subjected to an effective stress relieving heat treatment in the following cases: Pressure vessels of classes 1 and 2 containing fluids at a temperature not less than the ambient temperature, where the thickness exceeds that indicated in Tab 17 Boilers and steam generators for thicknesses higher than 20 mm or, depending upon the type of steel, for lower thicknesses as required for class 1 pressure vessels. Table 17 : Thermal stress relieving Grade Rm = 360 2 N/mm Grade HA Rm = 410 2 N/mm Grade HA Rm = 360 2 N/mm Grade HB Rm = 410 2 N/mm Grade HB Rm = 360 2 N/mm Grade HD Rm = 410 2 N/mm Grade HD Rm = 460 2 N/mm Grade HB Rm = 510 2 N/mm Grade HB Rm = 460 2 N/mm Grade HD Rm = 510 2 N/mm Grade HD 0,3Mo 1Mn 0,5Mo 1Mn 0,5MoV 0,5Cr 0,5Mo 1Cr 0,5Mo 2,25Cr 1Mo Thickness (mm) above which post-weld heat treatment is required Boilers 14,5 Unfired pressure vessels 14,5

20

30

20

38

20

25

20

35

20

20

ALL

ALL

Applications at temperatures less than the ambient temperature and/or steels other than those indicated above a re to be the subject of special consideration by the Society. Stress relieving heat treatment is not to be required when the minimum temperature of the fluid is

at least 30 C higher than the KV-notch impact test temperature specified for the steel; this difference in temperature is also to be complied with for welded joints (both in heat-affected zones and in weld metal). Pressure vessels and pipes of class 3 and associated parts are not required to be stress relieved, except in specific cases. 4.7.3 Heat treatment procedure The temperature of the furnace at the time of introduction of the vessel is not to exceed 400 C. a. The heating rate above 400 C is not to exceed: o 220C per hour if the maximum thickness is not more than 25 mm, or o (5500 / tA) C per hour, with a minimum of 55 C per hour, if the maximum thickness tA , in mm, is more than 25 mm b. The cooling rate in the furnace is not to exceed: o -280 C per hour if the maximum thickness is not more than 25 mm, or C per hour, with a minimum of -55 C per hour, if the maximum o -(7000 / tA) thickness tA , in mm, is more than 25 mm. Unless specially justified, heat treatment temperatures and duration for maintaining these temperatures are to comply with the values in Tab 18. Table 18 : Heat treatment procedure Grade Carbon steels 0,3Mo 1Mn 0,5Mo 1Mn 0,5MoV 0,5Cr 0,5Mo 1Cr 0,5Mo 2,25Cr 1Mo Temperatures 580-620 C 620-660 C Time per 25 mm of maximum thickness 1 hour 1 hour Minimum time 1 hour 1 hour

620-660 C 600-750 C (1)

1hour 2 hours

2 hours 2 hours

(1) The temperature is to be chosen, with a tolerance of 20 C, in this temperature range in order to obtain the required mechanical characteristics 4.7.4 Alternatives When, for special reasons, heat treatment is carried out in conditions other than those given in [4.7.2], all details regarding the proposed treatment are to be submitted to the Society, which reserves the right to require tests or further investigations in order to verify the efficiency of such treatment. 4.7.5 Execution of heat treatment Furnaces for heat treatments are to be fitted with adequate means for controlling and recording temperature; temperatures are to be measured on the vessel itself. The atmosphere in the furnaces is to be controlled in order to avoid abnormal oxidation of the vessel. 4.7.6 Treatment of test plates Test plates are normally to be heated at the same time and in the same furnace as the vessel. When separate heat treatment of test plates cannot be avoided, all precautions are to be taken such that this treatment is carried out in the same way as for the vessel, specifically with regard to

the heating rate, the maximum temperature, the duration for maintaining this temperature and the cooling conditions. 4.7.7 Welding after heat treatment a. Normally, welding after heat treatment is only allowed if: o the throat of welding fillets does not exceed 10 mm o the largest dimension of openings in the vessel for the accessories concerned does not exceed 50 mm. b. Any welding of branches, doubling plates and other accessories on boilers and pressure vessels after heat treatment is to be submitted for special examination by the Society.

Next:

4.8 Welding samples

HOW TO AVOID PWHT

The above picture is of a new pressure vessel that failed during its hydraulic test. The vessel had been stress relieved, but some parts of it did not reach the required temperature and consequently did not experience adequate tempering. This coupled with a small hydrogen crack, was sufficient to cause catastrophic failure under test conditions. It is therefore important when considering PWHT or its avoidance, to ensure that all possible failure modes and their consequences are carefully considered

before any action is taken.

The post weld heat treatment of welded steel fabrications is normally carried out to reduce the risk of brittle fracture by: Reducing residual Stresses. These stresses are created when a weld cools and its contraction is restricted by the bulk of the material surrounding it. Weld distortion occurs when these stresses exceed the yield point. Finite element modelling of residual stresses is now possible, so that the complete welding sequence of a joint or repair can be modelled to predict and minimise these stresses.

Tempering the weld and HAZ microstructure. The microstructure, particularly in the HAZ, can be hardened by rapid cooling of the weld. This is a major problem for low and medium alloy steels containing chrome and any other constituent that slow the austenite/ferrite transformation down, as this will result in hardening of the micro structure, even at slow cooling rates.

The risk of brittle fracture can be assessed by fracture mechanics. Assuming worstcase scenarios for all the relevant variables. It is then possible to predict if PWHT is required to make the fabrication safe. However, the analysis requires accurate measurement of HAZ toughness, which is not easy because of the HAZs small size and varying properties. Some approximation is possible from impact tests, providing the notch is taken from the point of lowest toughness. If PWHT is to be avoided, stress concentration effects such as: - backing bars, partial penetration welds, and internal defects in the weld and poor surface profile, should be avoided. Good surface and volumetric NDT is essential. Preheat may still be required to avoid hydrogen cracking and a post weld hydrogen release may also be beneficial in this respect (holding the fabrication at a temperature of around 250C for at least 2 hours, immediately after welding). Nickel based consumables can often reduce or remove the need for preheat, but their effect on the parent metal HAZ will be no different from that created by any other consumable, except that the HAZ may be slightly narrower. However, nickel based welds, like most austenitic steels, can make ultrasonic inspection very difficult. Further reduction in the risk of brittle fracture can be achieved by refining the HAZ microstructure using special temper bead welding techniques.

Forging

Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined part. As the metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal graindeforms to follow the general shape of the part. As a result, the grain is continuous throughout the part, giving rise to a piece with improved strength characteristics.
[3]

Some metals may be forged cold, but iron and steel are almost always hot forged. Hot forging prevents the work hardening that would result from cold forging, which would increase the difficulty of performing secondary machining operations on the piece. Also, while work hardening may be desirable in some circumstances, other methods of hardening the piece, such as heat treating, are generally more economical and more controllable. Alloys that are amenable toprecipitation hardening, such as most aluminium alloys and titanium, can be hot forged, followed by hardening.
[citation needed]

Production forging involves significant capital expenditure for machinery, tooling, facilities and personnel. In the case of hot forging, a high-temperature furnace (sometimes referred to as the forge) is required to heat ingots or billets. Owing to the massiveness of large forging hammers and presses and the parts they can produce, as well as the dangers inherent in working with hot metal, a special building is frequently required to house the operation. In the case of drop forging operations, provisions must be made to absorb the shock and vibration generated by the hammer. Most forging operations use metal-forming dies, which must be precisely machined and carefully heat-treated to correctly shape the workpiece, as well as to withstand the tremendous forces involved.
[citation needed]

Introduction Forging is the process by which metal is heated and is shaped by plastic deformation by suitably applying

compressive force. Usually the compressive force is in the form of hammer blows using a power hammer or a press. Forging refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal. With proper design, the grain flow can be oriented in the direction of principal stresses encountered in actual use. Grain flow is the direction of the pattern that the crystals take during plastic deformation. Physical properties (such as strength, ductility and toughness) are much better in a forging than in the base metal, which has, crystals randomly oriented.

Forgings are consistent from piece to piece, without any of the porosity, voids, inclusions and other defects. Thus, finishing operations such as machining do not expose voids, because there aren't any. Also coating operations such as plating or painting are straightforward due to a good surface, which needs very little preparation. Forgings yield parts that have high strength to weight ratio-thus are often used in the design of aircraft frame members. A Forged metal can result in the following Increase length, decrease cross-section, called drawing out the metal. Decrease length, increase cross-section, called upsetting the metal. Change length, change cross-section, by squeezing in closed impression dies. This results in favorable grain flow for strong parts

Common Forging Processes The metal can be forged hot (above recrystallization temperatures) or cold. Open Die Forgings / Hand Forgings: Open die forgings or hand forgings are made with repeated blows in an open die, where the operator manipulates the workpiece in the die. The finished product is a rough approximation of the die. This is what a traditional blacksmith does, and is an old manufacturing process. Impression Die Forgings / Precision Forgings: Impression die forgings and precision forgings are further refinements of the blocker forgings. The finished part more closely resembles the die impression. Design Consideration: Parting surface should be along a single plane if possible, else follow the contour of the part. The parting surface should be through the center of the part, not near the upper or lower edges. If the parting line cannot be on a single plane, then it is good practice to use symmetry of the design to minimize the side thrust forces. Any point on the parting surface should be less than 75 from the principal parting plane. As in most forming processes, use of undercuts should be avoided, as these will make the removal of the part difficult, if not impossible. Recommended draft angles are described in the following table. Material Aluminum Copper Alloys (Brass) Steel Draft Angle () 0-2 0-3 5-7

Stainless Steel

5-8

Generous fillets and radius should be provided to aid in material flow during the forging process. Sharp corners are stress-risers in the forgings, as well as make the dies weak in service. Recommended minimum radiuses are described in the following table. Height of Protrusion mm (in) 12.5 (0.5) 25 (1.0) 50 (2.0) 100 (4.0) 400 (16) Min. Corner Radius mm (in) 1.5 (0.06) 3 (0.12) 5 (0.2) 6.25 (0.25) 22 (0.875) Min. Fillet Radius mm (in) 5 (0.2) 6.25 (0.25) 10 (0.4) 10 (0.4) 50 (2.0)

Ribs should be not be high or narrow, this makes it difficult for the material to flow. Tolerances: Dimension tolerances are usually positive and are approximately 0.3 % of the dimension, rounded off to the next higher 0.5 mm (0.020 in). Die wear tolerances are lateral tolerances (parallel to the parting plane) and are roughly +0.2 % for Copper alloys to +0.5 % for Aluminum and Steel. Die closure tolerances are in the direction of opening and closing, and range from 1 mm (0.040 inch) for small forgings, die projection area < 150 cm (23 in ), to 6.25 mm (0.25 inch) for large forgings, die projection area > 6500 cm (100 in ). Die match tolerances are to allow for shift in the upper die with respect to the lower die. This is weight based and is shown in the the following table. Finished Forging Weight Material < 10 Trimmed kg (lb) < 50 > 500
2 2 2 2

(< 22)

(< 110) Die Match Tolerance mm (in)

(> 1100)

Aluminum, Copper Alloys, Steel Stainless Steel, Titanium

0.75 (0.030) 1.25 (0.050)

1.75 (0.070) 2.5 (0.100)

5 (0.200) 6.5 (0.260)

Flash tolerance is the amount of acceptable flash after the trimming operation. This is weight based and is shown in the following table. Finished Forging Weight Trimmed kg (lb) Material < 10 (< 22) < 50 (< 110) Flash Tolerance mm (in) Aluminum, Copper Alloys, Steel Stainless Steel, Titanium 0.8 (0.032) 1.6 (0.064) 3.25 (0.125) 5 (0.2) 10 (0.4) 12.5 (0.5) > 500 (> 1100)

A proper lubricant is necessary for making good forgings. The lubricant is useful in preventing sticking of the workpiece to the die, and also acts as a thermal insulator to help reduce die wear. Press Forgings: Press forging use a slow squeezing action of a press, to transfer a great amount of compressive force to the workpiece. Unlike an open-die forging where multiple blows transfer the compressive energy to the outside of the product, press forging transfers the force uniformly to the bulk of the material. This results in uniform material properties and is necessary for large weight forgings. Parts made with this process can be quite large as much as 125 kg (260 lb) and 3m (10 feet) long. Upset Forgings: Upset forging increases cross-section by compressing the length, this is used in making heads on bolts and fasteners, valves and other similar parts.

Roll Forgings: In roll forging, a bar stock, round or flat is placed between die rollers which reduces the cross-section and increases the length to form parts such as axles, leaf springs etc. This is essentially a form of draw forging. Swaging: Swaging - a tube or rod is forced inside a die and the diameter is reduced as the cylindrical object is fed. The die hammers the diameter and causes the metal to flow inward causing the outer diameter of the tube or the rod to take the shape of the die. Net Shape / Near-Net Shape Forging: In net shape or near-net shape forging, forging results in wastage of material in the form of material flash and subsequent machining operations. This wastage can be as high as 70 % for gear blanks, and even 90+ % in the case of aircraft structural parts. Net-shape and near-net-shape processes minimize the waste by making precision dies, producing parts with very little draft angle (less than 1). These types of processes often eliminate or reduce machining. The processes are quite expensive in terms of tooling and the capital expenditure required. Thus, these processes can be only justified for current processes that are very wasteful where the material savings will pay for the significant increase in tooling costs.

For proceeding any process design for a pressure piping system, it is necessary to decide -at the 1st stage of design- theDesign Temperature, which represents the max. (worst) expected temp. which can be attained during an operation. And this temp. shall be determined by a process designer. The same thing occurred with MDMT, which represents the lower (worst) temp. can be attained during the operation and we have to protect our piping system to withstand the lowering in the temp. Also, the process designer who decided the Design Temp. is requested to define the MDMT to adapt with the process design requirements. By defining the MDMT based on the process design, we can select the type of material, its type of heat treatment, and its thickness, then you can select the Curve A, B, C or D of Fig. 323.2.2a of ASME B31.3, from which you can find the Design Min. Temp. without impact test. Example: Suppose you have a pipe in a system with an MDMT -20 C, pipe wall nominal thickness 15 mm, and type of pipe material belong to Curve B. From Fig. 323.2.2a of ASME o o B31.3 the min. design temp. without impact test shall be approx. -16 C (higher than -20 C). So, we have to proceed an impact test to verify the soundness of pipe material at -20 C, otherwise you have to select another piping material with a lower Min. Design Temp. (belong to lower curves C or D). For the same situation, if you select another pipe material which belongs to Curve C, the Design o Min. Temp. for the same thickness 15 mm shall be approx. -33 C which is lower than the MDMT o -20 C, hence your selection is OK without an impact test. Fig. 323.2.2A Minimum Temperatures Without Impact Testing for Carbon Steel Materials (See Table A-1 for Designated Curve for a Listed Material; see Table 323.2.2A for Tabular Values)
o o

.....................................................

NOTES: (1) Any carbon steel material may be used to a minimum temperature of 29C (20 F) for Category D Fluid Service. (2) X Grades of API 5L, and ASTM A 381 materials, may be used in accordance with Curve B if normalized or quenched andtempered. (3) The following materials may be used in accordance with Curve D if normalized: (a) ASTM A 516 Plate, all grades (b) ASTM A 671 Pipe, Grades CE55, CE60, and all grades made with A 516 plate (c) ASTM A 672 Pipe, Grades E55, E60, and all grades made with A 516 plate (4) A welding procedure for the manufacture of pipe or components shall include impact testing of welds and HAZ for any design minimum temperature below 29 C (20 F), except as provided in Table 323.2.2, A-3(b). (5) Impact testing in accordance with para. 323.3 is required for any design minimum temperature below 48 C (55 F), except as permitted by Note (3) in Table 323.2.2. (6) For blind flanges and blanks, T shall be 14 of the flange thickness.

To define the curve related to any specific material, please read the notes under Fig. 323.2.2A. Also, from ASME B31.3 Table A-1, you can find a column under the title Min. Temp. which you can find directly that min. temp. or the curve you look for. ....................................

Impact Requirements For Low Temperature Applications The rules in ASME 8 Div 1 Section UCS 66 provide a good guide to reducing the risk of brittle fracture. Materials are divided into 4 groups: A) high risk to D) low risk:A) B) C) D) Materials with low toughness or materials that dont fit into the other groups. Most materials fit into this group Low strength materials; such as an SA516 Grade 60, note: grade 70 goes in B Tough fine grain steels, all normalised grades of SA516.

If in doubt assume A As thickness is increases so does the risk of brittle fracture; therefore the temperature before impacts tests are required must get warmer. This is the basis of Fig UCS 66,which plots each material group between MDMT (Minimum Design Metal Temperature) and thickness. If the MDMT falls below the appropriate material curve (A to D), Impact testing is mandatory. However if the item is not highly stressed there is less risk of brittle fracture, Fig UCS66.1 permits the impact test temperature to be raised if the full material thickness is not required. If the resulting test temperature exceeds the values in UCS 66, impact testing is not required. Residual stresses are present in all welded structures and can be up to yield point in magnitude. Whilst these stresses will not cause failure by yielding, they could drive a brittle fracture. Therefore stress relief is mandatory on thick material that is prone to brittle fracture (UCS 56). Allowances for stress relief is built into the code rules, but stress relief of any item when its not required will permit an increase in the impact test exemption temperature (UCS68c). Welding defects can also cause brittle fracture; therefore when material thickness exceeds a certain limit, full radiography is required. (Table UCS 57). The toughness of weld metal must also be demonstrated by production test plates, which are mandatory if impact testing is required. As the strength of the material increases so does the risk of brittle fracture, particularly as thickness increases. Therefore higher absorbed energy is required from strong materials above a certain thickness. (Fig UG 84.1). The following two programs compute the impact requirements of Fig UCS 66 and Fig UCS 66.1. Fig UCS 66 Impact test exemption curves Enter thickness described in Fig UCS 66.3, which must be between 0.25 inch and 6 inch,

and click the calculate button. If the MDMT is below the calculated values, impact tests are required, unless except by UCS66.1.

Enter Thickness

mm

Impact test exemption temperature A= B= C= D=

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

F F F F

C C C

FIG UCS-66.1 Reduction in Min Design Metal Temp Without Impact Testing Enter either ratio defined below and click the calculate button. The impact test temperature can be made warmer by the calculated temperature difference. If the new test temperature exceeds the figures calculated above, impact tests are not required. Example if impact tests are carried out at -10C and the Ratio = 0.5, the MDMT can be as low as -42 C (32 C below -10 C,)

Ratio =

Required calculated thickness x E* Actual thickness less corrosion and any thinning allowances

Ratio = Note:

Calculated Stress NOT including joint factor x E* Design Stress x E {Actual Joint Factor}

The required thickness is the minimum thickness calculated by code rules, including a joint factor, but excluding any thinning or corrosion allowance. E* is the joint factor, if the actual joint factor is less than 0.8 then E* = 0.8. Impact testing is required if the MDMT is below: -55 F, -48 C unless the above ratio is 0.35 or less, then its -155 F, -104 C. The above reductions cant be applied to an MDMT colder than -155 F, -104C

Enter Ratio

Temperature Reduction
0

UCS66 and UG84 MUST be read very carefully before any decision is made concerning impact testing, as both sections contain many exceptions and exemptions. Home Back To Previous Page

MAWP

The MAWP is the lowest pressure which one or several pressure vessel components can withstand under the basic design conditions.Typically must be higher than the design pressure, because of reasons listed by TomBarsh above. The 140psig compared to 50psig seems a bit odd, however, is most likely to be the rating of a flange, rather than a shell section rated for the 50 psig design pressure (or any other weaker component). However, a carefully calculated MAWP for all the vessel components is unlikely to be much

higher than the design pressure and I'd be worried with a high one (incomplete calculations, overdesign, incompetence???) picked-up from blue sky. Sometimes, the fabricator is too lazy to do the calcs, particularly the manual ones and as noted above, will nominate, incorrectly, the design pressure as MAWP. Please note that the up-rating of the vessel for any reason, without correctly calculated MAWP at the design stage will be very difficult, if not impossible.

The official definitions from VIII-2 Design Pressure The pressure used in the design of a vessel component together with the coincidentdesign metal temperature, for the purpose of determining the minimum permissible thickness or physical characteristics of the different zones of the vessel. Where applicable, static head and other static ordynamic loads shall be included in addition to the design pressure in the determination of the thickness of any specified zone of the vessel. Maximum Allowable Working Pressure The maximum gage pressure permissible at the top of a completed vessel in its normal operating position at the designated coincident temperature for thatpressure. This pressure is the least of the values for the internal or external pressure to be determined by the rules of this Division for any of the pressure boundary parts, considering static head thereon,using nominal thicknesses exclusive of allowances for corrosion and considering the effects of any combination of loadings specified in the User's Design Specification at the designated coincident temperature. It is the basis for the pressure setting of the pressure relieving devices protecting the vessel. The design pressure may be used in all cases in which calculations are not made to determine the value of the maximum allowable working pressure. And I will add this: The difference between design pressure and MAWP is not a simple relationship - they are related by the practicality of manufacturing. The design pressure is the pressure that the vessel will normally operate at PLUS a value that is added due to experience, nature of the vessel contents, any foreseeable pressure pulses, or any future increase in capacity. The (initial) calculations for the vessel are performed with this number. However, during fabrication, it is often convenient/cheaper to increase the thickness of components because of material availability. If this is a one-off vessel with relatively small amounts of material it does not make sense to have a custom mill run of material which requires a minimum order. Take for example (I am just using random numbers - may or may not reflect reality) that the design pressure calculations show that 9/16" thick plate is required, but due to availability/standard products, this material is normally supplied in 5/8" plate - you would more than likely use the thicker material (as it would probably be cheaper anyway than a custom mill run). This increase in material, obviously, increases the strength of the vessel. The MAWP would result from "reverse engineering" this thicker material to obtain a new, higher MAWP over design pressure (factoring in ALL of the vessel components and corrosion allowance as well). If you don't have an MAWP you would set your pressure relief system to the design pressure.

So both MAWP and design pressure are applicable to all vessels. Sometimes, as a matter of "convenience" fabricators will simply say that MAWP = design pressure because they don't want to back calculate or be held accountable to the higher specified pressure. It can be stated in the purchase contract that a "real" MAWP be supplied as well, or that the limiting factors should not be vessel nozzles or other simple items - this is to avoid having a shell capable of more pressure, but because a small item such as a nozzle did not have the appropriate, relatively easy additional reinforcement added to not be the limiting factor - you lose out on the additional thickness of the shell.

But I'd like to summarize the subject as : Every vessel has only one MAWP and many Design Pressures, P. MAWP represents the gauge pressure measured at the top of the vessel, but (in the same time) the same vessel has a lot ofdesign pressures (P1, P2, P3, ... etc.) which represent the MAWP+ Static Head at that elevation under consideration. For example: The design pressure at elevation 1, P1 = MAWP + Static Head at Level 1, and so on, there is a differ design pressures for each differ elevation. Therefore, in the vessel nameplate and per ASME Code, we have to nominate the MAWP, not the Design Pressure(s), P.

MAWP vs Design Pressure

When equipment is designed, MAWP, or Maximum Allowable Working Pressure, and design pressure are very much taken into account.

In designing equipment, it is seen that it sustains the stress imposed on it from the external and the internal pressures. This pressure is termed as design pressure. The design pressure of any vessel or equipment is determined from its maximum operating pressure which is generally increased by some margin for balancing the probable pressure surge.

MAWP is the maximum pressure at which the vessel or equipment is allowed to function at a specific temperature. The mechanical design, which is based on Material of Construction (MOC) and thickness of the vessel is taken into account in MAWP.

One of the main differences between Maximum Allowable Working Pressure and design pressure is that the latter one is always equal or less than the MAWP of the vessel or equipment. The PSV set pressure is based on design pressure, and it can be equal to the MAWP but not higher.

Design pressure is the condition of coincident temperature and pressure that is expected in a normal condition. Maximum Allowable Working Pressure is the maximum pressure that is permissible at the top of the equipment or vessel in normal operating conditions.

The MAWP will be changing with time because of corrosion and vessel fatigue. Design pressure depends on the kind of system (fuel, water, steam, etc.) that is used in the vessels. Both the design pressure and MAWP have many applications in steam drums, boilers, piping, and different types of pressure vessels.

Summary:

1.In designing equipment, it is seen that it sustains the stress imposed on it from the external and the internal pressures, and this pressure is termed as design pressure.

2.MAWP is the maximum pressure at which the vessel or equipment is allowed to function at a specific temperature.

3.Design pressure is the condition of coincident temperature and pressure that is expected in a normal condition.

4.Maximum Allowable Working Pressure is the maximum pressure that is permissible at the top of the equipment or vessel in normal operating conditions.

5.One of the main differences between Maximum Allowable Working Pressure and design

pressure is that the latter one is always equal or less than MAWP of the vessel or equipment. 6.The MAWP will be changing with time because of corrosion and vessel fatigue. Design pressure depends on the kind of system (fuel, water, steam, etc.) that is used in the vessels.

Good discussion. I understood this post was created in Mechanical engineering forum. Let see how a process engineer looks at the following terms : Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP) Design Pressure (PD) Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure (MAOP) Maximium Operating Pressure (MOP) Normal Operating Pressure (PO)

Let's start from bottom to top. Normal Operating Pressure (PO) - System pressure as expected to be operated at during normal operation throughout the design life of the system. For example, a system with normal operatiing pressure 100 psig, the pressure gauge should be able to measure 100 psig. Maximum Operating Pressure (MOP) - Maximum system pressure as expected during normal operation, may occur in some process transient period or different campaigns and it built into the design to cater for any uncertainties due to start-up, fouled, decayed, etc. It provides some level of flexibility for a proper operation of the system throughout the entire life of the system. Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure (MAOP) - Maximum system pressure that can be allowed to ensure a proper operation of an a device.

Design Pressure (PD) - A pressure choosen / specified (normally choosen by process engineer) to have certain margin (i.e. 10%) above the MOP. It is a maximum pressure in the system that are : - NOT expected during normal operation - May only occur during emergency situation as as fire, loss of utilities, valve failure, any abnormal operation corresponding to a short duration, mal-operation, etc Design pressure becomes MINIMUM pressure that can be hold by any components within the system without mechanical failure. It is used to define the minimum MAWP of components within the system. For example, design pressure is used to calculate minimum vessel wall thickness. Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP) - A maximum gauge pressure permissible by a equipment / device (at coincident temperature specified for that pressure) and is governed by code. In many cases... PO <= MOP < MAOP < PD <= MAWP

I think u r using some design sofware for calculation, dont get confuse. lets solve it other way. 1. MAWP stand for maximum allowable working presure at corroded condition. the MAWP is obtained for the selected thickness of plate less corrosion allowance, by using the same equation of UG-27. ASME div1. ( exp;- selected thickness = 10mm, while required thickness= 7.1mm). MAWP states that suppose after 10 yrs coorossion might has taken, the vessel can stand this pressure. 2. MAP stands for Maximum allowable pressure at new and cold condition, that is the MAP is calculate for selected thickness without corroison when the vessel is new.( exp;- selected thickness = 10mm, while required thickness= 7.1mm). so MAP will be higher than MAWP is corrosion is considered. If no corrossion then both values are same. 3. FOR hydrotest 1.3*MAWP*(St/S). just select 1.3*DP*St/S. DP is design pressure, if u select MAWP instead of DP. u will be getting the the results what u r facing now. Read note 34 of UG 99B.

Hydrotest pressure

Hydrotest pressure value has always been confused between equipment & piping. However the pressure vessle code as per ASME Section VIII, Div. 1 & the process piping code as per ASME B31.3 give different values of hydrotest. ASME Sec. VIII, Div.1 (pressure vessel code) specifies hydrotest pressure as follows: P = Design Pressure X 1.3 X (Stress Value of the metal at test temperature / Stress Value of the metal at design temperature) ASME B31.3 (process piping code) specifies hydrotest pressure as follows: P = Design Pressure X 1.5 X (Stress Value of the metal at test temperature / Stress Value of the metal at design temperature) I have attached the relevant portions of both the codes for clarity. This should help in clearing any doubts.

IGC stands

IGC stands for Inter Granular Corrosion. IGC test is required for Stainless Steel to check the Inter Granular Corrosion Resistance and this test is applicable for all SS Pipes, Forgings. At atmospheric conditions, the chances of IGC are almost neglegible but at elevated temperature the probability is high. If we heat the sample above 500 to 800 degree centigrade and then allow aging for long period of time then there are chances of formation of chromium depleted zones. So, to check the applicability of SS at elevated temperature and for longer period of time, IGC test should be carried out.

Hi all, As said before, IGC means Inter-Granular Corrosion. This is one of the types of corrosion which may occur in some Austenitic stainless steels. (Most people forget that there are more types of SS, i.e: ferritic, martensitic, precipitation hardened, etc. and some of them are not resistant to IGC) IGC occurs as its name indicated trough the grain boundaries because of complex chromium carbides in that location. That makes diminish the chromium content available to form the protective chromium oxide layer which is the origin of the type of steels (Usually are considered "stainless" if they have about 12% Cr minimum). The IGC phenomenon is related to the chemical composition, heat history and environment and not to the product form (plate, tube, casting or forging) Austenitic stainless steels are usually according to most standards supplied in the solution annealed condition, that is austenitized to a temperature in which all possible chromium carbides are dissolved and then quenched to frozen the equilibrium reached at this high temperature, avoiding the new formation of more carbides. If such steels are subject to temperatures in the range of 500 - 900C chromium carbides can precipitate in the grain boundaries resulting in which is known as "sensitization". This can occur for example in the heat affected zone of weldings. To avoid "sensitization" two types of austenitic SS were developed: L grades (low carbon, %C< 0.03) and "stabilized grades" (with some small contents of Ti or Nb which form carbides easily than chromium). It's quite simple: to avoid the formation of enough chromium carbides as to lower

the Cr content in the grain boundaries to less than 12%, you can lower the C% or include some elements more avid for C than Cr is) The performance or not of IGC test depends on the specific requirement of the specified standard and/or the specific User/Client requirements. Most standards include this type of test as a "supplementary requirement" so you must test it only if specifically requires in the order. Methods for perform that testing can be found in ASTM Standard A262 or in EuroNorm 114

What Is Carbide Precipitation?

One of the biggest pitfalls to avoid is carbide precipitation. Carbide precipitation occurs when the chrome and carbon in the austenitic stainless steel are drawn out of the material and react to the atmosphere. It occurs between 800 and 1,400 degrees F (426 and 760 degrees C), so you need to keep the weld zone temperature below 800 degrees. Alternatively, you can weld with argon as the shielding gas. Austenitic stainless steel is easy to read when welded: A good weld is straw-colored. It is likewise easy to detect carbide precipitation: The metal turns black. Material that turns blue or purple indicates possible carbide precipitation. The three main culprits responsible for carbide precipitation are too much heat, too slow travel speed, and inadequate shielding. Heat and Travel Speed. The best defense against carbide precipitation is practice and a few key guidelines. One, remember the rule of amperages: Use 1 amp of welding current for every thousandth of an inch of material thickness. Two, maintain an appropriate travel speed to prevent too much heat in the weld zone. In addition to practice, you should look for the "devil's eye." This is the fluid dot in the center of the weld puddle that is formed by foreign (but not worrisome) elements that continuously swirl around in the center of the weld puddle. The presence of the devil's eye is insurance that not only is travel speed appropriate, but also that other factors, such as torch angle, filler rod position, penetration, and root opening, are optimal. Gas Coverage. Using the appropriate type and amount of shielding gas is another factor in preventing carbide precipitation. Typically, pure argon provides the best results when welding thin austenitic stainless steel, but adding a small amount of hydrogen is not uncommon when you need a faster travel speed, especially on thicker pieces or in an automated application. A gas lens is recommended when using GTAW on austenitic stainless steel. A gas lens is a copper and brass component with layered stainless steel mesh screens. It replaces the collet body in a standard GTAW torch. The gas lens helps distribute gas more evenly around the tungsten, arc, and weld puddle and provides good cooling action.

Full-penetration welds require back-purgingcovering the back of the weld with shielding gas. Back-purging protects the underside of the weld from atmospheric elements. You can use a commercial apparatus or fabricate a custom-made cover. Finally, remember to maintain an adequate amount of postflow gas. The best practice is to maintain one second of postflow for every 10 amps of welding current. Preventing Distortion and Cracking Because it is prone to greater thermal expansion than other materials, austenitic stainless steel tends to distort easily. A current setting that is too high or a travel speed that is too slow can contribute to this problem. Thermal expansion occurs because the heat-affected zone (HAZ) on austenitic stainless steel is more localized than on other materials. When the weld cools, slow thermal transfer to the surrounding material leads to buckling. Joint design and clamping are good defenses against distortion. The key to joint design is creating a joint that limits the number of weld passes required (especially on 1/4-in. and thicker austenitic stainless steel), and with it the amount of heat input. One way to limit these passes is to create a joint design consisting of a V-groove, modified V-groove, U-groove, or J-groove. Another way to prevent distortion is to clamp the workpiece. Doing so is especially important on light-gauge material, as these pieces are more prone to buckling. Hand in hand with distortion, not surprisingly, comes the potential for cracking, especially in the weld initiation and crater area. One way to prevent cracking is to use run-on and run-off tabs. These tabs need to match the base material and can be used on automated or hand-held GTAW applications. They provide an area to "run on" or "run off" the weld by eliminating arc starting and stopping on the actual weld joint. They also aid in the complete filling of the crater area to help prevent cracking and are easily ground or cut off the weld after it cools.

Stainless Steel - Corrosion Resistance Topics Covered Background General Corrosion Pitting Corrosion Pitting Resistance Equivalent number (PRE) Crevice Corrosion Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) Sulphide Stress Corrosion Cracking (SSC) Stress Level

Environment Temperature Intergranular Corrosion Galvanic Corrosion Contact Corrosion Passivation and Pickling Background Although one of the main reasons why stainless steels are used is corrosion resistance, they do in fact suffer from certain types of corrosion in some environments and care must be taken to select a grade which will be suitable for the application. Corrosion can cause a variety of problems, depending on the applications: Perforation such as of tanks and pipes, which allows leakage of fluids or gases,

Loss of strength where the cross section of structural members is reduced by corrosion, leading to a loss of strength of the structure and subsequent failure, Degradation of appearance, where corrosion products or pitting can detract from a decorative surface finish, Finally, corrosion can produce scale or rust which can contaminate the material being handled; this particularly applies in the case of food processing equipment. Corrosion of stainless steels can be categorised as one of: General Corrosion Pitting Corrosion Crevice Corrosion Stress Corrosion Cracking Sulphide Stress Corrosion Cracking Intergranular Corrosion Galvanic Corrosion Contact Corrosion

General Corrosion Corrosion whereby there is a general uniform removal of material, by dissolution, eg when stainless steel is used in chemical plant for containing strong acids. Design in this instance is

based on published data to predict the life of the component. Published data list the removal of metal over a year. Tables of resistance to various chemicals are published by various organisations and a very large collection of charts, lists, recommendations and technical papers are available though stainless steel manufacturers and suppliers. Pitting Corrosion Under certain conditions, particularly involving high concentrations of chlorides (such as sodium chloride in sea water), moderately high temperatures and exacerbated by low pH (ie acidic conditions), very localised corrosion can occur leading to perforation of pipes and fittings etc. This is not related to published corrosion data as it is an extremely localised and severe corrosion which can penetrate right through the cross section of the component. Grades high in chromium, and particularly molybdenum and nitrogen, are more resistant to pitting corrosion. Pitting Resistance Equivalent number (PRE) The Pitting Resistance Equivalent number (PRE) has been found to give a good indication of the pitting resistance of stainless steels. The PRE can be calculated as: PRE = %Cr + 3.3 x %Mo + 16 x %N One reason why pitting corrosion is so serious is that once a pit is initiated there is a strong tendency for it to continue to grow, even although the majority of the surrounding steel is still untouched. The tendency for a particular steel to be attacked by pitting corrosion can be evaluated in the laboratory. A number of standard tests have been devised, the most common of which is that given in ASTM G48. A graph can be drawn giving the temperature at which pitting corrosion is likely to occur, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Temperature at which pitting corrosion is likely to occur This is based on a standard ferric chloride laboratory test, but does predict outcomes in many service conditions. Crevice Corrosion The corrosion resistance of a stainless steel is dependent on the presence of a protective oxide layer on its surface, but it is possible under certain conditions for this oxide layer to break down, for example in reducing acids, or in some types of combustion where the atmosphere is reducing. Areas where the oxide layer can break down can also sometimes be the result of the way components are designed, for example under gaskets, in sharp re-entrant corners or associated with incomplete weld penetration or overlapping surfaces. These can all form crevices which can promote corrosion. To function as a corrosion site, a crevice has to be of sufficient width to permit entry of the corrodent, but sufficiently narrow to ensure that the corrodent remains stagnant. Accordingly crevice corrosion usually occurs in gaps a few micrometres wide, and is not found in grooves or slots in which circulation of the corrodent is possible. This problem can often be overcome by paying attention to the design of the component, in particular to avoiding formation of crevices or at least keeping them as open as possible. Crevice corrosion is a very similar mechanism to pitting corrosion; alloys resistant to one are generally resistant to both. Crevice corrosion can be viewed as a more severe form of pitting corrosion as it will occur at significantly lower temperatures than does pitting. Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) Under the combined effects of stress and certain corrosive environments stainless steels can be subject to this very rapid and severe form of corrosion. The stresses must be tensile and can result from loads applied in service, or stresses set up by the type of assembly e.g. interference fits of pins in holes, or from residual stresses resulting from the method of fabrication such as cold working. The most damaging environment is a solution of chlorides in water such as sea water, particularly at elevated temperatures. As a consequence stainless steels are limited in their application for holding hot waters (above about 50C) containing even trace amounts of chlorides (more than a few parts per million). This form of corrosion is only applicable to the austenitic group of steels and is related to the nickel content. Grade 316 is not significantly more resistant to SCC than is 304. The duplex stainless steels are much more resistant to SCC than are the austenitic grades, with grade 2205 being virtually immune at temperatures up to about 150 C, and the super duplex grades are more resistant again. The ferritic grades do not generally suffer from this problem at all. In some instances it has been found possible to improve resistance to SCC by applying a compressive stress to the component at risk; this can be done by shot peening the surface for instance. Another alternative is to ensure the product is free of tensile stresses by annealing as a final operation. These solutions to the problem have been successful in some cases, but need to be very carefully evaluated, as it may be very difficult to guarantee the absence of residual or applied tensile stresses. From a practical standpoint, Grade 304 may be adequate under certain conditions. For instance,

Grade 304 is being used in water containing 100 - 300 parts per million (ppm) chlorides at moderate temperatures. Trying to establish limits can be risky because wet/dry conditions can concentrate chlorides and increase the probability of stress corrosion cracking. The chloride content of seawater is about 2% (20,000 ppm). Seawater above 50 C is encountered in applications such as heat exchangers for coastal power stations. Recently there have been a small number of instances of chloride stress corrosion failures at lower temperatures than previously thought possible. These have occurred in the warm, moist atmosphere above indoor chlorinated swimming pools where stainless steel (generally Grade 316) fixtures are often used to suspend items such as ventilation ducting. Temperatures as low as 30 to 40 C have been involved. There have also been failures due to stress corrosion at higher temperatures with chloride levels as low as 10 ppm. This very serious problem is not yet fully understood. Sulphide Stress Corrosion Cracking (SSC) Of greatest importance to many users in the oil and gas industry is the material's resistance to sulphide stress corrosion cracking. The mechanism of SSC has not been defined unambiguously but involves the conjoint action of chloride and hydrogen sulphide, requires the presence of a tensile stress and has a non-linear relationship with temperature. The three main factors are Stress Level, Environment and Temperature. Stress Level A threshold stress can sometimes can be identified for each material - environment combination. Some published data show a continuous fall of threshold stress with increasing H2S levels. To guard against SSC NACE specification MR0175 for sulphide environments limits the common austenitic grades to 22HRC maximum hardness. Environment The principal agents being chloride, hydrogen sulphide and pH. There is synergism between these effects, with an apparently inhibiting effect of sulphide at high H2S levels. Temperature With increasing temperature, the contribution of chloride increases but the effect of hydrogen decreases due to its increased mobility in the ferrite matrix. The net result is a maximum susceptibility in the region 60-100 C. A number of secondary factors have also been identified, including amount of ferrite, surface condition, presence of cold work and heat tint at welds. Intergranular Corrosion Intergranular corrosion is a form of relatively rapid and localised corrosion associated with a defective microstructure known as carbide precipitation. When austenitic steels have been exposed for a period of time in the range of approximately 425 to 850 C, or when the steel has

been heated to higher temperatures and allowed to cool through that temperature range at a relatively slow rate (such as occurs after welding or air cooling after annealing), the chromium and carbon in the steel combine to form chromium carbide particles along the grain boundaries throughout the steel. Formation of these carbide particles in the grain boundaries depletes the surrounding metal of chromium and reduces its corrosion resistance, allowing the steel to corrode preferentially along the grain boundaries. Steel in this condition is said to be "sensitised". It should be noted that carbide precipitation depends upon carbon content, temperature and time at temperature. The most critical temperature range is around 700 C, at which 0.06% carbon steels will precipitate carbides in about 2 minutes, whereas 0.02% carbon steels are effectively immune from this problem. It is possible to reclaim steel which suffers from carbide precipitation by heating it above 1000 C, followed by water quenching to retain the carbon and chromium in solution and so prevent the formation of carbides. Most structures which are welded or heated cannot be given this heat treatment and therefore special grades of steel have been designed to avoid this problem. These are the stabilised grades 321 (stabilised with titanium) and 347 (stabilised with niobium). Titanium and niobium each have much higher affinities for carbon than chromium and therefore titanium carbides, niobium carbides and tantalum carbides form instead of chromium carbides, leaving the chromium in solution and ensuring full corrosion resistance. Another method used to overcome intergranular corrosion is to use the extra low carbon grades such as Grades 316L and 304L; these have extremely low carbon levels (generally less than 0.03%) and are therefore considerably more resistant to the precipitation of carbide. Many environments do not cause intergranular corrosion in sensitised austenitic stainless steels, for example, glacial acetic acid at room temperature, alkaline salt solution such as sodium carbonate, potable water and most inland bodies of fresh water. For such environments, it would not be necessary to be concerned about sensitisation. There is also generally no problem in light gauge steel since it usually cools very quickly following welding or other exposure to high temperatures. It is also the case that the presence of grain boundary carbides is not harmful to the high temperature strength of stainless steels. Grades which are specifically intended for these applications often intentionally have high carbon contents as this increases their high temperature strength and creep resistance. These are the "H" variants such as grades 304H, 316H, 321H and 347H, and also 310. All of these have carbon contents deliberately in the range in which precipitation will occur. Galvanic Corrosion Because corrosion is an electrochemical process involving the flow of electric current, corrosion can be generated by a galvanic effect which arises from the contact of dissimilar metals in an electrolyte (an electrolyte is an electrically conductive liquid). In fact three conditions are required for galvanic corrosion to proceed; the two metals must be widely separated on the galvanic series (see Figure 2), they must be in electrical contact and their surfaces must be bridged by an electrically conducting fluid. Removal of any of these three conditions will prevent galvanic

corrosion.

Figure 2. Galvanic series for metals in flowing sea water. The obvious means of prevention is therefore to avoid mixed metal fabrications. Frequently this is not practical, but prevention can also be by removing the electrical contact - this can be achieved by the use of plastic or rubber washers or sleeves, or by ensuring the absence of the electrolyte such as by improvement to draining or by the use of protective hoods. This effect is also dependent upon the relative areas of the dissimilar metals. If the area of the less noble material (the anodic material, further towards the right in Figure 2) is large compared to that of the more noble (cathodic) the corrosive effect is greatly reduced, and may in fact become negligible. Conversely a large area of noble metal in contact with a small area of less noble will accelerate the galvanic corrosion rate. For example it is common practice to fasten aluminium sheets with stainless steel screws, but aluminium screws in a large area of stainless steel are likely to rapidly corrode.

Contact Corrosion This combines elements of pitting, crevice and galvanic corrosion, and occurs where small particles of foreign matter, in particular carbon steel, are left on a stainless steel surface. The attack starts as a galvanic cell - the particle of foreign matter is anodic and hence likely to be quickly corroded away, but in severe cases a pit may also form in the stainless steel, and pitting corrosion can continue from this point. The most prevalent cause is debris from nearby grinding of carbon steel, or use of tools contaminated with carbon steel. For this reason some fabricators have dedicated stainless steel workshops where contact with carbon steel is totally avoided. All workshops and warehouses handling or storing stainless steels must also be aware of this potential problem, and take precautions to prevent it. Protective plastic, wood or carpet strips can be used to prevent contact between stainless steel products and carbon steel storage racks. Other handling equipment to be protected includes fork lift tynes and crane lifting fixtures. Clean fabric slings have often been found to be a useful alternative. Passivation and Pickling If stainless steel does become contaminated by carbon steel debris this can be removed by passivation with dilute nitric acid or pickling with a mix of hydrofluoric and nitric acids.

Source: Atlas Steels Australia

1. What is carbide precipitation and how can I prevent it? Carbide precipitation results when chrome, which has been added to the steel to generate its corrosion resistance properties, combines with carbon to form chrome carbides. It occurs at temperatures between approximately 800 to 1400 degrees Fahrenheit (426 to 760 degrees Celcius). In addition to changing the grain structure of the weldment, carbide precipitation also lowers the materials resistance to corrosion. Controlling heat input and travel speeds are to key factors in preventing carbide precipitation.

First, rely on the rule of amperages when GTAW welding austenitic stainless steel. Use one amp of welding current for every thousandths of an inch of material thickness. Also, maintain steady travel speeds to prevent carbide precipitation. Move the torch and add the filler metal at a rate that creates a weld approximately twice the size of thetungsten being used.

Extreme Fiber Elongation Fiber elongation of formed heads often requires stress relieving after cold forming of the heads. The stress relieving time and temperatures are outlined in UCS 56 of the ASME Section VIII Div 1 Code. The formula for calculating the fiber elongation is located in ASME Section VIII Div 1 UCS-79. For heads the calculation is:

% extreme fiber elongation = 75t/ Rf (1- Rf/ Ro )

t = nom. thickness Rf = Inside Corner Radius (ICR)

Ro = Dish Radius (infinity for flat flanged onlys) When the extreme fiber elongation is exceeded by 5% and any of the following conditions exist a stress relieve is required: 1) The vessel will contain lethal substances either liquid or gaseous.(Would need to be specified to Brighton Sales Representatives from the customer) 2) Material requires impact testing .(Would need to be specified to Brighton Sales Representatives from the customer) 3) The thickness of the part before cold forming exceed 5/8. 4) The reduction by cold forming from the as-rolled thickness is more than 10% at any location where the extreme fiber elongation exceeds 5%( the ICR can not have a min. thickness less than 10% of the nominal thickness to avoid stress relieving if the fiber elongation exceeds 5%) 5) The temperature of the material during forming is in the range of 250 Deg F to 900 Deg F. Due to the increasing energy costs for fuels for furnaces, there are economic advantages to avoiding the stress relieving requirements. Sometimes this can be avoided if the ICR is increased in size (within reason) to lower the fiber elongation. An example would be a 72 OD x .625 ASME F & D Head SA 516-70 w/ a 72IDR, 4.75 ICR and 1.5 SF. This head would have an extreme fiber elongation of 9.2%. By increasing the ICR to 8.5 the fiber elongation is reduced to 4.86%, thus avoiding the requirement for stress relieving. When there is not an alternative and stress relieving is required, Brighton has in-house

computer controlled furnaces to economically stress relieve the heads. This is a unique capability, since many of our competitors must outsource this heat treatment, causing increased time for shipment and added cost. Brighton continues to strive to deliver the most economical quality product in the industry. Contact you Brighton Sales Representative for additional questions concerning heat treatment or methods to avoid the requirements of stress relieving.

According to ASME Interpretation VIII-1-83-81: Rf applies to the knuckle radius in the case of double curvature. A 2:1 ellipsoidal head may be approximated with a head containing a knuckle radius of 0.17D (D = inside diameter of head skirt). Therefore: Rf = final centerline radius, in. (mm) = 0.17D Ro = original centerline radius (equals infinity for flat plate), in. (mm) =

Hi, I am designing pressure vessel as per ASME Section VIII Div 1. UCS-79 gives the imperical formula to calculate the elongation. Can anybody explain me how to calculate Ro & Rf which are required to calculate elongation? I have to calculate elongation of 2:1 Dish end having Crown Radius as 2250. Dish nominal thickness is 16mm & Minimum thickness is 12mm. How to calculate Ro & Rf.

As per ASME Code UG-32, the ellipsoidal heads 2:1 have two radii Rf1 and Rf2, where Rf1 = Knuckle Radius = 0.17 D & Rf2 = Spherical Radius = 0.90 D. And the % extreme fiber elongation for head = 75 ( t / Rf )(1 - Rf / Ro) must be calculated for both , radii Rf1 and Rf2 where Ro= Original Centerline Radius and Ro = infinity (where the original radius / of plate used in fabrication of ellipsoidal head was , hence the value of Rf / Ro = Rf = 0). So the final equation shall be: % extreme fiber elongation = 75 ( t / Rf )(1-0) So the calculation based on t = 16 mm and D = 2250 mm: Rf1 = Knuckle Radius = 0.17 D = 382.5 mm Rf2 = Spherical Radius = 0.90 D = 2025 mm % extreme fiber elongation (knuckle radius) = 75 ( t / Rf1)(1 - Rf1 / Ro) = 3.13725 % extreme fiber elongation (spherical radius) = 75 ( t / Rf2 )(1 - Rf2 / Ro) = 0.59259

............ just as a side note - the controlling factor will be the knuckle radius to determine the fibre elongation / heat treating requirement (if you don't have a problem in the knuckle you won't have a problem with the head)

I agree with you, but the precise calculations must including both calculations for both radii (knuckle and spherical) to see -at least- the limits of both. In certain cases, may be you have a problem with knuckle radius, in this case you are not sure that there is no problem related with the spherical radius. That is looks like ASME calculations for both stresses in circumferential and longitudinal directions in a pressure vessel as per (UG-27)(c)(1) & (2). Even we know that the hoop stress (circumf. stress at longit. joints) is the governing stress due to internal pressure only, but in certain cases and due to additional of external loads, the sum of stresses in longit. direction (at circumf. joints) must be taken into consideration to be within the allowable limits.