Inside the center of the atom, far below the electrons, lies the atoms tiny and extremely

dense core. For the entire year, we have focused on the chemistry associated with an atoms electrons. We completely ignored the nucleus, taking the positive core for granted as it holds the electrons in place through electrostatic attractions between the charged particles (protons attracted to the electrons). The history of science, over the past 1000 years, has focused on technology, medicine, and a long time ago alchemy. The goal of all alchemists was to turn other species into gold to have Midas touch so to speak. This is not possible through chemical processes, as that only involves the movement of the electrons. No species can be turned into gold by losing or gaining electrons. Gold is gold because of the numbers of protons and neutrons. However, we now know that it is possible to transmutate (change) one element into another through nuclear reactions which is NOT the same as a chemical reaction. The goal is no longer to change species into gold (personally I would shoot for platinum ), as there are far more important and valuable products of nuclear reactions. Society as a whole has many concerns about the applications of nuclear chemistry in their own lives. Many of their concerns stem from mis-information. The promise of an abundant energy source and treatment for diseases comes hand in hand with the threat of nuclear waste contamination, nuclear melt-downs, and nuclear war/terrorism. Can we, as fallible humans, harness the power of the nucleus without destroying ourselves or others? Do we have the moral strength to use our powers only for good? Or are the risks just too great? The changes that occur in the nucleus are completely different from all that we have studied to this point. In chemical reactions, electrons are shared, lost or gained, in order to form new compounds. In these processes, the nuclei just sit there are watch the show, passively sitting by and never changing their identities. In nuclear reactions, the roles of the subatomic particles are reversed. The electrons do not participate in the reactions, instead they stay in their orbitals while the protons and neutrons undergo changes. In fact, during these changes, in nearly every case, the change results in the formation of a different element! Nuclear reactions are accompanied by energy changes that are a million times greater than those in chemical reactions. Energy changes that are so great that changes in mass are detectable. Also, nuclear reaction yields and rates are not affected by the same factors (e.g. pressure, temperature, and catalysts) that influence chemical reactions.

First, it is important to understand nuclear stability. Why are some nuclei stable where others are not? When nuclei are unstable, they are termed radioactive. All matter is composed of atoms and many atoms are unstable. In fact, over half of the elements in the periodic table including uranium, are in a constant process of rearranging themselves. This is not something that humanity can control. When the nucleus of an atom attempts to become more stable, it releases energy, known as radiation. Once this happens the original atom changes into a new atom. In some instances, a new element is formed and in other cases, a new form of the original element, called an isotope, appears. The spontaneous change in the nucleus of an unstable atom that results in the emission of radiation is called radioactivity and this process of change is often referred to as the decay of atoms. A stable nucleus will remain intact indefinitely. An unstable nucleus will not, and a great majority of nuclei from atoms on the periodic table are unstable! The unstable nucleus exhibits radioactivity: the nucleus will spontaneously disintegrate (fall apart) or decay by emitting radiation. Each type of

unstable nucleus has a characteristic rate of decay. Some decay very quickly, e.g. in a fraction of a second, others can take billions of years. Why Radioactivity: Radioactivity comes out of the nucleus of atoms. The nucleus is radioactive because it is unstable. Like electrons in an excited state dropping back down to ground state and releasing a photon, nuclei need an outlet for their excited state. This outlet is radiation or nuclear reactions. Nuclear reactions, radioactivity, are spontaneous decays, there is no way to tell when it will occur, but eventually they will decay. These radioactive decays occur in any atom with more than 83 protons. Also, in any atom with an exceptionally small or large proton to neutron ratio will be radioactive.

Recall that the atom is an electrically neutral, spherical species that contains a positively charged nucleus surrounded by one or more negatively charged electrons. The electrons move rapidly around the nucleus and are held there in space by attraction with the positively charged nucleus. The nucleus takes up 1 ten-trillionth of the volume but makes up 99.97% of the atoms mass and is therefore incredibly dense. The atoms total diameter is about 10,000 times the diameter of the nucleus! The nucleus is composed of neutrons and protons. The protons are positively charged and the neutrons have no charge at all, they just contribute to the overall mass of the atom. The magnitude of the charge of a proton is equal to that of an electron, but the electron is negatively charged. An atom is neutral because the number of protons ALWAYS equals the number of electrons. Protons and neutrons are collectively termed nucleons. Most elements exist in nature as a mixture of isotopes, which are species that are the same atom (they have the same number of protons and electrons if neutral!) but different numbers of neutrons. A complimentary term to the isotope is the nuclide, which represents the isotopes of an element. It refers to the variety of nuclei with a particular composition of nucleons (the differing numbers of protons and neutrons). Each isotope is a nuclide. This means that 16O which has 8 protons and 8 neutrons is a nuclide, and 17O which has 8 protons and 9 neutrons, is a nuclide of oxygen. Recall that we can write the element or a particular isotope from the periodic table using a variety of notations. Atomic Notation: 3 Types A = Atomic Mass = protons + neutrons Z = Atomic Number = protons X = Atomic Symbol = the elements letter designation Type 1 Type 2 Type 3
A Z
A

X
X

12 6
12

C
C

This type came first and gives the most information This type came second as the first type is redundant. You do not need to tell me carbon has an atomic number of 6, all carbons atomic numbers are 6. This type came last and is the easiest to type, and still relays all the info you need. This symbol is spoken, carbon twelve.

XA

C -12

The same type of notation can and will be applied to the subatomic particles in the nucleus. Thus, a 1 neutron that has a mass of 1 (due to the neutron itself) and a charge of zero will be written as 0 n. A proton, that has a mass of 1 (due to the proton itself) and a charge of +1 will be written as 1 1p . And an electron, that has a mass of zero (due to the electron itself) and a charge of -1 will be written as -0 1e .
1 0n

(neutron)

1 1p

(proton)

0 -1 e

(electron)

It is important to be very familiar with this notation, as we will use it in nuclear reactions. It is important to remember how to determine the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in particular nuclides (or isotopes) in order to understand what type of nuclear reaction is taking place. Concept Test: Determine the number of protons and neutrons in
35 17Cl

Write the atomic notation for the nuclide of chlorine that has 20 neutrons:

In 1896, Antoine-Henri Bacquerel discovered that uranium minerals emitted a penetrating radiation that produced images on photographic plates, even though the plates were covered with paper to prevent them from developing in the presence of light but somehow, the radiation penetrated the paper and developed the plate! Several years later, Marie Curie began a search for other mineral that emitted radiation. Marie Curie found that thorium minerals emit radiation. She also showed that the intensity of radiation depended on the concentration of the radioactive element in the mineral, not on the nature of the compound. Marie Curie and her husband, Pierre, through their examination of uranium minerals, discovered two other radioactive elements, one was named Polonium (after her native Poland), and the other was named Radium. During the next few years, Bacquerel, the Curies, and Rutherford began to study the nature of radioactive emissions. Rutherford observed that elements other than radium were formed as radium decayed. In 1902, they proposed that radioactive emission results as an element changes from one element into another, completely different element. To many, at this time, this sounded like the revival of alchemy. And it was met with ridicule. Now, however, we know this to be true! Under most circumstances when a nuclide (isotope) of a one element decays, it changes into a nuclide (isotope) of a different element. Their work led to an understanding of the three most common types of radioactive emission. 3 Main Types of Radioactive Particles: alpha particles (symbolized as a helium nucleus 2 He ) are dense, positively charged particles identical to helium nuclei. They consist of two protons and two neutrons, identical to the nucleus of a helium atom. A sheet of paper or a person's surface layer of skin will stop them. Alpha particles are only considered hazardous to a person's health if they are ingested or inhaled and thus come into contact with sensitive cells such as in the lungs, liver and bones. A source of alpha particles is radon gas, a colorless and odorless gas formed from the radioactive decay of radium which in turn is one of the products of the uranium decay chain. It is not radon itself that is a health concern, but the radioactive products into which it decays. Radon, being a gas, is simply the vehicle by which members of the uranium decay chain can enter the lungs. Outside the body, radon is not a concern since the alpha particles it emits cannot penetrate the skin. beta particles (symbolized as , -1, or - 1 ) are negatively charged particles identified as high speed electrons which are emitted from the nuclei of many fission products. They can travel a few feet in air but can usually be stopped by clothing or a few centimeters of wood.
0 4

They are considered hazardous mainly if ingested or inhaled, but can cause radiation damage to the skin if the exposure is large enough. gamma particles (symbolized as or sometimes 0 0 ) are high energy photons 5 (electromagnetic radiation) about 10 times as energetic as visible light. They penetrate matter easily and are best stopped by water or thick layers of lead or concrete. Gamma radiation is hazardous to people inside and outside of the body.

The three types of particles that are emitted behave very differently in the presence of an electric field. Alpha particles are positively charged and thus bend towards the negative plate. Beta particles are negatively charged and thus bend towards the positive plate. Gamma particles have no charge and are thus not affected by the charged plates. The degree of bending is related to the mass of the particle. Alpha particles are heavier than beta particles and thus are less easily moved in space.

The use of a magnetic field to direct beta particles is what allows your TV to work. Your TV has a phosphorescent screen that is bombarded with precisely directed beta particles. If you look very closely at your TV when it is turned on you can see small blocks of color. Every second your TV shoots 60 beta particles a second at each one of those little blocks. It starts shooting in one corner and works it way across the screen then drops down to the next row. It hits every block in every row then begins again. It fills the screen 60 times a second with colored blocks. These blocks, in conjunction with each other,

When a particular nuclide decays, it forms a nuclide (the product) that is of lower energy and the energy that is lost, is emitted radiation. Remember that nature always wants to form a lower energy species and as such, nuclear decay is no different. Nuclides can decay in several ways, but they all share some things in common. First, the reactant species/nuclide is called the parent species while the product is called the daughter. Second, the full

atomic notation of the nuclides is used in writing the nuclear reactions. Writing the equations in this manner allows us to indicate the type of nuclear reaction the nuclide participated in. When a nuclide changes from one isotope to another or from one element to another, the atomic masses will change (for species that change isotopes), and if the species changes from one element to another, both the atomic mass and the atomic number will change. In order to balance the equation, we must account for all species that are gained or lost in the change. Lets examine the types of nuclear reactions that we will see: Alpha Decay: Since an alpha particle represents a helium nucleus, we will be losing two protons and two neutrons from our parent nuclide. A general reaction is seen below, followed by an actual example of alpha decay. Again, we must make sure that we account for all species!
atomic mass atomic numberX 226 88Ra

= =

atomic mass -4 atomic number -2 X 222 86Rn

4 2H e

4 2 He

Notice that when you add the atomic masses of the daughter 222-Rn with 4-He you get the same atomic mass that appears in the parent 226-Ra (222+4 = 226). And when you add the atomic numbers of the daughter 222-Rn with 4-He you get the same atomic number that appears in the parent 226-Ra (86+2 = 88). Since alpha decay involved the loss of a helium nucleus, you are losing protons. The product in an alpha decay will be a different element it will be the element that is 2 atomic numbers away! Also, the mass difference will be 4 amu different between the parent and the daughter species. Beta Decay: A beta particle represents the loss of an electron. It might seem odd that an electron is leaving the nucleus, but that is exactly what happens in beta decay. How is this possible? A neutron is located in the nucleus. A neutron is a neutral particle. Why is a neutron neutral? It is neutral because a neutron is the combination of a proton and an electron: 1 1 + -0 1p 0n 1e for decay
1 0n

1 1p

0 -1 e

Remember that a beta particle is an electron, so the more common representation of the neutron looks like this:
1 0n

1 1p

0 -1

In essence, for beta decay, the electron is ejected from the nucleus, leaving behind the proton. Since the neutron no longer exists as a neutron, but now as a proton, the overall mass of the species does not change (remember that the mass is due to number of protons and neutrons, and while we lost a neutron, we kept it as a proton, so no net change in mass!). BUT, by losing the neutral particle, we gained a positive particle, which means that the total number of protons in the nucleus has changed and it changed by one.
63 28N i

63 29Cu

0 -1

Beta decay will result in a species that has the same atomic mass, but contains one MORE proton than itself, thus its daughter will be found one atomic number higher than itself.

Note: when a neutron decays a neutral particle called a neutrino ( : the little neutral one) is also emitted. It is emitted in other nuclear reactions as well. They will not be discussed further except to mention that experiments in Japan have shown that they do have mass and they may account for a significant portion of the missing matter in the universe (remember that matter cannot be created or destroyed . . .) For simplicitys sake, they will not be included in any of the nuclear reactions.

Positron decay: A positron is the antiparticle to the beta particle. A key idea of modern physics is that every fundamental particle has a corresponding antiparticle, or a particle with the same mass but opposite charge. The positron has the same mass as a beta particle but opposite charge, therefore it has a +1 charge. It is symbolized as 0 1 . Sometimes positron decay is referred to as positive beta decay. In 1932, Carl D. Anderson found positrons created by cosmic-ray collisions in a cloud chamber, in which moving electrons (or positrons) leave behind trails as they move through the gas. The electric charge-to-mass ratio of a particle can be measured by observing the curling of its cloud-chamber track in a magnetic field. Originally, positrons, because of the direction that their paths curled, were mistaken for electrons traveling in the opposite direction.

Positron decay occurs through a process whereby a proton in the nucleus is converted into a neutron and a positron is expelled. This process is called pair production, which involves energy turning into matter as a high energy photon becomes an electron and a positron simultaneously. The electron and proton bind and form a neutron, while the positron is expelled. Because the proton becomes a neutron and stays in the nucleus, the overall mass will not change, but the charge will. In essence, the atom just lost a proton. Therefore the new species will have the same mass but will have one fewer proton, so its atomic number will decrease by 1. 11 0 11 6 C 5 B + 1 Positron emission will result in the daughter having the same atomic mass, but will be one atomic number LOWER than the parent species

Electron capture: Electron capture occurs when the nucleus of an atom draws in an electron from an orbital of the lowest energy level, the 1s orbital. As the electron comes into the nucleus, it will be attracted to and bind with a proton. This will neutralize the protons positive charge and create a neutron. This is an electron that is taken INTO the nucleus, not an electron that leaves, as such, it should not be confused with the beta particle mentioned previously. In order to distinguish between the two types of electrons, the symbol for this extranuclear electron that enters the nucleus is : 0 - 1 e. The loss of this inner electron from the first shell is a vacancy. This vacancy will be quickly filled by an electron that resided in a higher energy level. When the electron from the higher n value falls to the lower energy level, a photon is released in the x-ray region of the EM spectrum.
55 26 Fe

0 -1

55 25 Mn

+ h (x-ray)

Electron capture causes the loss of a proton as it becomes a neutron. As such, the atomic mass will stay constant but the atomic number will DECREASE by one. The daughter will be the species one atomic number LOWER than the parent species. Electron capture results in the same product that would result from positron decay but the processes are entirely different and should not be confused! Gamma Emission: Gamma emission involves the radiation of high energy or gamma () photons being emitted from an excited nucleus. Recall that an atom in an excited electronic state will promote electrons to higher energy levels. Those electrons cannot stay in the higher level indefinitely, the atom releases the energy absorbed, the electron falls, and the energy is released as a photon (h) which is of a specific energy usually in the UV or visible region, but also the IR. A nucleus that is excited will need to release that energy also, and it does so by releasing a photon in the gamma region. The gamma photon is of MUCH higher energy (shorter wavelength) than a UV or visible photon. Many nuclear processes leave the nucleus in an excited state, so gamma emission accompanies most other types of decay. Because gamma rays have no mass or charge, gamma emission will not change the atomic number or the atomic mass of the species. Gamma rays will also result when a particle and its antiparticle meet and annihilate one another.
238 92 U

234 90 Th

4 2

He +

0 0

For example, when uranium-238 undergoes alpha decay, a gamma ray is also emitted.

Other Types of Nuclear Reactions: Neutron Emission a neutron is emitted from the nucleus cause the mass to drop by 1. Nuclear Equations: Nuclear equations are similar to chemical equations in that the total mass must be conserved. The difference is the components in the nucleus change. For instance, in the first example with C-14 the mass did not change but the number of protons did giving a total mass on each side of 14 and a total number of protons as 6. 6 = 7 + -1 Examples:
14 6
14 6

14 0 C 7 N + 1

14 1 C +1 1 H 7 N + 0 n

1 0

236 141 92 1 n +235 92 U 93 U 56 Ba +36 Kr +30 n

Electromagnetic Radiation EM Radiation: Electromagnetic radiation is most simply defined as light, and as you know, not all light is visible to the human eye. Electromagnetic radiation is broken up in to regions based on the frequency of the light, the full range of radiation is called the electromagnetic spectrum, EMS. The major regions are radio, micro, infrared, visible, ultra violet, x-rays and gamma rays.

Usage of Different Wavelengths of light: Radio waves are used to transmit radio and television signals. Radio waves have wavelengths that range from less than a centimeter to tens or even hundreds of meters. FM radio waves are shorter than AM radio waves. For example, an FM radio station at 100 on the radio dial (100 megahertz) would have a wavelength of about three meters. An AM station at 750 on the dial (750 kilohertz) uses a wavelength of about 400 meters. Radio waves can also be used to create images. Radio waves with wavelengths of a few centimeters can be transmitted from a satellite or airplane antenna. The reflected waves can be used to form an image of the ground in complete darkness or through clouds. Microwave wavelengths range from approximately one millimeter (the thickness of a pencil lead) to thirty centimeters (about twelve inches). In a microwave oven, the radio waves generated are tuned to frequencies that can be absorbed by the food. The food absorbs the energy and gets warmer. The dish holding the food doesn't absorb a significant amount of energy and stays much cooler. Microwaves are emitted from the Earth, from objects such as cars and planes, and from the atmosphere. These microwaves can be detected to give information, such as the temperature of the object that emitted the microwaves. Infrared is the region of the electromagnetic spectrum that extends from the visible region to about one millimeter (in wavelength). Infrared waves include thermal radiation. For example, burning charcoal may not give off light, but it does emit infrared radiation which is felt as heat. Infrared radiation can be measured using electronic detectors and has applications in medicine and in finding heat leaks from houses. Infrared images obtained by sensors in satellites and airplanes can yield important information on the health of crops and can help us see forest fires even when they are enveloped in an opaque curtain of smoke. The rainbow of colors we know as visible light is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths between 400 and 700 billionths of a meter (400 to 700 nanometers). It is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that we see, and coincides with the wavelength of greatest intensity of

sunlight. Visible waves have great utility for the remote sensing of vegetation and for the identification of different objects by their visible colors. Ultraviolet radiation has a range of wavelengths from 400 billionths of a meter to about 10 billionths of a meter. Sunlight contains ultraviolet waves which can burn your skin. Most of these are blocked by ozone in the Earth's upper atmosphere. A small dose of ultraviolet radiation is beneficial to humans, but larger doses cause skin cancer and cataracts. Ultraviolet wavelengths are used extensively in astronomical observatories. Some remote sensing observations of the Earth are also concerned with the measurement of ozone. X-rays are high energy waves which have great penetrating power and are used extensively in medical applications and in inspecting welds. X-ray images of our Sun can yield important clues to solar flares and other changes on our Sun that can affect space weather. The wavelength range is from about ten billionths of a meter to about 10 trillionths of a meter. Gamma rays have wavelengths of less than about ten trillionths of a meter. They are more penetrating than X-rays. Gamma rays are generated by radioactive atoms and in nuclear explosions, and are used in many medical applications. Images of our universe taken in gamma rays have yielded important information on the life and death of stars, and other violent processes in the universe

Given all the reactions that we examined, there are several ways that an unstable nuclide might decay, but can we predict how it will decay? Can we predict if a nuclide will decay at all? Our knowledge of the nucleus is still very limited compared to our knowledge of the atom as a whole. But there are some patterns that do emerge. The Stability Band: The neutron to proton ratio (N/Z) Remember that the number of neutrons (N) is determined by taking the atomic mass (A) and subtracting the number of protons: #no = atomic mass atomic number or #no = A-Z A key factor that determines the stability of a particular nuclide is its ratio of neutrons to its number of protons, or the N/Z ratio. For lighter nuclides, where the N/Z ratio 1, this provides stability. For heavier nuclides to be stable, the number of neutrons must exceed the number of protons. As you increase the positive charges in the nucleus (meaning the number of protons) you need more neutral buffers which are the neutrons in order to increase its stability. Stability can be thought of as the amount of time that the nuclide will exist as that isotope and not undergo some sort of decay. However, if the N/Z ratio is too high or too low, the nuclide will be unstable and will decay. There are some generalities that can be made. The minimum N/Z value for stability is 1. Two exceptions are stable nuclides, N/Z 1:
4 2 1 1H

and

3 2

He. For lighter

He,

12 16 20 6 C, 8 O, 10 Ne

The N/Z ratio which indicates stable nuclides increases gradually as Z increases. The ratio will be larger than 1 but not much greater than 1.5. Bismuth-209 is the heaviest stable nuclide, which has an N/Z value of 1.52. All nuclides with Z > 83 are unstable, regardless of their N/Z ratio. Therefore the largest members of Groups 1A, 2A, 6A, 7A, and 8A are radioactive, as are all actinides and the elements in the 4th transition series (Period 7).

Why are neutrons necessary? What does it mean for the neutron to be this buffer inside the nucleus? Given that the protons are positively charged and the neutrons have no charge, what exactly holds the nucleus together? Nuclear scientists answer this question and explain the importance of this N/Z ratio in terms of two opposing forces. Electrostatic repulsive forces between

10

the positively charged protons (remember +/+ do not want to be anywhere near one another!!) would rip the nucleus apart if it were not for something called the strong force. The strong force is an attractive force that exists between the neutrons and protons (termed nucleons) in a nucleus. This force is about 100 times stronger than the proton-proton repulsive forces but it only operates over very short distances. It is the competition between the repulsive forces and attractive forces that ultimately determines nuclear stability.

Interestingly, the oddness or the evenness of the N and Z value is related to some important patterns of nuclear stability. Two interesting points appear when stable nuclides are examined: Elements with an even number of protons (even Z) usually have a larger number of stable nuclides (isotopes) than elements with odd numbers of protons.

11

Over half of the known stable nuclides (isotopes) have BOTH even N and Z values. Only 7 isotopes with odd N and odd Z are either stable:
176 71 Lu. 2 6 1 H, 3

Li,

10 14 5 B, 7N

or they decay so
50 138 23 V, 57La,

slowly that their amounts have changed very little since the Earth was formed

One model of nuclear structure that attempts to explain these findings theorizes that the protons and neutrons lie in shells, nucleon shells, or energy levels where the protons and neutrons reside, and that the stability results from the pairing of the nucleons. This arrangement leads to the stability of even numbers of species, such that all species are paired. Just like noble gases (elements 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, and 86) are extremely stable because of their filled energy levels (s 2p6) for electrons, nuclides with N or Z values of 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126 are also exceptionally stable. These are so called magic numbers and are thought to possibly correspond to the number of protons or neutrons that would exist in a filled nucleon shell. A few examples are given below:
50 22 88 38 4 2

Ti Sr O

N = 28 N = 50 N =2 N =8 N = 126

He

16 8 40 20

Ca N = 20

208 82 Pb

Predicting the Mode of Decay: Remember that nature always moves towards a more stable product. As such, an unstable nucleus must undergo some sort of change in order to become stable. An unstable nucleus will decay in a manner that brings its ratio of N/Z into the band of stability. Generally speaking, nuclides will decay as follows: Neutron rich nuclides: Isotopes/nuclides that have too many neutrons are unstable. These species have a large N/Z ratio. In order to achieve stability, these species will undergo beta decay, which converts a neutron into a proton. Thus, the overall number of neutrons decreases, the number of protons increase, and the N/Z value is lowered or reduced as well. Neutron-poor nuclides: Isotopes/nuclides that have too few neutrons are unstable. These species have a small N/Z ratio. In order to achieve stability, these species undergo positron decay or electron capture. Both of these processes convert a proton into a neutron. Thus, the number of neutrons is increased and the number of protons decreased, thus the N/Z value is increased as well. Heavy nuclides: Isotopes/nuclides with atomic numbers (Z) > 83 are too heavy and do not lie in the band of stability. These species must reduce their mass thus their number of protons

12

and neutrons thus they undergo alpha decay. This will reduce their atomic mass by 4 and the atomic number by 2 (remember an alpha particle is represented by helium). A parent nuclide may undergo several decays, in succession, before reaching a stable form. This is called undergoing a decay series, where each decay step happens, one after the other until the nuclide is stable. Sometimes this is also referred to as a disintegration series. Typically a decay series is depicted using a grid-like display to show the species as it changes from one unstable species to another, until finally becoming stable.

Or, the decay might be shown in a simple manner as shown below.

13

Finally, the decay could be shown by writing out the balanced nuclear reactions that the species undergoes in a step by step manner (only the first four steps in the decay are shown below):
238 92 U 234 90 Th 234 91 Pa 234 92 U

234 90 Th 234 91 Pa 234 92 U 230 90 Th

+ + + +

4 2 0 -1 0 -1 4 2

He

He

Remember that alpha decay changes the mass of the nuclide and the number of protons (N and Z both change), while beta decay turns neutrons into protons so the mass number stays the same, but the number of protons increases. (thus N decreases by 1, but Z increases by 1 so the mass stays constant) Rate of Radioactive Decay: We know that systems will change to reach the minimum energy state. As such, radioactive decay is all about turning an unstable nuclide into a stable one. However, there is no mention of how long this process will take. Radioactive nuclei will decay at a characteristic rate, regardless of the chemical species in which they occur. This means that regardless of the source of the unstable nuclide, it will decay at the same rate. The decay rate, or activity, of a radioactive sample is the change in the number of nuclei divided by the change in time. Because the number of nuclei are decreasing, and rates are inherently positive, we must take the negative of the change in order to keep the rate positive! Decay rate = - nuclei time The SI unit for radioactivity is the becquerel (Bq) and is defined as one disintegration per second. 1Bq = 1d/s. A more common unit for radiation is the curie (Ci). 1 Ci = the number of nuclei disintegrating each second in 1 gram of radium-226. Because the curie is so large, millicuries (mCi) or microcuries (Ci) are often used. Several other units of radiation are given below:

14

Units of Radiation: Becquerel: 1 nuclear disintegration per second Roentgen: 2.1 x 109 ion pairs per cm3 of dry air Roentgen: 1.8 x 1012 ion pairs per 1 g of tissue rad: The absorption of 0.01 Joules of energy per kilogram of material, radiation absorbed dose. gray(Gy): The absorption of 1 Joules of energy per kilogram of material. The official SI Unit. rem: (roentgen equivalent man) specific to human beings. this unit is found by multiplying the amount of radiation in rads by the QF. rem = rad x QF the QF (Quality Factor) is determined by which radiation you are exposed to: QF = 1 and QF = 10 QF = 20 Curie(Ci): 37 billion radioactive decays in one second. equivalent to the number of decays in one gram of radium in one second. An activity is meaningful only when one considers a large number of nuclei in a macroscopic sample. For example, suppose that you have 1 x 10 15 radioactive nuclei of a particular type and it decays at a rate of 10% per hour. What this means is that that average of all the decays results in 10% of the entire sample of radioactive nuclei will disintegrate in that hour. Thus, after 1 hour, 10% of the original number of nuclei, thus 1 x 10 14 nuclei will decay. This leaves behind, 9 x 10 14 nuclei that have not yet decayed. During the next hour, 10% of the remaining 9 x 10 14 nuclei will decay, which is 9 x 1013 nuclei. This process will continue to occur as the nuclei continue to decay. Radioactive decay is a first order process, it will depend on the number of nuclei present. Half-Life: Decay rates are commonly expressed in terms of the fraction of nuclei that decay over a given time period. The half-life (t1/2) is the time required for one half of a number of an isotope to decay into a new isotope. Half-lives differ greatly from isotope to isotope, they can range from picoseconds to billions of years. The number of nuclei that are left after the set time is the original number that were present. For example, 14C has a half-life of 5,730 years. What that means, is that if you had a 50.0 gram sample of 14C, after 5,730 years you would have 25.0 grams left. Then, after another 5,730 years you would have 12.5 grams left and so on. There are several mathematical equations that can be used to calculate amounts or the half-life of species: ln

N0 = kt Nt

ln

Nt = kt1/ 2 N t 1 / 2
t1/2 = ln 2 k

Thus, the half-life is not dependent on the amount of nuclei that are present! A 50.0 gram sample of 14 C will have the same half-life as a 150.0 gram sample of 14C! Concept Test: How long would it take for 500 grams for protactinium-234 to decay to 10 grams? The half life of Pa-234 is 72 seconds.

15

Given the following table of information, we can see that our time is very reasonable! Mass 500 250 125 62.5 31.25 15.6 7.8 Time 0 72 144 216 288 360 432

The answer should be longer than 360 sec but shorter than 432 sec and it is!

The nuclear processes that we have been considering so far have involved radioactive decay, where a nucleus emits or absorbs (electrons capture) a few small particles or photons. Eventually, through the decay processes, the product is a lighter nucleus. Two other processes cause changes in/with the nucleus as well. They are fission and fusion. In nuclear fission, a heavy nucleus splits into two light nuclei. In nuclear fusion, lighter nuclei combine (think fuse together) and form a heavier product. Both fission and fusion release enormous quantities of energy. The Mass Defect: Throughout the 20th century, it has become known that mass and energy are interconvertible. The traditional mass and energy conservation laws that we discussed in term 1 have been combined to state that the total quantity of mass-energy in the universe is constant. Therefore, when any reacting system releases or absorbs energy, there must be an accompanying loss or gain of mass. This relationship really did not concern us (was negligible) when we were examining chemical reactions. The energy changes involved in breaking or forming chemical bonds are so small that the

16

mass changes are therefore negligible as well. For example, when 1 mole of water breaks up into its atoms, heat must be put into the system: H2O (g) 2H
(g)

+ O

(g)

H = +934 kJ

Mass is equivalent or related to energy through Einsteins equation E = mc 2 where m is the mass and c is the speed of light. We can use this equation to examine changes in reactions. Remember that H values are changes the difference in energy between the products and the reactants ( H = npHfp - nrHfr). So the equation becomes: E = mc2 or m = E/c2 Using Einsteins equation, we can examine the change in mass that occurs during the chemical reaction: m = 9.34 x 105 J/mol (2.9979 x 108m/sec)2

m = 1.04 x 10-11 kilograms/mole = 1.04 x 10-8 grams/mole The change in mass, while a number that can be calculated, is 10 ng which is a change that is too small to measure with any balance that we have today. (m = mass products mass reactants). Such small mass changes that occur when chemical bonds break or chemical bonds form allows us to say that mass IS conserved in chemical reactions. Nuclear processes are accompanied by a much larger measurable mass change. This mass change is related to the enormous energy required to bind the nucleus together or to break it apart. For example, what happens if we try and rip apart the nucleus of a carbon atom into its protons and neutrons? A carbon-12 isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. A proton is essentially a hydrogen atom (remember that the mass of an electron is negligible). So lets combine 6 H atoms with 6 neutrons and see what we get: Mass of 6 1H atoms = 6(1.007825 amu) Mass of 6 neutrons = 6(1.008665 amu) H atoms = 6.046950 amu +Neutrons = 6.051990 amu total mass = 12.098940 amu BUT!! The mass of one 12C atom is exactly 12 amu! The difference between the calculated (predicted or theoretical mass) and the actual mass is 0.098940 amu Note that the mass of the real nucleus is LESS than the calculated or the combined mass of its nucleons (protons and neutrons). The mass decrease occurs when the nucleons are united into the nucleus and is called the mass defect. The size of this mass 9.8940 x 10 -2 g/mole IS measurable on any laboratory balance. If we know the m (the mass defect) we can, using Einsteins equation, calculate the energy equivalent associated with the defect. For 12C, after converting the mass to kilograms, we can calculate E! E = mc2

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E = (9.8940 x 10-5 kg/mol)(2.9989 x 108m/sec)2 E = 8.8921 x 1012 kgm2/sec2mol = 8.8921 x 1012 J/mol E = 8.8921 x 109 kJ/mole This quantity of energy, the energy associated with the loss of mass, is called the nuclear binding energy for 12C. In general, the nuclear binding energy can be calculated for any nucleus, and it is the quantity of energy required to break up the nucleus into its component protons and neutrons (nucleons). Such that: 1 mole Nucleus + Nuclear Binding Energy nucleons (protons and neutrons separated) Binding energies are typically expressed in electron volts, specifically the megaelectron volt (MeV). 1 amu = 931.5 x 106 ev = 931.5 MeV We can compare the stabilities of nuclides by determining the binding energy per nucleon. equation is: Binding Energy Total # nucleons The

Fission or Fusion: The Means of Increasing the Binding Energy per Nucleon Binding energies for different species vary greatly. And it is known that the greater the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the species, meaning the harder it is to rip the nucleus apart. Nuclides with atomic masses less than 10 (less than 10 total nucleons) have rather small binding energies, with the exception of helium, which has an unexpectedly large binding energy, which is a reason why it is emitted intact as an alpha particle from nuclei. When species have more than 12 nucleons, binding energies vary between 7.6 to 8.8 MeV.

The binding energy in the table above peaks for elements that have a total number of nucleons around 60. In other words, as the binding energy increases up to this point, the stability of the nuclides increases as well. Then the binding energy begins to decrease after masses = 60, so the nuclides become less stable. This point, mass number = 60 is important. It represents the place

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where the atom can be most stable. Other nuclides would like to get to this place on the plot. Species with lower numbers of nucleons need to INCREASE their total number of nucleons while species with too many nucleons need to lose some. Two nuclear processes can help a nuclide become more stable. Fission: A heavier nucleus can split into lighter ones. This means that a species with too many nucleons will now split into to nuclei that have less nucleons. The product nuclei will have a greater binding energy per nucleon and thus be more stable. Energy will be released as the product is more stable (at a lower energy state) than the reactant. Nuclear power plants use fission as do atomic bombs Fusion: A lighter nucleus needs to gain more nucleons. It can do so by combining with other nuclei. Again the product is more stable than the reactant, so it is at a lower energy state and that energy is released. The sun and stars generate energy through fusion as do hydrogen bombs. Current research is focusing on the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form a stable helium nucleus as a useful source of energy.

Of the many beneficial applications of nuclear reactions the greatest is the potential for limitless amounts of energy. In the mid-1930s, Enrico Fermi bombarded uranium with neutrons. What they observed, were, what they believed, were smaller particles. Subsequent experiments proved these results. In fact, when uranium is bombarded with neutrons, it breaks apart into 92Kr and 141 Ba and releases a lot of energy.

The uranium-235 nucleus can split in many different ways, but what is most important is that it happens quickly (10-14 seconds) and it releases extraordinary amounts of energy. In fact, pound of coal releases 2 x 104 J when it is burned while pound of uranium releases 2.1 x 10 13 J of energy that is a billion times more! One of the other products of a fission reaction is the release of neutrons. These neutrons will be moving, pretty fast, and they will begin colliding with the species that are present, which will cause more splitting and more neutrons to be produced . . . and you can see where this is going! This is called a chain reaction, where splitting and collisions propagates more splitting. The occurrence of a chain reaction depends on the amount of substance. This is termed critical mass. There must be enough of a species present or the neutrons will miss the species and fly out of the sample. Think about firing a gun at a group of animals. If you are 50 feet away and there is 1 animal, you have to be a pretty good shot right? What if you are 50 feet away from 100 animals.

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Chances are, just firing in the general direction of the group will land you a hit. The same applies to the neutrons. A direct hit is likely if there is enough stuff there! The minimum amount of nuclide necessary for a chain reaction to occur is called the critical mass. If the mass of the sample is lower than the critical mass, then the neutrons will leave the sample and a chain reaction will not occur.

Uncontrolled Fission: The Atomic Bomb When the fissionable species is present in abundance, meaning they exceed this critical mass, the ensuing chain reaction brings about an explosion. In order to by some time subcritical masses of fissionable material are kept separate and then brought together by some explosions which then allows the chain reaction to take over.

Controlled Fission: The Nuclear Reactor It is not too difficult to understand some peoples fears with regard to nuclear energy compared to nuclear bombs. After all, they are the same process, just used or handled differently. What if the power plant goes haywire out of control what if it explodes like the atomic bomb. What prevents the fission inside the nuclear reactor from experiencing the uncontrolled chain reaction? Nuclear Reactors:

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Nuclear reactors are not the most popular source of power in this country. There are many people who wish that these power plants would be shut down. They have good reasons and bad reasons for wanting them to be shut down. One good reason is that we do not have a truly viable method for getting rid of the reactor fuel once it has been used. This material is called spent fuel. One bad reason is the fear of the plant becoming unstable and causing a nuclear explosion. The fuel used in a nuclear reactor is not concentrated enough for an explosion, like that in an atomic bomb, to occur. This is simply not possible. So, put the thought of mushroom clouds or melt downs ending in China out of your mind! You may be asking yourself, with all the controversy why build them at all? Well, we are an electric society. All methods for producing electricity will be developed in some capacity. A tidal power plant was built in the US many years ago, at great taxpayer expense, unfortunately it failed miserably. The flow of the water in tides is just too slow to produce electricity. Speaking of electricity, how is it generated? To produce voltage, you need 3 things. A magnetic field, a current carrying conductor (a wire) and relative motion between the two. By relative motion between the two it is meant that either the wire or the magnetic field must move so that the magnetic lines of flex cut across the wire. So, if a wire is waved it back and forth between a magnet, a voltage will be generated. Seems simple enough, so why build a nuclear reactor or build a dam if all that is need is to move wire? Well the wire used in electric power plants is actually a very long wire wrapped thousands of times around an axle, then large magnets are placed around the wire. With this amount of wire the axle can weigh quite a lot. By a lot I mean hundreds of tons. Look below, these are BIG!

That is a man standing on the generator. The other picture is of a row of generators like those found in most dams. The problem is how do you turn this axle? Humans have come up with a few means. First a turbine is attached to the axle. A turbine is really a large fan, but instead of these fan blades blowing air, water or steam or wind is used to push the blades. Since the turbine is attached to the axle wrapped in wire the wire turns in the magnetic field, abracadabra electricity is being generated. When water is used, this is called a hydroelectric plant, or dam. When wind is used, this is called a windmill. But these methods can only be used if there is water or wind available. The most common method used to turn the generator is with a steam turbine. Where does the steam come from? Boiled water. It is as simple as that, if you can boil water you can generate electricity. In order to boil the water you must have a heat source, for example, fire. The typical heat sources are coal, natural gas or oil, and garbage is now being used as well. It is unclear who lives down wind of the garbage burning electrical power plant but I am sure they are not thrilled with their power source! There is another method, nuclear power. There are two types of nuclear reactions that can be used to generate power. Nuclear fusion and fission. The sun uses nuclear fusion, which is the combining of two smaller nuclei to make one large nuclei. It might not seem like much energy would be given off by this reaction, but sit outside on a

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the first sunny day of spring with in a bathing suit and tell me the sun does not have a lot of power. This is the method we would like to use, the problem is there is too much energy given off. The fusion reaction gives off so much heat it melts every container known to man. Humans are currently attempting to create a magnetic field which will hold the fusion reaction but this research is moving ahead very slowly. The best part of this reaction is the waste product is helium, certainly not a threat to the environment as it is a noble gas. Fission is the nuclear reaction of choice for nuclear power plants. In this reaction a neutron hits and enters a large nucleus. This nucleus is split into two smaller nuclei, a few neutrons and releases a lot of heat. Not as much heat as in fusion but plenty enough to boil water. The main problem with this reaction is that the two smaller nuclei produced in the splitting are very radioactive. And their half lives are very long, ranging from thousand to millions of years. It is very difficult to build a container which will hold something for a million years. Other ideas of disposal have been considered such as shooting the waste into space or into the sun, but this is not really a practical solution.

Regardless of politics, these power plants exist. Here are the basics on how a nuclear reactor works and why the odds are stacked against a leak of any radioactive material reaching the environment. The fuel used in nuclear power plants is U-235. This in itself is a problem as uranium is not a common element, and the most common isotope of uranium is U-238. Unfortunately U-238 does not fission every time a neutron hits it, normally it simply absorbs the neutron and becomes U-239. So, U-235 must be purified out of large sample of all the uranium isotopes. This is very costly. An aircraft carrier, such as the USS Abraham Lincoln costs 2 billion dollars, the nuclear reactor cores U235 fuel that is used to run the Lincoln is 1 billion of that total cost. The U-235 and all the radioactive products of the fission reaction are contained in fuel assemblies. The fuel assemblies are basically bars or rods composed of very strong very corrosion resistant metal. All the radioactivity of a nuclear reactor is trapped in these assemblies. There would have to be a serious problem for the fuel assembly to break and release radioactive material. A nuclear power plant is divided up in to loops. These loops prevent water that has touched the reactor fuel assembles from reaching the environment. This water, called primary coolant, is not actually radioactive, but it is isolated in case there is a problem. The primary coolant is contained in the primary loop. Again, this loop is wholly separated from the next loop of water called the

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secondary loop. The secondary loop contains the water that is actually boiled to steam and is used to turn the steam turbine. Remember that the entire purpose of the reactor is to turn the generator. The next loop is the condensing loop. It cools the spent steam from the turbine back to into liquid water which is looped back to be boiled again. The final cooling loop begins at a lake or river. This lake or river water cools the condensing loop so it can cool the spent steam. For a reactor to release radioactive material to the environment the fuel assemblies would have to break, at the same time that the primary loop ruptures into the secondary loop which must itself leak into the condensing loop whereupon it must burst into the cooling loop. This is just not going to happen unless someone bombs the plant. Regardless, if any of these systems where to break and leak into any of the other systems the reactor would instantly and automatically shut down. Primary Coolant: normally composed of water very high pressure, 2000 lb. very high temperature, 500F water performs 2 functions, heat exchanger and as a moderator to slow neutrons to aid in fission of U-235 Primary Loop: 1. begins cycle at pump 2. flows to reactor core and is heated by U-235 chain reaction 3. is piped to steam generator through U-tubes and heats secondary water Secondary Loop: 1. begins at the pump under the condenser 2. flows to bottom of steam generator 3. hits U-tubes and is heated to steam 4. is piped to steam turbine where it strikes the turbine blades and is spins the turbine 5. exits the turbine and enters the condenser 6. hits condenser U-tubes and is condensed to water Basic Diagram of a Nuclear Reactor:

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Radioactive Dating: Radioactive dating uses half-lives to determine how long something has been around. All objects take in radioactive materials over the course of their lives. When they die they stop taking in these radioactive materials. The radioactive materials decay over time. If you know how much of a particular radioactive material is in a live organism you have the No value. You can use a detector to determine the amount of this radioactive material in the dead organism, which give you N. If you know the half-life you can calculate how long the organism has been dead. C-14 dating is most famous isotopes used for dating but it has limitations. The accuracy of half-life dating is very poor after the isotope has undergone 5 half-life cycles. So, C-14 with a half-life of 5730 years is not very accurate after 40,000 years. Potassium-40 is used to date farther back in history. K-40 has a half-life of 1.28 x 10 9 years this allows scientist to date much older objects, meteors, dinosaurs, crater, etc. A table of useful isotopic decays follows. Useful Isotopic Decay System C-14 U-238 to Pb-206 ratio U-235 to Pb-207 ratio Rb-87 to Sr-87 ratio K-40 to Ar-40 ratio Sm-147 to Nd-143 ratio Material organic remains Minerals Minerals Minerals Minerals Minerals Half-life/years 5730 4510 million 704 million 48,800 million 1250 million 110,000 million Age range/years 200 - 50,000 10-4500 million 10-4500 million 60-4500 million 0.1-3000 million 1000-4500 million

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Transuranium Elements: Humans have created new elements by bombarding atoms with other particles such as, alpha particles, neutrons, or even with other nuclei. Most of these can be found past uranium on the periodic table and therefore are named transuranium elements. Uranium is the element with the most protons that occurs in nature. As of today there are not a lot of uses for transuranium elements. Here is a short list of their uses today: in smoke detectors, nuclear power and nuclear bombs. Most of these isotopes do not last long, having half-lives in the seconds. Acute Dose-Response Effects in Humans: Dose (mrem) Effect Immediate prostration, coma, followed by death within 1 or 2 days from severe 10,000,000 central nervous system damage. Immediate nausea, vomiting, diarrhea. Death within 1 or 2 weeks from blistering of 1,000,000 small intestine. Complications from depressed bone marrow activity. No overt effects. Some depression of white cell count. Statistical increase in 100,000 probability of radiogenic leukemia and life shortening (1 to 5 days/rem). Effects are difficult to measure. In early embryo, developmental defects are possible. 10,000 Subtle abnormalities of brain structure and perhaps also function may occur above 10 rem. No measurable effects except a statistical increase of tumor incidence before 1,000 age of 10 in infants exposed in-utero. Inverse Square Law of Radiation: This equation calculates the intensity of radiation for a given distance from the source of the radiation and is called the inverse square law of radiation. The equation used to calculate the effects of gravity is in the same format, simply replace I, intensity with G, gravity. I = intensity of radiation d= distance from the intensity

d2 Ix y = 2 Iy dx

Shielding will also reduce the intensity. The calculation for shielding works on 10th thickness. This is the amount of shielding to reduce the intensity of the radiation to 1/10 th of what it was. This is specific for the type of radiation and the shielding used. For example, the 10th thickness for gamma is 2 inches of lead. The 10th thickness for neutrons in 10 inches of concrete or water. and radiation are really not a threat outside the body. The dead layer of skin that covers your body is enough to shield you from them. and radiation are really only harmful if the radiation is generated from within the body. A radioactive isotope can be eaten, drank or breathed in. When this occurs the isotope can decay. The tissue in the body has no protective layer and is easily ionized, killing the surrounding cells. Or worse, mutating them.

Radiation Detection

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We detect radiation by using its high energy to cause a reaction to occur. Detection is necessary as radiation has the potential to harm us. Radiation that harms living organisms is called ionizing radiation. If radiation is strong enough to cause atoms and molecules in the body to be ionized bad things can happen to the organism. Cells die, or worse cells live in a mutated state, which is one cause of cancer. The detector is normally gas filled and when ionizing radiation enters this area, the interior gas is ionized. Thus, the neutral gas is now charged. A large electrical probe runs through the middle of the detector and when these ions are formed in the detector, they will now be attracted to this probe in the middle of the detector as opposite charges attract. The center probe is positively charged so the newly released electrons are drawn to the probe, then travel through the detectors circuits where they are counted. They travel back to the chamber holding the gas and return to the ionized gas from which they came. More ions mean more ionizations which means more electrons and ultimately, more radiation. The Geiger counter is such a device also known as an ion-chamber detector.

Another method used to detect radiation is a scintillation counter. When radiation hits a material in the detector the material gives off a photon, which is read by a photon detector and counted. These detectors use a sodium iodine crystal, which when it is exposed to high energy radiation, will release light, which is detected by the photo detector. Hand held scintillation counters are still in use by the Navy. Others do use the scintillation detectors but ironically they have grown while the gas filled detectors have shrunk. With the exception of the Navy, all other scintillation counters are now large cabinet-sized pieces of equipment and the gas filled counters are very small. Medical Applications Radioactive tracers are used to make a part of the body temporarily opaque to radioactivity to check for a problem, like a leak in your digestive system, or to check if an organ has increased in size. The isotopes absorb the radiation and do not allow it to reach the x-ray film or detector. X-rays can diagnose bone breaks and the CAT scan or CT (computed tomography scanning,) which is many x-rays taken with a computer used to generate an image, can diagnose internal injuries. Radiation therapy for cancer victims is another important use of radiation. Directing gamma radiation at tumor can kill the tumor. This is sometimes the only hope for those persons with a tumor in an inoperable location, i.e. the brain. As a side note, MRI, magnetic resonance imaging, is a big improvement over x-rays in diagnosing problems in soft tissue, muscles, organs, tendons and the like. X-rays dont show soft tissue well MRI does, the damage tissue is affected differently than healthy tissue, all based on charges, but on the computer screen it shows up as a different color.

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Scientific Applications Atom Tracking: Using isotopes allows chemists to track the flow of a molecule or atom through a biological process. For example a scientist can use heavy water, water which has its normal hydrogen, H-1 replaced with H-2 called deuterium. It is twice as heavy as a normal hydrogen but it chemically behaves the same as normal hydrogen. The water will react normally and the hydrogen will be tracked through series of chemical reactions. The deuterium acts as a tag. The substance which has taken up this heavy hydrogen has a different spectrum or appearance when analyzed by certain instruments. A Further Look at the Limits of Nuclear Stability One of the basic questions of nuclear science remains unanswered: What combinations of neutrons and protons does nature allow to form a nucleus? It is possible that there are isotopes of aluminum with twice the mass of a normal aluminum nucleus, but no one has produced such isotopes. We cannot predict what the mass limit might be, yet. The Rare Isotope Accelerator, RIA scientific program will allow dramatic steps toward understanding nuclear binding and the limits of nuclear stability. Working with a variety of very fast ions from powerful accelerators, scientists have already made several thousand different nuclei that can be shown on a chart of nuclei. The figure shows three different kinds of nuclei. The combinations of neutrons and protons that make up the stable nuclei, those found on the earth are shown by the black squares. The unstable known nuclei that have been produced at one time or another in the laboratory are shown in yellow. The larger region of unknown but predicted nuclei is shown in green. RIA will allow scientists to explore this region.

The unexplored green region, terra incognita, of the chart of nuclides is very large with literally thousands of unknown nuclei. The limit on the neutron-rich side is called the neutron drip line. The addition of another neutron would lead to its immediate re-emissionits like trying to add a drop of water to a bucket filled to the rim. Experiments with RIA will extend our present knowledge of heavy isotopes and the neutron drip-line far beyond the present limit, our present limit is oxygen, not too far down this long road of research. Challenging experiments are planned that will detect and identify individual rare nuclei as they fly from the production target. Additional Information: What is PET? The name "PET" comes from Positron Emission Tomography. It is a new scanning technique in medical research. PET allows us, for the first time, to measure in detail the functioning of distinct areas of the human brain while the patient is comfortable, conscious and alert. We can now study the

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chemical process involved in the working of healthy or diseased human brains in a way previously impossible. Before the advent of the PET scanner, we could only infer what went on within the brain from post-mortems (dissections after death) or animal studies. PET represents a new step forward in the way scientists and doctors look at the brain and how it functions. An X-ray or a CT scan shows only structural details within the brain. The PET scanner gives us a picture of the brain at work.

Positron: Antimatter equivalent of the electron A positron is an anti-electron. Positrons are given off during the decay of the nuclei of specific radioisotopes. A type of radioactive fluorine produced at TRIUMF for the PET program is a positron emitter. When matter collides with its corresponding antimatter, both are annihilated. When a positron meets an electron, the collision produces two gamma rays having the same energy, but going in opposite directions. The gamma rays leave the patients body and are detected by the PET scanner. The information is then fed into a computer to be converted into a complex picture of the patients working brain.

How does it work? A conventional "X-ray" is taken by person and onto a film. This some structures in the body, such CT scanner uses fine streams of Xthrough the body from several is able to build up a composite

firing X-rays through a "shadow" image shows as cartilage and bone. A rays. By firing them directions, the CT scanner picture of anatomical

details within a "slice" through the person. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does much the same thing, but using magnetic and radiowave fields. In contrast, the PET scanner utilizes radiation emitted from the patient to develop images. Each patient is given a minute amount of a radioactive pharmaceutical that closely resembles a natural substance used by the body. One example of such a pharmaceutical produced at TRIUMF is 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG), which is similar to a naturally occurring sugar, glucose, with the addition of a radioactive fluorine atom. Gamma radiation produced from the positron-

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emitting fluorine is detected by the PET scanner and shows in fine detail the metabolism of glucose in the brain.

What scan The being during a

does brain PET

a PET show? function studied scan

determines which radiopharmaceutical is used. Oxygen-15 can be used to label oxygen gas for the study of oxygen metabolism, carbon monoxide for the study of blood volume, or water for the study of blood flow in the brain. Similarly, fluorine-18 is attached to a glucose molecule to produce FDG for use in the observation of the brains sugar metabolism. Many more PET radiopharmaceuticals exist, and research is under way to develop still more to assist in the exploration of the working human brain. For example, dopa, a chemical active in brain cells, is labeled with positron-emitting fluorine or carbon and applied in research on the communication between certain brain cells which are diseased, as in dystonia, Parkinsons disease, or schizophrenia.

PET radioisotopes produced at TRIUMF Labeling agent Half-life carbon-11 20.3 minutes oxygen-15 2.03 minutes fluorine-18 109.8 minutes bromine-75 98.0 minutes

How much radiation does a patient get? PET scans using radioactive fluorine in FDG would result in patients receiving exposures comparable to (or less than) those from other medical procedures, such as the taking of X-rays. Other scanning agents - for instance, 6-F-dopa or radioactive water - normally cause even less exposure.

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PET: Research tool of the future The PET program at TRIUMF and UBC is in a unique position among world medical research centers in having many of the expensive major facilities required to mount a powerful PET program. These include the cyclotrons and radiochemistry laboratories at the TRIUMF project that are the source of the PET scanning agents. The laboratories are linked to the UBC Health Sciences Centre Hospital by the worlds longest "pea shooter", a 2.4 km pneumatic pipeline used More information on the PETTVI scanner for the delivery of PET scanning agents in the shortest possible time. These facilities have a capacity that has not been equaled by any other university/health sciences center in the world. http://www.triumf.ca/welcome/petscan.html

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