Student Book

UNIT ONE STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON ONE- INTRODUCTION TO STEERING SYSTEMS .......................................................2 HISTORY OF STEERING AND SUSPENSION........................................................................4 DIRECTIONAL STABILITY.....................................................................................................5 CASTER .............................................................................................................................7 CAMBER .......................................................................................................................... 10 TOE.................................................................................................................................. 14 Toe-Out On Turns ........................................................................................................... 16 GEOMETRIC CENTERLINE ................................................................................................ 18 THRUST ANGLE ................................................................................................................ 19 PARALLELISM AND CENTERLINE STEERING .................................................................... 21 TREAD CENTERLINE......................................................................................................... 22 RELATIONSHIP OF ALIGNMENT ANGLES.......................................................................... 23 LESSON TWO - POWER NON-RACK-AND-PINION SYSTEMS ................................................ 24 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................. 26 PARALLELOGRAM STEERING SYSTEMS.......................................................................... 27 PARALLELOGRAM STEERING SYSTEM COMPONENTS .................................................... 29 Pitman Arm.................................................................................................................... 29 Idler Arm........................................................................................................................ 29 Centerlink (Relay Rod or Draglink).................................................................................... 30 Tie Rod.......................................................................................................................... 31 Recirculating-Ball Steering Gear....................................................................................... 32 LESSON THREE - POWER RACK-AND-PINION SYSTEMS ..................................................... 33 RACK-AND-PINION STEERING........................................................................................... 34 Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear ........................................................................................ 37 SPEED PROPORTIONAL VARIABLE ASSIST ..................................................................... 38 REAR STEERING .............................................................................................................. 40 Passive Rear Steering (Multi-Link).................................................................................... 40 Passive Rear Steering (Toe Link)...................................................................................... 41 Mechanical Rear Steering................................................................................................ 43 GLOSSARY.......................................................................................................................... 45

Student Book

UNIT ONE STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN LESSON ONE INTRODUCTION TO STEERING SYSTEMS
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
Successful completion of this Units enabling objectives (technical competencies) will allow you to meet the Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right margin.
ICS 007 Chemical and Physical Properties 101 Basic Physics 102 Mechanics and Forces 155 Steering and Suspension Systems

ENABLING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of Lesson One, you should be able to: Identify terms and definitions associated with steering systems. Define the characteristics of liquids Identify the fundamental laws of hydraulics and conclude how they apply to the operation of a power steering pump.

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UNIT ONE STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN

KEY TERMS
You will see the following key terms used throughout this lesson. You may also refer to the glossary at the back of this book for definitions of these terms. Camber Caster Directional Stability Geometric Centerline Lead Parallelism Pull Steering Axis Thrust Angle Toe

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UNIT ONE STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN

HISTORY OF STEERING AND SUSPENSION
The first steering and suspension systems were developed centuries ago. Horse drawn buggies used springs to help smooth out the road surface, if a road even existed. The buggy was steered by pulling the reins of the horse, causing the horse to pull the buggy into a turn. The front axle pivoted on a pin that allowed the front wheels to turn in the desired direction. A rod and lever were attached to the middle of the axle to assist the driver in turning and holding the front wheels straight. Early horseless carriages also used this design but it was not very accurate and it caused the wheels to wear rapidly. In the early 1800s Rudolf Ackerman designed a steering system that incorporated angled steering arms and knuckles. This allowed both front wheels to turn in their own path or arc. The inner wheel turned at a sharper angle, which allowed both wheels to turn at the same pivot point, minimizing tire wear. Over the years many improvements have been made to the vehicles steering systems. Today, there are many variations to the basic steering and suspension systems, independent suspension systems have evolved from simple means to cushion a jolt or shock, into highly engineered systems for the best ride quality, directional control and ease of handling. Additionally, most steering systems are power assisted, and some are power assisted proportional to vehicle speed. Even with all of the variations, the basic concepts still apply to all systems.

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UNIT ONE STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN

DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
Directional stability is needed to keep vehicles going ion a straight line or in line with the direction of the steering wheel. Steering and suspension systems are closely related, and in most cases, are dependent upon each other. The relationship between these systems is important to the operation and performance of the vehicle. Each system relies on the other to perform adequately. Wheels and tires also impact the performance of the steering and suspension systems. Any changes or modifications to these systems will affect the ride and handling of the vehicle. The steering system allows the driver to direct the movement of the vehicle. It must provide a means for proper handling, good directional control, and stability. The most common front steering systems are the parallelogram and rack-and-pinion steering systems.

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The suspension system supports the weight of the vehicle and any load that is placed into it. It also smoothes the ride for passengers, holds the wheels in position, and keeps them in contact with the ground. Without a suspension system, the vehicle would become unstable as it goes over bumps and dips in the roads. At higher speeds, road variations would cause the steering or braking systems to lose their effectiveness and the variations would be transferred through the car to the passengers. Vehicles do not steer or brake well if the tires are not contacting the ground properly. The suspension system keeps the tires on the ground so the contact area is properly aligned. Variations are absorbed so that the steering and brake systems can work as designed. Tires should follow the shape of the road and adapt to variations. Ideally, the tire should rise when it encounters a bump or jounce. When a tire encounters a dip or hole, it should go down into the dip while still supporting the vehicle at close to its original height. This action is referred to as rebound.

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UNIT ONE STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN

CASTER
Caster is the forward or backward tilt of the steering axis when compared with a true vertical line. The steering axis is the line the wheel turns around, when the wheel is turned to the side. Caster is positive if the axis is leaning rearward. Caster is negative if the axis is leaning forward. It is zero when the steering axis is straight up or down. Caster is measured in degrees. Most vehicles have a small amount of positive caster.

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Caster gives the front wheels the ability to return to the straight ahead position after a turn. Caster also provides directional stability . The directional stability resulting from caster can be compared to a shopping cart. The front wheels have caster which makes them tend to track straight ahead. If caster was set properly and you gave the shopping cart a shove, it would go off in a straight direction. Try it! When a wheel is turned out, the spindle lowers and raises the vehicle. When a wheel is turned in, the spindle raises and lowers the vehicle. When the wheels are released from a turn, the weight of the vehicle helps move each spindle back toward the mid-point until the load is equal on both front wheels.

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A difference in caster between one side and the other of more than half of a degree may cause a pull or lead toward the side with the least positive caster High caster settings have advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are greater directional stability and increases the front wheels ability to return. The disadvantages are steering requires more effort, road isolation is reduced, and tire wear on turns is increased. High positive caster can also cause the wheels to return to center very fast. A steering dampener is used in some high caster applications to reduce the speed at which the wheels return to center. Some vehicles use a steering dampener to reduce the effects of having a large amount of positive caster.

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CAMBER
Camber is the inward or outward tilt of the wheel when compared with a true vertical line. Camber is positive when the top of the wheel is tilted out. Camber is negative when the top of the wheel is tilted in. It is at zero when the wheel is vertical (straight up and down). Front wheels usually have small positive camber.

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Positive camber helps give the front wheels directional stability. Positive camber projects a portion of the vehicle weight onto a point near the inner wheel bearing. By contrast, negative camber projects a portion of the vehicle weight onto a point near the outer bearing.

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When a wheel hits a bump, the spindle pivots at the spot near the inner wheel bearing where the weight is projected so the movement transmitted to the suspension is small. More force (a larger bump) is needed to move the wheel away from the straight-ahead position.

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With negative camber, the spindle pivots at a spot near the outer wheel bearing. As a result, the movement transmitted to the suspension when the wheel hits a bump is larger. Less force is needed to move the wheel away from the straight-ahead position. This may reduce directional stability. It may also result in excessive road shock, a reduction in ride quality, and increased wear on the outer wheel bearing. Positive camber improves road isolation, ride quality, and directional stability, because more force is needed to move the wheel away from the straight-ahead position. Rear camber, on the other hand, usually has a negative specification. This is done to improve cornering, directional stability, and tire tread life.

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TOE
Toe is the difference between the front and rear edges of a set of tires. When the wheels are parallel to each other, toe is zero. When the front edges of the tires are closer together, the tires are toed-in, and toe is positive. When the rear edges are closer, the tires are toed-out, and toe is negative. Toe is specified in degrees or inches. Toe specifications are usually provided in the Service Manual. To find the toe for an individual wheel, divide the specification by two. During high-speed driving conditions, the wheels should have nearly zero front toe, to minimize tire wear. Excessive positive toe (toe-in) will scuff the outside of the tire and wear down the outside shoulder. Excessive negative toe (toe-out) will scuff the inside of the tire and wear down the inside shoulder.

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Toe-Out On Turns
Toe-out on turns is the angle that the outside front wheel follows through a turn. When a vehicle turns left, the right tire turns through a larger circle (longer radius). The outside tire does not turn as sharp as the inside tire, and the inner wheel is always ahead of the outer wheel through the turn.

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The steering system is designed with the steering arms angled to turn the wheels at the correct toe through the turns. Toe-out on turns is usually designed so that if straight lines were drawn through the steering arms, they would intersect at or near the middle of the rear axle. This principle is called Ackermans Geometry. Toe-out on turns is considered a non-adjustable alignment angle. However, it should be checked during alignment. If out of specification, it may indicate bent steering or suspension components.

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GEOMETRIC CENTERLINE
The vehicles geometric centerline is formed between the center of the front wheels and the center of the rear wheels. The geometric centerline passes through the midpoints of the front and rear wheel spans or track widths. The geometric centerline could also be drawn through the midpoint of the front and rear axles. The geometric centerline is used as a reference to align toe on all four wheels

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THRUST ANGLE
The thrust line is the direction the rear wheels are pointing. If the rear suspension is not damaged and the rear toe is properly adjusted, the thrust line and the geometric centerline of the vehicle are the same. The thrust angle is the difference between the thrust line and the geometric centerline. A thrust angle to the right is positive. A thrust angle to the left is negative. Thrust angle is measured in degrees.

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When the trust angle is too large, problems can result, including dogtracking and an off-center steering wheel. When the thrust angle is excessive, the driver has to turn the steering wheel to one side to keep the vehicle moving straight ahead. Now the vehicle goes slightly sideways along the road. This sideways movement is known as dog-tracking. Excessive thrust angle is one of the primary causes of a steering wheel that is not centered. Even on vehicles where rear toe is not adjusted, thrust angle measurements provide important diagnostic information. For example, if the left rear toe in and the right rear toe out, on a vehicle with a fixed rear axle, it is possible that the axle has shifted or a frame rail has been damaged. A thrust angle also exists when the individual toes of the rear wheels are not equal. For example, if the left rear wheel is pointing straight ahead and the right rear wheel toes out two degrees, the thrust angle is one degree to the right. Note: Thrust Angle = (Left Toe Right Toe) / 2

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PARALLELISM AND CENTERLINE STEERING
Parallelism refers to the wheels tread centerlines being parallel to the geometric centerline. When rear toe is adjusted, the thrust line should be parallel with the geometric centerline. The steering wheel is set straight and the front toe is adjusted to the thrust line, which is now the centerline. When the vehicle moves, the front tires assume a parallel direction with the rear. If toe is correct on the rear, the front tires will follow a parallel path with the rear, creating centerline steering.

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TREAD CENTERLINE
On a vehicle that has front and rear wheels equally wide apart, the tread centerline is a line from the midpoint of the front tire tread to the midpoint of the rear tire tread on the same side. It should be parallel to the geometric centerline. If the tread centerline is not parallel to the geometric centerline, a cross-member may not be positioned right, or the cradle may be shifted to the side.

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RELATIONSHIP OF ALIGNMENT ANGLES
Caster, camber, and toe are the alignment angles which are usually adjustable. Many vehicles today also have rear camber and toe adjustments. It is important to note that alignment angles affect each other. For example, a vehicle is being serviced because the camber angle of the left front wheel is out of specification. The camber is negative, meaning the top of the wheel is leaning in toward the center of the vehicle. An adjustment is made to correct the condition. The adjustment brings the bottom of the tire inward. This causes the distance to change between the two front tires. As a result, the distance becomes smaller and the toe setting changes. Changes like this can also occur when making other adjustments. It is possible, however, to intentionally adjust more than one angle at a time by knowing how one angle can affect another. It is important that you check and align all the adjustable angles so one correction does not cause misalignment of another. The order in which alignment angles are set is important. Always refer to the proper Service Manual for the correct alignment procedure.

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UNIT ONE STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN LESSON TWO POWER NON-RACK-AND-PINION SYSTEMS
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
Successful completion of this Units enabling objectives (technical competencies) will allow you to meet the Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right margin.
ICS 007 Chemical and Physical Properties 042 Math Formulas 101 Basic Physics 102 Mechanics and Forces

ENABLING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of Lesson Four, you should be able to: Identify the fundamental laws of hydraulics and conclude how they apply to the operation of non-rack and rack and pinion power steering gears. Explain the terms friction, force, inertia, lever, gear ratios, momentum, reduction, overdrive, speed, work, torque, and power and how these science terms apply to automotive steering and suspension systems. Identify the components of the integral non-rack and pinion power steering gear and explain system operation.

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UNIT ONE STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN

KEY TERMS
You will see the following key terms used throughout this lesson. You may also refer to the glossary at the back of this book for definitions of these terms. Centerlink Idler Arm Parallelogram Steering System Pitman Arm Recirculating-Ball Steering Gear Tie Rod

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INTRODUCTION
Two main types of steering systems are used on today's vehicles parallelogram and rack-and-pinion. These systems are designed to do three things: Hold the wheels exactly in the direction the driver requires Isolate road shock (kick-back or jerk) while still offering some feedback to inform the driver of changing road conditions Multiply the driver's effort Most vehicles are steered through the front wheels. As the driver turns the steering wheel, the movement is transferred through the steering system to the front wheels. The rear wheels follow the front wheels through the turn. The amount of force required by the driver to turn the front wheels depends on many things, but primarily the weight of the vehicle and the speed the vehicle is traveling. The steering on a bicycle is relatively easy due to the light weight of the bicycle and driver. A person can easily turn a bicycle wheel with the leverage created in the handlebars; however, a car or truck is much heavier.

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PARALLELOGRAM STEERING SYSTEMS
In a parallelogram steering system, all the steering linkage connecting points on the right side of the vehicle are parallel to those on the left side.

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The graphic below shows how the linkage is parallel up and down.

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This system offers many advantages by allowing the motion on one side of the vehicle to be duplicated on the other. The pivot points can also be aligned with pivot points in the suspension system. As a result, the steering motions are transmitted to the front wheels independent of suspension status (jounce or rebound). Additionally, the turning angles are the same for both front wheels, allowing for toe-out on turns, regardless of the wheel's vertical position. Both recirculating ball and rack-and-pinion steering gears are designed to operate in a parallelogram.

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PARALLELOGRAM STEERING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Pitman Arm
The Pitman arm is attached at one end to the steering gear's sector shaft. The other end is connected to the centerlink (sometimes referred to as a relay rod or draglink). The Pitman arm is the lever that converts the rotary motion of the sector shaft into side-to-side (lateral) motion. The Pitman arm is securely attached to the sector shaft by splines, so that any movement of the sector shaft is transmitted to the Pitman arm and centerlink.

Idler Arm
The idler arm is attached to the opposite end of the centerlink from the Pitman arm. It moves in the same plane as the Pitman arm, which keeps the linkage parallel. It usually bolts to the vehicle's frame. It supports and guides the outer end of the centerlink through the same path (arc) as the Pitman arm.

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Centerlink (Relay Rod or Draglink)
The centerlink moves to the left and right under the vehicle as the steering wheel is turned. The centerlink is connected between the Pitman arm and the idler arm. The connections between the Pitman arm and idler arm are usually ball and socket type so the centerlink can swivel and move through various angles. Tie rods are also attached to the centerlink with similar ball and socket type joints. As the centerlink moves, it causes the tie rods to move the wheel assembly. Draglinks are a variation of the centerlink and are used on many modern day trucks and sport utility vehicles. This design places the Pitman arm in proper alignment with the wheel assembly and often eliminates the need for an idler arm.

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Tie Rod
The tie rod connect the centerlink or draglink to the wheel assembly. This causes any centerlink movement to be transferred to the wheels. Tie rods have ball studs (ball and sockets) on both ends to allow a full range of motion, due to the wheel's vertical and turning movements.

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Recirculating-Ball Steering Gear
The recirculating-ball steering gear was developed in 1923. This design eliminated much of the friction associated with earlier gear styles. It has since become one of the two most widely used steering gears. The steering gear consists of a worm gear, which is supported on each end by ball bearings in a housing. The worm gear has a spiral groove cut into it. A ball nut fits over the worm gear shaft but does not contact it. The nut also has a groove, which corresponds to the groove on the worm shaft. The groove between the gear and the nut is filled with steel balls, which are recirculated back into the groove as the worm and nut move. The ball nut converts the rotational motion of the gear into linear motion. The ball nut transfers its motion to a sector gear and shaft. As the ball nut moves along the worm shaft, the sector gear on the cross shaft is rotated.

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UNIT ONE STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN LESSON THREE POWER RACK-AND-PINION SYSTEMS
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
Successful completion of this Units enabling objectives (technical competencies) will allow you to meet the Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right margin.
ICS 007 Chemical and Physical Properties 042 Math Formulas 101 Basic Physics 102 Mechanics and Forces

ENABLING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of Lesson Four, you should be able to: Explain the terms friction, force, inertia, lever, gear ratios, momentum, reduction, overdrive, speed, work, torque, and power and how these science terms apply to automotive steering and suspension systems. Identify the components of the power rack and pinion steering system and explain system operation. Identify the components of a typical electronically controlled automotive steering system and explain system operation.

KEY TERMS
You will see the following key terms used throughout this lesson. You may also refer to the glossary at the back of this book for definitions of these terms. Rack-and-Pinion Steering System

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RACK-AND-PINION STEERING
Many vehicles use a rack-and-pinion steering system. Rack-andpinion systems offer several advantages over parallelogram systems: Saves space Weighs, costs less Provides responsive steering While rack-and-pinion systems have these advantages, rack-andpinion systems are only efficient on light weight vehicles (if power steering is not included).

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Many vehicles have power steering to assist the driver. Power steering decreases the effort required by the driver through the use of hydraulics.

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A pump driven by the engine creates hydraulic pressure that is applied through a control valve as the driver turns the steering wheel. Hydraulic pressure is then applied to one of two pistons to assist in moving the steering linkage left or right.

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Some vehicles are equipped with variable assisted power steering systems. The principle of operation is similar to the traditional power steering system, but the amount of hydraulic pressure applied is electronically controlled. For example, most vehicles are equipped with a Variable Assisted Speed Proportional Power Steering System. This system incorporates an electronic steering control module that varies the power assist according to vehicle speed. The variable assist reduces steering effort at low speeds and increases the effort at high speeds to provide better feedback to the driver.

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Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear
The rack-and-pinion gears are enclosed in a housing that is located between the front wheels. The pinion gear is attached to the lower end of the steering column and meshes with the rack gear. This gear combination converts rotary motion directly into linear motion. A tie rod is attached to each end of the rack by means of a ball and socket. The other tie rod end is attached directly to the wheel assembly with ball and socket joints, which are often referred to as tie rod ends. Rack-and-pinion assemblies are sealed at each end with a rubber or plastic bellows (boot) to keep dirt out. Rack-and-pinion assemblies come in different gear ratios and should only be replaced with the same ratio as originally equipped. Most current rack-and-pinion assemblies are non-serviceable. Refer to the Service Manual for rack-and-pinion replacement procedures.

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SPEED PROPORTIONAL VARIABLE ASSIST
A variable assist speed proportional power steering system is available on some front-wheel drive cars. The system increases low vehicle speed power steering assist during parking and low speed turns. During faster vehicle speeds the system pressure (assist) is reduced based on vehicle speed sensor input. A Solenoid Control Module (SCM) and solenoid control valve reduce the assist to provide a firmer and more stable ride. Pressure is regulated by a torsion bar much like a Saginaw recirculating ball steering gear. The SCM provides less return pressure against the reaction disk at low speeds causing the reaction disk to move up; this reduces the torsion load (steering effort). By modulating return pressure with the solenoid, the system decreases assist as vehicle speed increases.

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The system provides full assist for "evasive maneuvers" at higher speeds. To test the system, you can test drive the vehicle or use a Scan Tool to enter false vehicle speed inputs to check if the system is changing the amount of assist.

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REAR STEERING
Passive Rear Steering (Multi-Link)
In the passive rear steering system, the suspension uses the vehicle's weight and the forces induced on the suspension components to slightly change rear toe angles during turns. The configuration of the toe control arm, the lower lateral arm, and the trailing arm force the inside rear wheel into a toe-out condition during a turn. The outside wheel toes-in. This provides passive rear steering and, therefore, improved cornering without a large number of additional components like mechanical or hydraulic rear steering systems.

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Passive Rear Steering (Toe Link)
Some vehicles use a toe link rear suspension. The suspension is actually an SLA suspension using upper and lower arms, with the knuckle mounted on ball joints. The knuckles remain stationary when the vehicle is turned, but the toe links (tie rods) adjust rear toe as the suspension goes through jounce and rebound. As the spindle arc changes during jounce and rebound, the tie rod pivot point moves. This causes toe to be altered, much like an SLA suspension changes camber because of the different arm lengths. The toe link sets toe similar to tie rods on other front suspension systems. The system improves vehicle response and does not require a large number of additional components like mechanical or hydraulic systems.

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Mechanical Rear Steering
Some manufacturers use a mechanical linkage to help steer the rear wheels on a vehicle. The mechanical rear steering system uses a shaft turned by the front rack to control a gear box in the rear. The system is designed to steer the rear wheels in the same direction as the front wheels when the steering wheel is turned between center and about one third of a turn off center in either direction. This allows the rear wheels to help turn when maneuvering at driving speeds. The rear steering gear turns the rear wheels in the opposite direction as the front wheels when a vehicle is performing low speed maneuvers, such as parking. The steering system alters the rear wheel direction as the steering wheel is turned from about one third of a turn and beyond. During an alignment, this system requires the rear toe be set first, like all other four-wheel alignments. The rear toe aligns the thrust angle and centers the rear steering gear. If a steering wheel is offcenter after alignment, the rear steering is affected because the front and rear steering gears are not synchronized (centered together).

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GLOSSARY
Camber Tilting of the top of the wheels from the vertical; when
tilt is outward, camber is positive. Caster Tilting of the steering axis forward or backward to provide directional steering ability. Centerlink A link used to connect the idler arm to the Pitman arm in a parallelogram steering system. The link transfers steering motion to vehicle tie rods. Directional Stability The tendency of a vehicle to follow a straight course without excess effort on the part of the driver. Geometric Centerline A line formed from the front to the rear in the middle of a vehicle. Tread centerlines should be spaced evenly from this point to maintain proper tracking. Idler Arm A component used to transmit steering forces from a centerlink to a tie rod in parallelogram steering system. Lead Pull to a specific side of a vehicle. The vehicle turns in one direction when not controlled by the driver. Parallelism Rear wheels should be parallel to the vehicle centerline. If not, the thrust angle (rear toe) is incorrect. Parallelism causes the front tires to proceed in the same direction as the rear tires to make a vehicle go straight. If rear toe/thrustline is off, a vehicle will dog track. Parallelogram Steering System A linking arrangement which allows the wheels to maintain the correct steering positions in jounce or rebound. Linkage components take the shape of a parallelogram, with equal length Pitman/idler arms and steering arms. All components are parallel to one another from one side of the vehicle to the other.

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Pitman Arm An arm used to transfer rotational movement of
the sector shaft to linear movement of the centerlink in a parallelogram steering system. Pull Turning to a specific side of a vehicle. The vehicle turns in one direction when not controlled by the driver. Rack-and-Pinion Steering System A steering system that uses a pinion gear connected to the steering column shaft through a coupling to turn a long rack gear. The rack has tie rods on each end which move the steering arms, knuckles and spindle in the direction desired. Recirculating-Ball Steering Gear A steering gear which uses a worm gear to drive a ball nut through recirculating balls. The recirculated balls reduce friction between the worm and ball nut. Commonly used with parallelogram steering systems. Steering Axis The angle formed between the line or axis through which the steering knuckle rotates and true vertical. Thrust Angle Angle formed by the average of the rear wheel toe settings. Thrust angle propels a vehicle body in the direction of the thrust line. Improper thrust angle causes dog tracking. Toe The amount, in inches or millimeters, that the front of the front wheels point inward.

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