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Mechanical and Tribological Behavior of Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION:
The term composite broadly refers to a material system which is composed of a discrete Constituent (the reinforcement) distributed in a continuous phase (the matrix), and which Derives its distinguishing characteristics from the properties of its constituents, from the Geometry and architecture of the constituents, and from the properties of the boundaries (Interfaces) between different constituents. Composite materials are usually classified on the basis of the physical or chemical nature of the matrix phase, e.g., polymer matrix, metal-matrix and ceramic composites this review is concerned with metal matrix Composites and more specifically on the aluminum matrix composites. Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases embedded in a continuous phase. The discontinuous phase is usually harder and stronger than the continuous phase and is called the reinforcement or reinforcing material, whereas the continuous phase is termed as the matrix. Metal Matrix Composites are being increasingly used in aerospace and automobile industries owing to their enhanced properties such as elastic modulus, hardness, tensile strength at room and elevated temperatures, wear resistance combined with significant weight savings over unreinforced alloys. The commonly used metallic matrices include Al, Mg, Ti, Cu and their alloys. These alloys are preferred matrix materials for the production of MMCs. The reinforcements being used are fibers, whiskers and particulates. The advantages of particulatereinforced composites over others are their formability with cost advantage. Reinforced aluminum metal matrix composites are a class of composite materials which are having desirable properties, which include low density, high specific stiffness, high specific strength, controlled co efficient of thermal expansion, increased fatigue resistance and superior dimensional stability at elevated temperatures etc.
MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5
1.1
REINFORCEMENT:
Reinforcements are usually fibers or particles of different orientation and shape. Two mostly
used reinforcements are silicon carbide (SiC) and alumina (Al 2O3), and variation of their shape; dimension and percentage have a great influence on the properties of MMCs. The role of the reinforcement in a composite material is fundamentally one of increasing the mechanical properties of the neat resin system. All of the different fibers used in composites have different properties and so affect the properties of the composite in different ways. For most of the applications, the fibers need to be arranged into some form of sheet, known as a fabric, to make handling possible.
1.2
Particulates
Particulates are the most common and cheapest reinforcement materials. These produce
the isotropic property of MMCs, which shows a promising application in structural fields. Initially, attempts were made to produce reinforced Aluminum alloys with graphite powder , but only low volume fractions of reinforcement had been incorporated (<10%). Presently higher volume fractions of reinforcements have been achieved for various kinds of ceramic particles (oxide, carbide, and nitride). Fig 1.1 shows high volume fraction reinforcement of Sic up to 40%. The Sic particulatereinforced aluminum matrix composites have a good potential for use as wear Resistant materials. Actually, particulates lead to a favorable effect on properties such as Hardness, wear resistance and compressive strength. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve mach inability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage.
Fig 1.1 Aluminum matrix composite having high volume fraction of Sic particle reinforcement
1.3 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE

Metal matrix composites in general, consist of at least two components, one is the metal matrix and the second component is reinforcement. The matrix is defined as a metal in all cases, but a pure metal is rarely used as the matrix. It is generally an alloy the productivity of the composite the matrix and the reinforcement are mixed together. One of the important objectives of metal matrix composites, therefore, is to develop a material with a judicious combination of toughness and stiffness so as to decrease the sensitivity to cracks and flaws and at the same time increase the static and dynamic properties.
1.4 Particulate reinforced aluminum matrix composites

Particulate reinforced AMCs constitute largest quantity of composites produced and utilized on volume and weight basis. PAMCs are produced by PM stir cast/melt infiltration/spraying/in situ processing techniques at industrial level. Particulates of SiC, Al2O3, Tic, TiB2, and B4C have been used as reinforcements. PAMCs have been successfully used as components in automotive, aerospace, opto-mechanical assemblies and thermal management.
CHAPTER 2
Mechanical Properties of Particulate reinforced aluminum matrix composites
The attractive Mechanical properties that can be obtained with metal matrix composites, such as high specific modulus, strength and thermal stability, have been documented extensively. The various factors controlling the properties of particulate MMCs and the influence of the manufacturing route on the MMCs properties has also been reviewed by several investigators. Other mechanical properties are as documented below; 1. Hardness 2. Tensile strength
2.1HARDNESS
The resistance to indentation or scratch is termed as HARDNESS. Among various instruments for Measurement of hardness, Brinells, Rockwells and Vickerss hardness testers are significant. Among the variants of reinforcements, the low aspect ratio particle reinforcements are of Much significant in imparting the hardness of the material in which they are dispersed (the Hardness of fiber reinforced MMC < whisker reinforced MMC < particle dispersed MMC). The particulate reinforcements such as SiC and Al2O3 are generally preferred to impart higher hardness. The coating of reinforcements with Ni and Cu also leads to Good quality interface characteristics and hence contribute in improving hardness. Tic when Dispersed in Al matrix, increases the hardness to weight ratio. Particle reinforced composites possess better plastic forming capability than that of whisker or fiber reinforced composites. Moreover, these composites exhibit excellent heat and wear resistances due to the superior hardness and heat resistance characteristics of the particles that are dispersed in the matrix.
If the Silicon is incorporated in Al Alloys Si improves the hardness of the composites. The composites developed (as explained above) were subjected to hardness test using the Vickerss and Brinells hardness testing machines. The results are shown in fig 2.1 and fig 2.2. The heat treated alloy and composite exhibits better hardness.
2.1.1 Vickers hardness test

Vickers hardness test is also called as diamond pyramid hardness test because hard cone indenter is used for indentation with 136 degree angle between opposite faces. Upon completion of indentation, the two diagonals will be measured and the average value will be considered.
Fig 2.1 Vickers hardness test
From Vickers hardness test, for Al 6061 base alloy with unreinforcement the hardness value is 60VHN. And for the same base metal with 2, 4 and 6% Sic reinforcement the hardness value gradually increases. Similarly for Al 7075 base alloy with Al2O3 reinforcement as shown in Fig 2.1.
2.1.2 Brinells hardness test

In Brinells hardness test a hard spherical ball indenter is forced into surface of metal to be tested. Diameter of hardened steel indenter is 10mm during this test constant load is maintained.
Fig 2.2 Brinells hardness test
From Brinells hardness test for Al 6061 base alloy with unreinforcement the hardness value is 80BHN. And for the same base metal with 2, 4 and 6% Al 2O3 reinforcement the hardness value gradually increases. Similarly for Al 7075 base alloy with SiC reinforcement as shown in Fig 2.2. It can be concluded that hardness of composite is greater than its base alloy.
2.2 TENSILE STRENGTH

In general, the particle reinforced Al-MMCs are found to have higher elastic modulus, tensile and fatigue strength over monolithic alloy. Among many ceramic materials, SiC and Al2O3 are widely in use, due to their favorable combination of density, hardness and cost effectiveness. When these reinforcements are combined with Al-MMCs, the resulting material exhibits significant increase in its elastic modulus, hardness, strength and wear resistance . Incase of heat treatable Al-alloys and their composites, the yield strength of composites increase after heat treatment by reducing the cracking tendency.
CHAPTER 3 Tribological Behaviour Of Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Composites

3.1 TRIBOLOGY
Tribology is one of the oldest sciences, but is still not well understood. Tribology, like many other technical terms, has a Greek origin. The two Greek words tribo and logy refer to rubbing and knowledge, respectively, defining tribology as the knowledge of rubbing. A study of tribological behaviors can help us manipulate matter at the nanoscale. Tribology helps to increase the lifespan of mechanical components. However many industrial processes require a detailed understanding of tribology at the nanometer scale.
3.2 WEAR
Wear is the progressive loss of material due to relative motion between a surface and the Contacting substance or substances. The wear damage may be in the form of micro-cracks or Localized plastic deformation. Wear is a complex phenomenon in which real contact area between two solid surfaces compared with the apparent area of contact is invariably very small, being limiting to the points of contact between surface Asperities. Wear, the progressive loss of substance from the operating surfaces of the mechanically interacting element of a tribo-system may be measured in terms of weight loss or volume loss. Commonly available test apparatus for measuring sliding friction and wear characteristics in which, sample geometry, applied load, sliding velocity, temperature and humidity can be controlled are Pin-on-Disc, Pin-on-Flat, Pin-on-Cylinder etc. Types of wear; Adhesive wear, Abrasion wear, Surface fatigue wear Erosion and cavitations wear
3.3 Factors Affecting Wear of Aluminum based Composite Materials

The principal tribological parameters that control the friction and wear performance of reinforced Al-MMCs are mechanical and physical factors extrinsic to the material undergoing surface interaction such as the effect of load normal to the tribo-contact, the sliding velocity, the sliding distance, the reinforcement orientation, the environment, temperature, the surface finish and the counterpart and material factors intrinsic to the material undergoing surface interaction such as the reinforcement type, size, shape and distribution of the reinforcement, the matrix microstructure and the reinforcement volume fraction. While investigating the wear of particle reinforced MMCs under different applied load conditions identified three different wear regimes. At low load (regime I), the particles support the applied load in which the wear resistances of MMCs are in the order of magnitude better than Al-alloy. At regime II, wear rates of MMCs and Al-alloy were similar. At high load and the transition to severe wear (regime III), the surface temperatures exceed a critical value.
3.3.1 Effect of extrinsic (mechanical and physical) factors. 3.3.1.1 Applied normal load:
Fig. 3.1 indicates the dependence of wear rate on the applied load for fixed sliding speed of 3 m/s. The mild wear is observed at low applied load, as the load increases further the wear rate of the unreinforced alloy and the composites increases up to 20N. At 20N load the wear pattern changes for the unreinforced alloy, while the composite follow the same trend up to 50N, at this load unreinforced alloy seizes. At 60N load both the SiC reinforced and SiC-Graphitic composites wear rate increases steeply.
Fig 3.1 Variation in wear rate with applied load for various composites and alloy
Fig 3.2 Worn surface of Al 2219 /40 % Sic composite
3.3.1.2 Sliding speed/velocity/distance:

Fig. 3.2 corresponds to variation in wear rate with the sliding speed for the unreinforced alloy and other two composites. The wear rate of the unreinforced alloy and composites decreased as the sliding speed increases up to 3 m/s, beyond 3 m/s the wear pattern of the unreinforced alloy changes and it increases with increasing speed, however the same trend of decreasing wear rate with increasing the speed was observed in composites.
Fig 3.3 Variation in wear rate with sliding speed for both composites and its alloy at fixed load of 40 N
3.3.1.3 Effect of temperature;

The wear volume increases substantially above a characteristic temperature that exists between the mild and severe wear transition. Mild to severe wear occurs when friction-induced heating raises the contact surface temperature above a critical value (at about 0.4 times the absolute melting temperature of the matrix). The composite transition temperature is higher than that of the unreinforced alloy thus the composite suffers lower wear volume. The higher the normal pressure, the lower is the transition temperature. The higher thermal conductivity of the reinforcement contributes in improving wear resistance.
3.3.2 Effect of intrinsic (material) factors. 3.3.2.1 Effect of interfacial bonding:

The wear behavior of hard particle reinforced composite depends primarily on the type of interfacial bonding between the Al-matrix and the reinforcement. This is because of the strong Interfacial bond which plays a critical role in transferring loads from the matrix to the hard particles, resulting in less wear of the material. In case of poor interfacial bonding, the interface offers site for crack nucleation and tends to pull out the particle from the wear surface tending to higher wear loss. For ex; the Ni and Cu coated siC dispersed Al-SiC composites generally lead to good quality interface characteristics and exhibit the improved wear properties.
3.3.2.2 Effect of different types of reinforcements:

The SiC reinforcement in the Al-MMCs is more fracture resistant compared to A1 2O3 and Si. The SiC particles are harder than other reinforcements and will provide a more effective barrier to subsurface shear by the motion of the adjacent steel counter-face and this result is likely due to differences in particles shape. An additional drawback of Al-MMCs with Reinforcing phases, such as SiC and Al2O3 is the tendency of the reinforcement to act as a Second-body abrasive against the counter-face increasing its wear rates.
3.3.2.3 Reinforcement size and shape;

It is found that the wear rate decreases with decrease in the grain size. This can be attributed to the grain boundary strengthening of Al leading to strain hardening. Such behavior may be attributed to the change in the grain shape from equiaxed to columnar ones. The reinforcement particles with size of several micrometers have higher bonding strength with the matrix, which support the applied load effectively and prevent the crack to initiate and propagate in the subsurface wear region.
3.3.3 Effect of Lubrication

Concerning wear mechanisms under lubricated conditions, the degree of direct contact between the surfaces is minimal and the wear progresses via layers of debris. For all materials, wear Loss in lubricated tests at constant load decreases as hardness increases. However, for lubricated Conditions, Al-MMCs with higher hardness show higher wear resistance. Scuffing and seizure problems may be addressed by incorporating solid lubricants, namely, Graphite in AlSi alloys reinforced with SiC or Al 2O3 particles. It was shown that the addition of graphite flakes or particles in Al-alloys increased the loads and velocities at which seizure took place under the boundary lubricate and dry sliding conditions. The high seizure resistance of graphitic Al-matrix composites has been attributed to the formation of graphite layers on the contact surfaces that act as solid lubricants, which reduce metal to metal contact between the sliding pairs. One more important factor is that the lubricant used will act as a coolant between the two sliding surfaces avoiding the consequences of increasing temperature of the metals in contact.
3.3.4 Effect of Mechanical Mixed Layer (MML):

During sliding at higher wear-rates, high temperature is developed at the sliding surface due to which the specimen softens and becomes plastic. It reacts with the available oxygen and forms their respective oxides. The hard brittle oxide formed on the surface of the specimen becomes thicker and continuous, covering the entire surface. The Aluminum oxide film acts partly as an insulator for thermal conduction. This MML was responsible for the decrease in the wear-rate and friction of the MMCs. The transfer of steel inclusions from counter-face surfaces to the composite wear surfaces is another mechanism which contributes to the increase in wear resistance of the composites.
CHAPTER 4
APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINUM MATRIX COMPOSITES
In automobile, aerospace, mining and mineral sectors, there exist situations where two mating parts are in sliding contact with each other. Due to the relative motion of these sliding parts, there is an inevitable loss of material. In certain situations, if the extent of material wear is Beyond a critical limit, there are possibilities of catastrophic failure of the components leading to huge economic losses. Extensive research has been carried out on the study of tribological behavior of Al-MMCs. The most important reason for the damage and consequent failure of machine parts is wear. A lot of experiments must be conducted in order to study the Tribological behavior. This results in wastage of both man power and money. Hence the prediction of wear rate is of utmost importance in the present industrial scenario to assess the life of sliding components in advance to avoid massive financial losses that are incurred due to wear.
4.1 Prediction of Wear Properties by Theoretical Models

Sharma developed a theoretical model for estimating the sliding wear rate considering the effect of frictional heat on the wear properties at contact surfaces, the effect of reinforcement, mechanical load, sliding distance, sliding velocities on wear rates, coefficient of friction and transition wear. This theoretical model was proposed for estimating the sliding wear rate of both alloy and composites. Kumar et.al. have successfully developed a mathematical model to predict the wear rate of Al7075-SiC composites by incorporating the effects of volume fraction, Reinforcement size, applied load, sliding speed and hardness of the counter-face material. The developed model can be effectively used to predict the wear rate of Al7075-SiC composites at 95% confidence level.
4.2 APPLICATIONS OF MMCS

Basic requirements in engine industry, which are major driving forces for developing and implementing new materials, are reduction of fuel consumption and vehicle emissions. Aluminum and other light metals have lower density compared with the standard materials used in engine industry (grey cast-iron and steel). Their utilization reduces mass, and increases the efficiency, and thus satisfies the basic requirements on fuel economy and vehicle emissions. Unfortunately their tribological properties are not satisfactory, which limits their application in manufacturing the tribo mechanical components. One of the possible solutions for this problem is use of Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites (Al MMCs).These materials, although being primarily developed for the needs of airplane and space industry, find an increased application in automotive industry, where they are utilized for manufacturing pistons, cylinders, engine blocks, brakes and power transfer system elements. For MMCs SiC, Al2O3 and Gr are widely used particulate reinforcements. The ceramic particulate reinforced composites exhibit improved abrasion resistance. They find applications as cylinder blocks, pistons, piston insert rings, brake disks and calipers. The strength of these composites is proportional to the percentage volume and fineness of the reinforced particles. These ceramic particulate reinforced Al-alloy composites led to a new generation tailor able engineering materials with improved specific properties. Among many ceramic materials, SiC and Al2O3 are widely in use, due to their favorable Combination of density, hardness and cost effectiveness. When these reinforcements are combined with Al-MMCs, the resulting material exhibits significant increase in its elastic modulus, hardness, strength and wear resistance.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
This review presents the views, experimental results obtained and conclusions made over the years by numerous investigators in the field of particle reinforced Al-MMCs. A considerable amount of interest in Al-MMCs evinced by researchers from academics and industries has helped in conduction of various studies and has enriched our knowledge about the physical properties, mechanical properties and tribological characteristics. Several techniques are followed by researchers for the processing of particulate reinforced MMCs. The hardness of the composites was reviewed and on conclusion, it is discovered that as the Reinforcement contents increased in the matrix material, the hardness of the composites also increased. Further, the tests conducted to determine the same indicated the (Vickers and Brinells hardness) increased hardness with increased reinforcement contents when compared with the base matrix. The wear performance of hard ceramic reinforced aluminum matrix composites was reviewed with particular emphasis on the mechanical and physical factors and material factors also with the effect of lubrication, work hardening, Mechanical Mixed Layer, heat treatment etc. All the factors have considerable effect on the tribological performance of Al- MMC and counter face metal couples.
From the literature it can be concluded that the ceramic reinforced Al-MMCs will have better wear resistance than the unreinforced alloys. Further, the techniques used by the researchers to predict the wear coefficient were also discussed.
The existing composite materials, compared to the matrix, have shown better physical, mechanical and tribological properties (wear resistance and coefficient of friction) both at room and at elevated temperatures.
CHAPTER 6
REFERENCES
R. Dwivedi, Performance of MMC Rotors in Dynamometer Testing, SAE Technical Paper Series, 940848, Warrendale, PA, USA. M.D. Bermudez, G. Martinez-Nicolas, F.J. Carrion, I. Martinez-Mateo, J.A.Rodriguez, E.J. Herrera, Dry and lubricated wear resistance of mechanically-alloyed aluminum-base sintered composites, Wear 248 (2001) 178186.
R. Dwivedi, Development of Advanced Reinforced Aluminum Brake Rotors, SAE Technical Paper Series, 950264, Warrendale, PA, USA, 1995, 8 p. S.V. Prasad, P.K. Rothagi, Tribological properties of Al alloy particle composite, J. Metall. 39 (1987) 22. Kassim S. Al-Rubaie, Humberto N. Yoshimura, Jose Daniel Biasoli de Mello, Twobody abrasive wear of AlSiC composites, Wear 233235 (1999) 444454. L. Ceschini, C. Bosi, A. Casagrande, G.L. Garagnani, Effect of thermal treatment and recycling on the tribological behaviour of an AlSiMgSiCp composite, Wear 251 (2001)
13771385. L.J. Yang A test methodology for the determination of wear coefficient, Wear 259 (2005) 14531461. M.H.Korkut, Microstructure and wear behavior of Al 2024\ SiFe and Al Tribology International 36, 2003, pp.169-180. C.S.Lee,Y.H.Kim,K.S.Han,T.lim, Wear behaviour of aluminum matrix composite materials, Journal of Material Science, Vol. 27(3), 1992, pp 793-800.
Hutching I.M Tribological properties of Metal Matrix Composites. Journal of Material Science and Technology. Vol 10, (6), 1994, pp 513 -517. S. Wilson, A.T. Alpas Wear mechanism maps for metal matrix composites, Wear 212 (1997) 41-49. L.J. Yang A test methodology for the determination of wear coefficient, Wear 259 (2005) 14531461. M.R. Rosenberger, C.E. Schvezov, E. Forlerer, Wear of different aluminum matrix composites under conditions that generate a mechanically mixed layer, Wear 259 (2005) 590601. Asthana R 1998 Solidification processing of reinforced metals (Trans. Tech. Publ.)
Clyne TW(ed.) 2000 Comprehensive composite materials, Vol. 3. Metal matrix.
T. Miyajima, Y. Iwai., Effect Of Reinforcements On Sliding Wear Behaviour Of Aluminum Matrix Composites Journal of Wear, Vol. 255, 2003, pp 606-616.

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Mechanical and Tribological Behavior of Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

1.3 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE

1.4 Particulate reinforced aluminum matrix composites

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

2.1.1 Vickers hardness test

Fig 2.1 Vickers hardness test

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

2.1.2 Brinells hardness test

Fig 2.2 Brinells hardness test

2.2 TENSILE STRENGTH

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

CHAPTER 3 Tribological Behaviour Of Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Composites

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

3.3 Factors Affecting Wear of Aluminum based Composite Materials

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

Fig 3.2 Worn surface of Al 2219 /40 % Sic composite

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

3.3.1.2 Sliding speed/velocity/distance:

3.3.1.3 Effect of temperature;

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

3.3.2 Effect of intrinsic (material) factors. 3.3.2.1 Effect of interfacial bonding:

3.3.2.2 Effect of different types of reinforcements:

3.3.2.3 Reinforcement size and shape;

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

3.3.3 Effect of Lubrication

3.3.4 Effect of Mechanical Mixed Layer (MML):

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

4.1 Prediction of Wear Properties by Theoretical Models

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

4.2 APPLICATIONS OF MMCS

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

Clyne TW(ed.) 2000 Comprehensive composite materials, Vol. 3. Metal matrix.

MACHINE DESIGN, UBDT 5

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