Casting is the process of forming metal objects by allowing molten metal to solidify in a

mould. The shape of the object is determined by the shape of the mould cavity. When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the mould either by breaking the mould or taking the mould apart. The solidified object is called the casting. Advantages Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by this process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can be minimized or eliminated. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous. Objects may be cast in a single piece which would otherwise require construction in several pieces and subsequent assembly if made by other methods. Metal can be placed in exact locations where it is needed for rigidity, wear, corrosion, or maximum endurance under dynamic stress The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed this way. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process. Limitations Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes are a limitation to this technique. The metal casting process is a labour intensive process

Casting End Uses

Ferrous castings (Gray iron, malleable iron, ductile iron & steel castings) Ingot moulds Farm equipment Engines Refrigeration and heating Construction machinery Motor vehicles Valves and fittings Railroad equipment Mining equipment Metalworking machinery Pumps and compressors Hardware Nonferrous castings Aluminium Auto and light truck Aircraft and aerospace Engines Household appliances Office machinery Power tools Refrigeration, heating & air conditioning Magnesium Power tools Sporting goods Anodes Automotive
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Copper-base Valves and fittings Plumbing brass goods Electrical equipment Pumps and compressors Power transmission equipment General machinery Transportation equipment Zinc Automotive Building hardware Electrical components Household appliances
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PATTERN is a form made of wood, metal, plastic, or composite materials around which a
moulding material (usually prepared sand) is formed to shape the casting cavity of a mould.

Pattern Material
Commonly used pattern materials are wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins. The selection of pattern material depends on the size and shape of the casting, the dimensional accuracy, the quantity of castings required and the casting process used. To be suitable for use, the pattern material should be: Easily worked, shaped and joined Light in weight Strong, hard and durable Resistant to wear and abrasion Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity Available at low cost The most commonly used pattern material is wood, since it is readily available and of low weight. Also, it can be easily shaped and is relatively cheap. The main disadvantage of wood is its absorption of moisture, which can cause distortion and dimensional changes. Hence, proper seasoning and upkeep of wood is required.

Types of Patterns
The type of pattern used for a specific application depends primarily on the number of castings required, the casting process to be used, the size of the pattern, and the casting tolerances that are required. The stage of development of a casting design is also a factor. If the casting is likely to be redesigned, an inexpensive prototype pattern is often used first. Single Piece Pattern The one piece or single pattern is the most inexpensive of all types of patterns. This type of pattern is used only in cases where the job is very simple and does not create any withdrawal problems. It is also used for application in very small-scale production or in prototype development. This type of pattern is expected to be entirely in the drag and one of the surfaces is expected to be flat which is used as the parting plane. A gating system is made in the mould by cutting sand with the help of sand tools. Split Pattern Split pattern is most widely used type of pattern for intricate castings. It is split along the parting surface, the position of which is determined by the shape of the casting. One half of the pattern is moulded in drag and the other half in cope. The two halves of the pattern must be aligned properly by making use of the dowel pins, which are fitted, to the cope half of the pattern. These dowel pins match with the precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern. There are split patterns with

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more than two pieces, an example of which is shown below.

Match plate patterns are split patterns in which the cope and drag portions are mounted on opposite sides of a plate, called the match plate, conforming to the parting line. The pattern, as well as the associated gating and risering system, is usually made separately and then mounted on the match plate, but can also be cast integrally with the plate. The size of the match plate corresponds to the size of the flask used to make the final mould. Flask pin guides are used to ensure accurate alignment of the match plate pattern in the flask. Multiple patterns of small parts can be mounted on a single match plate. Common gates and risers on the match plate can often be shared by the multiple patterns on the match plate. Match plate patterns are used for moderate to high-volume production of small- and medium-size castings. The moulding operation is simplified considerably by the use of match plate patterns. The decrease in moulding costs and increased mould quality offset higher pattern costs for higher-volume castings. Large patterns are usually not match plate patterns, because of the limitations on flask sizes and the difficulties in moulding.

Loose piece pattern: It is a pattern with loose pieces which are necessary to facilitate withdrawal of the pattern from the mould. It is used to produce undercuts. Loose pieces are removed separately through the cavity formed after the main pattern has been removed. These loose pieces need to be fastened loosely to the main pattern by wooden dowel pins. Sweep pattern: Need for large size symmetrical shaped patterns are eliminated with the help of sweep pattern. Desired shape is swept into the sand mould by rotating the sweep pattern about a central axis.

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Segmental patterns are sections of a pattern arranged to form a complete mould by placing them in the mould suitably. After finishing one segment of the mould, the pattern is shifted to next position and the mould is finished in a segment by segment manner. These are generally used for circular work like rings, wheels, rims, gears etc.

Skeleton pattern: For very large simple castings, the pattern is made of wooden frame and rib construction (skeleton) which form an outline of the casting. The openings in the ribbed construction is filled and rammed with clay or sand.

Pattern Allowances
Although a pattern is used to produce a casting of desired dimensions, it is not dimensionally identical to the casting. A number of allowances must be made on the pattern- to ensure that the finished casting is dimensionally correct, to ensure that the pattern can be effectively removed from the mould, and to allow for cores to be firmly anchored. Shrinkage allowance is the correction factor built into the pattern to compensate for the contraction of the metal casting as it solidifies and cools to room temperature. The pattern is intentionally made larger than the final desired casting dimensions to allow for solidification and cooling contraction of the casting. The total contraction is volumetric, but is usually expressed linearly. Because different shrinkage allowances must be used for the
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individual types of metals cast, it is not possible to use the same pattern equipment for different cast metals without expecting dimensional changes. Shrinkage Shrinkage Material Dimension allowance Material Dimension allowance (inch/feet) (inch/feet) Up to 2 feet 0.125 Up to 4 feet 0.155 Grey cast 2 feet to 4 feet 0.105 Aluminium 4 feet to 6 feet 0.143 iron Over 4 feet 0.083 Over 6 feet 0.125 Up to 2 feet 0.251 Up to 4 feet 0.173 Cast steel 2 feet to 4 feet 0.191 Magnesium Over 4 feet 0.155 Over 4 feet 0.155 The patternmaker's shrink rule is a special scale that eliminates the need to compute the amount of the shrinkage allowance that must be provided on a given dimension. For example, on a 10.5 mm/m (1/8 in./ft) patternmaker's shrink rule, each meter (foot) is 10.5 mm (1/8 in.) longer, and each graduation on the shrink rule is proportionately longer than its conventional length. Double shrinkage allowances must sometimes be made if a master pattern is first made in wood and then used to make a metal match plate or cope and drag production pattern. For example, an aluminium pattern made from a wood master pattern would require a double shrinkage allowance on the wood pattern if a steel casting is to be made. The total shrinkage allowance on the wood pattern would then provide for the shrinkage of the aluminium pattern casting and of the steel casting made from the aluminium production pattern. It is even possible that several different shrinkage allowances will be needed in one pattern, depending on constraint conditions. For example, in the figure, two different contraction situations exist. Along dimension X, the casting has virtually no constraint to contraction, and the pattern should be made correspondingly larger along the X dimension surfaces. Dimension Y, however, is restrained from contraction by the core used to make the centre hole and will require little or no shrinkage allowance on the pattern dimensions. Exercise 1 The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern. Assuming only shrinkage allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern. All Dimensions are in Inches.

Solution 1 The shrinkage allowance for cast iron for size up to 2 feet is 0.125 inch per feet
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For dimension 18 inch, allowance = 18 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.1875 inch 0.2 inch For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 14 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.146 inch 0.15 inch For dimension 8 inch, allowance = 8 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0833 inch 0. 09 inch For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 6 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0625 inch 0. 07 inch The pattern drawing with required dimension is shown below:

Draft or Taper Allowance is taper allowed on the vertical faces of a pattern to permit its removal from the sand or other moulding medium without tearing of the mould walls. The amount of draft required depends on the shape and size of the casting, the moulding process used, the method of mould production, and the condition of the pattern. A draft angle of approximately 1.5 is often added to design dimensions. The draft angle may be higher when manual moulding techniques are used. Interior surfaces usually require somewhat more draft than exterior surfaces, and deep pockets or cavities may require considerably more draft. The Machining or Finish allowance provides for sufficient excess metal on all cast surfaces that require finish machining. The required machine finish allowance depends on many factors, including the metal cast, the size and shape of the casting, casting surface roughness and surface defects that can be expected, and the distortion and dimensional tolerances of the casting that are expected. Accurate patterns combined with automated moulding can often produce close-tolerance castings with a minimum machine finish allowance that can reduce final machining costs considerably. Exercise 2 The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern. Assuming only machining allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern. All Dimensions are in Inches. The machining allowance for cast iron for size, up to 12 inch is o.12 inch and from 12 inch to 20 inch is 0.20 inch

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Distortion or Camber Allowances. Certain cast shapes, such as large flat plates and dome or U-shaped castings, sometimes distort when reproduced from straight or perfect patterns. This distortion is caused by the non-uniform contraction stresses during the solidification of irregularly shaped designs. Minor distortions are normally corrected by mechanically pressing or straightening the casting, but if distortions are consistent and prominent, the pattern shape can be intentionally changed to counteract the casting distortions. The "distorted" pattern will then produce a distortion-free casting. Rapping Allowance Before the withdrawal from the sand mould, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to enlarge the mould cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable that the original pattern dimension should be reduced to account for this increase. There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is highly dependent on the foundry personnel practice involved. It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to those dimensions that are parallel to the parting plane. Core Prints: Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various sizes and shapes. These impressions can be obtained by using cores. So where coring is required, provision should be made to support the core inside the mould cavity. Core prints are used to serve this purpose. The core print is an added projection on the pattern and it forms a seat in the mould on which the sand core rests during pouring of the mould. The core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can support the weight of the core during the casting operation. Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed horizontal, vertical and can be hanged inside the mould cavity. A typical job, its pattern and the mould cavity with core and core print is shown below.

Colour coding of patterns

Typical colours used for some of the principal features are as follows: As-cast surfacemain body of pattern: Red/orange Machined surface: Yellow Core-print: Black Loose piece seating indication: Green

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Types of Moulding sand Based on composition Green sand Dry sand Synthetic sand Loam sand Based on functionality Core sand: Used for making cores. Facing sand: Specially prepared moulding sand which covers the pattern from all around and forms the face of the mould cavity. Parting sand: Consists of dried silica sand and sea sand, sprinkled on the parting surface to avoid sticking together of cope and drag. Also sprinkled over the pattern for its easy removal. Backing sand: It is the sand which backs up the facing sand. Moulding sand preparation Remove all foreign and undesirable particles from the moulding sand. The sand is then screened. Using a mechanical mixer (MULLER), the sand ingredients are mixed in dry condition. Continue the mixing action until there is a uniform distribution of the ingredients and optimum properties develop. Aerating separates sand grains into individual particles. Core Core is an obstruction which when positioned in the mould prevents the molten metal from filling up the space occupied by it and thus produces a hollow casting. Essential Characteristics of core Sufficient strength to support itself and to get handled without breaking. High permeability to let the mould gases escape through mould walls. Smooth surface to ensure a smooth casting. High refractoriness to withstand the hot molten metal. High collapsibility in order to assist the free contraction of solidifying metal. Ingredients should not generate mould gases. Core making procedure Core sand preparation Making the core Hand rammed / machine made Core venting Reinforcing cores with wires, rods etc. Baking the core Ovens, dielectric bakers Finishing of core Cleaning, sizing, core-assembly Setting the core Core prints, chaplets Chaplets Chaplets are metal shapes which are positioned between mould and core surfaces to support the core.

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Chaplets firmly support the core to overcome vertical movement due to the buoyant forces exerted on core by the molten metal. Chaplets should be of the same material being cast. Tin coated low carbon steels are used in ferrous foundries.

Types of cores Horizontal core: Positioned horizontally in the mould Vertical core: Positioned vertically in the mould Hanging core: Supported from above & hangs in mould cavity Balanced core: Supported and balanced from one end only. Stop off core: To make a cavity in the casing which cannot be made with other cores. Ram up core: Placed in the sand along with pattern before rapping the mould. Kiss core: Does not require core seats and held in position by pressure exerted by cope over drag.

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Types of moulds Green sand moulds: Among the sand casting processes, moulding is often done with green sand. Green sand can be defined as a plastic mixture of sand grains, clay, water and other additives. The sand is called green because of the moisture content. Green sand moulding has a great flexibility as a production process. The sand can be reused many times by reconditioning it with water, clay and other materials. It is the least costly method of moulding. Green sand moulds are suitable for producing small and medium sized castings. Green sand moulds are not suitable for casting thin long projections. Thin long projections of green sand in a mould cavity are washed away by the molten metal or may not even be mouldable. Certain metals and some castings develop defects if poured into moulds containing moisture. The dimensional accuracy and surface finish of green sand castings are comparatively less. Large castings require greater mould strength and resistance to erosion than that available with green sand moulds. Dry sand moulds: Dry sand moulds are actually made with moulding sand in green condition and then the entire mould is dried in ovens, before the molten metal is poured in them. In sand used for making dry sand moulds, certain binders are added which harden when heated. Dry sand moulds possess higher strength as compared to green sand moulds. They are more expensive and consume more time in making compared to green sand moulds. They generate less mould gases than green sand moulds. They possess higher permeability than green sand moulds. They employ finer sands and hence produce smoother casting surfaces. Skin dried moulds: The mould is made with the moulding sand in the green condition and then the skin of the mould cavity (1/4 to 1 inch) is dried with the help of gas torches or radiant heating lamps. A skin dried mould possesses strength and other characteristics in between green and dry sand moulds. If a skin dried mould is not poured immediately after drying, moisture from green backing sand may penetrate the dried skin and make the same ineffective. Core sand moulds: A core sand mould is made by assembling a number of cores made individually in separate core boxes and baked. The cores are made with recesses and projections so that they can be fitted together to make the mould. A core sand mould is poured without a moulding box surrounding the same. Core sand moulds possess high collapsibility, baked strength and hardness. Core sand moulds are expensive as compared to green and dry sand moulds. Loam moulds: A loam mould is preferred for making large castings. Loam sand has clay content of the order of 50% or so. Loam dries hard. Sweep or skeleton pattern may be used for loam moulding. A loam mould is a time consuming one. Permanent moulds or metal moulds: A metal mould is generally made up of gray cast iron or steel. They are manufactured by casing and consequent machining of the mould cavity. A metal mould is made in two parts to facilitate the removal of the cast object. Metal moulds are preferred for casting non-ferrous metals and alloys. Metal moulds produce surfaces with fine grain structure, high dimensional accuracy and very good surface finish.
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Other types of moulds include Cement bonded sand moulds Graphite moulds Investment moulds Sodium silicate CO2 moulds Moulding methods Bench moulding:

Plaster moulds Shell moulds Ceramic moulds

Moulding carried out on a bench of convenient height. Used for small and light castings Both cope and drag are rammed on the bench Moulding carried out on foundry floor Used for medium & large sized castings Normally drag portion is in the floor and cope portion rammed in a flask inverted on the drag. Used for very large castings Pits are normally constructed of concrete walls and sometimes floors to withstand great pressures during pouring. Because the drag part in the pit cannot be rolled over, the sand under the pattern must be rammed in. A bed of coke, cinders, or other means of venting the pit bottom must be provided. The cope is rammed over the pit with pattern in position.

Floor moulding:

Pit moulding:

Machine moulding: Used for mass production of castings Produce identical and consistent castings. Various moulding operations like sand ramming, rolling the mould over, withdrawing the pattern etc. are done by machines Moulding machines Jolt machine Jolt-squeezer machine Sand slinger Jolt moulding machine

Jolt-type moulding machines operate with the pattern mounted on a pattern plate which in turn is fastened to the machine table. The table is fastened to the top of an operating air

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piston. A flask is placed on the pattern and is positively located by pins relative to the pattern. The flask is filled with sand, and the machine starts the jolt operation. This is usually accomplished by alternately applying and releasing air pressure to the jolt piston, which causes the flask, sand, and pattern to lift a few inches and then fall to a stop, producing a sharp jolt. This process is repeated a predetermined number of times, depending on sand conditions and pattern configuration. Because the sand is compacted by its own weight, mould density will be substantially less at the top of a tall pattern. The packing that results from the jolting action will normally be augmented by some type of supplemental compaction, usually hand or pneumatic ramming. When ramming is complete, push-off pins, bearing against the bottom edges of the flask, lift the flask and completed mold half off the pattern. Jolt-squeezer machine

Jolt squeeze moulding machines operate in much the same manner as jolt-type moulding machines. The main difference is that the supplemental compaction takes place as the result of a squeeze head being forced into the moulding flask, thus compacting the loose sand at the top. The required pressure can be applied pneumatically or hydraulically. In many cases, the squeeze head will be one piece and may even have built-up areas to provide more compaction in deep areas that are hard to ram. In other cases, the squeeze head may be of the compensating type, which consists of a number of individual cylinders, each exerting a specified force on the rear mould face. Some machines exert the same force on all areas of the mould, while other machines allow the operator to adjust squeezing pressure in zones. Jolt squeeze machines are available in many sizes and are suitable for many different purposes and production levels. They can be operated manually or automatically. The operator has the option of independently adjusting the number of jolts from zero to any number and adjusting the squeeze pressure from zero up to pressure that is considered excessive. Hand or pneumatic ramming is often combined with this process; supplemental ramming normally takes place after jolting but before squeezing. Sand slinger Sand slinger moulding machines deliver the sand into the mould at high velocity from a rotating impeller. Moulds made by this method can have very high strengths because a very
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dense mould can be made. Density is a function of sand velocity and the thickness through which the high-velocity sand must compact previously placed sand. Sand slingers may or may not be portable. Some ride on rails to the mould, while others have the moulds brought to the slinger. Generally speaking, larger moulds have the slinger brought to the mould, while smaller moulds are brought to the moulding station.

Although slingers are useful in producing larger moulds, it should be noted that the sand entry location and angle are critical to the production of good moulds. Entry location is controlled by the operator, while entry angle and, to some extent, location are controlled by internal adjustment. Error can and does lead to soft spots in the mould or to excessive pattern wear. A considerable amount of operator skill is required to achieve consistent results.

Gating system
The gating system refers to all passage ways through which molten metal passes to enter into the mould cavity. The gating system is composed of Pouring cups and basins Sprue Runner Gates Risers

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The goals for the gating system are To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gases into the mould To get enough metal into the mould cavity before the metal starts to solidify To avoid shrinkage Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must be in the gating system not in the required cast part. Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions Pouring cups: A pouring cup is a funnel shaped cup which forms the top portion of the sprue. A pouring cup makes it easier for the ladle or crucible operator to direct the flow of metal from crucible to sprue. The pouring cup may be cut out of the sand in the upper surface of the cope above the sprue.

Pouring basins: It can be made out of metal or be cut in the cope of sand mould. A pouring basin makes it easier for the ladle or crucible operator to direct the flow of metal from crucible to sprue. It helps in maintaining the required rate of liquid metal flow. It reduces turbulence and vortexing at the sprue entrance. It is helpful in separating dross, slag etc. from molten metal before it reaches the sprue.

Sprues: A sprue feeds metal to the runner which in turn reaches the mould cavity through gates. A sprue is tapered with its bigger end at the top. The larger section being at the top will freeze after the smaller section at the bottom and compensates for the shrinkage till the lower end solidifies. Sprues up to 20 mm diameter are round in section whereas larger sprues are often rectangular. A round sprue has a minimum surface exposed to cooling and offers the lowest resistance to flow of metal. There is less turbulence in a rectangular sprue. Gates: A gate is a channel which connects runner with the mould cavity. Gate feeds liquid metal to the casting at a rate consistent with the rate of solidification. A small gate is used for casting which solidifies slowly and vice versa. More than one gate may be used to feed a fast freezing casting. A gate should not have sharp edges as they may break during pouring. Moreover sharp edges may cause localized delay in freezing leading to voids and inclusions in the casting. A gate may be built as a part of the pattern or it may be cut in the mould with the help of a gate cutter. The major types of gates are top gate, bottom gate and parting line side gate.

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Top gate Molten metal just drops on the sand in the bottom of the mould cavity until a pool is formed and this is kept in a state of agitation until the mould is filled. Moulding is simple

Bottom gate Liquid metal fills rapidly in the bottom portion of the mould cavity and rises steadily and gently up the mould walls.

Parting line side gate Liquid metal enters the mould cavity from the side of the mould at the parting line.

Greater complexity in moulding Favourable temperature It is difficult to achieve gradients enable directional directional solidification solidification from casting especially when the bottom towards gate which serves as gate has a riser at the top of riser too. the casting. Dropping liquid stream Erosion of mould surface is erodes the mould surface. very less. There is lot of turbulence and pick up of air and other Little turbulence only. gases Splashing of molten metal increases chances of There is no splashing. oxidation.

Simple to construct Hottest metal reaches the riser thereby promoting directional solidification. Less erosion In case the parting line is not near the bottom of mould cavity, turbulence will occur. Splashing is less.

Runner: It is generally located in the parting plane which connects the sprue to its gates, thus letting the metal enter the mould cavity. The runners are normally made trapezoidal in cross section. It is a general practice for ferrous metals to cut the runners in the cope and the gates in the drag. This is to trap the slag and dross which are lighter and thus trapped in the upper portion of the runners. For effective trapping of the slag, runners should flow full as shown below.

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The runner is extended a little further after it encounters the gate. This extension is provided to trap the slag in the molten metal. The molten initially comes along with the slag floating at the top of the ladle and this flow straight, going beyond the gate and then trapped in the runner extension. Riser: Risers serve as reservoirs to supply the molten metal necessary to prevent shrinkage during solidification. Functions of Risers Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage Allow mould gases to escape A casting solidifying under the liquid metal pressure of riser is comparatively sound. A riser full of molten metal indicates that the mould cavity is filled up.

Open riser The top of the open riser is open and is exposed to the atmosphere. Open riser is not placed in the drag.

Open riser is generally larger than a comparable blind riser. An open riser is more difficult to remove from the casting. Being exposed to atmosphere, the liquid metal in the top portion of the riser starts solidifying immediately after the mould filling is completed, because there is a major heat loss to atmosphere by radiation. An open riser is easy to mould than a blind It is difficult to mould a blind riser. riser. An open riser will not draw liquid metal from A blind riser may draw liquid metal from solidifying casting. solidifying casting as a result of partial vacuum in riser. Slag trap system Proper design of gating system prevents the slag from entering the mould cavity.
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Blind riser A blind riser is closed at its top. However a vent or permeable core at the top of the riser may be provided to have some exposure to the atmosphere. Blind risers can be placed at any position in the mould. A blind riser is smaller than a comparable open riser. A blind riser can be removed more easily from a casting. Being surrounded by moulding sand from all sides, the metal in blind riser cools slowly.

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Strainer core, perforated metal sheets and ceramic filters are also used for removing slag. Gating ratio It is the ratio of cross-sectional areas of the sprue, runner and gates. This ratio, numerically expressed in the order c.s.a of sprue: c.s.a of runner: c.s.a of gate, defines whether a gating system is increasing in area (unpressurized) or constricting (pressurized). Pressurized Versus Unpressurized gating systems

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The difference between these two systems is in the choice of the location of the flowcontrolling constriction, or choke, which will determine the ultimate flow rate for the gating system. This decision involves the determination of a desired gating ratio. Common unpressurized gating ratios are 1:2:2, 1:2:4, and 1:4:4. A typical pressurized gating ratio is 4:8:3. Pressurized gating systems Unpressurized gating systems The total cross sectional area decreases The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity. towards the mold cavity. Back pressure is maintained by the Restriction only at the bottom of sprue. restrictions in the metal flow. Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all all gates. gates Back pressure helps in reducing the Aspiration in the gating system as the system aspiration as the sprue always runs full. never runs full. More turbulence and chances of mold Less turbulence erosion. Chills Chills are metal shapes inserted in moulds to speed up the solidification of a particular portion of the casting. Chills equalise the cooling rate of thin and thick sections and thus prevent hot tears. Chills promote progressive and directional solidification. The use of chills becomes necessary when it is not possible to locate a riser on the casting.

External chills are rammed up in the mould walls. Direct external chill comes in contact with the liquid metal. An indirect external chill is rammed and embedded behind the mould cavity wall. Internal chills fuse into and become a part of the casting and therefore should be made of same metal as that of casting. Fluid flow in metal casting Reynolds Number: Nature of flow in the gating system can be established by calculating Reynold's number.

RN is Reynold's number v is mean velocity of flow D is diameter of tubular flow is viscosity is fluid density
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When the Reynold's number is less than 2000 stream line flow results and when the number is more than 2000 turbulent flow prevails. As far as possible the turbulent flow must be avoided in the sand mould as because of the turbulence sand particles gets dislodged from the mould or the gating system and may enter into the mould cavity leading to the production of defective casting. Excess turbulence causes Inclusion of dross or slag Air aspiration into the mould Erosion of the mould walls Bernoulli's Equation: According to Bernoullis theorem,

z is the elevation above certain vertical plane, p is the pressure at that elevation, is density of fluid, v is velocity of liquid at that elevation and g is acceleration due to gravity. Conservation of energy in the system requires that

Where the subscripts 1 and 2 represent two different elevations and f represents the frictional loss as the liquid travels downward through the system. The frictional loss includes energy loss at liquid-mould wall interface and turbulence in liquid.

Continuity equation: For incompressible fluids in a system with impermeable walls, the rate of flow is constant. Where Q is flow rate, A is cross-sectional area and v is average velocity of liquid. Subscript 1 and 2 refers to two different locations in the system. Assuming that the pressure at the top of the sprue is equal to the pressure at the bottom and that there are no frictional losses, the relationship between height and cross-sectional area at any point of sprue is given by

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Heat transfer in metal casting A typical temperature distribution at the mould-liquid metal interface is shown below. Heat from liquid metal is given off through the mould wall and the surrounding air. The shape of the temperature distribution curve depends on the thermal properties of the molten metal and the mould.

The solidification time is a function of the volume of a casting and its surface area. According to Chvorinovs rule,

Where C is a constant that reflects mold material, metal properties and temperature.

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Design of gating system Pouring cup & basin: Pouring basin is designed in such a way that when liquid metal enters the sprue, it should be a proper uniform flow system as under full flow conditions. This can be achieved by Streamlining the pouring basin Use of strainer core/DAM/sprue plug It should be easy and convenient to fill the pouring basin. The diameter of the cup should be large enough to avoid metal splashing. Sprue: As the liquid metal passes down the sprue, it loses its pressure head and gains velocity. In a uniform cross-sectioned or parallel sprue, the metal contracts and is pulled away from sprue walls. As a result, turbulence occurs. Moreover, a vortex tends to form in the sprue. Turbulence and vortex formation results in mould erosion. A tapered sprue is provided to overcome these problems. In a properly tapered sprue, the liquid metal lies firmly against the walls which reduce turbulence and elilminates application. Sprue taper almost follows the equation

The smallest area in the feeding channels controls the flow rate into the mould cavity and consequently controls the pouring time. This area is called choke area. Usually the choke area occurs at the base of the sprue. A proper choke area can be calculated using the Bernoullis theorem.

A is choke area, W is casting weight, is density, t is pouring time, C is efficiency factor of gating system, H is effective head. Runner and gates: In a good runner and gate design, Abrupt changes in section and sharp corners which create turbulence and gas entrapment should be avoided. A suitable relationship provided by the gating ratio must exist between the crosssectional area of sprue, runner and gates. Selection of gating ratio depends on whether the gating system is to be a pressurised one or an unpressurised one. The use of pressurized or unpressurized system of gating depends on the metal being cast. Ideally, in a system, pressure should be just enough to avoid aspiration and to keep all feeding channels full of liquid metal. The maximum liquid metal tends to flow through the farthest gate. A more uniform distribution of liquid metal in the feeding system can be maintained by changing the

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gating ratio. Total gating area is reduced by making gates farthest from sprue of smaller cross-section. Then less volume of metals flow through the farther gates and makes a uniform distribution of liquid metal at all gates. Further good distribution is obtained if runner beyond each gate is reduced in crosssection to balance the flow in all parts of the system and to equalise further velocity and pressure.

Uniform distribution of liquid metal can be achieved through a parallel runner if the gates are placed at certain angles with the runner.

Streamlining the gating system also reduces turbulence and air aspiration. Streamlining includes removing sharp corners, tapering sprue, providing radius at sprue entrance and exit, providing a basin instead of pouring cup etc.

Riser: A riser should perform its functions in the most economical manner, ie, the yield for the casting should be high.

Wc is the weight of casting, Wrs is weight of the riser, sprue etc.

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Yield can be increased by reducing the weight of riser, sprue etc. Weight of the riser can be reduced by making its size small. Riser size can be reduced by making solidification more directional ie, by extracting heat more quickly from the casting than from the riser. Use of chills significantly helps in reducing the riser size. Proper riser location also is very important. The efficiency of a riser is defined as Where I is the initial volume of metal in the riser, F is the final volume of metal in the riser and therefore I F is the amount of metal supplied to the casting by the riser. Efficiency of riser may be increased by delaying the solidification of metal in the riser or by making the solidification of the casting rapid. assisting the movement of riser metal into the casting A number of methods are employed for increasing the efficiency of riser. Locating risers in suitable locations Using insulating materials and exothermic materials Use of chills and padding Using mould materials of different heat conductivities Topping up Electric arc feeding All the above methods help in maintaining the freezing time of riser more than that of casting. For large castings, more risers are provided to cover the total feeding range. The total number of risers should be optimum to achieve maximum casting yield. Riser shape is decided considering the following factors: The junction area between riser and casting should be optimum minimum to reduce fettling costs. According to Chvorinovs rule, for greater efficiency, th e riser should be cylindrical rather than square or rectangular of equal mass. Cylindrical risers are tapered in order to avoid turbulence, aspiration etc. Riser size is determined by meeting two different requirements freezing time and feed volume to obtain directional solidification and thus a sound casting. Riser location depends upon The design and complexity of casting Type of cast metal Number of risers Ease of moulding Ease of riser removal after the casting has solidified Cupola furnace Cupola furnaces are tall, cylindrical furnaces used to melt iron and ferrous alloys in foundry operations. It is economical for the production of gray cast iron, modular cast iron and some malleable iron castings. Cupola construction A Cupola is a cylindrical steel shell constructed (welded or riveted) from boiler plate (6 to 10mm thick), open at both its top and bottom and is lined with firebrick and clay

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At bottom, the cupola is supported on cast iron legs. The bottom opening of Cupola is closed by cast iron door. This door when closed is supported by an iron prop. Air from the blower comes through the blast pipe and enters Wind box which surrounds the cupola and supplies air evenly to all the tuyers. Tuyers extend through the steel shell and refractory wall to the combustion zone and supply air necessary for combustion. Tuyers may be fitted in one or more rows and have dimensions 50mmX150mm or 100mmX300mm. There is a tap hole in the Cupola from where the molten metal is taken out. The fire in the Cupola is also lit through the tap hole. There is a slag hole a little higher than tap hole through which slag is removed. Cupola remains either open or has a spark arrester at its top. A Cupola is provided with a charging platform and a charging door at suitable heights to feed the charge in the Cupola. Cupola capacities vary from 1 to 15 tons of melted iron per heat. The height of the Cupola is about 6 metres and the inside diameter ranges from 75 cm to 2.5 metres.

Cupola operation: The different steps involved in Cupola operation are Preparation of Cupola: The bottom door is opened and the contents left from previous meltings are dumped & removed. Slag, coke and iron sticking to the side walls of the

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furnace are chipped off. Damaged fire bricks are replaced by new ones. Eroded refractory lining is patched with the help of a pneumatic gun which blows the patching mixture at sufficient velocity. The original refractory lining has the composition Silica (52 to 62%), Alumina (31 to 43%), Titania (1.5 to 2.5%) and fluxing oxides (3 to 6%). However the patching mixture consists of silica and fireclay. Once the furnace lining is reconditioned, bottom door is closed and supported by a prop. A layer of tempered sand sloping towards the tap hole is rammed over the bottom to provide a slope for better metal flow. Lighting the fire: Coke is placed over soft and dry wooden pieces and the wooden pieces are ignited through the tap hole. Air necessary for the combustion of coke enters from the tuyers. When the initial coke is burning well, an additional amount of the same is added through the charging door to the desired height (normally 75 cm). For initiating fire in Cupola, electric spark ignitor and gas torches are also used. Charging of Cupola: Charging of Cupola means adding alternate layers of limestone (flux), iron (metal) and coke (fuel) upto the level of charging door. Flux aids forming slag to remove impurities and retards oxidation of iron. The fuel used in Cupola can be good grade sulphur coke, anthracite coal or carbon briquettes. Metal charge consists of pig iron, cast iron scrap and steel scrap. The ratio of metal to fuel by weight ranges from 4:1 to 12:1. Melting: After the Cupola is fully charged, a soaking period of about 30 minutes to 1 hr is given to permit the charge to preheat. Blowers are not started during the soaking period. At the end of the soaking period, the blast is turned on. The coke becomes fairly hot to melt the metal charge. After the air blast has been on for about ten minutes, molten iron starts accumulating in the hearth and appears at tap hole. The tap hole is closed with a plug and molten metal is allowed to collect for about five minutes. Slagging and metal tapping: After enough molten iron has collected, the slag hole is opened; slag comes out, is collected in a container and disposed off. The plug inserted in the tap hole is knocked out and molten iron is poured into the moulds. Additional charge is dropped through the charging door at a rate at which the charge is consumed so that Cupola remains always full. Intermittent tapping is usually accompanied by intermittent slagging. The length of one heat may be sixteen hours or less. Dropping down the bottom: Near the end of Cupola heat, charging of Cupola is stopped. All the contents in the Cupola are allowed to melt till one or two charges are left above the coke bed. At this stage, the air blast is shut off, the prop under the bottom door is knocked down and the remains in the Cupola are dropped down. Dropped Cupola remains are quenched with water immediately and the metal and coke are recovered from the same for use in next heats. Zones of Cupola Well: Molten iron collects in this zone before being tapped. Superheating, combustion or oxidizing zone: All the oxygen in the air blast is consumed here owing to the combustion taking place in this zone. The chemical reaction occurring is C + O2 CO2 + Heat The temperature of the combustion zone varies from 1550C to 1850C. Reducing zone or protective zone: It extends from top of the combustion zone to the top of the coke bed. It has reducing atmosphere and protects the metal charge from oxidation. An

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endothermic reaction takes place in this zone, some of the hot CO 2 moving upward through coke gets reduced. CO2 + C 2 CO Heat This reduces the heat in the reducing zone and temperature is in the order of 1200C. Melting zone: Melting zone starts from the first layer of metal charge above the coke bed and extends up to a height of 90cm or less. Iron melts in this zone and trickles down through the coke bed to the well zone. The temperature in the melting zone is above 1600C. Preheating zone: Preheating zone starts from above the melting zone and extends up to the bottom of the charging door. Gases like CO2, CO and N2 rising upwards from combustion and reducing zones preheat the Cupola charge in this region to about 1100C. Stack zone: Stack zone extends from above the preheating zone to where Cupola shell ends. Hot gases from Cupola pass through the stack zone and escape to atmosphere. Stack gases normally contain 12% CO2, 12% CO and 76% N2. Advantages of Cupola Simple design & easier construction Low initial cost as compared to other furnaces of same capacity. Simple to operate and maintain in good condition. Economy in operation and maintenance Less flow space requirements as compared to other furnaces of same capacity. Can be continuously operated for hours. Limitations of Cupola Since molten iron and coke come in contact with each other, certain elements like Si, Mn are lost while others like sulphur are picked up. This changes the final composition of molten iron. Close temperature control is difficult to maintain. Centrifugal Casting: In this process, the mould is rotated rapidly about its central axis as the metal is poured into it. Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be acting on the metal as it solidifies. The slag, oxides and other inclusions being lighter get separated from the metal and segregate towards the centre. This process is normally used for the making of hollow pipes, tubes, hollow bushes, etc., which are axisymmetric with a concentric hole. Since the metal is always pushed outward because of the centrifugal force, no core needs to be used for making the concentric hole. The mould can be rotated about a vertical, horizontal or an inclined axis or about its horizontal and vertical axes simultaneously. The length and outside diameter are fixed by the mould cavity dimensions while the inside diameter is determined by the amount of molten metal poured into the mould. Since centrifugal force feeds the molten metal under pressure many times higher than that in static casting, this process improves casting yield significantly (85 to 95%), completely fills mould cavities, and results in a high-quality casting free of voids and porosity. Thinner casting sections can be produced with this method than with static casting. There are three types of centrifugal casting True centrifugal casting Semi-centrifugal casting Centrifuge centrifuge casting

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True centrifugal casting is used to produce cylindrical or tubular castings by spinning the mould about its own axis. The process can be either vertical or horizontal, and the need for a centre core is completely eliminated. Castings produced by this method will always have a true cylindrical bore or inside diameter regardless of shape or configuration. The bore of the casting will be straight or tapered, depending on the horizontal or the vertical spinning axis used. Castings produced in metal moulds by this method have true directional cooling or solidification from the outside of the casting toward the axis of rotation. This directional solidification results in the production of high-quality defect-free castings without shrinkage.

Semi-centrifugal casting is used to produce castings with configurations determined entirely by the shape of the mould on all sides, inside and out, by spinning the casting and mould about its own axis. A vertical spinning axis is normally used for this method. Cores may be necessary if the casting is to have hollow sections. Directional solidification is obtained by proper gating. Typical castings of this type include gear blanks, pulley sheaves, wheels, impellers, and electric motor rotors.

Centrifuge centrifugal casting has the widest field of application. In this method, the casting cavities are arranged about the centre axis of rotation like the spokes of a wheel, thus permitting the production of multiple castings. Centrifugal force provides the necessary pressure on the molten metal in the same manner as in semi-centrifugal casting. This casting method is typically used to produce valve bodies and bonnets, plugs, yokes, brackets, and a wide variety of various industrial castings.

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Advantages of centrifugal casting Relatively lighter impurities such as sand, slag, oxides and gas float more quickly towards the centre of rotation from where they can be easily machined out. Dense and fine grained metal castings can be produced. There is proper directional solidification from outside towards inwards of the casting. Gating system is not required & hence more casting yield. There is no need of a central core to make a pipe or tube. Process can be adopted for mass production. Limitations of centrifugal casting True centrifugal casting is limited to certain shapes. Equipment costs are high Skilled labour required Applications of centrifugal casting Bearings for electric motors and industrial machinery. Cast iron pipes, alloy steel pipes and tubings Liners for IC engines Rings, pots and other annular components Investment Mould Casting Process (Lost wax process):

The investment casting process begins with the production of wax patterns of the desired shape of the castings. The patterns are prepared by injecting wax or polystyrene in a metal dies. Dies may be made either by machining cavities in steel blocks or by casting a low melting point alloy around a metal master pattern. Waxes employed are beeswax, paraffin etc. A number of wax patterns are attached to a central wax sprue to form an assembly.

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The wax pattern assembly is dipped into a slurry of a refractory coating material, sprinkled with silica sand and is permitted to dry. This pre-coating provides a good surface finish to the castings. Typical slurry consists of silica flour suspended in ethyl silicate solution. The pre-coated wax pattern assembly is then invested for the production of mould. Investment moulds may be formed by either solid moulding or shell moulding. Solid moulding: The wax pattern assembly is placed in a metal flask. Ceramic slurry (investment) is then poured into the flask and is allowed to harden around the wax pattern assembly. The investment hardens after about 8 hours of air drying. A typical investment moulding mixture consists of sand, water, calcium phosphate and MgO. Shell moulding: Pre-coated wax pattern assembly is dipped in ceramic slurry and immediately dusted with powder ceramic. A number of dips and subsequent dusting build a shell thickness of the order of 6 to 12mm. The slurry is made of fused silica and alumina along with liquid binders. Solid moulds are placed upside down in furnaces to remove the wax pattern. Wax patterns from shell moulds are removed either by exposing it to a furnace or by using a suitable solvent. Molten metal is brought in small ladles to the pre-heated moulds for pouring. Preheating vaporizes any remaining wax in the moulds. Also metal may flow more easily and fill every detail of the preheated mould. After solidification, castings are removed from the mould for cleaning, finishing and inspection. Advantages of investment casting Castings possess excellent details, smoother surfaces and close tolerances. Castings do not contain any disfiguring parting line. Sections as thin as 0.75 mm may be cast. Since molten metal is poured in preheated moulds, the resultant cooling rate is slow and the process produces large grain size as well as sounder and denser castings. Limitations of investment casting Production of wax patterns and then investment moulds etc. make the process relatively expensive. There is a size limitation for the castings. Majority of the castings produced weigh less than 0.5 kg. Since the pattern is expendable, one wax pattern is required for each casting. Relatively slow process. The use of cores makes the process more difficult. Applications of investment casting To fabricate difficult-to-work alloys into highly complex shapes such as turbine blades. Impellers and other pump and valve components. In dentistry and surgical implants. For making jewellery and art castings. Milling cutters and other tools Corrosion resistant and wear resistant alloy parts. Shell Moulding Shell moulding replaces, conventional sand moulds by shell moulds made up of relatively thin and rigid shells of uniform wall thickness.
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A metal pattern having the profile of required casting is heated to 180 - 250C in an oven. Pattern after being heated is taken out of the oven and sprayed with a lubricating agent. It is necessary to prevent the shell from sticking to the metal pattern. Metal pattern is then turned face down and clamped over the open end of the dump box. The dump box contains a mixture of sand and formaldehyde resin. The dump box is inverted so that dry sand - resin mixture falls on the face of hot metal pattern. The resin sand mixture in contact with the pattern gets heated up, the resin softens and fuses to form a soft and uniform shell of about 6mm thickness on the surface of the pattern. As the dump box is turned to its original position, excess sand resin mixture falls back into the dump box leaving a shell on the pattern. The pattern along with the shell is passed into an oven where the resin-sand mixture cures and the shell acquires rigidity. The shell is then stripped from the pattern plate with the help of ejector pins which are an integral part of the metal pattern. After the shells so obtained have cooled, two mating shells are securely fastened together to form a complete mould. The heat of the molten metal starts burning resin binder of the mould. By the time the casting is solidified, the binder completely burn out and on tapping, the shell mould disintegrates easily. Advantages of shell mould casting Castings as thin as 1.5 mm and of high definition can be cast satisfactorily. Castings possess excellent surface finish. Reproduces details with sharp clean edges eliminating the need of subsequent machining. Less foundry space requirement. Semi-skilled operators can handle the process. Shells can be stored for a long time before use. Shell moulding can be mechanised.

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Limitations of shell mould casting Uneconomical on small scale production Shapes in which proper parting and gating cannot be obtained are not suitable for shell moulding. The maximum size of the casting is limited by the maximum size of the shell which can be feasibly produced and poured. Break down sand from shell moulds are not recoverable. Applications of shell mould casting Ideal for mass production of small intricate castings For casting automotive rocker arms and valves. Camshafts, bushings, brackets, shafts and gears Hydraulic castings in SS and copper alloys. Continuous casting Round ingots, slabs, square billets and sheets can be cast by a continuous process directly from molten metal. Continuous casting is accomplished by pouring molten metal into a mould open at both ends and by keeping it filled at all times. The metal at the lower end of the mould is cooled so that it solidifies and the solid product thus formed is extracted in a continuous length from the lower end.

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Molten metal is transferred from the furnace into a special ladle called tundish. From the tundish, molten metal is poured into the top of a bottomless graphite mould of the desired shape. The molten metal should be slag free and should be poured with minimum turbulence. Graphite moulds are self lubricating and are not wetted by molten metal. Massive graphite moulds eliminate the need of water cooling. Brass or copper moulds are used in some cases. Water cooling and lubrication is mandatory for such moulds. The process is started by placing a dummy bar in the mould up on which the first liquid metal falls. The liquid metal gets cooled and is pulled by the pinch rolls along with the dummy bar. Heat from the molten metal dissipates fast through the mould walls and a skin of solid metal forms quickly at the mould-metal interface and shrinks from the mould walls. The shrinking effect provides a very small gap between the metal and mould thereby reducing friction between the two and permitting cast shape to move continuously through the mould. Pinch and guide rolls regulate the rate of settling of cast shape and keep proper alignment. As the casting passes out of the pinch rolls, it is cut to desired length by a saw or oxyacetylene torch. The cut lengths are straightened, rolled and inspected. Argon provides an inert atmosphere to avoid atmospheric contamination of molten metal. X-ray unit controls the pouring rate of molten metal from the ladle. Heat extraction should be in such a way that directional solidification is promoted. The rate at which heat is removed from the molten metal must be synchronised with the molten metal input and the rate of removal of casting. Advantages of continuous casting 100% casting yield Process is cheaper than rolling from ingots Grain size can be regulated by controlling cooling rates. Process is essentially automatic and labour cost is low. Applications of continuous casting Continuous casting can produce any shape of uniform cross-section such as rectangular, square, hexagonal, gear toothed, solid or hollow. Production of blooms, billets, slabs and sheets. Bushings and pump gears. Copper wire/bar. Pressure Die Casting In pressure die casting, molten metal is forced into die cavity under pressure. The pressure is generally obtained by compressed air or hydraulically. The pressure varies from 70 to 5000 kg/cm2 and is maintained while the casting solidifies. A die casting machine performs the following functions Holding the two die halves firmly together Closing the die Injecting molten metal into die Opening the die Ejecting the casting out of die Cast and wrought dies are used for the purpose. Die material selected should be able to withstand thermal erosion, mechanical erosion and chemical attack. Single cavity dies,

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multiple cavity dies and combination dies are used as per requirement. One die half is stationary and is known as cover die whereas the other die half called ejector die moves in order to open or close the complete die. The two die halves are kept in perfect alignment with the help of dowel pins. Both stationary and movable cores may be employed in die casting. Ejector pins employed to push the casting out may be actuated manually or mechanically. Vents are provided for the escape of air present in the die cavity as the molten metal enters the same. Based on the molten metal injection mechanism, pressure die casting is of two types. Hot chamber die casting In hot chamber die casting machine, the melting unit constitutes an integral part of the process. The molten metal possess normal amount of superheat and therefore less pressure is needed to force the liquid metal into the die. Hot chamber process is of two types Gooseneck or air injection type and submerged plunger type.

In gooseneck type, the cast iron gooseneck is so pivoted that it can be dipped beneath the surface of the molten metal to receive the same when needed. The molten metal fills the cylindrical portion and the curved passageways of the gooseneck. Gooseneck is then raised and connected to an air line which supplies air at a pressure of 30 to 45 kg/cm2. The air pressure forces the molten metal into the closed die. After the casting has solidified, the gooseneck is again dipped beneath the molten metal to receive molten metal again for next cycle. In the mean time, die halves open out, casting is ejected and die closes in order to receive molten metal for producing the next casting. Advantages Simple in construction and operation. No moving parts as compared to plunger type machine Limitation Production rate is lower when compared to plunger type machine Submerged plunger type machine has an injection cylinder which is partially submerged in the pot containing molten metal. The molten metal enters the cylinder through the port and plunger forces it through the nozzle into the die. Pressure exerted on the molten metal is of the order of 140 to 200 kg/cm2. When the metal has solidified, die is opened and the casting is ejected. The die is then once again closed, plunger is drawn to up position and the process repeats.

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Advantages Exerts pressure more effectively when compared with air injection type machine Limitation Cannot be used with such alloys which affect the fit of plunger and cylinder. Air entrainment is more. Cold chamber die casting Melting unit is not an integral part of the cold chamber die casting machine. Molten metal is brought and poured into the die casting machine with the help of ladles. Molten metal poured is at a lower temperature as compared to that poured in hot chamber die casting machine. Hence higher pressures (200 to 2000 kg/cm2) are employed in this process to inject molten metal into die cavity.

The cold chamber die casting machine consists of a pressure chamber or cold chamber of cylindrical shape fitted with a ram or piston operated by hydraulic pressure. Dies are made of strong heat resistant materials to withstand high pressures and temperatures. A

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measured quantity of molten metal is brought in a ladle from the furnace and poured into the cold chamber after the die is closed. The ram forces the metal into the die. Once the casting is solidified, the movable half of die slides away and die opens. Ram then moves in backward direction and the ejector is advanced to force the casting out of die. Advantages Castings produced are of greater density and more sustained dimensional accuracy. Separation of furnace from the working parts of die casting machine increases its life and efficiency. Limitations Dies have to be extra strong to withstand high pressures Advantages of pressure die casting Dies are capable of retaining their accuracy and usefulness for long periods of production. High production rates. Very thin sections can be cast without any difficulty. Close dimensional tolerances. Intricate shapes can be die cast. Good surface finish obtained. Can be mechanised and used for mass production. Semi-skilled workers may be employed Less defective than sand castings. Less floor space required Economical for large scale production Limitations of pressure die casting Ferrous alloys are not cast Size restriction is there for castings. Proper evacuation of air from die cavity is required to avoid porosity in castings. Longer period of time for going into production. Dies may produce an undesirable chilling effect on the die castings. Applications of pressure die casting Zinc based alloys for automobile parts, refrigerators, washing machines etc. Aluminium based alloys for automobile and air craft industry. Copper based alloys for electrical machine components and chemical apparatus. Magnesium based alloys for binocular and camera bodies. Lead based alloys for radiation shielding and battery parts Tin based alloys for bearings and containers. Gravity die or permanent mould casting Gravity die or permanent mould cavity makes use of a mould which is permanent. The mould or die can be used several times before it is discarded or rebuilt. Molten metal is poured into the mould under gravity only. No external pressure is applied to force the liquid metal into the mould cavity. However the liquid metal solidifies under pressure of metal in the risers etc. Permanent moulds are made of dense, fine grained, heat resistant cast iron, steel, bronze, graphite etc. A permanent mould is made in two halves in order to facilitate the

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removal of casting from the mould. The parting line may be horizontal or vertical. The mould walls have thickness from 15 mm to 50 mm. Mould walls are made thicker opposite thicker sections of the casting to provide desired chilling effect. Fins or projections are provided on the mould wall for faster cooling. Pouring cup, sprue, gates and riser are built in the mould halves itself. Simple mechanical clamps are adequate for clamping the die halves for small moulds. Large permanent moulds need pneumatic or other power clamping methods. Cores if any are placed before closing the die halves. Lubricating coatings if sprayed helps removal of castings and core from the mould. The mould is pre-heated before pouring the molten metal. Molten metal is poured into the mould under gravity. Castings are ejected from the mould after they are solidified.

Advantages of permanent mould casting when compared to sand casting Closer dimensional tolerance and accuracy. Very good surface finish. Chilling effect of the metal mould helps in producing fine grained structure. Mass production of castings is more economical. Less floor space is needed. Faster rate of production A number of casting defects can be completely eliminated. Less skilled labour required Limitations of permanent mould casting when compared to sand casting Higher cost Shape and size restriction for castings Gating system once machined cannot be changed and hence no chance for later adjustments Uneconomical for small production runs More chances for chilling problems Applications of permanent mould casting Carburettor bodies Hydraulic brake cylinders Refrigeration castings Connecting rods and automotive pistons Aircraft and missile castings Washing machine gears Oil pump bodies
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Squeeze casting Squeeze casting, also known as liquid-metal forging, is a process by which molten metal solidifies under pressure within closed dies positioned between the plates of a hydraulic press.

Squeeze casting consists of metering liquid metal into a preheated, lubricated die and forging the metal while it solidifies. The load is applied shortly after the metal begins to freeze and is maintained until the entire casting has solidified. After solidification, casting is ejected out with the help of ejector pins. Advantages of squeeze casting Near Net Shape components reduce machining costs Localised reinforcement can give increased properties Solidification under load eliminates shrinkage and gas porosity Fine grain microstructure Excellent casting yield as no running and feeding systems are required. Applications of squeeze casting Aluminium domes Ductile iron mortar shells Steel bevel gears Stainless steel blades Super alloy disks Aluminium automotive wheels and pistons Gear blanks made of brass and bronze. Slush casting This process is used to produce hollow castings when the external features of the casting are important and the castings are not destined for engineering use. The uniformity of wall thickness may not be an important consideration for such castings. The mould is filled with molten metal and held stationary until a thin skin of solid metal freezes against the mould walls. The mould is then inverted and the liquid metal is drained out.

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The time required for this casting operation is sufficient to freeze a metal shell in the mould, corresponding to the shape of the cavity wall. The thickness of the wall of the casting depends on the time interval between the filling and the inverting of the mould, as well as on the chemical and physical properties of the alloy and the temperature and composition of the mould. Usually lead and zinc alloy castings are produced by slush casting. After giving enough time for solidification, casting is taken out. Vacuum casting A vacuum is created within the mould cavity and the metal is pulled rather than pushed into the mould. Excellent mechanical properties and high production rates are often realized in vacuum casting because of the low mould temperatures associated with the method.

The metal in the fill tube acts as a riser, and excellent metal yields are obtainable. The process lends itself to permanent mould casting automation, and the result is the ability to produce large quantities of high-quality castings at a competitive price. The process is usually associated with smaller castings and requires specialized, complex mould designs to induce the vacuum properly.

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Shakeout/Cleaning/Finishing Shakeout: It is the removal of casting from the moulding box. In manual shakeout, the mould assembly is dumped upside down on the ground. It will disintegrate the sand and the casting can be pulled out from the sand with a hook bar. In mechanised foundries, sand around the casting is broken by striking with a metal rod. Mechanical shakeout is another option. Moulding boxes containing the castings are placed on the vibrating platform of the shakeout unit. Moulding boxes are shaken to loosen and break up sand portions of the mould. Moulding boxes and castings remain on the shakeout platform whereas loose sand falls into a sand hopper situated below the shaking platform. Fettling or cleaning: Fettling includes Removal of cores from the casting Removal of adhering sand and oxide scale from the casting surface Removal of gates, risers, runners etc. from the casting Removal of fins and other unwanted projections from the castings Removal of cores: Hammering or vibrations imparted to cores loosen and break them up. Sand portions sticking inside the castings are removed by poking action using a metal rod. Cores from larger castings may be removed efficiently by pneumatic rapping and hydroblasting. Cleaning of casting surfaces: Adhering sand on casting surfaces can be removed using hand methods or mechanical equipment. Hand methods involve the use of wire brush, file, pick, crowbar etc. Hand methods are slow and tedious. Mechanical methods include tumbling, air blasting and hydro-blasting. Tumbling: The tumbling barrel is filled with castings, star shaped hard iron pieces, granite chips, pieces of graphite electrodes etc. the barrel ends are closed and the barrel is rotated at about 30 rpm. Castings tumble over each other removing the adhering sand from casting surfaces. Tumbling operations are slow and dusty. Air blasting: Compressed air propels abrasive particles against a casting to clean its surface. The air pressure is about 7kg/cm2. Air blasting can be of two types sand blasting and shot blasting. Metallic shots or grits are used with shot blasting whereas special grade sand is used as abrasive in sand blasting. Blast cleaning has an additional advantage of improved surface properties of the casting. Air blasting has dust problems. Hydro-blasting: Water stream carrying abrasive particles clean the casting surfaces. Water pressure applied is about 140kg/cm2. The process is dust free. The process is more rapid and effective. Large initial cost is a limitation. It is generally applied for large castings. Chemical cleaning methods utilise chemicals like caustic soda to react with and break the surface oxide layer. In electrolytic method, casting is made cathode and the oxide layer is reduced. Pickling involves immersing the casting in acid for some time and later neutralising by dipping in lime water. Pickling removes sand from the surfaces and inaccessible pockets of the castings. Removal of gates and risers can be done by Chipping hammers Flogging or knocking off Shearing Sawing

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 Abrasive wheel slitting Machining Flame cutting Plasma cutting Castings are trimmed to remove fins, chaplets, parting line flash etc. The methods employed are chipping, sawing, flame cutting, grinding, abrasive belt machines, shearing etc. Finishing of castings: Finishing is performed to Smooth the areas of castings from where gates and risers have been removed. Remove any excess metal if left on the casting. Improve surface finish and appearance. Different finishing operations carried out on castings are grinding, rotary filing, machining, chemical treatment, polishing, buffing, blast cleaning, painting etc. Heat treatment of castings: Heat treatment of castings has two main purposes Relief of stresses developed in cooling, repair welding or machining. Development of structure sensitive properties by metallurgical changes. The various heat treatments for ferrous castings involve annealing, normalising, quench hardening, tempering, stress relieving etc. Non ferrous castings may undergo solution hardening and precipitation hardening heat treatments as required. Quality control in foundries Quality control in mould making Patterns should be checked for dimensions and allowances before moulding. Patterns and core boxes should be kept in good condition. Cores should be tested for suitability as per desired requirements. Moulding sand should be tested for its different properties before use and should be rammed to correct density. Cores should be positioned correctly. Flask equipment should be checked as regards its shape, surface, pins, alignment etc. Quality control in melting Incoming metal charge should be analysed regarding its chemical composition. Furnace is to be selected based on the nature of the material. Metal charge should be clean, dry and correctly weighed. Molten metal temperature should be properly controlled. Samples of molten metal should be chemically analysed. Molten metal should be degassed before pouring into the mould. Quality control in Fettling, Cleaning & Heat treatment Gates, risers etc. should be removed with care so that cracks are not initiated in the castings. Chisel marks should be smoothed away. Finishing operations should not produce cracks or burning off marks. Heat treatment variables should be properly controlled. Inspection & Testing of castings Destructive Testing Tensile testing Hardness testing

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Impact testing Fatigue testing Creep testing Non-destructive testing Visual inspection Die penetrant test Leak test Radiography Magnetic particle inspection Ultrasonic inspection Casting Defects Mismatch or Mould sift: There is mismatching at the top and bottom parts of the casting at the parting line.

Causes Faulty placing of the top and bottom halves of the pattern. Worn out, loose, bent or ill-fitting moulding box clamping pins. Blowholes: Blowholes are entrapped bubbles of gas with smooth walls. Blowholes may occur in clusters or may be isolated. Blowholes visible on the surface of a casting are called open blows.

Causes Excess moisture in the moulding sand. Low permeability of moulding sand Rusted and damp chills, chaplets and inserts. Inadequate venting of cores and moulds Misrun: A misrun is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mould cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled cavities.

Causes

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Too cold molten metal Too thin casting section Too small gates Too many restrictions in the gating system Lack of fluidity of molten metal Interrupted flow of metal from ladle to mould. Cold shut: A cold shut is caused when two liquid metal streams while meeting in the mould cavity,
do not fuse together properly thus forming a discontinuity in the casting.

Causes Too cold molten metal Too thin casting section Too small gates Too many restrictions in the gating system Lack of fluidity of molten metal Hot tears: They are cracks which appear in castings during solidification due to high tensile or shear stresses. Causes Very hard ramming and therefore excessive mould hardness. Higher dry and hot strength of the sand mould Insufficient collapsibility of the core Too much solidification shrinkage Faulty design causing some portions of the casting to be restrained while cooling. High sulphur content Too low pouring temperature Cut and washes: These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by erosion of moulding sand by the flowing metal. The former can be taken care of by the proper choice of moulding sand and the latter can be overcome by the proper design of the gating system.

Other casting defects include Fins and flash: They usually occur at the parting line and result in excess metal which has to be ground off. Crush: It is the displacement of sand while closing a mould, thereby deforming mould surfaces. A crush shows itself as an irregular sandy depression in the casting. Drop: A drop occurs when mould surface cracks and breaks, thus pieces of sand fall into the molten metal.
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Scab: It occurs when a portion of the face of a mould lifts and the metal flows underneath in a thin layer. Liquid metal penetrates behind the surface layer of the sand. Pinholes: They are numerous very small holes revealed on the surface of a casting after the surface has been cleaned by shot blasting. This occurs when sand has high moisture content or gas generating ingredients. Shrinkage defects: If the solidification shrinkage is not compensated by providing risers etc., voids will occur on the surface or inside the casting. Inclusions: Any separate undesirable foreign particle present in the metal of a casting is known as inclusion. An inclusion may be oxides, slag, dirt or moulding sand broken from mould surface. Metal penetration: Molten metal enters into the space between the sand grains and result in metal penetration and rough casting surface. Fusion: Sand may fuse and stick to the casting surface with a resultant rough glossy appearance. Swells: A swell is an enlargement of the mould cavity due to molten metal pressure on mould walls. Semisolid Metal Forming The metal or alloy has a nondendritic, roughly spherical, fine-grained structure when it enters the die or mould. The alloy exhibits a thixotropic behaviour, that is, its viscosity decreases when agitated. This behaviour has been utilized in developing technologies combining casting and forging of parts. Cast billets are forged when 30% to 50% liquid condition exists. This produces parts of higher strength, better dimensional accuracy and surface finish, less porosity and better controlled microstructure. The process is used in the production of aluminium and magnesium automotive engine components. Economy of casting

Surface roughness of Castings

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Casting is preferred over other processes due to several advantages listed below : It is economical with very little wastage. Even the extra metal produced during each casting can be re-melted and reused. It can produce parts with complex geometrical features such as internal cavities, hollow sections with fair dimensional accuracy. Casting can be used to make very small to extremely large and complex parts. It is possible to cast metallic materials with very low to reasonably high melting temperatures. Further, the mechanical properties of a cast are usually isotropic. Castings can be designed for equal distribution of loads and for minimum stress concentration to achieve more strength and increased service life.

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