Crane Accidents 04/12/2009 Page 1 of 7

By : William A. Greco w2gre@verizon.net Warrington,Pa.

Typical egg link

Abstract
Slewing (rotating) a crane too quickly can induce forces which can cause
major crane components to fail. This essay is being written to emphasis the
importance of proper crane operation.

Example:
Most crane lifts use an elliptical egg link.
Assume an egg link rating at 15,000 lbs tensile strength in this essay.
. This essay will attempt to explore the possibility of cause by rotational torque,
centrifugal force and load pendulum action which can decelerate too quickly, causing a
dynamically induced inertial force far greater than the link working load limit.
The essay will also identify the condition of load free fall and rapidly applied
sheave braking.
Lastly the essay will explore the forces involved in tag line movement.
Lifting components are not static structural members, they are dynamic when loaded
and are subjected to severe stresses when in use. To assume that a member of a
lifting system would work for 100’s of lifts and then suddenly fail due to a manufacturing
flaw or metallurgical instability has limited plausibility. Cracks and failures from stress
do not develop over a long period of time after the stress is applied unless the component
material is subjected to what is known as stress corrosion which is intergranular
occurring at the metal grain boundaries.
Crane Accidents 04/12/2009 Page 2 of 7
By : William A. Greco w2gre@verizon.net Warrington,Pa.

Most of the dynamic component failures that we witness in our daily lives are
caused by component wear causing tolerance shift, operator misuse, heat, friction,
rapid temperature swing, poor lubrication, component control failures to name a few.
This essay will not be able to find all the answer’s to tragic crane accidents but
it should serve as a guide and warning against crane misuse.

Crane Rotational Movement

The dynamic effects accompanying rotational motion include. inertial torque,
centrifugal force, and load pendulum action. For many cranes, centrifugal
force produces a tensile force on a boom or jib that relieves the axial compressive forces
to a minor extent. On the other hand, this same force acts to create an inertial force on
the load. In the overall scheme of things, centrifugal force on the dead-load masses of
cranes can usually be neglected, since swing speeds rarely exceed 1 radian/min
57.3 degrees, however cranes have the capability to operate at a slewing speed of
0-2 rpms or 12.5 radians per minute. If the boom of a crane is accelerated too quickly
the load will lag the boom causing what is known in the heavy lift industry as
side loading, if the boom and load get into this dynamic displacement and the boom
rotation is suddenly stopped the load will begin to pendulum, the load component will
become a damped harmonic which over time stabilizes to an undetectable movement.
Centrifugal force throws the load out to an increased radius. If n is the number of
slewing revolutions per minute, we have
WR . . 2
n
Fc
g 30 (equation-1)

where Fc = centrifugal force

W = weight of load
R = operating radius
g - acceleration due to gravity
Fc will act horizontally at the upper load sheave shaft away from the axis of
rotation and parallel to the horizontal projection of the boom centerline
Load pendulum action is another matter. This dynamic motion is induced
by the inertia of the load as the crane powers up or brakes during swinging.
The inertial force is horizontal, but it is tangential to the rotational arc
(i.e., perpendicular to the centrifugal force). Consider a slewing (rotating)
boom; when braking occurs and the boom slows, the load will continue and
pull forward on the boom. After the boom stops, the load will continue to
swing, pendulum fashion.
Crane Accidents 04/12/2009 Page 3 of 7
By : William A. Greco w2gre@verizon.net Warrington,Pa.
.

The period of swing will vary with hoist line length L, the distance from load
CG to the suspension point on the boom, with the relationship
1
2
L
Tp 2 . ( 3.14 ) .
g (equation-1A)

where Tp is the "swing period. Line length, is a random variable, (3.14 = pi),
which makes Tp a random variable as well, but Tp,will increase with L. Should
L be such that Tp corresponds to the natural period of vibration of the boom,
resonance will occur. In a pure theoretical undamped system this will lead to a
steady increase in vibration amplitude and eventual failure.

In a real-life system with damping always present, amplitude will reach a peak value of
some 5 to 10 times the effect of the same force statically applied. Fortunately, the
structure period of vibration will always be shorter than load pendulum period and reso-
nance will not take place. The crane industry therefore suggests that the problem be
simply resolved by applying load and dead-weight inertial forces at twice the
values obtained when using mean acceleration. The factor 2 is taken to account for the
elasticity in the system.
When the boom is rotated, acceleration takes place and the load will not be in
the same vertical plane as the boom.

During this side loading condition or load lag, the initial angle that the load makes with
the vertical wire rope is given by Loadangle =
a .
Loadangle = atan 57.3
32.2 (equation-2)

where:
atan = arc tangent = tan-1
a = the tangential swing acceleration. (Feet per second 2)
57.3 = degrees in one radian
Following this representation, if W is the load weight, the inertial force F causing the lag
can be expressed as
. angle Wd
F W tan Load ma
g (equation-3)
In terms of rotational motion the basic inertial equation can be stated as

Inertial Torque = polar moment of inertia (times) angular acceleration

Crane Accidents 04/12/2009 Page 4 of 7
By : William A. Greco w2gre@verizon.net Warrington,Pa.
.

For any point on the rotating structure, the tangential acceleration (TA) =

Radius of swing x angular acceleration or TA = (r) x (angular acceleration)

where r is the radius to the point in question. The customary units for TA are ra-
dians per second squared.

In calculating rotational inertial forces a convenient concept is that of

equivalent mass, the single concentrated mass located at a particular radius and
having the same rotational characteristics as the distributed masses it represents.

Crane Rotational Force Example

Calculate the centrifugal force when a 9,500 lb load and a 1,500 lb spreader bar,
block and cable (11,000 lb total load) swings at 6.5 radians/minute (6.5 x 57.3 degrees)
or 372 degrees per minute (angular slewing velocity) at a radius of 100 feet.
From equation-1:
2
11000 . 100 . 6.5 . 3.14
= 15811.8
32.2 30 lbs of centrifugal lag on the system
Using the same lift parameters :
If the swing brake is applied forcing the boom to come to a stop in 1.4 seconds:
A. What inertial force will be applied to the load ?
B. What vertical angle will the cable be at between the load
and the supporting boom block at the instant that the boom stops ?

A. Inertial force:
6.5. 2 3.14 = 0.68
.

60 radians per second initial angular velocity

0.68 = 0.486
1.4 radians second squared angular deceleration

0.486. 100 = 48.6 ft/ second squared tangential deceleration

from equation-3:

11000. 48.6 = 16602.5

32.2 lbs of inertial (stopping) force
Crane Accidents 04/12/2009 Page 5 of 7
By : William A. Greco w2gre@verizon.net Warrington,Pa.
.

Crane Rotational Force Example (continued)

B. What vertical angle will the cable be at between the load

and the supporting boom block at the instant that the boom stops ?
from equation-2:

tan-1(48.6 / 32.2) = 0.986 x 57.3 = 56.5 degrees (load lag angle)

Equation 1A deals with pendulum action, which is of no concern in this

essay since we are only interested in maximum loading on the lift system.

From this example it can be seen that with high boom acceleration
and quick braking an egg link with a 15,000 pound rating could be subjected
to forces which are above the working strength of it’s design if lifting only 9,500 pound
loads.

Load Drop Force

When a load is dropped in free fall the acceleration is retarded by friction at the sheaves,
the load continues to drop after the sheave brake is applied because the hoist cables
stretch and kinetic energy vs spring rate of the cable interact such that a ratio of kinetic
force to potential force must be calculated.
The ratio of cable to lifted load is calculated thus:

Where k = number of cables x spring rate (lbs/in.)x 12 (in/ft)

And
1
2 2
F 1 k. v
1
W W.g
where : W = load weight, g= 32.2 v = final velocity of load

Load linear drop example:

If a 9,500 lb load went into upper block free fall for 6 feet and then the
sheave brake was fully suddenly applied on a three part line crane where the
friction loss could be taken at 2% and the cable spring constant were
2300 lb/in, what peak force will develop in the spreader bar connections ?

(3) part cable sheave with 2% friction =

1 1 1
= 3.124
0.98 2 3
0.98 0.98 load friction effect factor
Crane Accidents 04/12/2009 Page 6 of 7
By : William A. Greco w2gre@verizon.net Warrington,Pa.

Load linear drop example: (Continued)

The nominal mechanical advantage is 3 for a three part line.

Acceleration (a) due to gravity accounting for friction =
a = 32.2 ft/sec2 x (3 / 3.124) = 30.96 ft / sec accounting for friction
And final velocity is v = (2ah)1/2 where h = height of drop
½
Or [2 (30.96) (6) ] = 19.275 ft sec
The ratio of cable to lifted load is =
1

2 2
3. ( 2300) . ( 12). 19.275
F/W=1 1 = 11.078
.
950032.2

F = 11.078 x 9,500 = 105,241 lbs of force on the egg link

Obviously a short free fall of only a few feet and a quick braking action
could damage components and exceed working, yield and ultimate strengths.
Tag Line Loads
To move a 9,500 lb load 6 inches horizontally which is suspended beneath a
boom 30 feet above the loads center line with a tag line will require a tag line
crewman to exert 161.5 lbs of horizontal force (if the tag line were considered to be
level horizontally with the center of gravity).
Tag line movement can be a very difficult and exhausting task.
Angled Lifts
The load hoist line must remain vertical to maintain the load radius and the load chart
rating. Another condition that can cause the load line to swing out, thereby increasing the
load radius and resulting in lost capacity or extra force development is that the crane is
initially hooked up beyond or inside of the the boom tip radius which creates a swinging
load condition as soon as the lift begins.
Crawler Cranes (on treads) Have the capability of moving with the load, rapid
tread acceleration with the load in place can cause load lag. Wheeled vehicles normally
have their outriggers spread and do not move with the load in place, crawlers on the
other hand have adjustable tread assemblies that are spread out after site delivery.

Conclusion:
The majority of crane fatalities occur due to poor boom field assembly, the next major
cause for crane accidents is booms contacting live electrical conductors. Poor operating
procedures are always a problem, high accelerations in either slewing action or hoist
movement can destroy major components of the lift system. We have surveyed some
of the forces that can occur when cranes are mishandled.
A structural failure does not necessarily mean an immediate fracture. Cranes which
were overloaded on previous lifts, have suffered from sudden structural failure during
normal safe lifts.
Crane Accidents 04/12/2009 Page 7 of 7
By : William A. Greco w2gre@verizon.net Warrington,Pa.

Sidenote :

Hydrogen Embrittlement and Stress Corrosion Cracking

Hydrogen is a byproduct of corrosion and electrochemical processes and
can become trapped inside of steel at the time of manufacture or by permeation,
solubility, and diffusion.
Hydrogen trap interactions cause cracks to occur which grow over time.
Cyclic loading and load pulsing interplay with corrosion cracking from
Hydrogen embrittlement and often cause failures.
Although the phenomenon has been the subject of many engineering and research
papers, books, conferences and symposiums, the full understanding of these
characteristics are still a mystery.
Delayed failures in high strength steels often occur under circumstances where tensile
or bend tests show no evidence of britTleness. Long fracture delay times are not
uncommon.