SYNTAX - PREDNKY

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TERMINOLOGY SENTENCES

1. This term our attention is focused on syntax in which sentence is a key word. To construct a sentence we need words (lexicon) which must have some meaning (semantics). They are connected (they interfere) within a sentence (syntax). However, we learn not only how to compose a correct sentence as an isolated unit, but we also learn how to use sentences appropriately in different contexts. A learner needs to know how to make and understand utterances which express certain concepts, perform certain communicative acts. Communicative grammar considers sentences in discourse, groups sentences according to the meaning, not structure. We must consider the nature of discourse, which can be defined as a stretch of language consisting of several sentences which are perceived as being related in some way (constitute a coherent unit). Whereas grammar refers to the rules a language uses to form grammatical units such as phrase, clause, and sentence, discourse refers to larger units of language, such as paragraphs, conversations, speeches, interviews. 2. Language can be viewed in two ways, as: 2.1 a formal system of sounds, words, and grammatical structures 2.2 human behaviour - as a communicative system When we analyse language as formal system, our primary unit of analysis will be the sentence or clause (the central units in formal grammar). When we analyse language as behaviour, as communication an important unit of analysis is the utterance. On the level of abstraction we can distinguish: the utterance the sentence increasing level of abstraction the proposition Utterances occur in a context as sounds or marks on paper. They are spoken or written by an individual to another individual. They are concrete and located in time and space. Sentences are much more abstract entities. Sentences can exist independently of any person saying or writing them. Once said or written, they become utterances: therefore, the following represents three utterances but only one sentence: Its raining. Its raining. Its raining. Propositions are still more abstract. Ideas expressed through sentences correspond to propositions. So a proposition can be compared to the thought or ideas expressed by a sentence. 3. The sentence is an arrangement of words which are meaningful and grammatically correct. They serve for communic- ation. The sentence is not only a means of communicating something about reality but also a means of showing the speakers attitude to it. If we look through the pages of a novel, or a daily newspaper, there must be a large number of sentence patterns in English. These can be grouped into two main types, on the basis of whether they are formed in a regular or an irregular way. Regular sentences are often referred to as major sentences, irregular ones as minor sentences.
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3. 1. Minor sentences are not constructed in a regular way. They use abnormal patterns which cannot be clearly analysed into a sequence of clause elements. There are only a few minor sentence types, but instances of each type are frequently used in everyday conversation and when conversations are represented in fiction. They are also common in certain types of written language, such as notices (NO PARKING), headlines (FINANCIAL TIMES), labels, advertisements, etc. Minor sentences do not follow all the rules of grammar. For example, in a major sentence the verbs can change their persons: How do you manage? How does he manage? But the greeting How do you do? is a minor sentence and we cannot change the person to How does he do? (without changing the sense into something quite different). Nor can we change the tense and ask How did you do? It is an idiomatic expression. Some types of minor sentence look quite complex, on a first impression they might be thought to be displaying a major pattern. But in each case there is something odd about them. For example, one type uses the subjunctive to express wishes, as in God save the Queen! This is a minor sentence because it is not possible to introduce the full range of normal grammatical changes into its structure, to produce such forms as God saves the Queen. Some minor sentence types are: - formulae for social situations, such as Hello. How do you do? Thanks. Cheers! - interjections Eh? Ugh! Ow! Shh! - proverbs Easy come, easy go. Out of sight, out of mind. - words or phrases used in exclamations, questions, commands, such as Nice day! Taxi? All aboard! 3.2. Major sentences are in the vast majority. They are sentences which can be broken down into a specific pattern of elements. I gave the letter to Mary. S V O O 4. Sentences can be divided into two groups: 4.1. Simple sentences consist of just one clause Ill never speak to her again. - jednoduch veta 4.2. Multiple sentences consist of more than one clause. Ill never speak to her again, even if she apologizes. Multiple sentences can be further subdivided into: 4.2.1. compound sentences - priraovacie sv. 4.2.2. complex sentences - podraovacie sv. according to whether the clauses are in the relation of coordination (parataxis) or subordination hypotaxis) In English grammar the sentence is described as having five levels with different units: sentences, which consist of one or more clauses, which consist of one or more phrases, which consist of one or more words, which consist of one or more morphemes. Example: Discourse level We arrived at the shop just as the butcher was clearing away. As a result the big dogs enjoyed their unexpected bones, and the little puppies liked the scraps. Sentence level
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the big dogs enjoyed their unexpected bones, and the little puppies liked the scraps. Clause level the big dogs enjoyed their unexpected bones Phrase level their unexpected bones Word level unexpected + bones Morphemes un-expect-ed + bone-s 5. The level of phrases is an intermediate level between the higher level of clauses and the lower level of words. Phrases are sequences of words that can function as constituents in the structure of sentences. The relation of phrases to clause elements (constituents) is that of realization, phrases are forms that realize clause elements. Phrases form not only syntactic units but also semantic units. They form coherent units of sense. 5.1. A Noun Phrase (NP) is a phrase that contains, and is centred on, a noun. My youngest brother Determiner Modifier head 5.2. An Adjective Phrase (AP) is centred on an adjective too short short enough head head intensifier 5.3. A Verb Phrase (VP) - consists of a verb plus all the words that follow in a simple sentence. Since it includes everything in the sentence except the subject, another term for VP in English is predicate. Mary teaches two classes at Harvard in the summer. VP = Predicate V NP PP PP 5.4. A Prepositional Phrase consists of a preposition and a NP in the corner of the room Prep NP (D N PP) 5.5. An Adverb Phrase (AdvP) consists of modifiers: extremely quickly right now 2. The Simple Sentence an adverb plus its

2.1. Clause Elements. Def. The simple sentence is the smallest sentence unit. It consists of a single independent clause which has two basic parts - a subject and a predicate. 2.1.1. The Subject (S) - is a word or a group of words denoting the person or thing about which something is said. It is normally realized by a noun phrase but it can also be realized by other phrases and words. - noun phrase: A wise old bird sat in an oak. Who is playing cricket? Hers is the red car. - adjective phrase: The rich are not always happy.
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- a numeral: Two and two is/are four. - a quantifier: Less is sometimes more. - the genitive: Peters is a red car. - an adverb phrase: Today is Sunday. - there: There are 13 students in this class. - a finite clause: How the prisoner escaped is a complete mystery. - a non-finite clause: Lying in the sun can be dangerous. - in statements the subject normally goes before predicate. The verb in the predicate must agree with the subject, so the subject dictates the form of the verb. This agreement is called CONCORD. Semantic role: The S can be associated with almost every type of semantic role. With transitive Vs it denotes: 1/ an agent or doer of the action denoted by the V; 2/ the S can denote an inanimate causer of an event; The gale has broken the window. 3/ the S identifies the instrument; Only a bottle opener will help you open it. 4/ with stative Vs the S is the recipient; My friend owns a new flat. 5/ with ergative Vs O affected becomes S affected She rang the bell, The bell rang. 2.1.2. The Predicate - is what is said about the subject. All the words in a sentence except the subject. - contains a verb and depending on the type of main verb in the verb phrase it may also contain other elements such as object, complement, adverbial. 2.1.3. The Verb (V) - the term verb has 2 meanings: (1) it is one of the sentence (or clause) elements, like the subject, the object, the complement or the adverbial. She might be leaving soon. (2) it is a member of a word class (part of speech) In the sentence: She might be leaving soon. the verb phrase -might be leavingwhich functions as the clause element, consists of three verbs. The verb as a sentence element (1) is part of predicate. It is always realized by a verb phrase. It is normally present in all clauses including the imperative clauses where the subject is usually absent. There are three main verb classes: (a) intransitive verbs, (b) transitive verbs, (c) copular (linking) verbs. (a) intransitive V do not take an object or other sentence elements. They can never be used in the passive: ache, hurt. My head aches. It hurts. (b) transitive V
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require an object. They express an action which passes over from the subject (the doer) of the action to the object (the receiver) of the action. The boy hit the dog. The dog hit the boy. Transitive V can further be divided into monotransitive, ditransitive and complex transitive verbs. Monotransitive vrebs require just one object. Ive bought a car. SVO Ditransitive verbs require two objects. He showed Alice his book. SVOO Complex transitive verbs require an object plus complement or an object and adverbial SVOC They named her daughter Jane. SVOA He put the book on the desk. Some V are always transitive: meet, enjoy, some are always intransitive: ache some can be used both as transit. or intrans.: open, break, boil.... Someone opened the door. The door opened. (c) copular V (linking V) V reflecting state of being such as be, appear, seem, become, grow, turn, prove, remain; Vs related to five senses such as look, sound, smell, feel, taste, verbs which are followed by a subject complement or an adverbial SVC SVA 2.1.4. The Object (O) is the receiver of an action that passes over from the subject. It is normally a noun phrase but can also be realized by other words and phrases. It usually goes after the verb in the active voice. It can become the subject in the passive voice. They make cars here. Cars are made here. An object can be (a) direct and (b) indirect (a) a direct object (Od) refers to the person or thing affected by the action of the verb. It is usually in the accusative case and answers the questions WHOM? or WHAT? Please dont annoy me. (Od) It can be realized by: - a noun phrase: He wrote a letter. They blamed each other. John washed himself. Ill give you mine. - the genitive: Ill give you Peters. - a quantifier: I dont know much. - not, so: I think not. I dont think so. - a finite clause: I knew that he would come. - a non-finite clause: I enjoy lying in the sun. Semantic role of Od: 1/ O affected She has called Peter. 2/ O effected (resultant) I have written a letter. 3/ O locative He has crossed the park. 4/ a cognant O expresses a verbal notion, it repeats the meaning of the preceding V live a life, sing a song
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(b) an indirect object (Oi) refers to the person who "benefits" from the action expressed in the verb. It is usually in the dative case and answers the question TO WHOM?, TO WHAT? If both objects are present, then the indirect object normally comes before the direct object. He threw me the ball. The indirect object can be realized by: - a noun phrase: Mother read her children a story. I cut myself a slice of bread. - a finite clause: John gave, whoever it was, a present. Note: In most cases the indirect object is a person but sometimes it can be a thing. I gave the car a wash. He gave his car a push. Give peace a chance. Semantic role of Oi recipient 2.1.5. The Predicative Complement (C) (a) Subject complement follows copular verbs such as be, seem, become, appear, etc. It completes the sense of a sentence by telling us something about the subject. She has become a teacher. The subject complement can be realized by: - a noun phrase: He is a very good player. Its me. You dont look yourself today. - an adjective phrase: The wine tastes sour. That sounds good. - a past participle: He passed unnoticed. - a prepositional phrase: The table-cloth smells of beer. - a clause: This is what I want. - an adverb "well" which means in good health, healthy. Note: Other terms are sometimes used in place of Cs - predicative nouns, adjectives or predicative nominal, adjectival. (b) Object complement completes a sense of a sentence by telling us something about the Od. Its used with complex transitive verbs that require an object and a complement (appoint, elect, call, name) They elected him chairman. The object complement can be realized by: - a noun phrase: I found her a very good friend. (ambiguous I considered her somebody) - an adjective phrase: I found the box empty. - a past participle: He found his bicycle stolen. I had my hair cut. - a clause: You made me what I am. 2.1.6. The Adverbial (A)
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- optional sentence elements in most cases. In general they can have more than one position in a clause. The adverbial can be realized by: - an adverb phrase: He plays football very well. - a prepositional phrase: They usually come in the afternoon - a finite clause: I saw it from where I stood. - a noun phrase: Next Sunday there will be a football match here. Note: The attribute is not treated separately as an independent element because it is often part of other sentence element. In a sentence - She is a beautiful girl. - beautiful is part of the noun phrase a beautiful girl, which functions as Cs.

BASIC CLAUSE TYPES - SIMPLE SENTENCE PATTERNS A simple sentence can be one of 7 basic types: SV, SVO, SVOO, SVC, SVOC, SVA, SVOA These patterns differ from each other according to which other clause elements (except subject and verb which are always present) are obligatory. The V element in a simple sentence is always a finite verb phrase. Optional adverbials can be added to any of these patterns. 2.2.1. Subject Verb (SV) The sun is shining. Verbs in this pattern are either intransitive V or V which can be both transitive and intransitive. Adverbial is optional. Some intransitive verbs are: ache, arrive, fly, hurt, sleep, shine, rain, snow, doze, bark. Time flies. You have been sleeping. Notes:(1) Some intransitive verbs are often followed by adverb particle - phrasal verbs: break down, stand up, take off, turn up, blow up .... (2) Some verbs which can be used both transit. and intransitively are: break, boil, open, ring, change, read, eat, drink, smpoke, stop.... The bell rang. The water is boiling. 2.2.2. Subject Verb Object (SVOd) verbs used in this pattern are mono-transitive verbs that need the direct object: ask, answer, buy, carry, enjoy, find, hear, like, love .... He is carrying a heavy bag. Did you enjoy the party? Notes:(1) Most mono-transitive verbs can be used in the passive. The direct object then becomes the subject of a corresponding passive clause. He lost his watch. His watch was lost. (2) Many prepositional and phrasal verbs are used in this pattern.
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Prepositional verbs are verbs always followed by a preposition, e.g. agree on, ask for, deal with, believe in .... Phrasal verbs are followed by an adverb particle which modifies the verb (not the noun). The verb and particle form one unit of meaning which cannot be predicted from the meaning of the verb and the particle in isolation: to bring up, to give up, to switch on, off, The direct object, if it is not a personal pronoun, can usually go before or after particle. I switched off the lights. I switched the lights off. But if the direct object is a personal pronoun, it must go between the verb and the particle: I switched it off. (3) Also phrasal-prepositional verbs are used in this pattern: verb + adverb particle + preposition : put up with, look forward to 2.2.3. Subject Verb Object Object (SVOiOd) Verbs used in this pattern are ditransitive which take two objects. The indirect object usually comes after the verb. It answers the question TO WHOM? The direct object usually comes after the indirect object. It answers the question WHOM? or WHAT? Some ditransitive verbs are: ask, bring, buy, do, get. give, order, pass, read, sell, send, show, tell, throw.... Notes: (1) Most ditransitive verbs can also be monotransitive. The indirect object can be omitted. He sold (me) his car. With a few verbs, e.g. ask, pay, show, teach, tell either object can be omitted. He taught us physics. He taught us. He taught physics. (2) The direct object may come before the indirect object. The indirect object is then replaced by a prepositional phrase introduced by: to, for. She showed me the photo. She showed the photo to me. The following verbs take the preposition "to": bring, give, hand, offer, owe, pass, promise, read, tell, send, show, teach, throw, write. We can also use "for" with these verbs but then it means "instead of" Ill send the letter to you. = to you personally Ill send the letter for you. = instead of you The following verbs take the preposition "for": build, buy, cut, fetch, get, leave, make, order, prepare. "for with these verbs can sometimes be ambiguous, the meaning often depends on a context. Ill cook the dinner for you. 1.for you 2.instead of you (3) Verbs such as: admit, announce, declare, deliver, demonstrate, describe, explain, introduce, mention, propose, prove, repeat, report, return, say and suggest - must take a direct object which can be followed by a preposit. object introduced by "to". He announced his attention to me. However, when the Od is too long, e.g. a that clause or an idirect question, then the prepositional object is placed immediately after the verb. He explained to me what his intention was.
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(4) Many ditransitive verbs take other prepositions than "to" or "for", e.g. accuse of, advise about, change with, compare with, congratulate on, deprive of, interest in prevent from, punish for, sentence for, suspect of, thank for ... They accused him of theft. (5) Ditransitive verbs take two objects and many of them can form two passive constructions in which either object can become a subject. He sent me a long letter. I was sent a long letter. A long letter was sent to me. 2.2.4. Subject Verb Subject Complement (SVCs) Verbs used in this pattern are copular (linking) that need a subject complement. They serve as a link to what the subject is or becomes. The Cs characterizes the subject. The most common copular verb is "be" Others are: (a) VERBS OF BEING WITH VARIOUS SHADES OF MEANING: appear, be, look, keep, stay seem, remain (He appeared disappointed. (b) VERBS OF PERCEPTION: feel, smell, sound, taste + adjective (not adverb) (I felt rather nervous.) (The child feels hot: That fish smells bad.) (c) VERBS OF BECOMING: (zmeny stavu) become, come, fall, get, grow, make, run, turn, go to become a teacher/ fat/ old/ known ... to come true, to fall in love/ asleep/ flat (The joke fell flat) to get dressed/ drowned/ married ... to go black/ green/ mad/ bad to grow rich/ pale/ old/ red/ dark to run wild (zdivie)/ dry to turn cold/ sour/ yellow to wear thin Notes: (1)The Cs normally cannot be an adverb, but there are some exceptions: - with the verb feel: He feels well. well - healthy - with some adverbs: The milk seems off. The performance is over. The television is still on (running) (2) After certain copulas, e.g. appear, feel, look, seem, sound both AME and BE prefer an infinitive constructions with to be rather than simply a noun phrase: It appears the only solution. It appears to be the only solution. 2.2.5.Subject Verb Object Object Complement (SVOdCo) They appointed him chairman. Verbs used in this pattern are complex transitive verbs that need an object and an Co, e.g. appoint, believe, call, consider, crown, declare, drive, elect, find, get, have, keep, leave, like, make, name, prefer, pronounce, prove, think, want. He called her an angel. We consider the situation alarming.
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I declare the meeting open. He found his bicycle stolen. I had my car repaired. She made her husband very happy. He keeps the garden beautiful. You have made me what I am. Notes: (1) Some complex transitive verbs are used with a preposition, most often with "as". Sometimes the prepos. is optional, sometimes obligatory. consider (as), elect (as), treat as, take as (for): I must consider this (as) an insult. They elected me (as) their leader. He took me for a fool. (2) Some other verbs can be used in this SVOC pattern. They often form verb - adjective collocations: boil an egg hard, freeze st. hard, open st. wide, push st. open, drive sb. crazy, set sb. free 2.2.6. Subject Verb Adverbial (SVA) Adverbials are usually optional sentence elements except for SVA and SVOA. Because the adverbials in these patterns are essential to the completion of the meaning of the verbs, some grammarians classify them as complements. Verbs used in SVA pattern are copulars which need an adverbial (not the Cs). Some of them are: be, come, get, go, lie, live, remain, stay, stand. The adverbials usually refer to position or direction but some other adverbials are sometimes used: time, manner, duration Peter is in the kitchen. Peter stayed in the kitchen. I stole into her room. (vkradn sa) All roads lead to Rome. Notes: behave is completed by a manner adverbial last and take are completed by an adverb of duration The course lasted (for) two weeks. 2.2.7. Subject Verb Object Adverbial (SVOA) The verbs here are complex transitive verbs that need an O and an A. get, have, keep, leave, let, place, put, send, set I am keeping most of my money in the bank. They let her into the room. Ambiguous sentences: He called her an angel. / a taxi. Ill make you first secretary. I found her a good friend. 2.3. Basic Word Order in an English Sentence English was an inflected language up to the Middle Ages. But modern English has very few inflections. Verbs: Nouns: Adjectives -s (3rd person sg) -s (plural) -er (comparative) -ing (ing form) s (genitive) -est (superlative)
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-ed (past tense) Only six words in English have different subject and object forms: I - me we - us he - him they - them she - her who - whom As English has so few inflections, the word order is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Change in word order can mean a fundamental change of meaning. The cat caught the mouse. The mouse caught the cat. I had my hair cut. I had cut my hair. The basic WO in a statement is usually SVOMPT. There are some variations in this basic WO: - in questions: What were you doing yesterday? - reporting verbs in direct speech: "Youve spoilt this!" cried Frank. - in certain conditional sentences: Should you meet him, tell him about it. - in time references requiring special emphasis: Last night we went to the cinema. - ly adverbs of manner or indefin. time: The whole building suddenly began to shake. - adverbs of indefin. frequency: She always writes her homework at school. - some adverb particles and adv. here and there: Here you are. Here comes the clown. - with negative adverbs and other negat. words: Never, in world history, has there been such a conflict. - fronting: We can put some parts of a sentence to the front for a special emphasis: A fine mess youve made of this! 4. Concord Concord is a relationship between two grammatical elements. One contains a feature that the other one has to have. 1. Grammatical Concord The most important type of concord in English is concord of number between subject and verb. A singular subject requires a singular V. A plural subject requires a plural V The child is sleeping. The children are sleeping. A clause in the position of subject counts as singular for number concord. Teaching children is interesting. How he travelled there doesnt concern me. Its possible to generalize the rule as: A subject which is not definitely marked for plural requires a singular verb. There are a few exceptions to the concord rule: Singular Ns ending with the -s (physics, ethics, billiards, measles) take sg. Measles is sometimes serious. Plural nouns lacking the inflection (cattle, people, clergy, etc.) take pl. Cattle are grazing. Plural words and phrases count as sg. if they are used as names, titles, quotations, etc. Three Sisters by Tchechov is a good play.
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Romeo and Juliet was on TV last week. The titles of some works which are collections of stories can be sg. or pl. 2. Notional Concord is an agreement in which the idea of number is more important than the mark of sg. or pl. In BrE, collective nouns (staff, government, company) are often treated as pl. when the group is considered as a collection of individuals. The government have broken all their promises. The audience were clapping. Singular and plural verbs are more or less interchangeable. In AmE grammatically sg. collective nouns are generally treated as sg. , especially when they refer to governments and sports teams. In both, BrE and AmE, plural pronouns are often used to refer to sg. collective nouns even when the verb is sg. The committee has not yet decided how they should react to the letter. 3. The principle of Proximity denotes agreement of the verb with a noun or pronoun that closely precedes it. A large number of students have passed. Coordinated subject When a subject consists of two or more noun phrases coordinated by and, a plural verb is used even if each conjoin is sg. My brother and his friend have gone to Prague. In case of coordinated apposition, however, a sg. verb is required. The capital of Slovakia and the city on the Danube welcomes visitors. The two noun phrases here both refer to one entity (Bratislava) Subject NP- es may be linked by quasi-coordinators (along with, rather than, as well as). They are semantically similar to coordinators. Grammatical concord requires a singular verb if the first noun phrase is sg. The teacher, as well as students, was content. The same grammatical rule applies when the second phrase is negative, The Prime Minister, not the monarch, decides government policy. A singular verb is required when the phrases are postmodifying. Wine from France and Italy is much lighter than our wine. For subject phrases or clauses coordinated with correlatives either ... or, neither .... nor, grammatical concord is clear when the conjoins have the same number. Either John or Mary has to come. = conjoins are singular Either teachers or students have heard about that. = plural When conjoins differ in number, the principle of proximity is applied, i.e. the number of the second conjoin determines the number of the verb. Either your brakes or your eyesight is at fault. Either your eyesight or your brakes are at fault. In less formal, colloquial usage, phrases coordinated with neither .... nor are treated more like and for concord. Neither John nor Mary have arrived. (more natural in speech)
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Neither John nor Mary has arrived. When or is used for coordinative apposition, grammatical concord requires the verb to agree in number with the first appositive. Indefinite expressions as subject: Some indefinite pronouns and determiners have both non-count and count uses. With non-count nouns, the verb is sg. Some (of the furniture) has been moved. With pl. nouns (present or implied), the verb is plural. Some (of the books) have been stolen. The pronouns either and neither generally take a singular verb. The two teachers were invited, and neither has come. With none, the plural verb is more frequently used than the sg. because of notional concord. None (of the books) have been stolen. Other types of concord There is usually concord of number between subject and subject complement and between direct object and object complement. My friend is a genius. I consider my friend a genius. My friends are geniuses. I consider my friends geniuses. There are some exceptions: Translation study books are a problem. Subject-object concord of number, person, and gender is necessary. A reflexive pronoun, subject and object pronouns or possessive determiner must agree with its antecedent in number, person and gender. She has cut herself. He is making coffee for himself. She has cut her finger. She is making coffee for him. The pronoun they is commonly used as a 3rd person singular pronoun that is neutral between masculine and feminine. It is a convenient means of avoiding the dilemma of whether to use the he or she form. At one time restricted to informal usage, it is now accepted even in formal usage. In reference to the indefinite pronouns everybody, everyone, anyone, someone, somebody, anybody, no one and nobody. Everyone thinks they will like it. Nobody has brought their books. 5. ADVERBIALS - Adjuncts, Disjuncts and Conjuncts Adverbials are mostly optional clause elements, usually telling us something extra about the action or state described by the rest of the sentence. They can be divided into two classes: 1. those that are integrated into the structure of the clause - they are termed adjuncts, 2. those that are peripheral to clause structure - they are subdivided into: disjuncts conjuncts. From other clause elements Adv. differ in several respects:
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a/ One clause can contain several instances because there is no fixed number of them in a clause. They spoke quietly in the bar until 10. b/ Adv. can be used in several possible positions within the clause (though most commonly at the end). With some clauses the Adv. can appear at up to 7 places. The adverb originally can be inserted at any points marked + in the following sentence. + The book + must + have + been + bought + in the shop +. c/ Adv. express a wide range of meanings, such as MANNER, PLACE, TIME, FREQUENCY, .... etc. He spoke well at the debate this morning. M P T d/ Most Adv. are optional, but a small number of V require an Adv. to complete their meaning, e. g. in the clause types: SVA, SVOA. These Vs include: SVA: to be, grieve, know, last, lean, lie, live, worry, and a few others. SVOA: to inform, keep, lay, place, put, tell, etc. Position Although some Adv. can only occur in fixed positions, most of them are mobile. Their placing depends partly on their structure (adverb, prepositional phrase, clause, etc.), partly on their meaning (manner, place, time, etc.). Emphasis and contrast can also play a part. We distinguish four main positions of Adv.: 1. Initial position, i.e. before the subject 2. Mid-position (Medial position): a/ M1 - immediately before the operator He definitely hasnt taken the job. I really dont mind waiting. b/ M1 - between two auxiliaries I have never been asked to do it. c/ M2 - immediately before the main verb. - after the verb to be (lexical V) 3. End- position: a/ after an intransitive V He travelled by bus. b/ after an object or complement Adverbial Meaning 1. SPACE Space adverbials can express: a/ position We stayed at the hotel. b/ direction My father has returned from Italy They walked up the hill. c/ source She has brought sheets of paper from her office. e/ distance They mustnt go further. They usually have end-position but when expressed by PPhs and clauses they can appear also in initial position. If two place Adv. occur together in end-position, the smaller unit comes before larger one, i.e. larger location is peripheral and can be moved to initial position. They spent their holidays in a cottage in the mountains.
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In the mountains they spent their holidays in a cottage. Position of direction and source Adv. depends on information processing We flew from Prague to London. We flew to London from Prague. When two or more Adj. are clustered at E, they are ordered as follows: distance - direction - position She walked a few steps towards him in the kitchen. Some Adv, especially short (there, here), can also be at medial position. 2. TIME There are five types of temporal meaning. a/ position She stopped there yesterday. b/ duration The hot weather lasted until September. c/ frequency I go there once a month, but Id like to go more often. d/ relationship between one time and another Ive already been there. Now and then can occur in I, M or E - position. Now she is staying with her mother. She is now staying with her mother. She is staying with her mother now. Time Adv. in end position tend to occur in the order: duration - frequency position. I used to play the piano for an hour or so every day in my childhood. To avoid having too many Adv. in E-position, one A is moved to I-position. Time position Ad. can be in a hierarchical relation with longer and more general period coming second. Ill see you at seven on Friday. 3. PROCESS Here we have 4 types of meaning: a/ manner He drove slowly. b/ means They travelled by plane. c/ instrument The photo was taken with a cheap camera. d/ agency Have you ever been bitten by a snake? 4. RESPECT Respect Adv. express the notion of being concerned with. They answer the question with respect to what? I need some advice on legal matters. 5. CONTINGENCY There are six types of meaning: a/ cause Hundreds of people are dying of hunger every day! b/ reason A lot of people travel on business. c/ purpose Ive bought new curtains for the bedroom. d/ result She studies hard, so her results are very good.
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e/ conditionIf you go there at once, youll get it. f/ concession Even though its hard work, I enjoy it. 6. MODALITY The truth value of a sentence can be changed (enhanced or diminished) by the use of adverbials. We distinguish three ways: a/ emphasis He certainly works very hard. b/ approximation I hardly ever go out these days. I almost dropped the plate. c/ restriction Its only for children. 7. DEGREE Degree Adv. include: a/ amplification It badly needs redecorating. (enormously, greatly) b/ diminution Im a bit tired. They helped us a little. Syntactic functions Adverbials function as: 1. adjuncts, 2. disjuncts and 3. conjuncts. Each class has a different range of meanings and follows different rules. ADJUNCTS have grammatical properties like other clause elements, S, O and C. They are relating directly to the meaning of the V or to the whole sentence. Accordingly we distinguish: a/ predication adjuncts (modifying the V only). They occur naturally only at the end. The dog bit her on the leg. b/ sentence adjuncts (relating directly to the whole sentence). They can occur both at the beginning of a clause or at the end. The dog bit her on Friday. On Friday the dog bit her. There are two important similarities between adjuncts and other clause elements. 1. They can be the focus of a cleft sentence: Peter met Mary in the park. It was in the park that Peter met Mary. It was Peter who met Mary in the park. ( focus on the subject) It was Mary who Peter met in the park. (focus on the object) 2. They can be the answer to a question: Where did Peter meet Mary? In the park. Criteria for adjuncts Three criteria have been selected to identify adjuncts. 1. If an adverbial cannot appear initially in a negative declarative clause, it is an adjunct. +Immediately he didnt leave for home. Immediately he left for home. (immediately - adjunct) 2. If an adverbial can be contrasted with another adverbial in alternative interrogation, it is an adjunct. Alternative interrogation shows that the adverbial is the focus of clause interrogation. She visits her parents because she wants to.
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Does she visit her parents because she wants to or because she needs something? 3. If an adverbial can be contrasted with another adverbial in alternative negation, it is an adjunct, alternative negation showing that the adverbial is the focus of the clause negation. He went to Prague on Friday. He didnt go to Prague on Friday, he went there on Saturday. DISJUNCTS play a superior role to the other elements in the clause. They do not modify anything within the sentence and are felt to be only loosely associated with it. This feeling is supported by the use of the comma in writing and by a distinct intonation in the speech. The disjuncts occur mostly at the beginning of the sentence. They act as if they were outside the clause, giving the speaker a chance to comment on what is taken place inside it. (Crystal, 1988, 160) Some of them express an emotional reaction, judgement or evaluation of what is being said either with respect to the form of the communication or to its content. Accordingly there are two types: a/ Style disjuncts e.g. briefly, candidly, confidentially, frankly, frankly speaking, honestly, in short, literally, personally, quite simply, to be precise, to put it bluntly, seriously, so to say, strictly speaking, etc. They convey the speakers comment about the style or form of what is being said and express the conditions under which the listener should interpret the accompanying sentence. Frankly, I dont think her chances are very good. (i.e. I tell you frankly that ...) To put it bluntly, I think your chances of passing the exam are almost non-existent. (i.e. I tell you without trying to hide unpleasant facts) b/ Content disjuncts (attitudinal disjuncts, sentence adverbials) comment on the truth value of what is said or express an attitude to an utterance by way of evaluation. Surprisingly, none of them objected to it. (It is surprising that ...) Fortunately, the fire was discovered soon after it had started. Unfortunately, they were out when we called. Other content disjuncts include: admittedly, amazingly, annoyingly, hopefully, luckily, of course, preferably, regrettably, sadly, sensibly, to my regret, to our surprise, wisely, etc. The two criteria for adjuncts do not apply to disjuncts: 1. We cannot focus on a disjunct: In short, he recognized me. (+It was in short that he recognized me. imposs.) 2. Nor can we use a disjunct to answer a question. How did he recognize you? (+In short. - impossible)
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CONJUNCTS are adverbials whose function is to relate or conjoin independent grammatical units, such as clauses, sentences and paragraphs. They are little involved in the internal structure of the clause and indicate the connection between what is being said and what was said before. They are often used as essential linking items between the clauses and sentences. Conjuncts can be grouped into 7 main types. a/ listing (enumerative): first, second, third .... firstly, secondly, ... one, two, three ... in the first place, in the second place ... to begin with, for a start, likewise, furthermore, next, to conclude, last of all, finally, moreover, etc. b/ summarising: all in all, in all, in conclusion, to conclude, to sum up, altogether, briefly, in brief, in short, etc. c/ same or similar meaning: in other words, namely, i.e. = that is, that is to say, for instance, e.g. = for example, etc. d/ expressing result: accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence (formal), therefore, now, so, etc. e/ inferring: otherwise, in that case, else, then, in other words, etc. f/ contrastive: rather, more precisely, in other words, on the other hand, alternatively, instead, however, on the contrary, by contrast, in (by) comparison, etc. g/ attention shifting: by the way, incidentally, meanwhile, in the meantime, etc.

3. DISCOURSE FUNCTION AND CLAUSE TYPES Statements, Questions, Commands, Exclamations When we communicate, we perform speech acts, we use sentences to give information, to ask for information or to give a directive. These are three illocutionary acts which are grammatically realised by declarative, interrogative and imperative moods. Each mood type is associated with an illocutionary act: 1/ the declarative can be used to express a statement; 2/ the interrogative II a question; 3/ the imperative II a command or request 4/ the exclamative II an exclamation.
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The declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamative sentences may have also other functions. A declarative S I am thirsty. may express a request. An interrogative Can you pass me your pen? can also express a request. An imperative Have some more cakes functions as an offer. We can see that there can be indirect illocutionary acts expressed by each type of sentences. 3.1. STATEMENTS (DECLARATIVE SENTENCES) - are sentences which are primarily used to give information. They end with a full stop and in AE period. The subject in statements is normally present and precedes the verb. (But see II.3.) Statements can be a/ affirmative or b/ negative 3.1.1. Affirmative sentences - are sentences which express a positive idea, they do not contain a negative element. (see II.2. and II.3.) 3.1.2. Negative statements. They contain a negative element and can be formed from affirmative statements in the following ways: (1) by putting "not" after the first auxiliary or modal auxiliary verb. You oughtnt to have come. The verb "have" can have two negative forms, either as an auxiliary or as a full verb. (BE) I havent got a car. (AE) I dont have a car. (2) by putting "do not", "does not", "did not" after the subject (before a full verb). The full verb is always in bare infinitive. I did not enjoy the party. (3) by using words with negative meaning. They can be adverbs, negative pronouns and determiners or other words which can have negative meaning. Negat. adverbs: barely, hardly, hardly ever, scarcely, rarely, seldom, never, no longer, no more, nowhere. She rarely makes mistakes, does she? He seldom goes to any parties. Negat. pronouns and determiners: no (deter.), nobody (pron.), no one (deter. pron.), none (pron.), nor, neither, not many, not all, few, little. Nothing has happened since you came. Other words with negative meaning: without, against, too, only, V: forget, fail, deny, prevent, refuse, avoid, Adj: hard, difficult, ignorant, unaware, N: lack, absence, denial, refusal, failure She decided to leave without telling anyone. Only two of us had any experience in sailing. She refused any help. This crossword puzzle is too difficult for anyone to solve. He denies I ever told him.
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Notes on the negative: (1) Negative adverbs and other words with negative meaning - never, seldom, rarely, hardly, no sooner, not once, not only, at no time, under no circumstances, on no account - can be put at the beginning of the sentence for special emphasis. Then, the WO is reversed. Never have there been so many spectators. Hardly have we finished the work when it began to rain. Little does he realize how important the match is. No sooner was I in bed when the phone started to ring. Not only did I hear the car, I actually saw it crash. Normally there is only one negative word in an English sentence. I dont know anybody here. I know nobody here. (formal) However, ocassionally two negatives can be in the same sentence or clause, but the meaning is positive What he says is not unreasonable. = its reasonable. Nobody did nothing. = Everybody did something. From the syntactical point of view these sentences are negative, and we can add positive question tags to them. I cant not obey her, can I ? 3.1.3. Additions are short positive or negative sentences added to positive or negative statements. They contain a form of the auxiliary verb used in the statement, but when there is no auxiliary in the statement (the simple present and past tenses), "do, did, does" are used in place of full verbs. Additions can have the following forms: (1) After positive statements: AND + SUBJ + AUX, + TOO AND + SO + AUX + SUBJ BUT + SUBJ + NEGAT AUX. I like swimming and my wife does, too. and so does my wife. but my wife doesnt. (2) After a negative statement: AND + SUBJ + NEGAT. AUX, + EITHER AND + NEITHER/NOR (interchangable) + AUX + SUBJ BUT + SUBJ + AUX I don t smoke and my wife doesnt, either. and neither/nor (colloqial) does my wife. but my wife does. 3.1.4. Responses - are short sentences said by another speaker. (1) Responses to statements can be used to:
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(a) express agreement/ disagreement with a statement. The subject of the response is usually a pronoun. A: George can play tennis very well. B: Yes, he can. / No, he cant. (b) express that someone else performs or doesnt perform the action of a statement too/either. This type of response has the same form as addition. The response to a positive statement is positive too. and the response to a negative statement is negative, too. SUBJ + AUX, + TOO SO + AUX + SUBJ SUBJ + NEG. AUX + EITHER NEITHER (NOR) + AUX +SUBJ A: Weve got a problem. B: I have, too. B: So have I. (Informal: B: Me too.) A: I cant drive. B: I cant either. B: Neither can I. (Informal: B: Me neither.) (2) Responses to questions can have various forms but the most common are: (a) short answers to yes/no questions They can have the following form: YES, + SUBJ + AUX NO, + SUBJ + NEG. AUX The subject is usually a pronoun. A: Are you hungry? B: Yes, I am. B: No, I am not. Do you speak English? B: Yes, I do. B: No, I dont. (b) responses with so/not "So" and "not" are used as pro forms. Pro forms are words used to replace syntactic element in a clause or entire clauses. "So" and "not" in responses are used to avoid repetition of entire clauses after certain verbs, e.g.: believe, expect, guess, hope, imagine, presume, reckon, think, be afraid. "So" is used to replace positive statements, "not" is used for negative statements. Do you think youll pass the exam? Well, I hope so. Is it going to rain? I hope not. An alternative negative response with "not ... so" is possible with some verbs. I suppose so. I suppose not. I dont suppose so. I think so. I think not I dont think so. I believe so. I believe not. I dont believe so. I expect so. xxx (formal) I dont expect so. I imagine so. xxx (formal) I dont imagine so. I am afraid so. Im afraid not. xxxx I hope so. I hope not. xxxx 3.2. QUESTIONS are sentences which are primarily used to express lack of information and to request the listener to supply this information. They have one or more of the following characteristics: (1) The operator (auxiliary, do does, did) is placed before the subject. Will you speak to him? Do the shops close before 7? (2) The sentence begins with an interrogative word.
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Who will you speak to? (3) The sentence has rising intonation in spoken English. Will you speak to him today? (4) In written English questions end with a question mark. There are several types of Q: 1/ yes / no Q 7/ Q about alternatives 2/ negative Q 8/ emphatic Q with "ever" 3/ Wh- Q 9/ rhetorical Q 4/ Q tags 10/ non-finite Q 5/ statement Q 11/ verbless Q 6/ echo tags

3.2.1. Yes / No Questions They normally have rising intonation. The answer is either positive (yes) or negative (no) or some other expressions (perhaps, never, not at all, certainly, naturally, I expect so, I think so, etc.) They are formed from statements in two ways: (1) by inversion if the statement contains an auxiliary or modals. If there are more auxiliaries in the statement, it is always the first one which goes before the subject in Q. He could have been delayed. Could he have been delayed? (2) with full verbs the Q are formed with "do, does" in the simple present and "did" in the simple past. She speaks English well? Does she speak English well? Notes: (1) Its very unusual to answer yes/no Q in full sentence. We usually use short responses containing yes/no + personal pronoun + auxiliary verb. Did you go to the cinema last night? Yes, I did. (2) It can be unfriendly or rude to answer yes/no Q very briefly with yes, no. Usually the first verb is repeated in a response. 3.2.2. Negative questions An English positive Q may be translated into Slovak in two ways: Do you know when he comes home from work? Vie (nevie), kedy chod z prce? We have to be very careful with negative Q in English. Very often they can express criticism, annoyance, anger. Negative Q are usually used: (1) when we wish to express surprise or disbelief Cant you swim? (2) when we wish to persuade someone Wont you help me?
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(3) when we want to criticize or express annoyance Canyou shut the door? (no answer is expected) (4) in exclamations with falling intonation Isnt it hot here? Note: Short forms are usually used in negative Q. Didnt you see it? Did you not see it? (less used) 3.2.3. Wh- Questions - begin with interrogative pronoun or determiners: who, whom, what, which, whose, or with interrogative adverbs: where, when, why, how. They generally have falling intonation. With auxiliary verbs they are formed by inversion, with full verbs in the simple present and past tenses they are formed with "do, does, did". What are you doing? What do you do every evening? When a WH word is the subject of a sentence or when it refers to the subject, there is no inversion and we dont use "do, does, did". My mother brought the cakes. Who brought the cakes? But when the WH word is the object or when it refers to the object, then there is inversion or "do, does, did". What did your mother bring? When a verb + prepos. particle is used in wh- Q , the prepos. particle usually goes at the end. I am looking for a book. What are you looking for? In formal English the prepos. may be put at the beginning before the wh- word. For what are you looking? Particular wh- words and their use. WHO, WHOM refer to people. Who is the subject form, whom is the object form. Whom is normally used in formal English. In informal English who is used also for object: Whom are you waiting for? (formal) Who are you waiting for? (informal) Whom has to be used after a preposition: For whom are you waiting? WHAT refers to things. It is both the subject and object form. It can also refer to people when we ask about their occupation. What is your father? He is a doctor. Some phrases with what: What is this called in English? What is it for? What did you do that for? (What for = why) What colour / size is it? What is it like? (appearance) What does she look like? (appearance) What does he do? (job) What time is it? WHICH is used instead of who, whom, or what when the choice is limited.
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Which is your favourite singer, Sting or G.M.? Which is easier, Spanish or French? There are three books here, which is yours? As a pronoun which is followed by "of" and by the definite article, the possessive determiner/pronoun, an object pronoun, demonstrative pronoun. Which of the flowers do you like? Which of her friends phoned? Which of them phoned? Which of these books do you want? WHOSE refers to possession. The possessor is always a person. It can be a pronoun or a determiner. Whose is this record? Whose record is this? WHERE - interrogative adv, asks about place. Where are you going? WHEN - interrogative adv, asks about time. When do you get up? WHY - interrogative adv, asks about reason or purpose. Why did you do it? (What did you do it for?) Why dont and why not are used to make suggestions. Why dont you go there? Why dont we go to the cinema? HOW - interrogative adv, asks about manner. How did you do that? HOW MUCH, HOW MANY - ask about quantity. How much did you pay? How many pounds did you pay? HOW LONG - asks about duration. How long have you known her? HOW LONG AGO - refers to a point of time in the past. How long ago did it happen? Other phrases with how: How do you do? How are you? Hows life? How about a drink?

3.2.4. Question Tags (Tag Questions) A tag question is a short Q which follows a statement, itseparated by a comma. Auxiliary verbs used in statements are repeated in Q tags, full verbs are replaced by "do, does, did". The subject of a Q tag is always a pronoun. Negative Q tags are almost always abbreviated. If the statement is positive, the tag is generally negative and vice versa. Im late, arent I? She works in an office, doesnt she? Im not late, am I? She doesnt work in an office, does she? The intonation of the tag can be either falling or rising. When Q tags are asked with falling intonation, they are more like statements. The speaker doesnt need confirmation of information. When Q tags are asked with rising intonation, the speaker expects yes/no answer. You read the book, didnt you. (falling - Im sure) You read the book, didnt you. (rising - Yes, I did.) Notes:
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(1) when a statement begins with "there", this "there" is used instead of subject in the Q tags. (2) the subject of the Q tag after indefinite pronouns is "they". Nobody has been told, have they? Everyone is ready to leave now, arent they? (3) "this" and "that" are replaced by "it" in the Q tags. "these" and "those" are replaced by "they" (4) After "I am" the Q tag is "arent I?" (5) After "have" as a full verb the Q tag is formed with "do, does, did". You have lunch at 12, dont you? You dont have lunch, do you? (6) After "lets" the Q tag is "shall we?" Lets go to the cinema, shall we. (7) After the second person imperative the Q tag is usually will you?/wont you? Open the door, will you?/wont you? (less insistent, more polite) Negative imperatives are less commonly followed by tags but sometimes will you? with a falling tone is possible. Dont make a noise, will you? (8) When a statement contains a negative word, the Q tag is positive: You never work on Sundays, do you? He denied stealing the money, did he? (9) Positive statement, positive Q tag with rising intonation expresses that the speaker wants to know more So she is getting married, is she? Yes, the wedding is in June. (10) Positive statement, positive Q tag with falling intonation expresses disappointment, suspicion, or anger. You have eaten my steak, have you? (11) Negative statement, negative Q tag expresses aggression. So he wont pay the bill, wont he? (12) The Q tag after "ought to" is oughtnt. She ought to do it now, oughtnt she? (13) The Q tag after "used to" is didnt. He used to smoke, didnt he? (14) If the sentence is long, the Q tag can be inserted in the middle. It isnt true, is it, that you are thinking of giving up your job. (15) There are some other Q tags or fixed expressions that can be added to statements. They have the same form whether the statement is positive or negative. They usually have rising intonation. Am I right? Isnt that so? Dont you think? Wouldnt you say? Isnt that true? Right? O.K.? 3.2.5. Statement (declarative) questions have the same grammar structure as statements but they have rising intonation. Shes already done it? /pka hore/ You are hungry? /pka hore/ 3.2.6. Echo tags (Comment tags)
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are responses to affirmative or negative statements. They express the speakers interest, sympathy, surprise, suspicion, disbelief depending on intonation. They contain auxiliary verbs used in statements, full verbs replaced by do, does, did. The subject is always a pronoun. The basic type of echo tag contains an auxiliary and a pronoun. It can have a form of Q or statement. If the statement is positive, the tag is positive, too. And vice versa A: Im leaving tomorrow. B: Are you? / You are? A: I can speak English and Spanish. B: Can you? / You can? Rising intonation means that the speaker wants more information. A: The Browns have bought a new car. B: Have they? / They have? A: Yes, they bought it yesterday. A: I didnt pass my exam yesterday. B: Didnt you? / You didnt? (asking as: Why?) Falling intonation suggests that the speaker confirms what he has guessed. A: The Browns have bought a new car. B: Have they? / They have? (I knew they wanted to buy.) Falling intonation can also express anger, surprise or disbelief. A: I havent finished it yet. B: Havent you? / You havent? (anger) An echo tag can also be a combination of statement and a Q tag. A: Your brother will arrive tomorrow. B: Will he? / He will? B: He will, wont he? / He will, will he? A: Your father wont arrive tomorrow. B: Wont he? / He wont? B: He wont, will he? Note: Positive and negative combinations may be used to express anger. A: I borrowed your car. B: Oh, you did, did you? (anger) B: I didnt think youd need it. B: Oh, you didnt, did you? 3.2.7. Alternative Questions (Questions about alternatives) present two or more options which have rising intonation except for the last option which has falling intonation. The speaker expects that the listener will choose one of the options. Which would you prefer, beer, brandy or wine? Did you see it or didnt you see it? Alternative Q are often abbreviated. Did you see it or didnt you see it? Did you or didnt you see it? Did you see it or not? Did you or didnt you? 3.2.8. Emphatic Questions with Ever. This type of Q expresses speakers anger, annoyance, concern ... They begin with a Wh- word followed by "ever". Ever is written as a separate word. The stress is on both words. What ever are you doing? Where ever did you find it? Who ever told you that?
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The expression "on earth" can be used instead of "ever". Where on earth have you been? In everyday speech stronger expressions such as "the dickens, the devil, the blazes, the hell" can be used in place of "ever". All the expressions except "the hell" are tolerable in normal society. What the devil do you mean by that? Who the blazes do you think you are. Where the fuck are the car keys? (taboo) 3.2.9. Rhetorical Questions are not real questions because the speaker doesnt expect the answer. They don t express lack of information. A positive rhetorical Q expresses a strong negative idea and the negative rhetorical Q expresses a strong positive idea. Y/N Q Could he have done it? / He couldnt have. WhWho could have known it? Who knows? You want to be arrested? 3.2.10. Non-finite Questions contain a non-finite verb, usually infinitive. To be or not to be? To study or to leave? What to do? Where to go? How to do it? 3.2.11. Verbless Questions And what about you? How about the children? For how long? 3.3. COMMANDS are primarily used to order sb. to do st. but they can also be used to make offers, requests, invitations, suggestions, to give advice, instructions etc. A command is usually a sentence with a verb in the imperative but there are also other ways of expressing commands. In written English commands end with a fullstop(.) or an exclamation mark(!) when the command is urgent. 3.3.1. Commands expressed by the imperative 3.3.1.1. second person imperative 3.3.1.2. first person imperative 3.3.1.3. third person imperative 3.3.1.1 second person imperative The positive 2nd person imperative has the form of the bare infinitive: Come here. Hurry! Fire! (P!) The negative 2nd person imperative is formed by putting "do not" or "dont" before the infinitive. "Do not" is used in public notices. Do not feed the animals. Do not lean out of the window. A positive 2nd person imperative can be made more emphatic by putting "do" before the bare infinitive. "Do" is stressed. "Never" and "always" can also be used for emphasis. Do stop shouting! Do be quiet! Do have some more tea.
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Never speak to me like that. Always remember to smile. 2nd person imperative with subject: When the speaker wants to get attention of someone in particular, we can put "you" before the verb. This may sound impolite especially when "you" is stressed. You be quiet! The subject can also be a noun, a proper name or a pronoun (a noun phrase) Parents with children go to the front. Nobody say a word. Everybody go to bed. Go to bed, everybody. Notes: (1) Two imperatives can be joined by "and". In Slovak the 2nd imperative would be expressed by the infinitive. Go and buy some bread. ( Not ...go to buy.) Come and see me. Come and play a game of chess. Go and see who is at the door. But the infinitive is possible after "try" Try and help. = Try to help. (2) After affirmative imperatives the following Q tags are used: will you, wont you, would you, can you, cant you, could you. They usually make the imperative sound more polite, but some of them can express anger, annoyance, or impatience depending on the stress and intonation. "Will you" and "wont you" are most common. Do sit down, wont you? Give me a hand, will you? Open the window, will you? Shut up, cant you? After a negative imperative only "will you" is used. Dont forget, will you? 3.3.1.2. first person imperative has the form LET + ME/US + BARE INF. Let us abbreviated to lets. Let me think. Let me see. Lets have a party. The negative is formed by putting "not" after "let me" or "lets" or by putting "dont" before "let me" or "lets". "Dont" is used in informal English. Let us not open the door. (Lets not ...) Dont lets open the door. Lets dont say anything. (AE) Q tag after "lets" is "shall we". Note: (1) Let is also used as a full verb with the meaning "allow". Let us cant be abbreviated here. Please, let us help you. Let us go. (permit us to go.) but Lets go. (suggestion) The Q tag in this use (allow) is "will you/wont you?" Let me read it for you, will/wont you?

3.3.1.3. the third person imperative has the form LET + OBJECT PRON./NOUN + BARE INF. Let them go by train. Let her do it now. Let no one think that a teachers life is easy.
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3.3.2. Commands with modal verbs can express obligation, prohibition, instructions, orders, regulations, etc. They have the form of statements. The most common modal verbs used in commands are "must, must not, may not, cannot, will, shall. MUST usually express obligation: You must stay in bed. Dogs must be kept on leads. You must come. MUST NOT, MAY NOT, CANNOT express prohibition. You mustnt (cannot) smoke here. You may not watch TV as long as you like. Students may not bring dictionaries into exam rooms. WILL used mainly in written instructions or by people who have some authority. Instruction: When the alarm rings, passengers and crew will assemble at their boat stations. People with authority: You will report at my office at ten. You will stay here. CAN expresses a mild command. You can write it now. SHALL Commands with shall are used in very formal written regulations. They are often in the passive. A record shall be kept of the number of students attending each class. The Chairman, Secretary and Treasurer shall be elected annually. 3.3.3. Verbless commands. contain no verb: Down! Faster! That way (this way)! 3.4. EXCLAMATIONS (EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS) They are sentences that express speakers or writers feelings and emotions In written English they usually end with exclamation mark. In spoken English intonation is very important. Usually: falling - rising or rising - falling. Practically any type of clause or even a word can become an exclamation. The most common exclamations are: 3.4.1. Exclamations beginning with What or How. This is most common exclamation. Word order is similar to that of statements But "What/How" + object/adverbial/complement are placed before the subject: WHAT/HOW + O/A/C + S + V What/how may be preceded by "Oh" Oh, what a nice garden it is! What weather we are having! What fools they are! How I used to hate grammar! How quickly you eat! How old he is! Compare: How old is he? Notes: (1) Occasionally there can be inversion of subject and verb. How could she do such a thing! How rarely do I see you!
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(2) With Q tags What a beautiful painting it is, isnt it? How thin she is, isnt she? 3.4.2. Exclamations with "Here/There" There he is! Here they are! Here comes the bride! Off they went! Note: If the subject is a personal pronoun, it comes before the verb. If it is not a personal pronoun, it comes after verb. There goes the train! There it goes! 3.4.3. Exclamation questions have the same gram. structure of a question but the force of exclamation. In written English they end with an exclamation mark. Typically they are Yes/No Q with falling intonation but positive Yes/No Q with falling intonation is also used. The speaker expects the listeners agreements. Arent some people fools! Was it a beautiful day! 3.4.4. Exclamatory wishes with "IF ONLY / I WISH can be used to express exclamatory wishes. In spoken English the intonation is important. I wish you wouldnt talk like that! If only Id listen to you! 3.4.5. Exclamation with modal verbs Some modals like "may, should, would, can, must" can be used to form exclamations. Exclamations with "may, would" usually express wishes. May the best way win! May you always be happy! It cant be true. You must be mistaken. 3.4.6. Echo exclamations repeats part or all of a sentence. It has rising to falling intonation. A: I am going to London for a holiday. B: To London! or London! or Going to London! 3.4.7. Non-finite exclamations with subjunctive contain a non-finite verb (usually a to infinitive) or a subjunctive. What a foolish thing to do! How kind of them to help us! You fool, to forget your wedding anniversary! Long live the king! God save the Queen! Heaven help us! 3.4.8. Verbless exclamations They can be abbreviated exclamations beginning with WHAT, HOW or just single words. What a pretty girl! What a day! How silly! Well done! Wonderful!
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3.4.9. Interjections are special emotion words: Oh! Hooray! Ouch! 6. PRO - FORMS AND ELLIPSIS Pro-forms and ellipsis are syntactic devices for abbreviating constructions to avoid redundancy. She might study tomorrow, but I dont think she will study tomorrow. We can avoid the repetition of e.g. study tomorrow 6.1 by the substitution of the pro-form do so She might study tomorrow, but I dont think she will do so. 6.2 by ellipsis She might study tomorrow, but I dont think she will......... Abbreviation can also contribute to clarity, because attention is focused on new information. Have you written the essay? .......Not yet......... Recoverability In order that constructions with pro-forms and ellipsis should be interpreted correctly, the full form must be recoverable. The three types of recoverability are: a/ Textual recoverability: The full form is recoverable from a neighbouring part of the text. b/ Situational recoverability: The full form is recoverable from the extralinguistic situation. c/ Structural recoverability: The full form is recoverable from knowledge of grammatical structure. Why is Tim on a diet? I mean, he is not exactly fat. The use of the pronoun he presupposes that the speaker and hearer know the identity of the person to whom the pronoun refers. There are two types of textual recoverability: 1. anaphoric recoverability where the antecedent (Tim) comes before the pronoun. 2. cataphoric recoverability is less common, the antecedent follows the pronoun. 6.1 Pro-forms (substitution) are devices which replace or substitute a particular syntactic form 6.1.1 Pro-forms for NP-es and their constituents are: - the 3rd person pronouns and determiners: Shaw said he had convinced the jury of his innocence. - indefinite pronouns: all, both, any, some, each, either and none. They can be regarded as elliptical, since they can be expanded with an of-phrase. When the students pass, each (of the students) is given credits. Both of the cars are expensive, and neither (of the cars) are airconditioned.
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- demonstratives: that, those I read the first volume and that (volume) was excellent. - the same: (not only for NP, but also for a PP and anAdjP) Two years ago I taught English grammar and now I teach the same. The wine tasted too sour and now this tastes the same. - one, ones for count N or a NP heads, they must have a determiner. Have you got any pens? Can you lend me a red one? Plastic plates are less expensive than glass ones. one, some for an indefinite NP (count N) Can you show me a few books? I need to read some. some, any for noncount N Which coffee would you like? Black or white? 6.1.2 pro-forms for clauses and clause elements - pro-form do or do so for the predicate Jane studies English and her friend does, too. She has applied for the post. I wouldnt do so, if I were her. - pro forms for adverbials: here, there for place adverbials then for time adverbials so, thus for process adverbials (in formal context) (in) that way or like that (in informal context) Have you been to Spain? Id like to go there. Have you met the professor on Friday? No, I wasnt at school then. I wouldnt explain it that way. - pro form so, after the verb to be pro form like that for complement (AdjP or NP) He is jealous. It is his wife who has made him so. Ten per cent of the workers are jobless and they will be (so). they will be like that they will remain so - pro forms so and not for direct object that-clause: Will I need my coat? I think not. These pro forms are used after verbs: believe, guess, imagine, reckon, suspect, expect, hope, presume, suppose, think. Negation with dont +verb + so can be used instead Will they win? I dont think so. 6.2 Ellipsis is grammatical omission. According to its position within a construction we distinguish three types of ellipses: 6.2.1 Initial ellipsis - initial elements are ellipted: (Ill) See you later. 6.2.2 Medial ellipsis - medial elements are ellipted. I study in B. B and they (study) in Luenec. 6.2.3 Final ellipsis - final elements are ellipted.
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I am happy if you are (happy) According to 3 types of recoverability we distinguish : 6. 2. 4 Situational ellipsis, the interpretation of which may depend on a knowledge of the extralinguistic context. Usually subject and operator in declarative and interrogative sentences are omitted. It is initial ellipsis. (I am) Sorry, I am late. (Do you) Want some coffee? (Is) Anything the matter? 6.2.5 Structural ellipsis, the interpretation of which depends on knowledge of grammatical structure (that, for) Ive been waiting (for) ten minutes. I dont know (that) you have passed the exam. In minor sentences (headlines, book titles, notices, in familiar style) determiners, pronouns, operators can be omitted. 6.2.6 Textual ellipsis, the interpretation of which depends on what is said or written in the linguistic context. We distinguish: 6.2.6.1 anaphoric ellipsis - the interpretation depends on what comes before, antecedent comes first. If the book is boring, the film is (boring) too. 6.2.6.2 cataphoric ellipsis - the interpretation depends on what comes after, antecedent comes after the ellipsis. Those who prefer (to read the story), should read the story in English. Ellipses dependent on the linguistic context can be: 1. In adverbial finite clauses, in which the whole of the predication or part of it can be omitted. Ill have to wash the dishes because he wont......... 2. In adverbial non-finite and verbless clauses, where the subject and an appropriate form of the verb be are ellipted. The subject of the main and dependent clause must be the same. a/ participle clauses: Although (he was ) told to stop, he kept on working. b/ verbless clauses: While (he was) in Spain, he picked up a few Spanish words. 3. In postmodification a/ postmodifying AdjP: The terrorists (who are) responsible for the attack have been imprisoned . b/ postmodifying PP: Ive met the man (who is) from Birmingham. 4. In coordinated clauses: a/ ellipsis of subject Susan came home and (Susan) prepared dinner. b/ If the subjects and auxiliaries are identical, ellipsis of both is normal: John has washed the car and (John) has dried it c/ ellipsis of auxiliary only if the subjects are different
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She might have been watching TV and Peter (might have been) reading a paper. d/ ellipsis of VP or lexical V in predicate I get up at seven and my brother (gets up) at six. e/ ellipsis of VP + Cs Elisabeth was ill last week and Jane (was ill) a month ago. f/ ellipsis of VP(lexical V) + Od You will bring the essay tomorrow and your neighbour (will bring the essay) next week. g/ ellipsis of Od - if Od alone is ellipted, the realized items must be in the last clause Emily opened (the gate) but George closed the gate. h/ ellipsis of Cs - if Sc alone is ellipted, and the verb in the last clause is other than be, the realized items must be in the last clause: Simon was (unhappy) and John seemed unhappy, too. It would be more common to have the pro-form so in the second clause than to have any ellipsis. Simon was unhappy and John seemed so. When the V in the last clause is be, the realized item can be either in the first clause or in the last clause. Simon seemed unhappy and John certainly was (unhappy). i/ ellipsis of adverbial

7. COORDINATION Coordination involves the linking of units which are on the same syntactic level. Coordinated units are termed conjoins. There are three types of coordination in English: 1. SYNDETIC COORDINATION, in which the units are linked by a coordinating conjunction or coordinator: and, or, but David and Joan want to travel by plane. 2. ASYNDETIC COORDINATION, in which coordinators are not present, but could be inserted. When more than two units are coordinated, it is usual to insert the coordinator once only - between the last two units. David, Joan, Chris and Paul want to travel by plane. 3. POLYSYNDETIC COORDINATION, in which the coordinator is repeated between each pair of units. Syntactic features of coordinators There are a few syntactic features of coordinators:
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1. Clause coordinators and, or and but are restricted to initial position in the second clause. He was watching TV and she was cooking. 2. Coordinated clauses beginning with and, or, but are sequentially fixed The traffic was heavy and we couldnt hurry. 3. Coordinators are not preceded by a conjunction. 4. Coordinators can link clause elements: a/ NP functioning as S or O Within NPs, heads can be coordinated. Then the determiner, premodifier or postmodifier apply to each of the conjoins: his beautiful wife and daughter (his beautiful wife and his beautiful daughter) b/ coordinated modifiers: clever and intelligent student c/ VP: She can cook, but cannot bake. d/ main V: She might have heard or see them. e/ AdjP: The trip was long and exhausting. f/ Adv: He spoke quickly and quietly. g/ PreP: Lets meet in the restaurant or in front of the cinema. 5. Coordinators can link subordinate clauses. 6. Coordinators can link more than two clauses. APPOSITION Apposition resembles coordination in linking units, but in the case of apposition the units are identical in reference or the reference of one must be included in the reference of the other. The linking units are usually two NPs which occur next to each other and refer to the same person or thing. A second year student, Matej Gordo, is coming here. The two NPs can also occur in a different order: Matej Gardo, a second year student, is coming here. In this sentence, the second NP can be regarded as a reduced non-restrictive relative clause: Matej Gardo, who is a second year student, is coming. The meaning relation expressed by apposition is the same as that expressed by a subject and its complement: Matej Gardo is a second year student. Apposition can be restrictive and non-restrictive. 1. Restrictive apposition is common, especially when the first element defines the meaning of the second element. The first appositive is more general and is preceded by a definite determiner (and possibly modifier):
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the famous writer Charles Dickens the novel David Copperfield my good friend Eve It can also restrict the meaning: Mr Pitz the professor was in Poland last week. (Mr Pitz the professor as opposed to any other Mr Pitz we know) 2. Non-restrictive apposition does not restrict or limit the meaning of the NP. Mr Pitz, the professor, was in Poland last night. The second NP is separated by commas in writing. There are a number of expressions that indicate apposition. They can be inserted between the units. Common indicators of apposition are: that is, i.e. (in formal English), namely, in other words, or, or rather, or better, and, for example, for instance, such as, particularly, in particular, notably, chiefly, mainly, mostly

8. The Passive Voice In the active voice the subject is the doer of an action. In the passive the subject is the sufferer of the action. Only transitive verbs which are used in sentence patterns SVO, SVOO, SVOC and SVOA can be put into the passive voice. Then the object of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive voice, and the subject of the active voice becomes an agent of the passive voice. The agent is
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often omitted, but when it is mentioned, it is usually preceded by the preposition by. When there are two objects in the active voice, we can usually form two passive sentences. Personal subject is more common. My mother gave me this watch. I was given this watch by my mother. This watch was given to me. 8.1.1. Form of the Passive The passive is formed with different tenses of "to be" followed by the past participle. Present progressive: am /is/ are + being + past participle They are repairing their house. Their house is being repaired. Past progressive: was/ were + being + past participle When I was there last night, they were repairing their house. When I was there last year, their house was being repaired. The infinitives: Active Passive Present: to invite to be invited Past(perfect): to have invited to have been invited The -ing form: Active Passive Present: cooking being cooked Perfect: having cooked having been cooked Notes on the form of passive: (1) Other passive progressive forms than present and past are very uncommon. (2) The passive infinitive be + past participle is used after modal verbs and after a number of other structures: going to, have to, want to, would like to .. The door must be kept locked. It has to be done today. The house is going to be repaired next month. (3) The Passive Perfect Infinitive heve been + past participle is used after modal verbs to talk about the past. They should have been told about the danger. Your car must have been stolen. (4) The passive present -ing form being + past participle is used after verbs such as: enjoy, like, hate, remember and after prepositions. I dont like people telling me what to do. I dont like being told what to do. She is afraid of being attacked. (5) The perfect passive -ing form having been + past participle is used in place of various adverbial clauses in the present perfect, past perfect and the simple past. (They are called non-finite clauses.) Having been rejected by everybody, he became a monk. The work having been done, we sat down to rest. 8.1.2. The Use of Passive The Passive is used: (1) when the doer of an action is not known. My bicycle was stolen.
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(2) when an action is more important than the doer. I have been invited to the party. (3) when we do not want to mention the doer of the action. The window was broken. (4) when we want to avoid empty subjects, such as someone, somebody, a person, people, you, we, they, one. Someone asked me to open the door. I was asked to open the door. 5) in scientific writing. Several samples were tested. It has been reported/ found/ confirmed that ... (6) in press reports, headlines, notices, announcements, etc. They are often abbreviated. Police officer (was) hurt. Notes on the use. (1) Verbs such as acknowledge, believe, claim, consider, know, report, say, suppose, think, understand can be used in two passive constructions. a/ it + passive + that clause b/ subject + passive + to infinitive (present or perfect) People say that English is easy. It is said that English is easy. English is said to be easy. People say/ think/ believe/ suppose that the castle is 700 years old. It is said/ thought/ believed/ supposed that the castle is - " The castle is said/thought/ believed/ supposed to be 700 years old. An earlier action is expressed by the perfect infinitive in structure b/ a/People suppose that he died. It is supposed that he died. b/He is supposed to have died. These verbs (named in the beginning but also fear, feel, presume) can be used in the construction: c/ there + passive + to be + complement There is said to be a ghost in this house. There are known (said) to be thousands of different species of beatles. (2) in informal English "get" is often used instead of be with past participles: arrested, broken, caught, confused, delayed, divorced, dressed, drowned, drunk, fined, elected, killed, lost, married, sacked, stuck Very often the action is accidental. My jeans got ripped. I got sacked yesterday. the verb "become" can sometimes be used in place of "be" I became worried when she hadnt come to the party by 10 p.m. (3) a few active verbs can sometimes have passive meaning: read, act, wash, clean, photograph The shirt washes easily. The carpet cleans easily. Your report reads well. She photographs well. (je fotogenick) 8.1.3. The use of the agents The agent is often omitted in passive sentences but it is used when it is important to say who or what is responsible for an action. The agent is usually introduced by
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the prepos. "by" ( often with verbs like built, composed, damaged, designed, destroyed, discovered, founded, invented, made, written etc.) "Imagine" was composed by John Lennon. Who was this novel written by? The preposition "with" is sometimes used before the agent: (1) after past participles such as: crowded, filled, packed. The streets were filled with the football fans. The bus was packed with. (2) with materials and ingredients used by the agent The garage was painted with blue paint. The room was filled with smoke. The mountains were covered with snow. (3) with instruments or tool which help an agent to do the action. The action is deliberate. I was hit with an umbrella. He was killed with a knife. BUT! When the action is accidental, "by" is used in front of the agent. He was killed by a falling stone. (4) with some past participles used like adjectives: bored with, disappointed with, pleased with, satisfied with, touched with We were disappointed with the performance. Ambiguous sentences: The machine was damaged. a/It was already damaged when I came. b/Somebody damaged it. The theatre was closed. a/ It was closed when I came to it. b/ They closed it. He is supposed to be at work at the moment. a/I think he is there. b/ He should be there, its his duty. 8.2. The Causative - have st. done is similar to the passive because we are interested in "what is done to sb or st." and not in "who does it". Compare: active passive I cleaned the carpet yesterday. The carpet was cleaned yesterday Causative: I had the carpet cleaned yesterday. 8.2.1. The form of the causative: have + object + past participle I have my hair cut every month. Im just having my hair cut. I had my hair cut yesterday. While I was having my hair cut, someone stole my bicycle. I will have my hair cut. Im going to have my hair cut. Im having my hair cut next week. You should have your hair cut. I may have my hair cut next week.
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The questions and the negative are formed by do, does, did. Do you have your hair cut every month? (SVOC) 8.2.2. Uses of the causative. It is often used with verbs such as build, clean, paint, decorate, deliver, develop, mend, photocopy, press, print, repair. I had the film developed and printed last week. Notes: (1) "get" can be used instead of "have" It is stronger and more colloquial. Sometimes it can have a slightly different meaning. I must get this jacket cleaned. (2) "have" or "get" can be used for accident, disasters, something unpleasant that happens beyond our control: I had/ got my leg broken in a football match. (3) "get" can be used to say that "I manage to do st. myself" then the object is stressed and not the past participle. I got the job done. (I did it myself) I had/ got the job done. (Someone else did it for me.)

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