Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ludmila Veselovsk
Recenzenti:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 7
Working with this text................................................................................................................................ 7
The Topics and Background Philosophy................................................................................................... 7
1
COMMUNICATION (REVISION)....................................................................................................... 9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
MORPHOLOGY................................................................................................................................... 18
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
MORPHEME .................................................................................................................................... 18
LEXICAL AND NON-LEXICAL MEANING OF MORPHEMES ................................................................ 18
CRITERIA FOR DIVIDING MORPHEMES ............................................................................................. 19
MORPHEMES AS THINGS OR AS RULES?.......................................................................................... 20
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 22
WORD-FORMATION ......................................................................................................................... 26
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
LEXICON ......................................................................................................................................... 26
KINDS OF WORD-FORMATION (REVISION) ..................................................................................... 26
BACK FORMATION .......................................................................................................................... 27
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 28
DERIVATION....................................................................................................................................... 30
5.1
THE OPEN-ENDEDNESS OF THE LEXICON ........................................................................................ 30
5.2
CONSTRAINTS ON PRODUCTIVITY ................................................................................................... 30
5.2.1
Blocking Effect .......................................................................................................................... 30
5.2.2
Phonological Factors................................................................................................................ 31
5.2.3
Morphological Factors ............................................................................................................. 31
5.2.4
Semantic Factors ...................................................................................................................... 32
5.2.5
Aesthetic Factors ...................................................................................................................... 32
5.3
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 32
COMPOUNDING ................................................................................................................................. 35
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
ORTHOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................... 35
PHONETICS ..................................................................................................................................... 36
MORPHOLOGY ................................................................................................................................ 36
SYNTAX .......................................................................................................................................... 36
SEMANTICS ..................................................................................................................................... 38
HEADEDNESS OF COMPOUNDS ........................................................................................................ 39
RIGHT-HAND HEAD RULE............................................................................................................... 39
LEFT-HAND HEADED COMPOUNDS (IN ENGLISH) ........................................................................... 39
HEADLESS COMPOUNDS (EXOCENTRIC COMPOUNDS).................................................................... 40
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 40
7.3
SOME OTHER KINDS OF (ENGLISH) COMPOUNDS ............................................................................ 43
7.3.1
Rhyming Compounds ................................................................................................................ 43
7.3.2
Cranberry Words (analogical formations) ............................................................................... 43
7.3.3
Neoclassical Compounds .......................................................................................................... 44
7.3.4
Quotational Compounds ........................................................................................................... 44
7.4
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 44
8
10
11
12
PRONOUNS .......................................................................................................................................... 93
12.1
PERSONAL PRONOUNS .................................................................................................................... 93
12.1.1 Interpretation of Personal Pronouns ........................................................................................ 93
12.1.2 Function and Form ................................................................................................................... 94
12.1.3 One............................................................................................................................................ 95
12.2
RELATIVE PRONOUNS ..................................................................................................................... 95
12.2.1 The form of the relative Pronouns ............................................................................................ 95
12.2.2 Omitting the relative Pronoun .................................................................................................. 96
12.3
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS ........................................................................................................... 97
12.3.1 The form of the interrogative Pronouns.................................................................................... 97
12.3.2 The position of the WH-Pronouns............................................................................................. 97
12.4
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 99
13
14
MODIFIERS........................................................................................................................................ 107
14.1
SEMANTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ADJECTIVES/ ADVERBS ............................................................ 107
14.2
ADJECTIVAL / ADVERBIAL MORPHOLOGY .................................................................................... 107
14.2.1 Derivational Morphology ....................................................................................................... 107
14.2.2 Inflectional Morphology ......................................................................................................... 108
14.3
EXERCISES .................................................................................................................................... 108
15
16
ADVERBS............................................................................................................................................ 117
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
17
18
19
20
21
21.1
21.2
21.3
22
INTRODUCTION
Working with this text
This text has been written to assist students of English in their work in Morphology
and Morpho-Syntax courses in the programme of English philology. It assumes a solid
working knowledge of English grammar and of the traditional grammar at the level
assumed for the Grammar school courses of Czech language.
This text, however, is in no way intended to replace any textbook specified in a
course description, nor does the amount of material cover all of what students need to read
for their exams. Instead, it provides syllabi for the lectures with many schemes and
examples commented on and discussed in the course. Without a commentary some of them
may be difficult to understand, so the students are strongly encouraged to make their own
notes and remarks during the classes. Enough space is given between the paragraphs and on
the margins so that such additions are possible. Some students may still have problems with
English terminology and structuring their study - this text should also provide them with
the main terms used, and the sections basically follow a pattern that can be used in
preparing for English grammar exams, though not all topics are covered to the same extent
and some require more individual reading.
Apart from syllabi, the following text also contains a number of exercises. The
function of the exercises is twofold. First, they introduce some new aspects or problems of
the proposed analyses not mentioned in detail during the lectures. Second, they allow
students to test their understanding of the topics under discussion. In some cases, however,
there is no generally agreed solution to the problem and the exercise provides more data for
discussion of alternatives than a simple minded test of knowledge.
The Topics and Background Philosophy
The text in this volume is divided into two parts, each of which can be covered in
some 10-13 two-hour classes (in the existing system in a semester).
The first part of the volume constitutes a general introduction to the study of
morphology as a part of linguistics. It deals with the most standard and frequent processes
of English word-formation concentrating mainly on derivation and compounding. At the
end of this section some general principles of the morphological typology of languages are
introduced and discussed. The text goes into some detail establishing morpho-syntactic
criteria for English parts of speech, providing a universal introduction for the next part of
the volume.
The second part of the course concentrates in detail on the characteristics of the main
lexical categories (and also Pronouns) in English. Special attention is given to the forms
and functions of Nouns, Adjectives, Adverbs and Verbs, including Auxiliaries and Modals.
In this part many syntactic terms are introduced as far as they are relevant as categorial
characteristics. Because the assumed readers are Czechs and many of them intend to
translate or interpret in their future careers, English grammar is usually compared with its
Czech formal and/or pragmatic equivalents. Some other languages are also occasionally
mentioned, to provide a more universal background for the topic under discussion.
Each part contains an introductory Revision section testing the assumed preliminary
knowledge, and a final Revision section which summarizes the basic topics covered in the
course.
The text concentrates on topics which the author finds most important, most
interesting and sometimes neglected in other study materials. To complement these
individual choices, at the beginning of most sections there are some bibliographical
references to the literature which are recommended as study material for the course. The
students are expected to go through at least some of the materials mentioned.
The author of the following text believes in linguistics, above all in grammar, as an
autonomous science. Therefore the analyses here assumed that human language is a system
which can be studied by applying scientific methods, with the result of acquiring some
descriptively adequate and as explanatory as possible generalized hypotheses. Empirical
data and argumentation are thus strongly preferred to the memorizing of any listed
classifications, and no a priori analysis or theory is taken for granted or as definitive.
Nonetheless, the presentation and hypotheses here, such as in the choices of categories, are
based on traditional functional and structuralist grammar (which the students used during
their pre-university education) and only slightly influenced by current theoretical proposals.
Recent functional and generative approaches typically present themselves as returning to the empirical concerns of traditional grammar and at the moment provide a wide
range of plausible frameworks. The grammatical analyses introduced in this course assume
the need for empirical and scientific understanding of human language and although it
concentrates on formal grammar, it assumes interactions with other disciplines such as a
theory of communication, literary study, psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. The
author hopes that discussing and trying to understand basic grammar in a more universal
and open-minded way turns out to be useful for all students of English language, who can
then go on in their studies in whichever field or framework suits their fancy.
Ludmila Veselovsk
COMMUNICATION (REVISION)
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 2-16, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp. 1-10;
Akmajian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish (1990) pp. 1-10; Crystal (1987) pp. 395-414.
1.1
(1)
Model of Communication
Simplified Model of Communication
REALITY
CONCEPT of reality
CODING
DECODING
transmitter
speaker/ writer
CODE
receiver
hearer/ reader
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Human Language
A few meaningless elements (phonemes: consonants and vowels) combine into a vast
number of meaningful units (morphemes) which further combine into an infinite number of
larger units (words, phrases, clauses, texts).
(Hocket 1960): the existence of two levels of rule-governed combinatorial structure,
one combining meaningless sounds into morphemes, the other combining meaningful
morphemes into words and phrases is a universal design feature of human language.
9
1.3
Linguistics
text / paragraph
clause / sentence
phrase
syntagma
paradigms
word
morpheme
phoneme
Some levels of Linguistics are more autonomous, e.g. independent, they have their own
definable topic, deal with specific elements and apply their own rules which are less
derived from other fields (Phonetics/ Phonology, Semantics, Pragmatics) than others, e.g.
Morphology + Syntax (= Grammar) use similar elements, apply similar rules and discuss
the same or similar topics.
(5)
(a)
(b)
his father
(c)
his
(d)
[his]
(e)
is tired
father
[fa]
z
is
[ther]
tired
[is]
[tir]
z
[ed]
ai
(e) phoneme (distinctive features) / allophone / sound (the symbols are only illustrative)
(d) syllable
(c) phonetic word (stress pattern, )
(b) phonetic phrase
(a) phonetic sentence (intonation pattern, )
Phonetics/ Phonology is an autonomous field of linguistics. It deals with elements which
carry the meaning but do not have the meaning themselves (sounds/ phonemes).
Phonological rules apply with no respect to the meaning, e.g. final devoicing in Czech
applies in all parts of speech and all sentence members, i.e. on all phonetically defined
elements irrespective of their role in the other parts of the language system.
10
(6)
(a)
(b)
his father
(c)
his
(d) [he] +
is tired
father
s
father
is
[be]
+ s
tired
tir
ed
Exercises
EXERCISE ==========================================
(7)
Think of 5 Czech sentences using the word jazyk in the whole range of its meanings.
State which usage is appropriate in linguistics.
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
EXERCISE ===========================================
(8)
Explain the terms double articulation and complex system applied to linguistics
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
11
EXERCISE ===========================================
Discuss the main topics (units, terms) of the following sciences. What does it mean to
say that phonetics and semantics are autonomous parts of linguistics?
(9)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
lexicology
semantics
pragmatics
phonology/ phonetics
morphology
syntax
communication theory
semiotics
stylistics
(a)
(b)
my boy friend
(c)
my
(d)
my
(e)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
reads novels
boy friend
boy
y
[o+ y] f
reads
friend
r [ i+ e]
read
novels
s
novel
n d
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
12
LINGUISTICS AS A SCIENCE
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 17-42, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp. 11-28.
Ferdinand de Saussure
Noam Chomsky
Linguistics, as a science, deals with a language system, i.e. this means an interrelated
structure of elements. The language system is a reality, it is a human-specific code for
communication. It is subject to language-specific rules.
(1)
Linguistics
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Observationally/ Descriptively adequate: the model must reflect the data correctly.
Explanatory: individual rules are to be related to the whole system.
2.1
"We may make an intuitive judgment that some linguistic expression is odd or deviant. But
we cannot in general know, pretheoretically, whether this deviance is a matter of syntax,
semantics, pragmatic, belief, memory limitations, style, etc., or even whether these are
appropriate categories for the interpretation of the judgment in question. It is an obvious
and uncontroversial fact that informant judgments do not fall neatly into clear categories:
syntactic, semantic, etc."
(Chomsky: Essays, 1977:4)
(2)
a) about WELL-FORMEDNESS
b) STRUCTURE
(3)
13
(4)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
? an honest geranium.
? the man next door says she never looses her temper with anyone
? the tree who we saw
? Human beings have two or three eyes.
? William was pregnant but he had a miscarriage.
? The umbrella is flying with the bathroom.
?Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
?Im thinking of the sonata I hope to compose someday.
Semantic Competence
(5)
(a)
(b)
I thought that Elisabeth was there, but it turned out that she wasn't.
! I realized that Elisabeth was here, but it turned out that she wasn't.
(6)
(a)
(b)
"The borderline between grammar and semantics is unclear, and linguists will draw the
line variously... Similarly the borderline between grammar and pragmatics (and even more
between semantics and pragmatics) is unclear." (Quirk et al. 1985:16)
Grammaticality
(7)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
The reason for the ungrammaticality has to be found, defined and explained, referring to
some rule and/or principle, which the ungrammatical sentence violates.
(8)
Phonological competence
blick
vs.
SENtence vs
*bnick
*senTENCE
(9)
Morphological competence
men
tigress
*mans
*horsess
2.2
(a)
(b)
vs
vs.
14
Compare the following examples in (11). Discuss how each or them 'demonstrates' the rule
for the order of Subject Verb Object in English and Czech (and or these fixed vs. free
??? ), considering also the style, frequency, special interpretations, etc.
(11) SVO
SOV
OVS
OSV
VSO
VOS
2.3
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
(e')
(f')
Exercises
(a)
(b)
........ (c)
(ii)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(iii) (a)
(b)
(c)
(iv) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(v)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
15
(a)
(b)
(c)
(ii)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(iii) (a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(ii)
(a)
(b)
(c)
big boy
big girl
big baby
(c)
(d)
...............................................
...............................................
(iii) (a)
(b)
(c)
I went to school
You went to school.
He went to school.
(iv) (a)
(c)
*I saw boy.
I saw a boy.
(b)
(d)
16
* I be at home.
* The teacher musts read their papers.
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
I saw him.
I saw Adam.
I saw the tall blond boy.
I saw the he/ him.
I saw the tall blond he/ him.
I saw the tall blond one.
17
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
J jsem nela...
*J nejsem la...
J nebudu st.
*J budu nest...
J netu...
J nebudu st.
J st nebudu.
MORPHOLOGY
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 1567-1579, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp.
264-290; Crystal (1987) pp. 88-100; Dukov (1994) pp. 13-22; Akmajian/ Demers/
Farmer/ Harnish (1990) pp. 11-52; Finegan & Besnier (1989) pp. 85-124; Fromkin &
Rodman (1990) pp. 122-157; Katamba (1993); Matthews (1974); Spenser (1991).
3.1
Morpheme
Bloomfield (1933):
A morpheme is the smallest element of a language which carries a meaning.
Which kind of meaning? SIGN = form + meaning. (In a language everything has some
meaning = reason/ function/ role in the system)
(Phoneme: can distinguish the meaning, but it does not carry it itself.)
3.2
Morphology as realization of
A.
B.
Discussing the meaning of all the parts of the words below, we need to refer not only to the
lexical meaning of the stem, but also to the other parts of the word.
(1)
peskakovali
Lexical morphemes (stems/ bases) have a huge number of meanings they reflect existing
reality: boy, believe, age, evolution, game, tree, vacuum, China, Christmas, Islam
Non-lexical morphemes are not infinite in number. They are the core of the grammar of a
language, i.e. their number, form, position, combinations etc. define the specific typological
characteristics of the language (e.g. Czech vs. English).
For some morphemes, to assign a category and to be itself a member of a category is its
'meaning/ function':
(2)
[N]
[Adj]
[V]
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(b)
book-s
govern-ed, will govern
has stopp-ed, is stopp-ing
short-er, short-est
to govern, to have gone
vysok- dvka
(4)
The morpheme on vysok- is a morpheme of agreement (in Gender), which signals that
the expression is related to a feminine Noun. (Note that the final vowel height of vysok is
itself in some sense feminine compared with vysok.)
The-se boy-s
(5)
The form these contains a morpheme of agreement in Number, which signals, that the
expression is related to a plural Noun. (Note that the demonstrative meaning of these would
itself be in some sense more plural than this.)
(6)
(a)
hi-s, hi-m
Case shows also a relation to the other member within the syntagma.
(b)
i.
ii.
-m in him marks the Object function of he w.r.t. the Verb kill or the Preposition with. Such
a function is interpreted as an affected Object (of a Verb/Preposition): the meaning includes
that (i) he is dead, (ii) he was (spoken) with...
(c)
-s in his marks the function of he w.r.t. to the Noun picture and such a function is
interpreted as the Agent, Patient, or Possessor role of he.
Adam/Emma read-s well
(7)
-s in reads does not modify the lexical meaning of the stem, i.e. the reading activity is
identical with or without the morpheme s. The morpheme s is configurational; it shows
agreement, i.e. it signals that the Verb read is related to a Subject and the Subject is 3sg.
3.3
I.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
19
writ+er
modern+ize
modern+iz(e)+(a)tion
nation+al+ity
king+dom
instruct+ive
thirteen+th
VN
AdjV
AdjVN
NAdjN
N (person)N (region)
VAdj
Num (cardinal)Num (ordinal)
(9)
(a)
(b)
(c)
governor+s, book+s,
pretti+er,
stopp-ed, is read+ing
N (plural)
Adj (comparative)
V (Tense, Aspect)
(10) pretti-er
III.
(11)
vs.
more beautiful
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a) bound
(b) free
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
prefix
in(ter)fix
suffix
circumfix
MORPHEMES
bound
bases
affixes
prefixes
suffixes
in(ter)fixes
circumfixes
contracted forms
free
3.4
content words
function(al) words
FERDINAND de SAUSSURE
Langue
vs. Parole
morpheme vs. allomorph
=
=
20
ER
writers
prefixes
suffixes
in(ter)fixes
circumfix
NA-rostl / DE-stabilize
bez to-HO chlapce, modern-IZE
bez to-HO-to chlapce
chodi-LA BYCH
BUT ! There are other examples which make this simplified view implausible. See below.
(14) suppletion
go > went, good > better > best, she > her, is > are, two > second
partial suppletion France > French > franco-phile, Franco-American
BUT regular phonetic/ orthographic changes are not suppletion:
stop > stopp-ed, find > finds, nice > nic-er, city > cities, tomato >tomatoes
(15) reduplication
21
3.5
Exercises
prac-ova-l-a
(b)
ne-u-vit-eln-
(c)
(d)
under-gradu-ate
read-er-s
(e)
(f)
dis-agree-ment
re-read-ing (of those articles)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
he reads
I have read
he has read
he will be reading
(j)
he had read
(k) we will have finished
(l) (the house) is built
(m) (the letter) has been being written
writer
impossible
blackboard
drivable
tigress
22
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
reevaluate
distress
co-occurrence
wonderful
submarine
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
modernizeable ..........................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
cranberry ................................................................................................................................
re-reads
............................................................................................................................
spoke
................................................................................................................................
(he) was
................................................................................................................................
23
he's
reading
having
been
eaten
will
be written
sing
sang - sung
- song
Number
Gender
Case
Tense
Aspect
Grading
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
stop-s
satisfi-ed ......................................................................................................................
read-ing .......................................................................................................................
read-ing-s .......................................................................................................................
(b)
(i)
(ii)
(c)
(d)
24
speak-er
moth-er
nic-er
......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
(a)
(b)
(c)
call-ing
br- ing
str- ing
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
(a)
(b)
(c)
un-fortunate
un-iversal
un-do
(a)
(b)
(c)
re-call
.......................................................................................................................
re-ad
.......................................................................................................................
re-memeber......................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
govern-ment-s
* govern-s-ment
(c)
(d)
ui-tel-
*ui--tel
(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
(e')
(b)
This dwarf is much bigg-er than that dwarf, but neither of them is big, of course.
Though Barbara is much more clever than Grace, they are both pretty stupid, in fact.
Discuss:
25
(i)
Is a big mouse bigger than a small elephant?
(ii) How big is big?
(iii) What is the meaning of an Adjective modifier?
WORD-FORMATION
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 1623-1695, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp.
264-290; Quirk/ Greenbaum/ Leech/ Svartvik (2004) pp. 1515-1586.
4.1
Lexicon
Word: A word is a minimal free form. Lexeme: Words are listed in lexicon. A lexical
entry is comprised of the form + the meaning, i.e. it includes all specific (idiosyncratic)
phonological/ morphological/ syntactic/ semantic properties of a word.
.
(1)
Neologism:
(c)
(3)
Loan words:
(a)
(b)
Languages can differ w.r.t. the tolerance to the loans. The reasons may be social (e.g.
xenophobia) and/or formal (synthetic languages must adopt the new words to paradigms).
(a) Initial abbreviations: IBM, MP, p.m., SOB, UN, EU, w.r.t.
(b) Acronyms: UNESCO, radar, WASP, NASA
(c) Clipping: mike (<microphone), bike, fridge, info, hype (<hyperbole)
(4)
Abbreviation:
(5)
Composition:
(6)
Conversion:
26
(a)
(b)
(c)
of morphemes: derivation
of parts of words: blending: portmanteau words
smog (<SMOke+foG), motel (<MOTo+hoTEL), hi-fi
of words:
(i) compounding: blackbird, snowman, dry clean, input
(ii) quotation compounds: hard-to-get items, do-ityourself store, fly-by-night business, off the cuff speech
(a)
(b)
(i) stress:
transport, contrast, increase, torment, record
(ii) vowel length/tone or quality (= ablaut/apophony): sing>sang>sung>song
(iii) consonant mutation: advice>advise, belief>believe, use, house, mouth
4.3
Back Formation
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
To claim that some word has been back-formed, we have to provide arguments about the
likelihood of the steps in the process of the word formation. The arguments may result from
(a) more detailed morphological analysis; see (8),
(b) knowledge of some specific morphological (word-formation) process; see (9),
(c) knowledge of historical data; see (10).
(8)
televise
or
Conclusion: the word 'televise' couldn't be formed in a normal way. It must have been
backformed by speakers assuming the analogy with the words ending on ion which have
the verbal source on ise (modern-ise modernisat-ion; re-vise revis-ion).
(9)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
make a coffee
make shoes
lay bricks
sit (at) a baby
(10)
Thomas Crapper
crapper
crap
BUT
* to coffee make
BUT
* to shoe make
BUT
* to bricklay
EXCEPTION!!! baby sit
a name of an engineer
the WC Thomas Crapper invented and was selling
back-formed Verb: writ(-er), crapp(-er)
The knowledge of historical data can thus be a source of information about a words origin.
27
4.4
Exercises
28
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)
(q)
(r)
(s)
(t)
WIN
......................................................................................................................
RIP
......................................................................................................................
SUNY
......................................................................................................................
CUNY
......................................................................................................................
nylon
.....................................................................................................................
dederon ......................................................................................................................
PC
......................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
motel ................................................
boatel ................................................
hi-fi ................................................
(b)
(d)
(f)
hotel ....................................................
brunch .................................................
sci-fi ....................................................
(a)
(b)
hard-to-get
do-it- yourself store
fly-by-night
what's-his-name
29
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
DERIVATION
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 1666-1720, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp.
264-290.
Creating/ Enlarging the Lexicon by Composition
Creating a new word: Compounding BASE + BASE
Derivation
BASE + DERIVATIONAL AFFIX
Paradigmatic form:
BASE + INFLECTIONAL ENDING
(1)
(a)
(b)
(c)
BASE
SUFFIX
ENDING
PRODUCTIVITY
in Morphology
5.2
Constraints on Productivity
(a)
(b)
(c)
write >
steal >
help >
write >
book >
man >
writ-er
*steal-er
help-ed
*writ-ed
book-s
* man-s
30
(5)
(6)
(a) fast > fasten, soft > soften, dark > darken, loose > loosen, tough > toughen
(b) dry > *dryen, blue > *bluen, low > *lowen, fine > *finen, lame >*lamen
(c) stupid >*stupiden, morose >*morosen, urgent >*urgenten, alive >*aliven
(a)
(b)
(c)
5.2.3.1
e.g. 'un+anim+ous,
(ii)
e.g. un+anim+ous+ly,
(iii) then add Affixation of Class III (regular inflection) in its position
(8)
Therefore Class I affixes always precede Class II affixes and Class III endings.
(= Stems precede suffixes which precede endings.)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
danger-ous-ly
writ-er-s
conscience-ous-ness
able-ity-s abil-iti-es
character-iz-ing
31
*danger-ly-ous
*write-s-er
*conscience-ness-ous
*able-s-ity
*character-ing-ize
(9)
(a)
(b)
(c)
passion
> com+passion,
passion fruit
> *com-passion fruit
trouser+s + hanger(s) > trouserhanger(s)
Class I undergoes special phonological processes, Classes II/III are phonologically inert.
legal in+legal = illegal
lawful un+lawful =*ullaful
real in+real = irreal / unreal / *urreal
ruly un+ruly = *urruly
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
red-roofed house
*white-fenced house
one-armed bandit
*two-rivered land
wide-eyed girl
*long shirted guy
(a)
(b)
32
-ise
-ic
-al
-en
-dom
enrecodisfore-
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
(a)
(b)
(c)
33
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
to chain smoke
34
(b)
to televise
(c)
to beg
(d)
a burger
COMPOUNDING
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 1644-1666, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp.
264-290.
PREFIX
BASE
BASE
SUFFIX
ENDING
(a)
(a)
(3)
(a)
(b)
That bird is really black. Have you ever seen such a black bird?
There are many blackbirds in the park. Some of them are not black at all.
The process of unification can (and should) be traced/ considered on several levels:
(a) in orthography, (b) phonetics, (c) morphology, (d) syntax, and (e) semantics.
6.1
Orthography
This is the main (necessary and sufficient) criterion in Czech but not in English.
In English orthography is a sufficient but not necessary criterion. Many compounds are
hyphenated or separate.
(4)
(a)
(b)
(c)
35
6.2
Phonetics
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
ICE CREAM
vs. ICE cream
WHITE HOUSE
vs. WHITE house
GREEN HOUSE
vs. GREEN house
APPLE PIE, MAN MADE, EASY-GOING
pea GREEN, knee DEEP, dirt CHEAP (Adj-headed: final stress)
Thus, single stress is a sufficient but not necessary criterion for an English compound.
6.3
Morphology
BUT
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(c)
(f)
(g)
girl friend
girl friends
* girls friend
short-sighted
*shorter-sighted
*scissor
scissors
scissor-handle(s)
*binocular
binoculars
binocular-case(s)
quick fried
*quickly fried
*quicker/est fried
well- known
better-known
best-known
a new mens store, a big kids play-ground, etc.
Thus, spelling the couple as a one word is a sufficient but not necessary criterion for an
English compound.
6.4
Syntax
Testing whether the complex behaves as one unit or as a syntactic phrase consisting of
several separable parts.
(7)
syntactic complex
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
idiom
(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
We can test whether the structure can be changed by some regular syntactic process.
Idioms: undergo (to various degrees) syntactic operations.
Compounds: are inert / frozen with respect to (w.r.t.) syntax (syntactic atoms).
(a) Enlarging the complex by additional material: e.g. Nouns in a syntactic complex
(phrase) can be premodified by semantically compatible Adjectives rather freely.
(b)
36
In (8) adding Adjectives and passivization do not change the meaning, while in (9) they do.
(* here means the loss of the idiomatic reading.)
(8)
+Adj
(a)
(b)
(c)
Passive
(d)
(9)
(a)
(b)
* +Adj
(c)
* Passive (d)
(10)
(= utkat)
(=utkali)
(= * utkali.)
(= *utkalo se.)
syntactic complex
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
idiom
(a')
(b')
(c')
(d)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
stand here
stand by
get off the train
take a coffee
take courage
have fun
- Here.
- *By
- *Off the train.
- A coffee.
- *Courage.
- *A lot of fun.
Premodifying Adjectives can be used as Predicates after a copula and in a relative clause.
With idioms the same changes in the structure causes the loss of the idiomatic meaning.
See also section 6.5.
(13) ice cream
37
6.5
Semantics
compositional (=transparent) or
non-compositional (=opaque).
Remember that transparent meaning includes the syntagmatic information, i.e. hierarchy,
with the kind of relation expressed in some formal way (word order, morphology, etc.).
TRANSPARENT
OPAQUE (non-transparent)
bird
BLACKBIRD
BLACK
+ modification
Consider the following couple of words: it is not enough to know the meaning of both, we
must also know how they are related (which ONE is hierarchically higher and/or which
kind of function does the subordinate element fulfill).
(16) Combining Samuel (a person) and pedstavovat (an action)
(a) Samuel pedstavoval
Samuel is Agent of introduce
(b) pedstavovat Samuela
Samuel is Object of introduce
Samuel is Goal/ Beneficiary of introduce
(c) pedstavovat Samuelovi
(17) Combining Peter and introduce
(a) Samuel introduced
Samuel is Agent of introduce
(b) introduce Samuel
Samuel is Object of introduce
(c) introduce to Samuel Mary Brown Samuel is Goal/ Beneficiary of introduce
(18) Combining city and skyscraper
(a) city skyscraper
(b) skyscraper city
GREEN HOUSE
GREENhouse
Semantic relations between elements can also be transparent in idioms, to a certain extent,
especially if one of the elements is a Verb.
(21) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
38
playmaker
man-eater
housecleaning
ball park
underground
6.6
Headedness of Compounds
(a)
(b)
(c)
6.7
(a')
(b')
(c')
velk-o-msto
ve velk-o-mst-
blackbird(s)
Consider the following compounds consisting of distinct categories. Which of them decides
about the category of the complex?
water-lily, bookcase
hothouse, high-court
undergraduate, oversight
world-wide, user-friendly
short-lived, good-natured
See also above in (6)(e).
overconfident, outspoken, inbred, downtrodden
underestimate, outscore, overrate, downplay
show off, look after, get up
See also above in (33).
playboy, showman, think tank,
(22) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
N+N=N
A+N=N
P+N=N
N+A=A
A+A=A
P+A=A
P+V=V
V+P=V
V+N=N
(23)
(24) (a)
(b)
(c)
short-lived *shorter-lived
*scissor, scissors, scissor-handle(s)
*binocular, binoculars, binocular-case(s)
(25)
BUT
6.8
(26) (a)
(b)
(c)
39
(a)
(b)
(c)
craftsman, craftsmen
better-known, best-known, menservants, women priests
ladies man, bulls-eye, Achilles heel
6.9
Compounds:
(a)
(b)
In English the headless compound appear headless only w.r.t. to semantics/ meaning, but
syntactically (and morphologically) the unit almost always has a (usually right-hand) head.
'Bahuvrihi' compounds: semantically opaque (metaphors). It is impossible to define which
part is more important w.r.t. its meaning. Morphology, however, takes the rightmost
element for the head of the complex.
(27) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
lazy-bones
numb-skull
loud-mouth
wall-flower
Elisabeth's sonnet
show Mary
(b)
(d)
Elizabethan sonnet
show Mary Adam
40
(b)
(d)
Flying saucer
(b)
capital punishment
(c)
Big Apple
eat outside
eat out
look well
look ahead
take advantage
- Outside.
- *Out.
- Well.
- *Ahead.
- *Great advantage.
skyline
wet-suit
near-sightedness
foolproof
hard-hearted
near-sighted
Princess royal
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
overreact
get rid (of)
call girl
hanger on
downplay
brother-in-law
heir apparent
girl friend
clear-cut
playboy
girl friends
playboys
*girls friend
*clearer-cut
*playedboy
41
outdoors
dare-devil (reckless person)
spoil-sport (a grumpy person)
stick-in-the-mud
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 1644-1666, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp.
264-290.
7.1
English compounds of the form N+N are recursive, i.e. an already compound Noun can
modify a Noun and there can be Adjectives involved, too, which can be related to any of
the Nouns. The interpretation is therefore vague, it depends on how the listener relates the
elements (which hierarchy is assigned to the structure). In Czech the translation must
disambiguate the structure.
(1)
(a)
(i)
(ii)
(b)
(i)
(ii)
(c)
(d)
7.2
-
Verbal Compounds
comprised of a head derived from a Verb;
a non-head is usually interpreted as complement/ adjunct of the Verb, where
complements have a thematic role;
the meaning is rather transparent.
nominal OBJECT
(2)
lend money, make shoes, sell books, make hay, lay bricks.
(3)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
42
N = N+V+er
N = N+V+ing
A = N+V+en
A = N+V+ing
:
:
:
:
moneylender, shoemaker
hay-making, brick-laying
hand-written, time-worn
God-fearing, self-seeking
Apart from arguments (Objects) of the Verb, the initial element can also be an adjunct of
time/ place/ manner/etc. as well, especially when the N suffixes -er/-ing are not used.
(See also section 4.3 about Backformation.)
(4)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
lock out
take off
phone in
locked out
took off
phoned in
*lock outed
*take offed
*phone ined
Phrasal Verbs are special kinds of compounds, more semantic than actually syntactic. Their
head is not the right member, but the Verb, and the two elements can be separated. The
process of word formation with phrasal Verbs is matter of diachrony; some are well
established, others are more recently created and becoming productive.
(6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
7.3
(a)
(c)
Rhyming Compounds
Neoclassical Compounds
(b)
(d)
Cranberry Words
Quotational Compounds
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
43
straw+berry, goose+berry
blue+berry, black+berry
cran+berry
(a)
(b)
(c)
N N+N
N A+N
N N??+N
(d)
(e)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(10) tele+vis+ion
(d)
(e)
(f)
lady-in-waiting
touch-and-go
stick-in-the mud
Exercises
(j)
(k)
44
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)
(q)
(r)
(i) .................................................
(iii) .................................................
(v) .................................................
(ii)
(iv)
(vi)
................................................
................................................
................................................
to make
(i) .................................................
(iii) .................................................
(v) .................................................
(ii)
(iv)
(vi)
................................................
................................................
................................................
to look
(i) .................................................
(iii) .................................................
(v) .................................................
(ii)
(iv)
(vi)
................................................
................................................
................................................
to put
(i) .................................................
(iii) .................................................
(v) .................................................
(ii)
(iv)
(vi)
................................................
................................................
................................................
to take
(i) .................................................
(iii) .................................................
(v) .................................................
(ii)
(iv)
(vi)
................................................
................................................
................................................
45
See also: Comrie (1989) pp. 33-54, 210-226; Crystal (1987) pp. 84-86, 283-341;
Greenberg (1961).
3,000 - 10,000 languages (alive/ dead, language/ dialect, pigeon/ Creole, style/ slang)
Ranked in terms of numbers of speakers: Chinese, English, Spanish, Hindi, Arabic,
Bengali, Russian, Portuguese, Japanese, German, French, Punjabi....
(1)
A.
Genetic Classification
B.
Comparing Czech with English, English is isolating/ analytic, while Czech is synthetic/
fusional. However, neither of them is an extreme version and both show mixed
characteristics.
Discussing the morphological typology of a language, which criteria are relevant ?
E.g. August von Schleger (1767-1845)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
8.1
Index of Synthesis
SYNTHETIC
46
(a)
(c)
(c)
(d)
(e)
isolating
agglutinating
fusional
incorporating
polysynthetic
Most/ All major category words in Czech have more than one morpheme. In English
monomorph(emat)ic words are more frequent due to the lack of inflection.
(3)
a)
b)
monomorphematic words:
polymorphematic words:
proti, a,
ne-u-vi-tel-n,
W mi jzi ch.
I buy orange eat
'I bought some oranges to eat.'
Beijing Chinese
Vietnamese
Compared with typical Indo-European languages, these highly isolating languages have:
- many monosyllabic, invariable words (larger phonetic repertory, e.g. tonic vowels),
- many non-categorial stems (since they do not fit I.-E. standard with its Latin-based
terminology, many of these are called 'particles'),
- fixed orders of elements/ words,
Isolating/ analytic characteristics are far more frequent in English than in Czech, but both
languages have numerous free grammatical morphemes.
(5)
(a)
(b)
Yupik
(Siberian Eskimo)
Incorporation: a number of lexical morphemes combine into one word. This is possible in
many languages (compounds), but if it prevails, the language is taken for incorporating.
(7)
Chukchi
47
(8)
Tiwi (aboriginal)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
8.2
re-nation-al-is-abi-lity, dis-establish-ment-arian
chain-smoking, fresh orange juice maker, heat sensitive rocket reentry shield
do-it-yourself, catch-me-if-you-can
utinos, vlezdoprdelka, erveno-modro-bl, erno-koil-
Index of Fusion
ise - er
BASE
M-1
M-2
s
M-3
Individual morphemes are clearly separable (sometimes with some regular changes at the
borders). Each has one function/ meaning, often identical with distinct parts of speech.
mimi ni - na - ku - penda wewe.
me
I-PRES -you-love
you
'I love you.'
(10) Swahili
(11) Turkish
48
(a)
SG/NOM adam
SG/GEN adam-in
SG/LOC adam-da
(b)
PL/GEN
PL/GEN
PL/LOC
adam - lar
adam - lar -in
adam - lar -da
M1/2/3
(12) Spanish:
(14) He read-s
(a)
(b)
(c)
Person: 3
Number: singular
Tense: present
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(16)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
velko-msto
ne-u-vi-tel-n
nej-ne-obvyk-le-j
vidl-y zelen- stromy
49
8.3
Exercises
CZECH
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
ENGLISH
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
In January I will have been living in this town for ten years.
The building had been being built for two years already when the fire happened.
50
pst
to write
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Petrovi
to Peter
(g)
(h)
nejkrsnj
..........................................................................................................
the most beautiful..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
51
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
nationalize ................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
cranberry ................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
writes
................................................................................................................................
went
................................................................................................................................
(he) was
................................................................................................................................
having
will
sing
been
written
be introduced
sang - sung
- song
Number
Tense
Aspect
Grading
Voice
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
read-ing .......................................................................................................................
stop-s
.......................................................................................................................
introduc-ed ......................................................................................................................
52
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
skyscraper
suitcase
light-hearted
waterproof
out spoken
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
soft spoken
look forward (to)
playboy
court martial
sister-in-law
analytic /isolating
synthetic
agglutinating
fusional
53
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
English
I told.
Youpl will not tell.
We will see.
We told.
I will not tell.
He will ask.
He is seeing.
They told.
I will beat.
I will sing.
Youpl told.
Yousg told.
Yousg will not tell.
We will not tell.
He told.
He saw.
They are beating.
I am doing.
We will ask.
English
tell
sing
see
laugh
ask
beat
do
PAST
-ing
I
yousg
he
we
youpl
they
NEG FUT
CAUSATIVE
FUTURE
Youpl are singing.
Telugu
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
ceppincunu
navvincum
20.
21.
22.
ceesnu
I cause (someone)
to tell.
We cause
(someone) to laugh.
I did.
54
21.
55
Swahili
(S)He wrote youpl.
I know yousg.
(S)He reads.
Yousg asked us.
We saw you sg.
(S)He knows him/ her.
Yousg will read.
They hitPAST him/ her.
Yousg have just written.
Youpl hitPAST him/ her.
(S)He knows you sg.
Youpl will see me.
I have just kissed him/her.
They readPAST .
I will kiss youpl .
We have just written youpl
Yousg will kiss me.
Yousg will hit us.
They have just asked them
We have just asked them.
English
I / me
yousg
(s)he / him/ her
we / us
youpl
they / them
PRES
FUTURE
PAST
PERF
write
ask
read
see
know
hit
kiss
Swahili
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
56
English
I cry
I am crying
Youpl are sleeping
We sleep
He was sleeping
He will sing
Youpl were sleeping
I will cry
They were crying
Yousg sleep
Youpl cry
Yousg will sleep
We were crying
He cries
He is sleeping
Youpl were crying
We are crying
They sing
Yousg are singing
They are crying
I was singing
English
I
yousg
he
we
youpl
they
PRES
PRES PROG
PAST PROG
FUTURE
11.
12.
13.
We cry
They will sing
Yousg are
sleeping
Nahuatl
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
tikwi:ka
cho:kani
nikochiya
14.
15.
16.
EXERCISE ===========================================
Consider the set of objects below in Table 1. Assuming you are to divide them, how
would you do it? How many groups could you make?
Table 1.
EXERCISE ===========================================
(2)
Define the criteria applied in the division in Table 2. State all the properties of the
elements appearing in the leftmost /middle/ rightmost group.
Table 2.
57
EXERCISE ===========================================
(3)
Define the criteria applied in the division in Tables 3-6. State the properties of the
elements appearing in the leftmost/ rightmost group. Which division do you prefer? Why?
Table 3.
Table 4.
EXERCISE ===========================================
(4)
58
(a)
(b)
(c)
EXERCISE ===========================================
(5)
Compare Table 5 and Table 6. Which is better? Why? State all the reasons.
Table 5.
Table 6.
EXERCISE ===========================================
(6)
59
9.1
The label for a part of speech expresses a number of properties shared by the specific
group of words. Many specific structural relations can be derived from the categorial status
of a given word. Therefore from the beginning of the theoretical study of language in
ancient Greece, words were grouped into several categories according to various criteria.
(7)
60
9.2
(8)
Semantic class
object
property
action
Valency
Stativity
Persistence
Gradability
Pragmatic function
0
state
persistent
nongradable
reference
1
state
persistent
gradable
modification
>1
process
transitory
nongradable
predication
9.3
(a)
(b)
(10)
(a)
(b)
(c)
nation-al
nation-al-ise
nation-al-is-ation
(a)
(b)
government
reading
=A
= *A / V
= *A / *V / N
61
Adjectives
Verbs
9.3.3 Grammaticalization
Inflection encodes the meaning/ features which a language has grammaticalized.
Grammaticalization of a lexical (auto)semantic feature is a diachronic process.
Semantic meaning/ feature which becomes (in a given language) grammaticalized is:
(i) simplified (appears only as a choice between a limited number of options)
(ii) regular (has a canonic representation with a limited number of exceptions),
(iii) productive (frequent, can be used with new words)
(11)
(a)
(b)
(c)
jabl-ko
doktor-ka
The lexical morphemes (independent words) like tiny/ small/ little or female/ woman/ she
can diachronically lose the semantic (lexical) richness and become simplified into
productive grammatical formatives, in the extreme case becoming a regular/predictable/
productive bound morpheme.
Grammatical morphemes are nonetheless semantic in some sense, i.e. related to aspects of
reality which can also be expressed lexically. They represent some simplified version of it.
(12) Real vs. grammaticalized notion of e.g. Number
(a)
(b)
1/2/3/.../789/.../8723...
one vs. many
book vs. book-s
(-s means 'many')
Time, an infinite line: E.g. Future time: tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, next year,
the next century, Dec.7, 2110...
Tense, Grammaticalized: established points (with respect to the speech act)
Past vs. Present vs. Future Tense (= what precedes/ occurs with/ follows a speech act)
(b)
He stopped.
He will come.
Languages can differ as to which categories use which grammaticalized features (have
specific kinds of inflectional morphology). Compare these English and Czech examples
w.r.t. the formal realization/ grammaticalization of (a/b) Gender and (c/d) Countability:
62
(14)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Inflectional morphology on a lexical entry reflects features which can be of the following
three types
9.3.4 Types of Features
1. PRIMARY
2. SECONDARY
(a)
Julie bought [Past]/ will buy [Fut] a book [Sing] / many books [Plur]
- the Agreement on the Predicate introduce(s) depends not on the Verb itself, but on
some other (related) element - on the characteristics of the Subject.
(Speakers cannot chose the form of the Verb, once they have chosen the Subject.)
(16)
(a)
(b)
(c)
63
(a)
(b)
(c)
(18)
stop - stops
to stop, he stop-s
zastav-it, zastav-il
vs.
vs.
...
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
N
N
Pron
Pron
V
V
V
V
A
A
Num
9.4
-s
's
-s/-r
-m
-s
-ed
en
ing
-er
-est
-th
book-s
Mary's
hi-s/ou-r
hi-m/who-m
(he) read-s
stopp-ed
writt-en
read-ing
small-er
small-est
four-th
Meaning/Function
type
Number [plural]
Case [Saxon genitive]
Case [Possessive]
Case [Object]
Agreement [3sgPres]
Tense [Past]
Aspect [Perfect]
Aspect [Progressive]
Grading [Comparative]
Grading [Superlative]
XXX ? [Ordinal]
optional
configurational
configurational
configurational
configurational
optional
optional
optional
optional
optional
? configurational
Exercises
Give the pronunciation of the morphemes s and ed. What are the options?
What is 'assimilation in voicing'?
Under which conditions does the pronunciation involve [-i-]?
Can you state the rule in some general way?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
books
dogs
trees
masses
hedges
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
cat's
dog's
Mike's
James's
Butch's
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
he talks
he reads
he tries
he fusses
he amuses
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
he talked
he arrived
he tried
he trusted
he traded
64
9.5
Syntactic criteria for establishing the category of an item are based on its distribution, i.e.
co-occurrence restrictions. Each part of speech appears in some typical environments.
There are typical elements which are subordinate to it (lower in a hierarchy) and typical
elements which are superordinate to it (higher in a hierarchy).
E.g. with Nouns: subordinate elements (what depends on N?) are Adjectives, Articles, etc.
while superordinate elements (what does the N(P) depend on?) are Verbs, Prepositions, etc.
(21) (a)
(b)
(c)
9.6
N:
NP:
V, [ _ NP]:
P, [ _ NP]:
Heads and Phrases
Every part of speech can become a head of a more complex structure = phrase.
(22) Phrases can have
pre-modifier(s)
HEAD
post-modifier(s)
brother
that big
of mine
The form of a pre-/post-modification is typical for a specific head/part of speech. Some can
be more/less obligatory.
(23) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
N:
A:
V:
P:
boy
small
read
up
In a sentence, a constituent (phrase) can appear as (i) simple/ bare, or (ii) complex.
Generally we can say that a sentence consists of phrases, not of words. Sentence functions
like Subject, Object, Attribute and Predicate are phrases although they can be bare
phrases (i.e. they can look like one word only) or clauses.
(24) (a)
(b)
AP
(c)
(d)
(e)
We saw a boy
/ [NP the little boy of mine ]
This boy is small / [AP much smaller than Adam ]
Object is NP
Predicate is
Object is VP
Adverbial is PP
Attribute is AP
The main or major parts of speech N, V, A, P (in fact their phrases NP, VP, AP, PP)
typically have PROFORMS: grammatical words which can replace them. The kind of
proform used for such substitution is in itself a signal of the kind of phrase. (Pronouns
replace NPs, Adverbials like there, then replace PPs, do so replaces VP, such replaces AP.)
65
(25) The little boy was already running in the city's only park at 8 oclock.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
NP
VP
PP
NP
PP
AP
9.7
Categorial Prototypicality
Ideally the words belonging to the same part of speech have the same (general)
meaning, the same (predictable) forms and the same distribution/ function/ pragmatics.
Grammatical categories have best case members and members that systematically
depart from the best case. The optimal grammatical description of morpho-syntactic
processes involves reference to the degree of categorial deviation from the best case.
To know' the characteristics of a specific part of speech means to know to which extent the
members of the category are the same (what they have in common) and to which extent
they can differ (what are the frequent exceptions).
(26)
(a)
(b)
book/ books
to write, to sleep
but
but
sheep/ *sheeps
(*to) can/ *to should
(27)
(ii)
(28)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
...stop...
The nearest stop is...
The stop lights are broken.
He should stop soon.
...reading...
Reading about that is easy.
This reading is easy.
He was reading a book.
Take the reading glasses.
66
government (funds)
N
-ment
position A
9.8
Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 188-203; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (2004)
pp. 393-398; Dukov (1994) pp. 136-140, 273-306; Svoboda and Oplov-Krolyov
(1989) pp. 138-162; Crystal (1987) pp. 91-93
Minor parts of speech (closed categories) have a limited, essentially fixed number of
members. They are lists of specific expressions. They can be
(i) grouped together with some mayor category, or more traditionally
(ii) kept separate because of some special property.
(30) (a)
(b)
(c)
Pronouns
Numerals
Conjunctions
=
=
=
Nouns, Adjectives ?
Nouns, Adjectives ?
Prepositions ?
(31) Numerals
I can see those three hundred and thirty-three silver fire-brigade vehicles.
The fifth one I see twice or three times a day.
The purpose of their presence is twofold. First, they have nothing to do; second.
Many of them are ugly but a few are not so bad.
They drank a barrel of beer. Mike drank a lot of wine, too.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Exercises
67
(ii).............................................................
Verbs:
(iii).................................................................
(ii).............................................................
Adjectives:
(iii).................................................................
(ii).............................................................
Adverbs:
(iii).................................................................
(ii).............................................................
(iii).................................................................
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
The other young girls came back from Prague very tired.
Ty druh mlad dvky se vrtily z Prahy velmi unaven.
(b)
(i)
(ii)
68
(c)
(d)
What types of phrases are the underlined parts of sentences? Which are their heads?
Replace the underlined parts of the sentence by one word (and/or its proform).
(a)
(b)
(c)
69
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
= N, b(ii), c(i),
I wrote a long letter.
I saw three big whugs in my garden.
= .................................................
I want to plymise this book.
= ................................................
He is much hompler than George.
= ................................................
I was trumbling the whole afternoon yesterday.
= ................................................
Marcel is the most dimable guy Ive ever met.
= ................................................
The book is fin the table, not under the chair.
= ................................................
This beautiful trouch of flowers is yours.
= ................................................
The letter is down the stairs.
= .................................................
I hate bending down.
= .................................................
I like the songs by J. J. Gale.
= ................................................
I like to listen to the songs by J. J. Gale.
= ................................................
I like listening to the songs by J. J. Gale.
= ................................................
He reads a newspaper every day.
= ................................................
He can read a newspaper every day.
= ................................................
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
70
10
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 323-524, 1585-1595, Huddleston & Pullum
(2005) pp. 82-111, 264-290; Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 70-107; Quirk, Greenbaum,
Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp. 241-332; Dukov (1994) pp.35-100; Svoboda and OplovKrolyov (1989) pp. 50-83; Leech & Svartvik (1975).
Revise Section 9.1 above, especially topics mentioned in (7) on page 60.
Semantic/ Notional definition of Nouns:
'Nouns denote persons, animals and objects/things...'
See also (8)on page 61
Semantic class
Pragmatic function
(1)
Semantic Division:
I.
Common (a)
(b)
II.
Proper
Object
Reference
countable
concrete/abstract (book, song/ argument, concert)
non-countable concrete (water, bread, gas -these can have -s)
abstract
(time, evidence, research, courage)
(Henry, Egypt, Arabic)
The above division is based on semantic properties but in the same time each group has
some formal characteristics (e.g. spelling conventions, lack of Article). Purely semantic
divisions can be found in e.g. synonymic dictionaries but have no use in grammar.
(2)
Morphology
b)
Syntax
10.1
Case
10.1.1
(3)
(a)
(b)
71
(a)
(b)
3 with Pronouns:
2 with Nouns:
I - me - my/mine
John - John's
(4)
with Nouns
1. COMMON Case
2. SAXON-GENITIVE Case
10.1.2
with Pronouns
1. SUBJECT Case
2. OBJECT Case
(a) of a Verb
(b) of a Preposition
3. SAXON-GENITIVE Case
Morphological Case is a specific form of a word/Noun, i.e. usually some special ending
added to the word (in Czech there are 7 forms, in English 3 forms with Pronouns).
Abstract Case is an abstract relation between a superordinate Case Assigner and a Noun
(NP). The relation can be morphologically realized (with an inflectional ending) or it can be
signaled in a more abstract way by the means of e.g. word order.
= Morphological realization of the Case on a Noun is a configurational feature.
(5)
(a)
(b)
In (5) the Verb st and Preposition bez are Case assigners. They are superordinate (higher
in hierarchical structure) to the NPs velkou knihu / naeho domu, and they assign (give)
them Case. The Case shows that the two (Case assigner and Case-marked NP) are related.
The function of Case: : Licensing Semantic Roles (marking sentence members)
With Prepositions Case is marking a simple relation (esp. in English), with Verbs the Case
can also signal a specific meaning (semantic role).
The Czech Preposition za can combine with the Nouns Petr/ hora in two ways:
(6)
(a)
(c)
Zaplatil za PetraACC.
Msc zapadl za horuACC.
(b)
(d)
Piel za PetremINSTR.
Msto le za horouINSTR.
The Verb watch can combine with David and Mary in two ways:
(7)
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
There are two main semantic roles (relations) with the Verb watch:
(a) Agent (the person performing the action) and
(b) Patient (the person who is affected by the action).
A language must make clear which is which. Compare the Czech above with the following
English.
(8)
(a)
(c)
(e)
72
about/with/for him
David watched
He watched her.
(b)
(d)
(f)
*about/with/for he/his
Mary watched David.
*Him watched she.
(a)
(b)
2nd participant
(Patient)
sent
poslal
a parcel/it
balk
complementary conditions
(manner/place/time)
3rd participant
(Recipient/Beneficiary)
to John/to him
Janovi
in the afternoon
v poledne
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(c)
(d)
bez Petr-aGEN
proti Petr-oviINSTR
napsal dopisACC
What (which part of speech) can be a Case assigner? Are they the same in all languages?
(11) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
73
Poslal dopis.
Pavel spal.
Bl se duch /jich.
el cestou pes les/nho.
Vidm ptele sv sestry.
Vidm sestina/jejho ptele.
Vidl osm obraz /jich.
Je vrn sv en.
(12) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
10.2.1
Countability
[COUNTABLE]
[+]
NUMBER
[-]
[+]
[-]
book-S
childr-EN
book
child
74
In English Countability is a relevant formal feature because it affects the choice of articles
and (some) Quantifiers. Compare these characteristics with the formal realization
(visibility) of Countability in Czech.
(16) Countable
Non-countable
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(19) Spelling:
(a)
(b)
(20) Blocking Effect (the irregular inflection blocks the regular interpretation)
glass, colour, iron
vs. glasses, colours, irons
(21) Zero plural:
(a)
(b)
animals:
affricate/fricative nations:
(c)
measure phrases:
(a)
(b)
(c)
75
THIS / *THESE
IS/*ARE EXCELLENT
*THIS / THESE
10.3
Determination
(a)
(b)
10.3.1
(a')
(b')
Determiners occupy the left periphery (edge) of a NP, and they are followed by adjectival
modifiers. One NP can have up to three Determiners (one in each slot).
(26) (a)
(b)
all
both
the
those
many
two
determination field
modification field
(27) I.
Central Determiners:
obligatory, unique
complementary with
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(28) II.
Pre-determiners:
general Quantifiers
(a)
(b)
(c)
(29) III.
Post-determiners:
(a)
(b)
(c)
76
10.3.2
Articles
(a)
(b)
a book
the book
vs.
vs.
an orange
the orange
Articles
(32) (a)
(b)
(33) (a)
(b)
(c)
Dej mi tamto/to.
Give me that.
*Give me the.
(a)
(b)
10.3.3
(1)
(2)
Types of Reference
Generic
Specific
(a)
(b)
indefinite
definite
77
B. Definite Reference
DEFINITE
ARTICLE
ZERO
ARTICLE
(37) (a)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(b)
I bought a book. She thought the book and a scarf would be a nice present.
(c)
(i)
the Head of the Department
(ii) the book that I bought yesterday
(iii) the fact that he didn't come
(iv) the right man, the only exception, the best poet,
the number seven, the poet Robert Burns,
all the windows, both the boys
Low in Animacy
78
Animate are animals a human can relate to (can be loved, hated) who are equal to human.
Only [+ANIMATE] = [+HUMAN] in English reflects Gender....... HE vs. SHE
(39) Some lexical entries inherently contain the feature of Animacy:
= Polarity elements, relative/ interrogative Pronouns, possessives
Evelyn, Samuel, he, she
some/ any/ no + body vs. some /any/ no + thing
interrogative who vs. what
relative who vs. which
boy's leg, dogs leg, ?cow's leg, *rats leg, ??a table's leg, *a platforms leg
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
10.4.2
The grammatical feature Gender is related to the semantic notion of sexual dichotomy with
many living creatures (above all humans).
Gender is an inherent feature: lexical items have it either because of their meaning
(semantic Gender) or because of their form (grammatical Gender).
(40) Levels of formal GRAMMATICALIZATION of Gender in English
(a)
man
vs.
woman
(b)
Compounds:
boy student
vs.
girl student
(c)
Derivation:
steward
widow-er
wait-er
vs.
vs.
vs.
steward-ess
widow
wait-ress
vs.
child
English expresses Gender above all (a) lexically, (b) by compounds (two morphemes, one
of which is a simplified standard), or (c) with some non-productive morphology.
(41) Levels of Grammaticalization of Gender in Czech. Compare with (40).
Special lexical entry:
mu
stroj
(b)
Compounds:
?? ena lka
(c)
Derivation:
sportovk-yn, doktor-ka,
(c)
Inflection (agreement):
vs.
vs.
ena
kvtina
dt (dcko)
msto
(a)
vs.
vs.
While in English Gender remains mainly a semantic concept realized through lexical
means, Gender is highly grammaticalized in Czech.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iii)
79
(42)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(43)
(a)
Gender
(b)
consonantal
vocalic
vocalic
das Mdchen
(a) English
(b) Czech
[HUMAN]
[HUMAN]
[+]
Semantic
GENDER
[-]
Adam
he
[+]
Emma
she
[-]
[+]
Semantic
GENDER
table
it
[-]
pn/mu
ten
[+]
en-a
ta
[-]
Formal
GENDER
[ ]
d-t
to
[-]
[+]
[ ]
hrad/stroj knih-a mo-e
ten
ta
to
Gender with inanimate nouns in English (more usual in poetic or figurative language)
(45) (a)
(b)
Traditional Gender, transfer from Classical/ French languages, also folk thinking, applied to
some mythology or human-like gods.
(46) (a)
(b)
Personification:
Stylistics: +GENDER
(47) Why do hurricanes have girls' names, because actually they are bad things?
80
bound/free
Grammatical inherent/optional
morpheme
YES/ NO
/configurational
Eng. book-s
bound suffix
YES
optional
Number
Cz. mu-i
bound fused suffix YES
optional
Eng. Mary's, him bound suffix
YES
configurational
Case
Cz. mu, dtte bound fused suffix YES
configurational
Eng. she-student compounding
%
inherent
Gender
tigr-ess
% suffix
Cz. doktor-ka
suffix
YES
inherent
Eng. John-ie*
suffix
rare
optional
Size
Cz. Jen-ek
suffix
YES
optional
free morpheme
YES
optional
Definiteness Eng. the book
Cz. ta kniha
demonstrative
NO
lexical feature
possessive
NO
lexical feature
Alienability Eng. my hands
Cz. (moje) ruce zero morpheme
rare
lexical feature
Eng. round table lexical morpheme NO
lexical feature
Shape
Cz. kulat stl lexical morpheme NO
lexical feature
* doggie, veggie, and also ANSMALL ie/y: quickie, fishy, cookie etc.
10.5
example
Exercises
81
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
Subject
Predicate
Object
Attribute
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
dog
state
boy
juice
82
-[......]+S = ..................................................................................................
-[......]+S = ..................................................................................................
-[......]+S = ..................................................................................................
-[......]+S = ..................................................................................................
(g)
(h)
window
brigade
-[......]+S = ..................................................................................................
-[......]+S = ..................................................................................................
custom / customs
pain / pains
picture / pictures
spirit / spirits
spectacle / spectacles
hair / hairs
............................................... vs.
............................................... vs.
............................................... vs.
............................................... vs.
............................................... vs.
............................................... vs.
............................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
........ contents
......... stove
......... violin
......... billiards
......... earnings
................
................
.................
.................
.................
not nice.
very old.
mine.
charming.
low.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
take-off......................................................
coat-of-arms..............................................
hanger-on..................................................
lady-singer.................................................
antenna.......................................
mouse............................................
one.................................................
tooth..........................................
focus............................................
faux pas........................................
83
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
spectrum ...................................................
brother .....................................................
half ............................................................
wife ............................................................
curriculum..................................................
roof ............................................................
* a one book
*We bought expensive book.
* a books
*a fresh air
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
.........................................................................................................................................
Do the same with English translation of the above sentences and discuss the distinction.
What does it show about which nominal features are used English and Czech?
(i)
.........................................................................................................................................
(ii)
.........................................................................................................................................
(a)
(b)
84
stallion
bull
rooster
father
steward
master
sportsman
male readers
laundryman
tom-cat
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
.......................
.......................
.......................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
vs.
vs.
vs.
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)
(q)
.........................
.........................
.........................
brother
vs. ............................
traitor
vs. ............................
heir
vs. ............................
man servant vs. ............................
gentleman vs. ............................
turkey-cock vs. ............................
doctor
vs. .............................
variety
Number
Case
singular, plural
marked feature
(morpheme)
plural, -s /-en/0
examples
book/books, ox/oxen, Chinese/Chinese
Gender
Size
Reference
(67) EXERCISE ===========================================
Discuss the distinction between lexical and grammatical features. Give English and
Czech examples of nominal (a) Number, (b) Gender, (c) Reference' expressed with
lexical morphemes and contrast them with grammaticalized forms. Underline the relevant
morphemes.
(a) lexical .............................................................................................................................
grammaticalized........................................................................................................................
(b) lexical ..............................................................................................................................
grammaticalized........................................................................................................................
(c) lexical ..............................................................................................................................
grammaticalized........................................................................................................................
(68) EXERCISE ===========================================
(a)
(b)
Consider the criteria for stating the level of grammaticalization, and demonstrate relevant
examples to support your claims.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
85
11
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 323-524, 1585-1595, Huddleston & Pullum
(2005) pp. 82-111, 264-290; Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 363-393; Svoboda (2004) pp.
18-23; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp. 1235-1352.
Syntactic properties concern above all distribution, i.e. co-occurrence of the lexical item,
that is, its context, (i.e. what does it combine with, in which order, with which hierarchy).
I.
(1)
II.
a nice BOOK
Peter saw
(2)
11.1
(3)
of stories
all
the
11.1.1
(4)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Elements following /
post-modifying the Noun
N-premodifiers
Determiners
Adjectives
secondary Adj
etc...
the/ my friend
very interesting story
government funds
sideways movement, outer limits
(b)
(c)
(5)
(a)
(b)
(c)
86
With the exception of recursive Adjectives (which follow a semantically determined order
according to their scope), there is a strictly fixed order among the pre-modifiers of N.
(6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
11.1.2
N-postmodifiers
(7)
Postmodification
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
V-ing, V-inf
clauses (relative clause)...
etc
(8)
The order of postmodifiers is correlated with their scopes (in the same way as the
order of A premodifiers) with the exception of the of-phrase, which must be adjacent.
(a)
(a')
(b)
(c)
11.2
The distribution of NPs (and their sentence functions) is very diverse. An NP of any
complexity can be any sentence member. Some positions are more typical than others.
(9)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Subject
V-Object
P-Object
PP Adverbial
Nominal Predicate
Attribute
Complement
The sentence functions illustrated above are syntagmatic relations, i.e. the sentence function
is a relation between two members of a syntactic couple. The only exception is the
Complement, which is a ternary relation (there are three related constituents).
No constituent can be a sentence member by itself, i.e. without a context.
In the above, those students can be any sentence member, depending on the relation.
87
11.3
Exercises
A
tall
A
blond
N/A
play
N
BOY
P = of
PP
XP
in a Fiat
girl
love
Mary
story
air
Prague
reading
(i)
..............
(ii)
..............
(iii) ..............
one (i)
..............
(ii)
..............
(iii) ..............
it
(i)
..............
(ii)
..............
(iii) ..............
88
vichni ti chlapci
(a') ti vichni chlapci
*ten bratr mne
(b') ten mj bratr / * mj ten bratr
ten velk chlapec
(c') ......................................
(d') ......................................
ten velk ern pes
kniha pohdek v zelenm obalu pro mou sestru
sestra moj kamardky v ervenm kabt s dlouhmi vlasy
SCOPE
89
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
ta Janova kniha
?? kniha Jana / kniha vaeho Jana
* stolova noha/barva
kova / * c? kniha
matin/ otcv/ dtt? pokoj
* tvoj? matina kniha
I saw a man.
over the hill
new pupil's books
That boy is big.
There is a boy there.
He is a teacher.
They elected him President.
He was elected President.
(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(ii)......................................
(ii)......................................
(ii).......................................
(ii)......................................
(ii)......................................
(ii)......................................
(ii)......................................
(ii)......................................
Joe (=Subject)
Joe (=Object)
Joe (=Attribute)
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
90
he (=Subject)
he (=Object)
he (=Attribute)
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
Adverbial
(b)
Complement
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
el do koly
dopis pro nho
(b)
(d)
91
the word projects according to (3) on page 86 to a typical Noun phrase, i.e. it is
modified by a Determiner (several), Adjective (new) and of-P (of young people),
the complex headed by the word appears in a sentence in the function of Subject of
the finite Verb take part.
(b)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
He was impressed by the CITY towers of Carcassone but I like more those of vila.
92
12
PRONOUNS
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 425-430, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp. 100107; Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 108-128; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik
(2004) pp. 333-398, 817-822; Dukov (1994) pp.101-135; Svoboda and OplovKrolyov (1989) pp.84-112.
(1)
1. CENTRAL
a) personal
b) reflexive
c) possessive
RECIPROCAL
RELATIVE
INTERROGATIVE
DEMONSTRATIVE
a) positive
6. INDEFINITE
i) determinative
ii) independent
2.
3.
4.
5.
i) universal
ii) assertive
iii) non-assertive
b) negative
12.1
Personal Pronouns
12.1.1
(2)
(a)
(b)
In (3)
(3)
I/me, we/us...
myself, ourselves...
my, your, his, her, its, our...
mine, yours, his, hers, ?its,
ours...
each other, one another
the wh-series, that, 0
the wh-series, how, why
this/these, that/those
all/both, each/every
some-, one, half, several,
enough, (an)other
any-, either
no-, neither
To call oneself "James Bond" is appropriate only if one is James Bond (and
not Ludmila Veselovsk.
To call oneself "I" is always correct, no matter whether one is James Bond or
Ludmila Veselovsk.
(a) is true no matter who says so only when James Bond actually did so.
(b) is true if the person, who pronounces it, did so.
(a)
(b)
Contrary to referential Nouns, Pronouns do not have independent reference. Their semantic
interpretation can be defined only in the terms of discourse, i.e. according to the conditions
and circumstances of the specific speech act.
(4)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
93
(5)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
I
you
(s)he
it
we
(=1sg)
(=2sg)
(=3sg,m/f)
(=3sg)
(=1pl)
(f)
(g)
you
they
(=2pl)
(=3pl)
we [1 plural]
you [2 plural]
=/
they [plural]
=
book+book+book... / boy+boy+boy
speaker + speaker + speaker....
hearer + hearer + hearer...
the other + the other + the other
(6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(7)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(8)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
12.1.2
(Inclusive/authorial WE)
(Editorial WE)
(Rhetorical WE)
(= you)
(= he)
(Referring it)
(Weather it)
(Propositional it and Linking it)
(Expletive there)
Case : English pronouns have three/ four morphologically distinct Case forms. See 10.1.
(9)
Case:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(10) (a)
(b)
possessives
independent /predicative
This is my book.
The book is mine. The brother of mine.
(11) (a)
(b)
Subject Case in English is more marked (less used) than the nominative is in Czech.
Consider the Case on the English Pronouns below. Compare with the Czech translations.
(12) (a)
(b)
94
[The smart girl] with [the two foreign friends] was awarded [the first prize]
SHE
THEM
IT
(14) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
My younger brother
*My younger he
He
My younger one
bought
a new car.
bought * a new it.
bought
it.
bought
a new one.
Personal Pronouns replace Noun Phrases (not Nouns). See also (11) on page 88.
Pronouns therefore can express nominal functions. See section 11.2.
There are some distinction between Ns/NPs/and pronominals.
(Post) Modification of Pronominals
Unlike Nouns, Pronouns cannot be freely modified, they cannot be the head of a phrase
like Nouns in (3) on page 86. There are some idiosyncratic exceptions, e.g. relative clauses:
(15) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
12.1.3
One
(16)
(a)
(b)
(17)
(a)
(b)
(18)
(a)
(b)
12.2
Relative Pronouns
The wh-Pronouns show (agree with) the morphological features of Nouns and Adjectives.
The agreement is built with two elements:
95
(a)
(b)
Gender (Animacy)/ Number features depend on the head Noun (in the main clause).
Case depends on the function of the Pronoun in the relative clause.
(20) (a)
Znm enu,
[Fem, Sg, ACC]
(a)
(b)
(c)
(b)
singular
feminine
NOM
he - his - him
who - whose - whom
The Object Case of the relative Pronoun is more likely to appear overtly in English if the
Pronoun is close/ adjacent to its Case assigner (Verb/ Preposition) and less likely if the
Case assigner is dissociated/stranded from the Pronoun.
(23) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
12.2.2
Preposition
stranding
Only those relative Pronouns can be deleted in English which neither have the function of a
Subject nor follow a Preposition.
(24) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
96
12.3
Interrogative Pronouns
12.3.1
Interrogative Pronouns are elements used in WH-questions, i.e. questions which ask to
identify some sentence constituent. The form of the Pronoun depends on the constituent it
replaces. The repertory and forms are like relative Pronouns plus how (many/ Adjective),
why but not including that or 0.
Consider which constituents (parts of speech, phrases, sentence members?) can be
questioned and what is the right morphological form of the WH Pronoun.
Her younger brother/ he met her/ my sister very briefly
yesterday in front of their new school twice.
(25)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
As with relatives, the Case marking of the interrogative WH Pronouns depends on their
sentence function, i.e. on the function of the sentence member they are asking about. In
Modern English overt Case marking is most likely if the Pronoun is adjacent to the Case
assigner. (The same phenomenon as in (23) above.)
(26) I am waiting for hi-m.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
12.3.2
The interrogative Pronoun in the WH-question is moved from its position, it is fronted.
Notice that the size of the fronted interrogative element (the material preceding the inverted
Auxiliary and containing some interrogative WH element) can be far bigger that one word.
It is a phrase (it replaces the whole sentence member we are asking about).
97
(28) He bought [OBJECT NP the three books] [ADVERBIAL PP in the new shop on the square].
[OBJECT NP What ]
did he buy in the new shop?
[OBJECT NP How many books ]
did he buy in the new shop?
[ADVERBIAL PP Where ]
did he buy the three books?
[ADVERBIAL PP In which shop on the square]
did he buy the three books?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
If there is more than one WH Pronoun (in so called Multiple Wh-questions), only the
hierarchically highest is fronted in Standard English. The other(s) remain in the position of
the sentence member they represent, i.e. they remain in situ.
(29) [SUBJECT NP Emily] bought [OBJECT NP several books] [ADVERBIAL PP in the new shop].
(a)
(b)
(c)
Notice that in English the interrogative element can appear in a clause which it does not
belong to (often an initial main clause). Consider the sentence functions of the WH
Pronouns in such Long-distance WH-Movement:
(30) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
While the long distance WH-questions appear often in English, in Czech this kind of WH
question is 'substandard' and their frequency is highest with Adverbials.
(31) (a)
(b)
(c)
(33) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(34) (a)
(b)
98
12.4
Exercises
I do not want this one, but you can give me one from that counter.
I do not want this , but you can give me from that counter.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
INANIMATE
no Gender
personal
possessive
reflexives
emphatic
relative
interrogative
(39) EXERCISE ===========================================
Make WH questions related to the following sentence with the proposed answers.
Underline the WH Pronouns and discuss their form/ size.
Yesterday our little Emily passed well both the difficult tests at school.
(a)
(b)
.................................................................................................?
.................................................................................................?
99
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
.................................................................................................?
.................................................................................................?
.................................................................................................?
.................................................................................................?
..................................................................................................?
..................................................................................................?
- Yesterday.
Our (little) one.
- Two.
- The two tests.
- Well.
- Passed well both.
Explain the agreement morphology on the relative Pronoun in the (a) example below.
How are the same features expressed in the examples (b) and (c)?
(a)
(b)
(c)
100
- Hugo.
- For Hugo.
- For Hugo.
- Hugo.
EXERCISE ===========================================
Consider the forms of the WH-questions asking for Subject. Give examples of (a)
a direct WH-question, (b) an indirect WH-question, (c) an echo WH-question.
"Hillary will read her paper tomorrow."
(a)
(b)
(c)
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
Translate the examples to English and explain the distinction, referring to the structure of
the Nominal Phrase (see (3) on page 86), namely to its potential to be split when
questioned or topicalised.
(45) EXERCISE ===========================================
Translate the following examples to English and explain the distinction between the
languages w.r.t. multiple WH-questions.
(i) How many WH elements can be fronted in a Czech clause and how many in English?
(ii) What is the order of constituents in English/ Czech?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
101
13
Reference
(1)
"James Bond"
[A] R-expression
[B]
pronominal
[C] anaphor
Everybody hates
Nominal elements can be divided according to their reference into three groups.
(2)
R-expressions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(3)
Pronominals
pragmatic anaphors
(a)
(b)
(c)
He invited her.
She invited him.
He invited him.
(4)
Syntactic Anaphors
(a)
(b)
(c)
13.1.1
Formal marking of the co-reference: indices: subscripts (variables) show the co-referential
expressions (those are marked with the same index)
(5)
(a)
(b)
(c)
102
(d)
(e)
13.1.2
(6)
(a) anaphor
(b) cataphor
(a)
(b)
(8)
(a)
(b)
vs.
vs.
co-referential
Antecedents of anaphors
Distinguish
(9)
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(c)
John arrived. I love him. him can be John. (Construct a context for this.)
John saw him.
him must NOT be John
John saw himself.
himself must be John
(10) Bill met John. He didn't see him. He was looking at himself (in the window glass).
Bohu potkal Jendu. Nevidl ho. Dval se na sebe (do vlohy).
(a)
Bill and John are referential expressions. They refer to two distinct people (outside of some
schizophrenic context). Bill and John are not bound to each other.
(b)
103
(i) Nevidl ho
(=Bohu Jenka)
(ii) On ho nevidl (=Jenk Bohue)
If (b) follows (a), the most salient (pragmatically probable) reading is that He in (b) is
co-referential with Bill in (a). With marked stress it can, however, also be John and if more
sentences preceded and the discourse suggests it, it can be anybody else as well.
In any case, whoever is He in (b), it is not the same person as him in (b) = He and him
in (b) can not be co-referential.
Hek was looking at himselfk/*x ... Onk se dval na sebek
(c)
Binding of Anaphors
Look at the scheme (1) on page 102, and consider the place in the structure where we find
the antecedent of the anaphor. (What is the domain in which the antecedent appears? How
far away is the antecedent from the anaphor?)
The Clause Bound Nature of Syntactic Anaphors
(11)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(b)
(c)
13.2.3
(13)
Reciprocals
(a)
(b)
Reciprocals are syntactic anaphors, ie. Subject to BT as in (12) above. Contrasted with
reflexives, they moreover require their antecedent to be plural (the action or relation takes
place between the members of the set, reciprocally).
(14)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(b)
(c)
(15)
104
(a)
(b)
13.3
* John blamed.
John blamed the girl / her / himself.
...requires an Object
(c)
(d)
...requires an Object
(a)
(b)
(c)
reflexive Verb
(obligatory)
semireflexive Verb
(optional)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Behave now!
Behave yourself now!
* Behave him now!
(a)
(b)
13.4
(a)
(b)
(a')
(b')
Pijel sm president.
(J) sm bych si ani neviml...
(= personally)
(= without another person)
Exercises
105
Vidli se v zrcadle.
Polbili se.
Pinesli si drky.
Psal jsem tu lohu sm.
Byl jsem na to sm.
(a') ..................................................................
(b') ..................................................................
(c') ..................................................................
(d') ..................................................................
(e') ..................................................................
(f)
(a') ...............................................................
(b') ................................................................
(c') ................................................................
(c)
(d)
106
14
MODIFIERS
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 525-596, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp. 112126; Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 129-157; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik
(2004) pp. 399-474; Dukov (1994) pp. 141-164; Svoboda and Oplov-Krolyov
(1989) pp.113-134; Leech & Svartvik (1975) pp.189-203.
14.1
(2)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
An adverb is a word which enlarges the meaning and narrows the application of a
Verb (and other parts of speech). Again, there are many possible groups, e.g.:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(a)
(b)
certain doubts
urit obavy
(4)
(a)
he runs quickly
bh rychle
(b)
he certainly doubts it
urit o tom pochybuje
(c)
(d)
green-ish AdjAdj
friend-ly, NAdj
14.2
14.2.1
Derivational Morphology
(5)
(a)
(b)
new
agreee-able, VAdj
(6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
107
14.2.2
Inflectional Morphology
Features:
(8)
(a)
synthetic (bound morphemes): -er, (the) est: nice, nicer, the nicest
(b)
(c)
irregular
Non-gradable As (a)
(b)
14.3
(9)
(i)
(ii)
Exercises
EXERCISE ===========================================
Give 5-10 derivational morphemes which create Adjectives. Find some which have
some additional meaning apart from deriving a category. (Consult Appendix.)
...................................................................................................................................................
(10) EXERCISE ===========================================
Give the category of the underlined elements. Discuss the distinction between a/b/c
and d/e/f. Find more Adjective/Adverb couples with similar properties. Make a
generalisation. Try to explain the phenomena, referring to the blocking effect.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
108
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
................................................................................
.................................................................................
15
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 525-596, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp. 112126; Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 129-157; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik
(2004) pp. 399-474; Dukov (1994) pp. 141-164; Svoboda and Oplov-Krolyov
(1989) pp.113-134; Leech & Svartvik (1975) pp.189-203.
15.1
Adjective Phrase
(very/extremely/as)
(1)
elements premodifying A
PP
/ that-CL / Vinf
elements postmodifying A
(a)
(b)
(c)
(3)
Measure Phrases
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a')
a [AP three-meter long] bridge
a [AP five-year old] boy
(b')
a [AP five-meter-seventy-centimeter high] wall
(B)
(i)
A + Prepositional Phrase:
(4)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(5)
good at, afraid of, ready for, keen on, worried about/over, bad at, annoyed at/with,
successful in, interested in, conscious of, convinced of, based on, dependent on,
subject to, compatible with, disappointed with, etc.
(ii)
A + that-clause:
(6)
(a)
(b)
(7)
(a)
(b)
109
(a')
(b')
(c')
(iii) A + to-infinitive:
He was ready / splendid / proud to help his neighbors.
He was furious / slow / eager to react.
They were careful / wrong / clever / cruel / kind / rude / silly not to follow us.
(8)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(9)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Adjectives
Adverbs
he is as big as ...
he is bigg-er than ...
he is not as/ so dangerous as ...
he is far from dangerous ...
the bigg-er they are, the more stupid...
It is too heavy to fly.
(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
(e')
(f')
(a)
(b)
15.2
There are 3 main functions of Adjective Phrases, all related to a nominal category.
... Predicate Nominal
(A) ADJECTIVAL PREDICATE (copula-AP)
(B) ADJECTIVAL PRE-/POST-MODIFIERS (N-AP) ...Attribute
(C) ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENTS
...Subject/ Object Complements
15.3
Adjectival Predicates
His brother John
(11)
IS
SUBJECT - copula -
AP
A copula: (a)
(b)
(c)
(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
has two arguments referring to the same entity (it expresses identity),
does not assign Object Case (to Nouns),
can be followed by an Adjective (agreeing with the Subject).
How many Verbs have these properties of a copula? (One in Czech, several in English.)
110
How complex can a Predicate Adjective be? Discuss the complexity of the Predicate
Adjectival Phrases in English in (13) in terms of (1) on page 109.
(13)
15.4
(a)
(b)
(c)
The most standard function of Adjectives is to modify the meaning of some Noun they
are Noun modifiers. They can appear both in front of and after the head N.
The position of the AdjP with respect to the head Noun depends on
(a) the characteristics of the Adj,
(b) the complexity of the AdjP.
NP =
15.4.1
Pre-modifying Adjectives
AP
- AP
N/A - N
AP
- XP
In the following examples notice that Adjective modifiers are phrases (APs), because they
can be enlarged. See adjectival phrase in terms of the scheme (1) on page 109.
(14) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(15) (a)
(b)
(c)
Premodifying APs are syntactically "simpler"; they can be either bare (most often) or
premodified themselves (e.g. by very/ extremely/ how/ two-meter etc. (i.e. they are complex
phrases). However, they canNOT have their own postmodifying PPs or clauses (e.g. -of
monsters, -to her husband, -of his achievements, -glad we arrived, -eager to react.
15.4.2
Post-modifying Adjectives
(16) Idiosyncratic As
111
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Court Martial
Princess Royal, battle royal
attorney general, postmaster general
notary public
(18) (a)
un file gentille
Det girl nice
'the nice girl'
(b)
un livre cher
Det book expensive
'the big book'
(19) (a)
la nia bonita
Det girl nice
'the nice girl'
(b)
el libro grande
Det book big
'the big book'
(c)
Even Germanic-based English Adjectives must appear in the postnominal position if they
are complex. Compare (14)/(15) with (20)/(21) and discuss the complexity of the postmodifying adjectival phrase in terms of (1) on page 109.
(20) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Syntactic relations (involving phrases) are typically binary (e.g. V +Object, N + attribute).
Complement (doplnk), however, enters into a ternary relation.
Compare with (11) on page 110 and (a/c) with (b/d) below.
(22) (a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(b)
= Adjectival Predicate
= Adverbial (of Manner)
= Subject Complement
(23) (a)
112
John painted
the door
green.
(b)
(c)
(d)
He
IS tired.
subject + predicate
(predicate =copula+nominal part)
He arrived
tired.
subject + predicate
Complement
(25) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
To je tk-/dobr-.
Pracuje tc-e/dob-e/piln-.
He works hard/ well/ diligent-ly.
Jdlo chutn/ von *dobr / dobe.
The food tastes/ smells good/ *well.
15.6
(27)
copulas?
change of state Verbs
Verbs of sensual perception
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Not all Adjectives are prototypical. There is a gradient between CORE vs. PERIPHERAL
members of the ADJ class. (See categorial prototypicality in section 9.7.)
15.6.1
(28) (a)
(c)
(e)
Secondary Adjectives
those tall city towers
another top model
the [stick-in-the-mud] attitude
(b)
(d)
(f)
113
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
coordination
(a)
(b)
Assuming that only the same categories can be coordinated, vulgar and commonplace are to
be the same category but new and government are not.
(ii)
A - N/ A - A
(c)
Assuming (?) a fixed position (or field) for Adjectives in front of a Noun, the position of
evening seems to suggest adjectival characteristics.
(iii) A - one
(d)
Assuming 'one' combines with Adjectives, (d) suggests that steam is an Adjective.
(iv) too - A
A - most
A - est
(e)
(f)
(g)
Assuming 'too/ -most/ -est' are Grading elements and that only Adj/Adv category can be
graded, then expressions like London/ top/ bottom/ etc. must be some sort of perhipheral A.
15.7
Exercises
friendly
hardly
early
nearly
worldly
lovely
madly
ugly
manly
114
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
(j)
(k)
nearly
clearly
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
friendly - friendlier
early - earlier
lovely - lovelier
ugly - uglier
(b)
(d)
(f)
(h)
hardly - *hardlier
nearly - *nearlier
madly - *madlier
nearly - *nearlier
ADJECTIVE occurs after the Verbs /copulas seem, appear, feel, remain,
ADJECTIVE occurs between the Article and the Noun (Attribute),
ADJECTIVE can be (pre)modified by very / so / too / rather / somewhat,
ADJECTIVE can be graded by er/ -est or more/ most, less/ least,
ADJECTIVE can form Adverbs by use of ly.
(i)
(ii)
115
category?
AP
tall
AP
Adv
A
extremely nice
MAN
BOOK
AP
Adv
more
A
thoughtful
PP
than X...
LOVE
bare AP [AP A]
AP with premodified A, [AP --- A]
AP with postmodified A [AP A --- ]
AP with both pre- and post-modified A
.....[AP clever]......
..............................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
AP Predicate
Josephine is clever.
.........................................................
(c)
(d)
...........................................................
...........................................................
(ii)
(a)
(b)
Premodifying AP
It was a clever proposal.
.........................................................
(c)
(d)
...........................................................
...........................................................
(iii) Postmodifying AP
(a) * She is a girl clever.
(b) .........................................................
(c)
(d)
...........................................................
...........................................................
(iv) Complement AP
(a) Josephine appeared clever.
(b) .........................................................
(c)
(d)
...........................................................
...........................................................
116
(d)
(e)
(f)
16
(b)
(d)
Peter is clever.
Peter looks clever.
ADVERBS
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 525-596, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp. 112126; Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 158-187.
Semantic specification: modifiers. See section 14.1 on page 107.
Adverbs are modifiers which do not combine with nominal features.
Typically the modification concerns Manner, Place, Time, Frequency, etc., i.e. adverbs
modify a verbal action (i.e. Adverbs are typically related to the Verbs).
(1)
(a)
(b)
(c)
He runs quickly.
He runs away /there.
He runs daily/ now.
But consider also other parts of speech modified by Adverbs (notice their positions).
(2)
Adj.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(3)
Adv.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(4)
Prep.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(5)
Nouns
(a)
(b)
(c)
(6)
(7)
Clause
117
Well, I will do it. Of course, he did arrive. Perhaps I can help you.
16.1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(a)
(b)
(c)
"M" (Middle)
sentential
"temporal"
verbal (Manner, Place, Time)
ADV - ... - ADV
- V - ... - ADV
Naturally
(10)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
he
often
runs
very quickly
Sentential Adv: usually precede the Verb or are at the very end.
Temporal Adv: rather free, especially Adverbs of frequency.
Verbal/Manner Adv: must be close to the Verb.
Grading Adverbs: Adverbial/ Adjectival pre-modifier; see also (1) and (2) on p. 109.
16.2
Compare the adverbs often, never and hardly w.r.t. their positive/negative meaning and
formal scope properties. Notice that positive/negative polarity of the sentence is signaled
with
(i) the presence of not,
(ii) pronouns (some- vs. any-),
(iii) positive vs. negative question tag and
(iv) neg inversion after ADV fronting.
(11) (a)
(b)
118
(12) (a)
(b)
(13) (a)
(b)
.......hardly is a partially negative ADV: its meaning is positive but formally it is negative
(it negates the clause in the same way as never does)
16.3
a)
b)
c)
(14) (a)
(b)
(c)
(b)
(d)
(f)
(h)
Notice that Complement here does not mean 'doplnk' but is closer to the notion of Object because it is the
subcategorised (obligatory) element required by the lexical Verb.
119
(j)
(l)
(n)
(b)
(d)
He runs quickly.
He runs daily/ now.
(b)
(d)
(b)
(d)
120
ADVERB
................................................................
...............................................................
17
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 71-212, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp. 29-62;
Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 24-69; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp.93240; Dukov (1994) pp. 165-272; Svoboda and Oplov-Krolyov (1989) pp. 7-50;
Leech (1971), Leech & Svartvik (1975); Svoboda (2004) pp. 24-36.
17.1
(1)
complementary conditions
(Manner/ Place/ Time)
1st participant
2nd participant
(Agent)
(Patient)
(2)
(a)
(b)
Peter/He
Petr/ On
sent
poslal
3rd participant
(Recipient/ Beneficiary)
a parcel/ it
balk
to John/ to him
Janovi
in the afternoon.
v poledne.
Number of arguments
(4)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(5)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(6)
Theme VERB
(ii) Unaccusative
Vs of movement and change of state
121
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(7)
Inchoative Vs
(8)
Vs of sensual perception
Vs dicendi (indirect speech)
(9)
Causative Verbs
(illocutionary/ performative)
(10) Reflexive Vs
(11) Verbal complexes
(a)
(b)
17.2
- take off, look up, put away, think through, look after
- have fun/ a shower, take time, make money/ trouble
English VERBAL
FORMS
bare form
-s form
-ing Participle
Past Tense
Passive Participle
0
-S
-ING
-ED or Vowel change
-ED/ -EN
stop, choose
stop-s, choose-s
stopp-ing, choos-ing
stop-ed, chose
stop-ed, chos-en
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(14) (a)
(b)
He must/should go home.
Aspect .......................................................
Tense .........................................................
Mood / Voice .............................................
Nominal features .......................................
(Person, Gender/ Animacy, Number)
122
17.3
Tense
Time and Tense: Tense refers to the main pragmatic/ semantic notions of Time. Real Time
is an open and infinite phenomenon. Language works uses a simplified (=grammaticalized)
version of Time = Tense which is related to the moment of the speech act.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Tense is an optional verbal feature, i.e. a standard Verb can take any of the Tenses
depending on the intended meaning.
(16)
Morphology of Tense
[+PAST]
Hugo help-ed
[+PRES]
Hugo help-s
>>>
>>>
[+FUT]
Hugo will help.
past
present
future
>>>
>>>
>>>
Hugo stopp-ed
Hugo stop-s
Hugo will stop
(a)
(b)
17.4
to finish
to have finish-ed -
finish-ing
having finished-ed
Aspect
Aspect is added to the main Tense system providing additional conditions for the action.
(a) Progressive Aspect: continuation/ repetition, etc.,
(b) Perfective Aspect: reference to another Tense/ finishing, telicity, etc.
(19) ASPECT
(a)
(b)
(a)
PROGRESSIVE
BE
V-ing
(b)
PERFECTIVE
HAVE
V-en
+PROG circumfix:
+PERF circumfix:
123
Hugo
Hugo
is explain-ing/ choosing
has explain-ed/ chosen
Aspect is an optional verbal feature. The Verb can occur with no Aspect (simple Tenses), or
it can have one Aspect or two Aspects.
(20) e.g. [PRES]
17.5
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
[-PROG/ -PERF]
[+PROG]
[+PERF]
[+PROG] [+PERF]
Hugo helps
Hugo is help-ing
Hugo has help-ed
Hugo has been help-ing
PRESENT
FUTURE
(22)
(a)
(b)
(23)
(1)
He
[-ed]
finish-ed
(7)
He
was
finish-ing
(2)
He
[-s]
finish-s
(8)
He
is
finish-ing
(3)
He
will
finish
(9)
He
will be
finish-ing
(4)
He
had
finish-ed
(10) He
had be-en
finish-ing
(5)
He
has
finish-ed
(11) He
has be-en
finish-ing
(6)
He
will have
finish-ed
(12) He
124
17.6
The category of Mood refers to the framing of the speech act (sentence) w.r.t. its intended
communicative function.
(A) communicative function
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(B)
In English the main sentence modality is not a part of verbal morphology. There is no
verbal inflection signaling sentence modality that is encoded syntactically (by bound
morphemes or in periphrastic way).
Compare the following English and Czech examples.
(24) (a)
(b)
(c)
Indicative
Interrogative
2nd sg/pl Imperative
He can read.
Can he read?
Read!
(25) (a)
(b)
(c)
Indicative
Interrogative
2nd sg/pl Imperative
te knihu.
te knihu?
t-i! t-te
Let's go.
Let me help you.
Let him do it.
Let it be.
(a')
(b')
(c')
(c')
Jdme.
??
A to udl on.
?? Nech to bt. A to je jak chce...
The category of Mood refers also to the concept of probability of the action. This feature
is optional and it does have a morphological representation in English.
(a)
(b)
(27) CONDITIONAL
(a)
(b)
Hugo
WOULD
bare V-infinitive
would
would
write
have written
(= present infinitive)
(=perfect infinitive)
(28) Conditional clauses. A realis main clause is indicative; an irrealis main clause uses
the conditional.
(a)
(b)
(c)
125
17.7
Voice
The category of Voice is related to the distribution of the semantic roles among verbal
arguments (sentence members). See (9) and (10) on page 73 and (3) and (4) on page 121.
English Voice is an optional feature of the V. Verbs can take active or passive morphology.
(29) (a)
(b)
Active
Passive
The book
BE
-EN
was (being)
is being
will have been
writt-en...
writt-en...
writt-en...
Subject-Verb Agreement
Verbal morphology related to the characteristics of the Subject in English is not very rich.
In Czech the complex verbal morphology allows dropping the Subject (pro-drop language).
(31) (a)
(b)
(a')
(b')
more bautiful
to read, you read
(a')
(b')
nic-er
s-t, (ty) te-
(more = -er)
(to = -t, you/ty = -)
Still, language is pro-drop because of the whole complex system of characteristics; not only
morphology. Not every type of overt morphology allows dropping the Subject.
(33) (a)
I am reading now.
(b)
* Am reading now.
(a)
(b)
(c)
126
Person
BUT - they call(*s)
Number BUT - I read(*s)
and - book vs. book-s
Tense
BUT - he wa-s
semantic
His only success was his short stories.
vs. formal agreement
His short stories were his only success.
What we need most is/ are sufficient funds.
Two years is a long time to wait.
Bread and butter is a nice breakfast.
A large number of students are granted scholarships.
Every year, a group of excellent students is/ are granted scholarships.
Either he or you are/ *is mistaken.
Either you or he is/ *are mistaken.
For a birthday, flowers or a book is/ *are a good present.
For a birthday, a book or flowers is/ are a good present.
The police is/ are looking for the criminal.
Exercises
Say briefly what is the most common/ general interpretation of the feature [+PERF]
in English. (What do all perfect Tenses have in common?)
(b)
Say briefly what is the most common/ general interpretation of the feature
[+PROG] in English. (What do all progressive Tenses have in common?)
PRESENT Tense
2.
FUTURE Tense
3.
4.
5.
6.
no ASPECT
(nedokonav)
+ PERF Aspect
(dokonav)
Time in Czech is expressed by a combination of 3 Tenses and 1 Aspect (one form is
missing).
127
PRESENT Tense
2.
FUTURE Tense
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
simple
= no ASPECT
+ PROG
Aspect
+ PERF
Aspect
+ PROG Aspect
+ PERF Aspect
(41) EXERCISE ===========================================
How is the morphological feature combination [+PERF][+PRES] interpreted in
English and how in Czech? Find examples in both languages.
..................................................................................................................................................
(42) EXERCISE ===========================================
Give the feature range and existing inflectional morphemes of English.
a) Tense ................................................................................................................................
b) Aspect ................................................................................................................................
c) Voice ................................................................................................................................
(43) EXERCISE ===========================================
Give the feature characteristics w.r.t. [Tense, Aspect etc] of the underlined verbal forms.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
.................................................................................
Emanuel looks at Jane.
Emanuel is looking at Jane.
.................................................................................
Emanuel was being looked for by Jane. .................................................................
Emanuel will look at Jane.
.................................................................................
Emanuel has got a book.
.................................................................................
Emanuel has been reading a book. .................................................................................
Emanuel was introduced first.
.................................................................................
Emanuel had had a shower.
.................................................................................
Emanuel had been stopped.
.................................................................................
Emanuel will have finished it.
.................................................................................
128
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................
(f) ................................................................
(g) ................................................................
(h) ................................................................
(i) .................................................................
(j) ................................................................
129
18
SYNTAX OF VERBS
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 71-212, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp. 29-62;
Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 335-362.
(1)
(a)
(b)
18.1
(2)
VP:
ADV -
To form a VP (Verb Phrase), a Verb (head) combines with a range of constituents: NPs,
PPs, VPs, APs. If the combination is obligatory, we say that the Verbs lexically select
(subcategorize for) the NPs, PPs, VPs, APs. The number of the selected complements (the
obligatory ones) ranges from 0 to 2 but in a given clause it can be larger if optional ones are
also taken into account.
to hand a book to Peter / Peter a book
to dash home/ back/ into the office/now
to call Mary a beauty
to warn Peter that we will come late
(3)
VP = [VP V + OBJECT(S) ]
[VP V + ADVERBIALS or PPs ]
[VP V + OBJ + COMPLEMENT ]
[VP V + OBJ + CLAUSE or Vinf ]
(4)
Some obligatory verbal complementation. See verbal valency in (3) etc. on page 121.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(5)
Some optional modification of the Verb. See also (1) etc. on page 117.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
I can swim.
I gave Benjamin the book.
I got tired.
Bush Jr. was elected President.
The main formal classification of Verbs is based on the specification of the obligatory
complementation of the Verb (i.e. the number and characteristics of its complements).
(a)
(b)
transitive Verbs
intransitive Verbs
(6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
130
*to find
to find a book
*to find into the hall
V, [ _ NP]
The complementation of the Verb is stated in terms of the function or a category (part of
speech) of the following selected phrasal constituent(s): Object/NP, Adverbial/PP, etc.
(7)
..... Example
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
He told a girl an
interesting story.
7. He sent a letter to John.
8. John put a book on the
shelf.
9. He called her idiot..
10. He saw Bill run.
11. The music drives me mad.
6.
*
**
***
sentence
functions
kind of phrase
(category)*
S-V
S V - Od
S V Adv
V, [---]
V, [---NP]
V, [---PP]
S V V/Com.** V, [---VP]
SV
V, [---AP]
pred./com.
S V Oi Od
V, [---(NP) NP]
intransitive V
monotransitive V
V of movement
linking/copula V
ditransitive V
<Patient+Beneficiary>**
S V Od Oi
V, [---NP (PP)]
S V Od Adv V, [---NP
PP/Adv]
S V Od com. V, [---NP NP]
S V Od com. V, [---NP VP]
S V Od com. V, [---NP AP]
<Patent+Location>
complex transitive
V+Complement
Many Verbs can select (are followed by) other Verbs (VPs). This is typical for Auxiliaries
and Modals but also for many other Verbs. The selected VP is in the form of an infinitive
(bare or with to) or an ing form. These infinitival structures are often called semi-clauses.
(8)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(i)
(j)
131
18.2
Typical function:
Both infinitives (ing and to-infinitives) can appear in any sentence function.
(9)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
18.3
Subject
Predicate
Object
Attribute
Adverbial
Complement
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
19
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 71-212, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp. 29-62;
Dukov (1994) pp. 165-272; Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 24-46; Quirk, Greenbaum,
Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp. 93-172; Leech (1971).
19.1
Semantic Specification
(a)
(b)
(c)
Assuming that the main property of Modals and Auxiliaries is their lack of lexical meaning,
then Auxiliaries are part of verbal paradigms and Modals express modality (they have
rather idiosyncratic behavior). There are several distinguishable groups of these Verbs; see
(2) below. Each group has special formal characteristics which can be contrasted.
(2)
(a)
(b)
Auxiliaries
Central Modals
(c)
(d)
(e)
Marginal Modals
Modal Idioms
Semi-Auxiliaries
be, have, do
can, will, may, shall, must
could, would, might, should
dare (neg. polarity), need (neg. polarity), ought to, used to
had better, would rather, have got to...
have to, be about to, be going to, (be to)
Some of the non-lexical Verbs have their lexical counterparts. Compare the paradigm of
the Modals need/ dare in (a/b/c/d) below with the Verbs need/ dare illustrated in (e/f/g/h).
(3)
Marginal Modals
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
19.2
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(a)
I must go to school
(b)
It must be 5 o'clock
133
There is not much formal distinction between the deontic and epistemic Modals in the
Present Tense (but compare the influence of Aspect/ Negation with may). However, the
distinction is clear in Past Tense. In the past the more verbal element which is marked for
Tense: the Modal (periphrastic) with deontics, the infinitive with epistemics.
(5)
He must be at home.
(a)
(b)
(6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
19.3
He had to go to school.
He must have gone to school.
??It had to be 5o'clock.
It must have been 5o'clock.
(7)
Auxiliary
(a)
(b)
he is
I have/ had
>
>
he's
I've/ I'd
>
>
he isn't
I haven't/ I hadn't
(8)
Modal
(a)
(b)
I can/ will
he must
>
>
*I'n/ Ill
*he'st
>
>
I can't/ I wont
he mustn't
(9)
Lexical Verb
(a)
(b)
I read/ I kill
he goes
>
>
*I readnt/ *I killnt
*he goesnt
The above examples show a growing level of standard phonetic reduction which appears
(a) in declarative sentences between the Subject and the first verbal element,
(b) in negative contexts with the bound form of the particle not = -n't.
The Auxiliaries have and be have reduction in both cases, the Modals have only some
reductions, and lexical Verbs usually do not reduce (in standard speech).
19.4
Morphological Properties
(10) Auxiliary
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
134
SUBSTITUTION: be
is suppletive but has a
full paradigm as in 17.2.
(11) Modal
(a)
(b)
(c)
Constantine stopped.
Constantine can/ could march to new conquests.
(Past? Conditional?)
(c)
(d)
(Past? Conditional?)
(13) Aspect
Constantine is marching again.
Constantine has marched again.
(a)
(c)
(14) Voice
Mood
(a)
(b)
(b)
(d)
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
With respect to morphology, the main Auxiliaries group together with the lexical Verbs,
because both have full verbal paradigms including infinitival forms.
Central Modals (and Modal Idioms) are unique, because they lack verbal morphology.
19.5
Exercises
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
135
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
136
20
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 71-212, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp. 29-62.
Consider the word orders in the following sentences. (V = Lexical Verb)
(1)
(a)
(b)
(c)
= S -V-O
= S -V-O
= S -V-O
Simply referring only to the Verb is not enough to describe (the word order of) main
clause structures in English. The Predicate is analytic. We must divide the Predicate
(Verb) into several elements making up complex verbal forms/ complex Predicates.
How many and which elements are involved?
20.1
(2)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Assuming the (d) example is showing the hidden structure of an English clause with no
Aux/Mod, we can propose the following scheme.
Notice the importance of the first phonetically present Mod/Aux, and that is distinct from
VLEX. This first element inverts with Subject, not the Verb.
(3)
Marcel
Inverted
Position
SUBJECT
can
will
might
is (-ing)
do
read
Mod/Aux
VERB
semantically empty
nonemphatic do
provides DO-support
137
20.2
Clausal Negation: inserting the particle NOT. What is the position of not?
(4)
(a)
(c)
(e)
(b)
(d)
(f)
The negative particle not appears in front of some Verbs but after others. Assuming the
structure proposed in (3) on page 137, we can propose the following uniform scheme.
Notice the importance of the first phonetically present Mod/Aux, distinct from VLEX. This
element precedes the particle not (or its bound form -n't ).
(5)
SUBJECT
20.3
can
NOT
will
might
is (-ing)
do
never
just
NEG
- - - read
semantically empty
nonemphatic do becomes lexicalized
to provide DO-support
for the particle not.
- - - VERB
The role of operator (the first Mod/Aux) is again crucial. DO-support reappears.
(6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
- Can he?
- Has he?
- *Reads he?
- Does he?
Conclusion:
With respect to their distribution/ syntax, MOD/AUXs form a special group within the
category of VERBS and their characteristics can be stated as in (9) on page 139.
Morphological vs. syntactic criteria
The morphological template of an English Predicate consists of up to 5 elements, the 5slot Predicate model (Quirk, 1985):
(7)
Modal
Perfect
Progressive
138
Passive
Lexical
For syntactic analysis, however, i.e. when discussing the word order of English clause, the
2-slot Predicate is sufficient as well as more elegant. The first slot is the operator (=
the first Modal MOD/AUX , preceding any NEGATION); the others are all the following
Aux/Vs.
(8)
a)
b)
c)
Modals :
central Modals appear always in the position
Auxiliaries:
appear either in or in some following (V) position
Lexical Verbs: never appear in the position
The above allows us to define Central Modals in English in a more precise way.
(10) Central Modals in English:
a)
b)
Negation
Interrogation
Coda
(i)
(ii)
d)
e)
Contraction
contracts, lexical V does not
Emphasis
is used to emphasize the polarity, lexical V is not
(i) A: John cannot speak English.
- B: (No,) John can so speak English.
A: John can speak English.
- B: (No,)John can't either speak English.
(ii) A: John speaks English.
- B: *(No,) John speaks so English.
f)
Ellipsis
is used in ellipsis, lexical V is not
(i) John can speak English - and so can/should/do I. but/so Mary needn't.
John could speak English - before Mary could /did. - if Mary did.
(ii) John spoke English
- *and so spoke I. - before Mary spoke.
20.4
Notice the pattern, referring to (3) on page 137 and (5) on page 138.
Negative questions should (i) have inversion, and (ii) contain the particle not (or -n't ).
Discuss in more detail which element (how many of them) inverts with a Subject, reflecting
on the categorial status (= particle) of not (or -n't ).
139
(12) (a)
(c)
(e)
(b)
(d)
(13) The above issues are clarified by the possible morpho-phonetic contraction of not:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
20.5
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
Exercises
(a)
(b)
(c)
(B)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(C)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
140
(f)
(g)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(h)
(i)
(j)
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
141
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(c')
(d')
(e')
(f')
(g')
(h')
2-slot-model
B.
C.
In the following examples underline the full Predicates and describe their structure.
Which model seems to you descriptively most adequate? What are the reasons for
your choices?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
This house must have been being built for years already.
The picture could not be seen because of the shadow.
Your money is being spent just now.
*Will not you help your brother?
- Will you not help your brother?
D.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
142
21
See also: Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 71-212, Huddleston & Pullum (2005) pp. 29-62;
Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 24-69; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp.93240; Dukov (1994) pp. 174-180; Svoboda and Oplov-Krolyov (1989) pp. 7-50;
Leech (1971).
Every English Auxiliary and Modal is rather idiosyncratic (= specific, sui generis, with
some unpredictable property or properties). Recall the following:
(1)
a)
b)
Auxiliaries:
c)
Lexical Verbs:
The following examples illustrate that apart from the Auxiliary "do", there also exists in
English a lexical Verb "do". Considering all the distinction(s) among Aux/Mod/Lexical
Verbs discussed in the above sections, the two kinds of "do" are distinct lexical items, each
of which behaves regularly with respect to its characteristics.
Lexical do
(2)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
21.1
Auxiliary do
(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
(e')
(f)
(g)
Specificity of be
The English Verb be can be analyzed as several different elements, depending on its
complementation.
(3)
Kinds of be
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
be (+ing)
= progressive Aux
be (+en)
= passive Aux
be (+NP/AdjP)
= Copula
be (+PP/AdvP)
= location
there construction = existential be
be (+ to-infinitive) = Modal
143
(4)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
Is he at home?
*Does he be at home?
He is not reading any books.
*He does not be reading any books.
We arranged for it to be translated.
I want to be a teacher.
There are men here. There is a man here.
He can/ will (not) be (*not) at home.
Don't be silly!
As schematically illustrated in (3) on page 137 and (5) on page 138, a standard Predicate in
an English sentence has (at least) two syntactic positions: (an operator, the first
Mod/Aux) and a second V position for (Aux and Lexical) Verbs.
The Verb be is special, because it can occupy both positions.
Schematic structure for all uses of the Verb be (within the analytic Predicate)
(5)
(a)
(b)
Emma
IS
not
can
SUBJECT
at home.
BE
=Mod/Aux
Neg
VERB
analytic Predicate
Note: It seems that only one use of be, Modal be, occurs only in the position:
*We may be to read that article next week. *I wouldnt want to be to report to the office.
The Verb be occupies (in some abstract sense) the position of the lexical Verb, i.e. is NOT
followed by another (bare) V. In a sentence, however, unlike any other V, any be can also
appear in the position of the when this position would otherwise be empty.
Another way to say this: In finite ( non-imperative) clauses with be, there is no do-support.
21.2
Specificity of have
Using the 2-slot Predicate model (8) on page 139, compare the examples of the Verb have
below with the structure of be in (5) above.
(6)
144
The Predicate in Old English was not as analytic as in Modern English, and the examples
above suggest that the archaic usage of the stative (possessive) Verb have is structurally
similar to the Verb be, i.e. have
(a) is NOT followed by another V
(b) is able to move to the position of the AUX/MOD (in front of negation) whenever
possible/ needed.
Languages, however, have a tendency to get rid of irregularity and Modern English does
not freely use the archaic form of have as illustrated above. Look below at the strategies
applied in Modern British and American English.
The following examples (7) show that British English has made stative (possessive) have
into a non-lexical element, Auxiliary. The position of the lexical Verb is represented by got.
(7)
The following example (8) shows that in contrast to the British usage, American English
treats stative (possessive) have as a lexical Verb.
(Consider its similarities with standard lexical Verb receive.)
Do you have new books?
Yes, I (do) have new books.
No, I don't have any books.
You (do) have some, dont you?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(9)
Archaic
British
Emma
American
SUBJECT
(a')
(b')
(c')
(d)
(8)
HAS
not
HAS
not
got
(does)
not
HAVE
Neg
VERB
=Mod/Aux
any toys
Apart from stative/ possessive have, English uses other kinds of have, too. In these usages,
British and American are the same. The following examples show that have can be Aux,
Mod, and Lexical Verb as well.
145
(10)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(11)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(12)
(a)
(b)
(a')
(b')
(c)
(d)
(c')
(d')
(e)
(f)
(g)
(13) (a)
(b)
(b)
21.3
(b)
(d)
(f)
146
ii)
iii)
w.r.t. the characteristics of the finite verb (see criteria (8) on page 139 and (10) on
page 139).
Explain the distinction in making the past tense of the two forms.
(a)
(b)
Perf
Prog
Pass
Verb
Adam
Adam
Adam
Adam
Adam
147
(e)
I must go now.
*I must to go now.
I must have gone too early.
*I must to have gone too early.
*I dont want to must live forever.
(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
(e')
*I have go now.
I have to go now.
*I had go too early.
I had to go too early.
I dont want to have to live for ever.
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
Agentive: Tourists (can) have a look around the museum before they leave.
(a)
(b)
(c)
.........................................................................................................................................
II.
Causative: You (can) have somebody help you with the homework.
(a)
(b)
(c)
.........................................................................................................................................
III.
(a)
* , havent they?
(a') , wont they?/ , dont they?
*Have they really?
Will they really?/ Do they really?
(b) *I haven't ever mine repainted.
(b'). I didn't/ wont ever have mine repainted.
(c)
.........................................................................................................................................
148
(d)
Notice that the form used is "got" not "get" (Standard English: to get to V = to have of
advantage of V-ing)
(g)
We get to (can, manage to) visit the museum free every Wednesday.
(a) His younger brother saw your friend in front of the main building.
(b) I introduced Mary's boyfriend to my grandfather.
(c) They were determined to put all the exercise books to the bottom shelves.
(d) The free people of Uganda will be electing their President soon.
(e) To read all those huge books of short stories every day is more than extremely
boring.
(f) While at school, all the students must respect the official rules.
149
22
22.1
Negative affixes
Discuss the distinction between the NEGATIVE PREFIXES w.r.t. their origin and
diachronic/synchronic productivity .
un-
-ad(a/e)
150
-age
-al
-ance/y
-ence/y
-a/e/ory
-ate
-dom
-ee
-en
NA
A/NV
-er
-or/-ar
-(e/a)sis
151
-ful
-fy
-ian
-cian
-ic
-ile
-ine
-ise/-ize
-ish
-ism
-ite
N // -A
-ity
152
-ive
-ment
-ology
-oid
-ous
-ship
-(s/t)ion
-tude
-ure
-wise
Adv /Adj
-y
NA
153
cheery, catty, arty, crafty, furry, dreary, faulty, dirty, foxy, hairy, itchy,
misty, rosy, salty, sleepy, wary
tends/inclines to have the property of the N
22.3
be-
for-
with-
out-
over-
22.4
Non-German prefixes
ab-
amb-
an-
ad-
ana-
ante-
bi(n/s)-
co(n)-
154
de-
di-
en-
exeec-/ef-
(i) extract, exclaim, extend, exclude, exit, exact, excel, excite, expression,
excavate, exception
(ii) elaborate, eject
(iii) eclipse, eccentric, efficient, effort, effect, effervescent
in-
mal-
post-
pro-
sub-
syssyl/m/n-
trans-
re-
155
-a/enni/u-
-aud-
cap/cep(t)-
cise/cide
-cla(i)m-
-clud/s-
-co(u)rd-
-fac(t)-fic(t)-fec(t)-
-fer-
-fin-
-gen-
-id
V ADJ
-ist
N N
156
N ADJ
-mar-
-mem-
mitt/ss
-nat-, -nasc-
-omni-
-port-
-spond/s
-scrib/p
-tempo-
-tend/s
-tent-
-trib-
-vi(n)c(t)-
-vis-
visa, vis--vis, visage, visible, vision, visionary, visit, visitor, vista, visual,
visualize, invisible, evident, provide, provisional, providential
Lat. visus ( see)
157
-viv(i)/-ta
-voc/k-
22.5
auto-
-chron-
-itis
-drome-
eu-
hypo-
mon(o)
-p(a)ed-
-phil-
pro-
-soph-
-the(o)
158
RELATED LITERATURE
(A) The list A below gives practical manuals of English grammar which can help
students not fully familiar with the pratical usage of the structures discussed. The working
knowledge of this manuals is assumed for the course.
(B) The list B provides bibliography for the more theoretical manuals covering the topics
in more detail. They provide some discussion of the phenomena, provide much more data
and demonstrate alternative terminologies and analyses.
(C) The list C provides bibliography for the cited works and some additional literature
related to the topics discussed in the course.
A.
PRACTICAL MANUALS
Alexander, L.G. (1993): Longman Advanced Grammar. Reference and Practice. Longman.
Hewings, Martin (2005): Advanced Grammar in Use (2nd edition) with answers and CD
ROM. CUP.
Jones, Leo (1991): Cambridge Advanced English. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Leech, Geoffrey & Svartvik, Jan (1975) A Communicative Grammar of English.
Longman, London.
Murphy, Raymond (2004): English Grammar in Use With Answers and CD ROM : A
Self-Study Reference and Practice Book for Intermediate Students of English. 3rd
edition. CUP.
Svoboda, Ale & Oplov-Krolyov, Mria (1998) A Brief Survey of the English
Morphology. Filozofick fakulta Ostravsk univerzity, Ostrava.
B.
THEORETICAL MANUALS
Dukov, Libue (1994) Mluvnice souasn anglitiny na pozad etiny. Academia Praha,
Prague.
Huddleston, Rodney and Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2002) The Cambridge Grammar of the
English Language. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Huddleston, Rodney and Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2005): A Students Introduction to English
Grammar. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Leech, Geoffrey (1971) Meaning and the English Verb. 3rd edition. Longman, London
2004.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (2004) A Comprehensive Grammar
of the English Language. Longman, London
Quirk, R., and Greenbaum, S. (1991): A Students Grammar of the English language.
Longman1991.
159
C.
Akmajian, A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K. & Harnish, R.M. (1990) Linguistics: An
Introduction to Language and Communication. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Chomsky, Noam (1981), Lectures on Government and Binding. Foris, Dordrecht.
Comrie, Bernard (1989) Language Universals and Linguistic Typology. Blackwell,
London.
Croft, William (1991) Syntactic Categories and Grammatical Relations. Chikago:
University of Chikago Press.
Crystal, David (1987) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Demers, Richard A. & Farmer, Ann K. (1991) A Linguistics Workbook. The MIT Press,
Cambridge, Mass.
Finegan, Edward & Besnier, Niko (1990) 'Structured Meaning in Words.' In: Language:
Its Structure and Use. HBJ.
Fromkin, Victoria & Rodman, Robert (1990) 'Morphology : The Words of Language.'
In: An Introduction to Language. HBJ.
Katamba, Francis (1993) Morphology. The Macmillan Press Ltd.
Matthews, P.H. (1974) Morphology. Cambridge University Press.
Spenser, Andrew (1991) Morphological Theory. Blackwell, Oxford UK & Cambridge
USA.
160