Mobile Communication

Mobile Communications 4. Multiplexing and Modulation v7.0.
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4. Multiplexing and Modulation
Contents
Mobile Communications
4 Multiplexing
and Modulation
Multiplexing
Modulation
Spread Spectrum
Multi-carrier Modulation
Claudia Linnhoff-Popien, Peter Ruppel
Mobile Communications 4. Multiplexing and Modulation v7.0.2 2/76 M
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The Air Interface
The Air Interface
Cellular
networks
Local and personal
area networks
Military
networks
Aviation and
seafaring
...
Terrestrial
television
Terrestrial
radio
Satellite
communications
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Overview of the Wireless Transmission Chain
Receiving Station
Transmitting Station
Modulation
Source decoding
(e.g. speech
processing)
Multiplexing
Channel decoding
(Block decoding,
convolutional decoding,
Deinterleaving)
Encryption
Decryption
Channel encoding
(Block encoding,
convolutional encoding,
interleaving)
Demultiplexing
Source encoding
(e.g. speech
processing)
Demodulation
The Air Interface
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4.1 Multiplexing
Basics
Motivation
Task of multiplexing is to assign
space, time, frequency, and code to
each communication channel with a
minimum of interference and a
maximum of medium utilization
Communication channel refers to an
association of sender(s) and
receiver(s) that want to exchange
data
Classification of multiplexing
Four dimensions:
space
time
frequency
code
Analogy
Highways with several lanes
many users: car drivers
medium: highway
interference: accidents
Space
division
multiplex
Time
division
multiplex
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4.1 Multiplexing
Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
Space Division Multiplexing
Separation of channels by mapping each channel onto a dedicated space
Non-overlapping interference ranges
Enabled by sectoral and directional antennas
Usually used in combination with frequency, time, or code division
multiplexing
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4.1 Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Subdivision of the frequency dimension into several non-overlapping frequency
bands, each continuously carrying one channel
Guard spaces between frequency bands to avoid overlapping (adjacent channel
interference)
Permanent assignment of a frequency to a sender makes it advantageous for
radio transmission (24 hours a day), but inapplicable for mobile communication
(assignment of a permanent frequency band for each mobile device would result
in a tremendous waste of scarce frequency resources)
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4.1 Multiplexing
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
All senders alternately use the same frequency at different points in time
Avoidance of transmission overlaps (co-channel interference) by time
gaps (guard spaces)
Requires precise synchronization between senders (either by a precise
clock or by a dedicated synchronization signal accessible for all senders)
Flexible, as senders with heavy load can be assigned more sending time
and senders with light load less sending time
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4.1 Multiplexing
Combination of FDM and TDM
FDM and TDM combined
Channel can use a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
Guard spaces in the time and in the frequency dimension
Robust against small-scale fading by using frequency hopping (fast change of
frequency bands)
Deployed in GSM and DECT
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4.1 Multiplexing
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
All channels use the same frequency
band at the same time
Separation by codes, guard spaces
corresponds to the distance between
codes (orthogonal codes)
Good protection against interference
and tapping (i.e., signals are spread on
a broad frequency band, and
interpretation of a signal is only
possible with matching code)
High complexity of the receivers
Precise synchronization between
sender and receiver
Initially used in military application
Multiplexing technique for
UMTS/IMT-2000
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4.2 Modulation
Terms
Modulation
Modification of a carriers
parameters (amplitude, frequency,
phase, or a combination of them) in
dependence on the symbol to be
sent
Signal state
One of several constellations of a
carriers parameters defined by the
used modulation scheme
Symbol
Abstract quantity that carries a
single bit or several bits at once and
that is assigned to a certain signal
state
If a symbol can take m possible
values, the amount of bits carried by
the symbol is given by n=log
2
m
bits/symbol
Pulse
Representation of bits or symbols,
usually in the baseband, for
example using a bipolar or polar
notation
Symbol duration
Time T
s
the signal state is kept by
the transmitter for transferring the
symbol
Symbol rate
Number of transmitted symbols per
second R
s
=1/T
s
[sps]
Data rate
R
d
=nR
s
Chip
Very small pulse representing -1 or
+1 of duration T
c
, with T
c
<<T
s
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4.2 Modulation
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Two binary values are
represented by two different
amplitudes of the carrier
frequency
Requires low bandwidth, but is
very susceptible to interference
due to small-scale fading, which
causes rapid fluctuations the
signals amplitude
Not used for wireless radio
transmissions (apart from
infrared systems), but favored
for optical transmissions in wired
networks
( )
( )
=
0 binary 0
1 binary 2 cos t f A
t s
c
ASK signal
(frequency
domain)
[Pehl 01]
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
Data
Carrier
Modulated
signal
Pulses
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4.2 Modulation
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Two binary values are represented by
two different frequencies
Continuous phase modulation
Frequency changes occur at the carrier
zero crossings (synchronization
between symbol rate and distance of f
1
and f
2
)
Assumes a minimal distance f
between f
1
and f
2
: f =1/T, where T is
the symbol duration
Non-continuous phase modulation:
Frequency changes occur between
carrier zero crossing (no
synchronization)
Results in increased spectral spreading,
i.e. increased out-of-band radiation
( )
( )
( )
=
0 binary
1 binary
2 cos
2 cos
2
1
t f A
t f A
t s
FSK signal
(frequency
domain)
[Pehl 01]
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
Data
Carrier
Modulated
signal
Pulses
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4.2 Modulation
Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
Special form of FSK with continuous
phase and a minimum distance
f =1/(2T) between f
1
and f
2
(in contrast to conventional FSK,
where f =1/T )
Keeps synchronization between
two frequencies f
1
and f
2
in order
to achieve continuous phase
Separation of bits in even and odd,
and doubling of the bit duration
MSK Rules
If even bit =0 and odd bit=0
then invert f
2
If even bit=1 and odd bit=0
then invert f
1
then adopt f
1
without changes
then adopt f
2
without changes
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Pulses
MSK
signal
f
2
f
1
Odd
bits
Even
bits
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4.2 Modulation
Phase Domain
Phase domain
Third way to represent signals (in addition to time and frequency domain)
Shows the amplitude M of a signal and its phase in polar coordinates
X-axis is called In-Phase (I), y-axis is called Quadrature-Phase (Q)
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Q=Msin
I=Mcos
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4.2 Modulation
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Data is represented by shift in the
phase of a signal
Simplest scheme uses two phases
to represent the two binary digits
Differential PSK
Binary 0 is represented by sending
a signal burst of the same phase as
the previous signal burst
Binary 1 is represented by sending
a signal burst of opposite phase to
the preceding one
( )
( )
( )
+
=
1 binary
0 binary

t f A
t f A
t s
c
c
2 cos
2 cos
BSK signal
(frequency
domain)
[Pehl 01]
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 Data
Carrier
Modulated
signal
Pulses
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4.2 Modulation
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
PSK with Multiple Signal States
So far: each kind of shift keying defines two signal states for representing binary 0
or 1
But: a shift keying scheme can fix an arbitrary number of signal states (in theory) to
increase the number of bits transferred in a single modulation step
Example: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
Four signal states two bits are transmitted in a single step
Used in UMTS and IEEE 802.11
10 01 00 11
I
Q
00
11
01
10
Data
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4.2 Modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
I
Q
000 001
010
100
110
111
011
Data 010 101 000 111 011 110 001 100
101
Mixing of Shift Keying Methods
It is also possible to mix different types of shift keying schemes
Example: Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Combination of ASK and QPSK
Eight signal states three bits are transmitted in a single step
Used as one alternative for IEEE 802.11
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4.2 Modulation
Example: DVB-T Modulation Schemes
Source: U. Reimers: DVB- The Family of
International Standards for Digital Video
Broadcasting, Springer-Verlag
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4.2 Modulation
Example: QAM-256 --- DVB-C Modulation Schemes
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4.2 Modulation
Example: Coverage Area of Analog and Digital Modulation Systems
Coverage area of analog FM radio with P
t
=1
kW
Coverage areas of digital modulation schemes
with P
t
=158 W
Source: F. Bernhardt, Untersuchung
zur Implementierungeines digitalen
bertragungssystems auf OFDM-
Basis imUKW-Frequenzbereich",
FH Kaiserslautern
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4.2 Modulation
Nyquist Theorem: Relationship Bandwidth Symbol Rate
Examples
The nominal 3-kHz voice channel:
sampling rate is 6000 times per
second
A 15-kHz program channel (carries
radio broadcast material and is offered
by the PSTN to broadcasters):
sampling rate is 30,000 times per
second
An analog radar product channel 56-
kHz wide: sampling rate is 112,000
times per second
Maximum bit rate
If a signal consists of V discrete signal
states and occupies a bandwidth B,
Nyquists theorem states:
Example: a noise-less 3-kHz channel
cannot transmit binary (i.e. two-level)
signals at a rate exceeding 6000 bps
Note: Nyquists theorem assumes
noiseless channels
If a bandwidth-limited signal is sampled at regular intervals of time and at
a rate equal or higher than twice the highest significant signal frequency,
the sample contains all the information of the original signal
Nyquist theorem:
V B
2
log 2 (Bits/s) capacity Channel =
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The Signal-to-Noise ratio expresses in decibels the amount by which the
signal level exceeds the noise level in a specified bandwidth.
4.2 Modulation
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Analog voice channel (300-3400 Hz) with a 1000-Hz test signal
Signal level is 15 dBm, noise level 5 dBm
Signal-to-Noise ratio:
( ) level e level/nois signal log 10 ] [ /
10
= dB N S
] [ level noise ] [ level signal ] [ / dBm dBm dB N S =
( ) dB 10 dBm 5 - dBm 15 / = + + = N S
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4.2 Modulation
Shannon Theorem
It is impossible to reach the performance of Nyquists theorem in the
presence of noise - otherwise one could use modulation schemes with a very
high number of signal states V to send lots of bits with little bandwidth
The maximum data rate of a noisy channel whose bandwidth is B Hz,
and whose signal-to-noise ratio is S/N is given by
( ) / 1 log [bps] C
2
N S B + =
Shannon theorem:
Example
A channel of voice-band channel of
3000 Hz bandwidth, and a signal-to-
noise ratio of 30 dB (typical
parameters of the analog part of the
telephone system) can never
transmit much more than 30,000 bps,
no matter how many signal levels are
used
Remarks
Data rates of 38.4 or 56 kbps (as
delivered by modern modems) are a
result of data compression and are only
achievable with special data (e.g., text)
Shannon theorem is only related to
noise and neglects delay distortion
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4.2 Modulation
Bandwidth vs. Power Efficiency
Bandwidth Efficiency
Describes the ability of a modulation
scheme to accommodate data
within a limited bandwidth
Increasing the data rate is achieved
by decreasing the pulse width of a
digital symbol, which inevitably
increases the bandwidth of the
signal
Relationship between data rate and
bandwidth occupancy
Some modulation schemes perform
better than others regarding
bandwidth efficiency
Bandwidth efficiency reflects how
efficiently the allocated bandwidth is
utilized and is defined as the ratio of
the throughput data rate per Hertz
Power Efficiency
Describes the ability of a modulation
scheme to preserve the fidelity of
the digital message at low power
levels
Fidelity is expressed in terms of bit
error probability
To increase noise immunity, it is
necessary to increase the signal
power
Amount by which the signal power
should be increased to obtain a
certain level of bit error probability
depends on the particular type of
modulation employed
Power efficiency of a modulation
scheme is a measure of how
favorably the tradeoff between
fidelity and signal power is made
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4.2 Modulation
Adjacent Channel Interference
Out-of-band radiation
Amount of transmitted signal power lying
outside the main lobe
Adjacent Channel Interference:
interference that a transmitting radio
presents to frequency channels lying
immediately above and below the
transmitting users frequency channel
ACI should be kept below -60dB of the
main lobe
Strength of ACI depends on the
modulation scheme
ACI can be reduced by filtering
(smoothing) the rectangular pulses of the
digital baseband signal
A low level of ACI will permit a distant
mobile transmitter to reach the base
station with a weak signal while another
mobile much closer to the base station is
transmitting in adjacent channel (see
figure)
[PaKa 02]
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4.2 Modulation
Power Spectra of Modulation Schemes
Evaluation of modulation schemes
Width of the main lobe (bandwidth efficiency)
Peak of the side lobes (power efficiency and
out-of-band radiation)
MSK
Comparatively low side lobes
and moderate width of the
main lobe
Favorite modulation scheme of
systems where users are
separated by frequency
channels (GSM, DECT,
Bluetooth)
QPSK
Low width of the main lobe
and therefore bandwidth
efficient, but comparatively
strong side lobes
Favorite modulation scheme of
systems where users are
separated by time or code
(e.g., UMTS, 802.11)
[PaKa02]
Power Spectral Density
(PSD): represents the power
per unit of frequency and
displays the relative power
contribution of the various
frequency components
Bandwidth
Efficiency:
throughput data
rate per Hertz in
a given
bandwidth
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Principles of Spread Spectrum (I)
Goal of modulation schemes presented so far: achieve greater power and/or
bandwidth efficiency
Spread spectrum techniques employ a transmission bandwidth that is several
orders of magnitude greater than the minimum required signal bandwidth
Spread spectrum is very bandwidth inefficient for a single user
But: many users can simultaneously use the same bandwidth without significantly
interfering with one another
In a multiple user-environment, spread spectrum becomes very bandwidth efficient
Narrowband
messages
Narrowband
messages
Wideband channel
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Principles of Spread Spectrum (II)
Features of Spread Spectrum Technologies
Frequency range of the transmitted signal is deliberately varied, resulting in a
much greater bandwidth than the signal would have if its frequency were not
varied
Variation is done according to spreading sequences
Power of the spread signal is the same as of the narrowband signal, resulting in
a lower power spectral density (due to the higher bandwidth)
Classification
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Signal is spread before modulating it onto a carrier
Each symbol is represented by a number of chips, resulting in a signal with
a larger range of frequencies but with redundant data
Spread signal is modulated onto a carrier signal with fixed carrier frequency
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Signal is spread during modulation
Carrier frequency is rapidly changed according to a hopping sequence
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
DSSS: Spreading with a Chip Sequence
+1 1
1 +1 +1 1 +1 1 +1 1 +1 +1 1 +1 1 +1
User
data
Chip
sequence
Resulting
signal
XOR
=
T
s
T
c
1 +1 +1 1 +1 1 +1 +1 1 1 +1 1 +1 1
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
DSSS realized with BPSK
[Stal 02]
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Principle of DSSS
Motivation
Multipath propagation causes attenuated, phase-shifted,
and time-delayed copies of a transmitted signal
FDM/TDM is not an efficient approach to support
variable data rates
DSSS principle
DSSS uses a carrier that remains fixed to a specific
frequency band
Data signal (rather than being transmitted on a
narrowband) is spread onto a much larger range of
frequencies using a specific spreading code (Pseudo-
noise sequence)
Benefits
DSSS signal has a redundancy factor and is therefore
very robust
Assuming that the spreading code has a good auto-
correlation, effects of multipath propagation can easily
be detected (in fact, they are not recognized at all)
Data rate depends on the length of the spreading code
f
P
Narrowband
transmission
P
f
Direct sequence
transmission
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
DSSS: Time vs. Frequency Domain
User
data
Chipping
sequence
Resulting
signal
XOR
=
T
s
T
c
Time domain
f
P
Frequency domain
f
P
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Elimination of Interferences
Interference signal typically appear as a
high power, narrowband signal
Because of the processing gain*,
interference will be spread out during the
de-spreading process
De-spreading process causes a dramatic
reduction in the power density of the
interference (usually greater than 90%) ->
impact of interference is greatly reduced or
eliminated
Direct sequence
transmission with
interference
P
f
DSSS signal
Interference
signal
P
f
DSSS signal
Interference
signal
De-spreading
reduces power of
interference
Processing gain:
Decrease in power when a signal is
processed for transmission and increase in
power when signal is de-spread:
Example: Spread signal with 10 MHz
bandwidth, de-spread signal with 1 kHz
bandwidth has a processing gain of 40 dB
| | db PG
|
.
|
\
|
=
Bandwidth n Informatio
bandwidth RF
log 10
10
PG
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
DSSS: Modulation
Modulation
Information signal is spread at
baseband
Spread signal is then modulated in
a second stage
Chips
Small pulses (shorter than the
symbol duration T
s
) with a duration
T
c
Chipping sequence is XORed with
symbol sequence
Length of chip sequences between
11 and 2
89
-1
Sequence of IEEE 802.11: Barker
code (10110111000)
User signal with a bandwidth of 1
MHz is spread into signal with 11
MHz (using Barker)
Spreading factor
s=T
s
/T
c
Civil applications use spreading
factors between 10 and 100
Military applications use spreading
factors of up to 10000
Modulation
Digital Signal
Carrier
Transmit
signal
Chipping
sequence
XOR
Spread
spectrum
signal
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
DSSS: Demodulation
Demodulation: inverse functions of
the modulation steps
Additional mechanisms to
reconstruct the original signal due
to noise and multipath propagation
1. Demodulation of the broadband
signal using the same carrier as the
transmitter and additional filtering
2. XOR operation with the same
chipping sequence as the sender
(exact synchronization is
necessary)
3. During a bit period: all results of
XOR are added by an integrator
4. Decision unit samples the sums of
the integrator and decides if the
sum represents a binary 1 or 0
Demodulation
Digital
Data
Received
signal
Carrier
XOR Integrator
Decision
Chipping
sequence
Products
Sampled
sums
Correlator
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Example: Spreading of Data from Sender A
Example
Two senders A and B want to transmit the bit sequence 101 (sender A) and 100
(sender B) simultaneously by using different codes
Spreading code is longer than a single bit
(Length of spreading code in IS-95: 2
42
-1 chips with a rate of 1228800 chips/s
=>code repeats after 41.425 days)
1 (1) +1 (0) 1 (1)
Data A
Code A
Signal A
A
d
A
c
A
s
1 +1 1 +1 1 1 1 +1 +1 +1 1 +1 +1 +1 1 1 +1 +1
+1 1 +1 1 +1 +1 1 +1 +1 +1 1 +1 1 1 +1 +1 1 1
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Example: Spreading of Data from Sender B
+1 +1 +1 1 1 +1 1 +1 1 +1 +1 +1 +1 1 +1 1 1 1
1 (1) +1 (0) +1 (0)
Data B
Code B
Signal A
B
d
B
c
A
s
1 1 1 +1 +1 1 1 +1 1 +1 +1 +1 +1 1 +1 1 1 1 Signal B
Combined
signal
B
s
A
s
+B
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Example: De-Spreading of As Data
Integrator
output
A
c
A
d
A
s
+B
s
1 (1) +1 (0) 1 (1)
(A
s
+B
s
)*A
c
Comparator
output
+1 1 +1 1 +1 +1 1 +1 +1 +1 1 +1 1 1 +1 +1 1 1
1 (1) +1 (0) 1 (1)
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Example: De-Spreading of Bs Data
Integrator
output
B
c
B
d
A
s
+B
s
(A
s
+B
s
)*B
c
Comparator
output
1 (1) +1 (0) +1 (0)
1 (1) +1 (0) +1 (0)
+1 +1 +1 1 1 +1 1 +1 1 +1 +1 +1 +1 1 +1 1 1 1
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Example: De-Spreading with the Wrong Spreading Code
Integrator
output
Wrong code C
A
s
+B
s
(A
s
+B
s
)*C
Comparator
output
(+1) (+1) ?
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Principle of FHSS
Motivation
A certain frequency channel may (temporarily)
be interfered (adjacent channel, co-channel,
intersymbol interferences)
FHSS principle
Rapidly shifting of the carrier frequency
(frequency hopping) at the sender
Hop frequency is indicated by a spreading code
Spreading code is also available at the receiver
and enables it to return to the correct channel
Benefit
Instead of the entire transmission, only a few
bits may be destroyed at the interfered
frequency channel
Lost bits either have only a minor impact (in
case of speech transmission) or can be
requested again using the Automatic Repeat
Request (ARQ) mechanism (in case of data
transmission)
c
t
f
FDM/TDM with frequency hopping
PSD
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
FHSS: Modulation and Demodulation
Modulation
Modulation of user data using FSK
or PSK
Narrowband signal with f
1
for a
binary 0 and f
2
for a binary 1
(assuming FSK is used)
Based on a hopping sequence,
carrier frequency f
c
is generated by a
frequency synthesizer
Spread signal is generated with f
c
+f
1
for a binary 0 and f
c
+f
2
for a binary 1
Demodulation
Inverse operations of modulation
process
Modulation
Narrowband
digital signal
Spread transmit
signal
Frequency*
synthesizer
Hopping
Sequence
Demodulation
Narrowband
digital signal
Received
signal
Frequency *
synthesizer
Hopping
Sequence
*) A device that produces frequencies that are phase
coherent with a reference frequency
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Slows vs. Fast Frequency Hopping
User
data
Slow
hopping
(1 hop/bit)
Fast
hopping
(3 hops/bit)
t
f
f
t
t
f
3
f
2
f
1
f
3
f
2
f
1
1 +1 1 +1 +1
t
s
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Advantages of Spread Spectrum
Secure
Spread spectrum has initially been invented for military purposes
Signal is very hard to distinguish from background noise and therefore hard to
detect
Data can only be decoded if the interceptor knows the spreading sequence
Spread spectrum signals have an excellent rejection of intentional jamming
Robustness
Spread spectrum signals can be received even in the presence of very strong
narrowband interfering signals
Significantly better performance in the presence of multi-path fading
Overlay
Allows an overlay of new transmission technology at exactly the same
frequency at which current narrowband systems are already operating
Multiple access
Can be used as a further multiplexing/multiple-access technology
Variable data rates are possible by using codes with different spreading factors
Random access, i.e., users can start their transmission at any arbitrary time
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
DSSS vs. FHSS
Advantages
Very good noise and anti-jam
performance
Most difficult to intercept
Fights well against multipath effects
(due to autocorrelation of each code)
Can be used in combination with
existing narrowband systems
Disadvantages
Long acquisition time due to long chip
sequences
Vulnerable to the near-far problem
Advantages
Can be arranged to avoid portions of the
spectrum (e.g., those being the most
affected by frequency selective fading)
Short acquisition time, because the chip
rate is considerable less
Not as much affected by the near-far
problem as DSSS
Disadvantages
More susceptible to narrowband
interference
More difficult to synchronize the receiver
to the transmitter
DSSS FHSS
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Correlation of Code Sequences
Correlation: concept of determining how much similarity one set of data has with
another
Correlation is defined with a range of between -1 and 1 with the following meanings:
Auto-correlation
Correlation of a sequence c
i
of N elements with all phase
shifts of itself:
Note: A spread spectrum sequence should have good correlation properties
Correlation value
+1
0
1
Interpretation
The second sequence matches the first sequence exactly
There is not relation at all between the two sequences
The two sequences are mirror images of each other
| | | | | |
N n
n m c m c
N
n
N
m
i i ii
.. 1 with
1
1
=
+ =

=
Cross-Correlation
Correlation of two sequences
c
i
and c
j
:
| | | | | |
N n
n m c m c
N
n
N
m
j i ij
.. 1 with

1
1
=
+ =

=
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Auto-Correlation
Auto-Correlation
A code has a good auto-correlation if the inner product with itself is large and its
inner product with the same, but shifted code is small
Good auto-correlation is essential to achieve synchronization between sender
and receiver: if correlation value between received data and the chipping sequence
used to decode the data is 1, the receiver has detected the beginning of a symbol
(encoded by the chipping sequence) and is thus synchronized with the sender
Example: Barker code +1,1,+1,+1,1,+1,+1,+1,1,1,1 (used for spreading in
802.11):
The Barker code has good auto-correlation
(+1, 1,+1,+1, 1,+1,+1,+1, 1, 1, 1)
(+1, 1,+1,+1, 1,+1,+1,+1, 1, 1, 1)
(+1, 1,+1,+1, 1,+1,+1,+1, 1, 1, 1)
(1,+1,+1, 1,+1,+1,+1, 1, 1, 1,+1)
(+1, 1,+1,+1, 1,+1,+1,+1, 1, 1, 1)
(+1,+1, 1,+1,+1,+1, 1, 1, 1,+1, 1)
...
1
-1/11
-1/11
...
0
1
2
...
| | n
ii
n | | | | n c c
i i
+ 0 , 0
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Pseudo Noise (PN) Sequences
Pseudo Noise (PN) Sequences
Periodic sequence that eventually repeats but that appears to be random
Generated by an algorithm using some initial value (seed)
Algorithm is realized by Linear Feedback Shift Register (LFSR)
Impractical to predict the PN sequence if algorithm and seed are unknown
Properties
Balance property
In a long sequence, the fraction of binary ones should approach 1/2
Run property
A run is defined as a sequence of all 1s or a sequence of all 0s.
About one-half of the runs of each type should be of length 1,
one-fourth of length 2, one-eight of length 3 and so on
Independence
No value in the sequence can be inferred from the others
Auto-correlation
Good autocorrelation for synchronizing sender and receiver
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Linear Feedback Shift Registers for Generating PN sequences
Linear Feedback Shift Register
(LFSR)
The LFSR contains n bits
There are from 1 to (n-1) XOR gates
Presence/absence of a gate
corresponds to the value of A
i
(0or 1)
in the sum of XOR terms describing
the LFSR:
Advantages
Generated sequences are nearly
random with long periods, which
makes the spread signal appear
noiselike
Easy to implement in hardware and
can run at high speeds (important
because the chip rate is higher than
the data rate)
1 1 2 2 1 1 0 0
...

=
n n n
B A B A B A B A B
B
n-1
A
n-1
B
n-2
A
n-2
B
1
A
1
B
0
A
0
Output
1 bit shift
register
Multiply circuit
XOR circuit
...
...
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Step B
3
B
2
B
1
B
0
B
0
B
1
Output
0 1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
1 +1 1 +1 +1 +1 +1
2 +1 +1 1 +1 1 +1
3 1 +1 +1 1 1 1
4 1 1 +1 +1 +1 +1
5 +1 1 1 +1 1 +1
6 1 +1 1 1 +1 1
7 +1 1 +1 1 1 1
8 1 +1 1 +1 1 +1
9 1 1 +1 1 1 1
10 1 1 1 +1 1 +1
11 1 1 1 1 +1 1
12 +1 1 1 1 +1 1
13 +1 +1 1 1 +1 1
14 +1 +1 +1 1 1 1
15=01 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
4.3 Spread Spectrum
LFSR Example
Example of a 4-bit LFSR:
Initial state (seed) of 1000
With each different initial state
(except for 0000), the sequence
begins at a different point in its cycle
Table shows the step-by-step
operation if the LFSR is clocked one
bit at a time
Output of the LFSR is B
0
Output repeats after 15 bits, the
period of the sequence is 15=2
4
-1
B
3
B
2
B
1
B
0
Output
1 0 3
B B B =
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
m-Sequences
m-sequences
Sum of XOR terms
can also be written as generator
polynomial:
Every sequence generated by an
LFSR is periodic with period
(where n denotes the number of bits
in the LFSR)
Maximal-length sequence, or m-
sequence, is an LFSR sequence
whose period is
Necessary condition to generate
an m-sequence: P(X) must be
irreducible (non-factorable), i.e.
Properties of m-sequences
Balance property if fulfilled, i.e. the
fraction of binary ones should
approach 1/2
Run property is fulfilled, i.e. about
one-half of the runs of each type
should be of length 1, one-fourth of
length 2, one-eight of length 3, etc.
Independence, i.e. no value of the
sequence can be inferred from the
others
Good auto-correlation
( )
1
1
2
2 1 0
...

+ + + + =
n
n
X A X A X A A X P
1 2
n
N
1 2 =
n
N
1 1 2 2 1 1 0 0
...

=
n n n
B A B A B A B A B
( ) ( ) ( ) X P X P X P
2 1
| |
=
=
otherwise
1
,... 2 , , 0 1
N
N N n
n
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Auto-correlation of M-Sequences
Period in number of chips
p=2
n
-1
| | n
ii
1
0
-1/p
Chip duration
n
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
| | n
ii
1
0
-1/15
General auto-
correlation
for m-sequences:
Auto-correlation for
m-sequences
generated
by a 4-bit LFSR:
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Cross-Correlation
Cross-Correlation
Two codes have a low cross-correlation if their product is low for all shift
combinations
Low cross-correlation between a sequence and noise is useful to the receiver
in filtering out noise
Low cross-correlation between two sequences is useful to the receiver to
discriminate among signals generated by different users
If the cross-correlation between two sequences is 0, the sequences are said to
be full orthogonal
Cross-correlation between c
1
and c
2
is
c
3
and c
4
are orthogonal, because their cross-correlation is
c
1
: +1 +1 +1 +1 1 +1 +1 1
c
2
: 1 +1 1 +1 +1 1 1 +1
1 +1 1 +1 1 1 1 1 =4
c
3
: 1 1 1 +1 +1 1 +1 +1
c
4
: 1 1 +1 1 +1 +1 +1 1
+1 +1 1 1 +1 1 +1 1 =0
| | 5 . 0
8
4
0
2 , 1
= =
| | 0
8
0
0
4 , 3
= =
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Gold Sequences
In CDM, for each user a dedicated
spreading code is required
Spreading codes used by different
users should have well-defined
cross-correlation properties, which
is not given by m-sequences
Gold sequences
Well defined cross-correlation
properties:
Gold sequences are constructed by
the XOR of two m-sequences a
and a with the same clocking
Gold sequences are not m-sequences
However, both a and a can be chosen
in a way that Gold sequences are m-
sequences with maximal length N
Example
n=13 N=2
13
-1=8191
630 m-sequences
There exist pairs of sequences with a
cross-correlation of
Gold sequences guarantee the
selection of these pairs such that
i.e., the cross-correlation is lower
even for 1 2
1
odd for 1 2
1
2 / ) 2 (
2 / ) 1 (
n
N
n
N
n
ij
n
ij
+
+
+
+
703
1
N
ij
=
129
1
N
ij

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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Generation of Gold Sequences
Load both registers with the initial state
of the sequences a and a
Resulting sequences are XORed to
produce one Gold sequence
Next Gold sequence is generated by
shifting the initial state of the second
sequence by one bit and performing
the XOR operations again
Process continues with all possible
shifts
A set of Gold codes consists of the
sequences
where D represents a one-bit shift of a
relative to a
A set of Gold sequences consists of N+2
sequences (2
n
-1 sequences resulting from
XOR operations plus 2 input sequences
Output
B
a3
B
a2
B
a1
B
a0
B
a4

B
a3
B
a2
B
a1
B
a4
B
a0
{ } ' ,..., ' , ' , ' , ' ,
1 2
a D a a D a Da a a a a a
N

Gold sequence is
constructed by the
XOR of two m-
sequences a and a
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Generation of Gold Sequences (Example)
0 shift XOR: +1+1+1+1+1+1+11111+111+111111+1111+11+1+1+11+1
1 shift XOR: +1+1+1+11+11+11+11111+1+1+1+11+11+1+1+1+111+1+1+11
30 shift XOR: 1+1+1+1+11+1+1+11+1+1+11+11+1+1+111+1+1+111+11+111
.
.
.
a : 11111+1+1+111+1111+11+11+1+1+1+11+1+11+111+1+1
a: 11111+1+11+1+111+1+1+1+11+111+11+11+1+1+1111+1
.
.
.
Output
B
a3
B
a2
B
a1
B
a0
B
a4

B
a3
B
a2
B
a1
B
a4
B
a0
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Orthogonal Codes
Orthogonal Codes
Unlike PN sequences, orthogonal codes are a set of sequences in which all pair-
wise cross-correlations are zero:
where M is the length of each of the sequences in the set, and c
i
and c
j
are the
ith and jth member of the set
In comparison to Gold sequences, orthogonal codes improve bandwidth
efficiency of spread spectrum systems, as redundancy (i.e., the spreading
factor) can be kept as minimal as possible
For CDM, each mobile user uses one sequence as a spreading code, thereby
providing zero cross correlations among all users
Walsh codes: orthogonal codes of fixed length
Variable-length orthogonal codes: orthogonal codes with different spreading
factors in order to support services with varying data rates
| | | |
=
=
1
0
for 0
M
k
j i
j i k c k c
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Walsh Codes
Walsh Codes
Set of Walsh codes of length n consists of the rows of a nn Walsh matrix
Matrix is recursively defined as
where n is the dimension of the matrix and the overscore denotes the logical NOT of
the bits in the matrix
Every row is orthogonal to every other row and to the logical NOT of every other row
Example for n=2,4,8:
All users using a set of orthogonal codes
must be synchronized, because the
cross-correlation between different shifts of
Walsh sequences is not zero
If tight synchronization is not provided, PN sequences are needed
( ) 0
1
= W
|
|
.
|
\
|
n n
n n
n
W W
W W
W
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
=
1 1
1 1
2
W
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + + +
=
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
4
W
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + + + + +
=
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
W
!
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) (I)
Orthogonal Variable
Spreading Factor (OVSF)
Method to obtain variable length
orthogonal codes
Recursive generation of variable
orthogonal codes using a tree
structure
A node adopts the code from its
predecessor and concatenates it
either with a copy of this code
(first successor) or with its inverse
(second successor)
Codes of the same layer are
orthogonal
Any two Codes of different layers
are orthogonal except for the case
that one of the two codes is a
mother code of the other
+1
+1+1
+11
+1+1+1+1
+1+111
+11+11
+111+1
+1+1+1+11111
+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1
+1+111+1+111
+1+11111+1+1
+11+11+11+11
+11+111+11+1
+111+1+111+1
+111+11+1+11
C
1,1
C
2,1
C
8,5
C
8,4
C
8,3
C
8,2
C
8,1
C
4,4
C
4,3
C
4,2
C
4,1
C
2,2
C
8,8
C
8,7
C
8,6
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) (II)
Example
C
4,2
is assigned to a user
Codes C
8,3
and C
8,4
generated from this
code cannot be assigned to other users
requesting lower bit rates
Mother codes C
1,1
and C
2,1
cannot be
assigned to users requesting higher rates
Bit rate * Spreading factor =3.84 Mcps
Spreading factor Bit rate
8 480 kb/s
4 960 kb/s
16 240 kb/s
512 7.5 kb/s
256 15 kb/s
128 30 kb/s
64 60 kb/s
32
Chip rate
3.84 Mcps
3.84 Mcps
3.84 Mcps
3.84 Mcps
3.84 Mcps
3.84 Mcps
3.84 Mcps
3.84 Mcps 120 kb/s
+1
+1+1
+11
+1+1+1+1
+1+111
+11+11
+111+1
+1+1+1+11111
+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1
+1+111+1+111
+1+11111+1+1
+11+11+11+11
+11+111+11+1
+111+1+111+1
+111+11+1+11
C
1,1
C
2,1
C
8,5
C
8,4
C
8,3
C
8,2
C
8,1
C
4,4
C
4,3
C
4,2
C
4,1
C
2,2
C
8,8
C
8,7
C
8,6
X
X
X
X
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Example: GSM
Frequency hopping rate of 217
changes per second,
corresponding to the TDMA frame
duration
PN code is calculated according to
Hopping sequence number
TDMA frame number
...
Frequency hopping is an option left
to the network operator and can be
arranged on cell basis
Frequency hopping is activated by
a base station
Mobile station is informed by
dedicated signaling channels
whether or not frequency hopping
is activated
Each GSM-compliant mobile
device has to support frequency
hopping
FH
Modulator
Carrier
900 or 1800 MHz
Digital Signal
270 kbps
270
ksps
270 ksps
2-GMSK
PN code
[EVB 01]
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Example: UMTS
Two-stage spreading
Orthogonal Variable Spreading
Factor (OVSP) codes are used to
provide mutual orthogonality among
all users in the same cell or among
different channels of the same user
PN sequences are used to provide
mutual randomness between users
in different cells
Orthogonal codes are referred to as
channelization codes
PN codes are referred to as
scrambling codes
QPSK
Carrier
(1965 MHz)
OVSP
(SF=4,8,16,32,64,
128,256)
Digital Signal
60 kbps 7.68 Mcps
3.84 Msps
SF=128
Gold
sequences
7.68 Mcps
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Example: 802.11 using DSSS
The same 11-bit Barker sequence is
used by all users to spread the
signal:
+11+1+11+1+1+1111
Spreading is used only to
compensate interference and not to
separate users
The bandwidth of a channel is 22
MHz
Each access point uses a channel of
22 MHz
When multiple access points are
located in close proximity, it is
recommended to use frequency
separations of at least 25 MHz
The 2.4 GHz ISM band allows 3 non-
overlapping channels
BPSK
Carrier
(2.4 GHz)
11 chip
Barker
Digital Signal
1 Mbps 11 Mcps
11 Msps
QPSK
Carrier
(2.4 GHz)
11 chip
Barker
Digital Signal
2 Mbps 22 Mcps
11 Msps
2.4 GHz 2.4835 GHz
22 MHz
25 MHz
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Example: 802.11 using FHSS
78 channels of 1 MHz
Each access point can select one of
three patterns of 26 hops given by
(0,3,6,9,...,75),
(1,4,7,10,...,76), and
(2,5,8,11,...,77)
Up to three access points can
coexist in the same area, because
the sets are non-overlapping
Minimum hop rate is 2.5 hops per
second
FH
Modula-
tor
Carrier
(2.4 GHz)
Digital Signal
1 Mbps 1 Msps
1 Msps
2-
GMSK
PN code
FH
Modula-
tor
Carrier
(2.4 GHz)
Digital Signal
2 Mbps 1 Msps
1 Msps
4-
GMSK
PN code
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4.3 Spread Spectrum
Overview of latest IEEE 802.11 Standards
802.11b 802.11a 802.11g 802.11n
Standard Approved Sept. 1999 Sept. 1999
J une
2003
J an. 2006
Available Bandwidth 83.5 MHz 580 MHz 83.5 MHz
83.5/580
MHz
Frequency Band of Operation 2.4 GHz 5 GHz 2.4 GHz 2.4/5 GHz
#Non-Overlapping Channels
(US)
3 24 3 3/24
Data Rate per Channel 1 11 Mbps 6 54 Mbps 1 54 Mbps 1 600 Mbps
Modulation Type DSSS OFDM
DSSS
OFDM
DSSS
OFDM,
MIMO
Table adopted from Dr. Won-J oon Choi, Dr. Qinfang Sun, Dr. J effrey M. Gilbert
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4.4 Multi-carrier Modulation
Problem: Intersymbol Interference
Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
Delayed copies of a symbol's impulses caused by multipath propagation may
destroy subsequent symbols
Amount of ISI is a function of the symbol rate (symbol duration), the intensity of
multipath propagation, and the signals' traveling time (i.e., the distance between
sender and receiver)
In systems supporting high data rates, covering large areas, and being deployed in
urban areas (such as DVB-T) ISI is hard or even impossible to resolve at the
receiver
(a) Lowdata rates and long symbol duration (b) High data rates and short symbol duration
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Solution: Multi-carrier Modulation
Multi-carrier Modulation
Idea: subdivide a broad carrier of bandwidth 2R (with R being the symbol rate) into N
narrow sub-carriers, each of bandwidth 2R/N
Symbol rate of each sub-carrier is lowered to R/N
Each sub-carrier is used to transmit a fraction of the original data stream
(a) Original broadband signal in a
single carrier system (e.g., CDMA)
(b) Subdivision into N low symbol rate
sub-carriers each transmitting a
fraction of the original data stream
ISI can be eliminated, but system is bandwidth inefficient due to guard bands for
avoiding neighbor channel interferences
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Solution: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Orthogonality between sub-carriers: the peak at the center carrier frequency of
each sub-carrier corresponds to a zero level of every other sub-carrier
Orthogonality is achieved by spacing apart the sub-carrier frequencies by the
inverse of the symbol duration T
No neighbor-channel interferences
If the receiver samples at the center frequency of each sub-carrier, the only
energy present is that of the desired signal
OFDM is more bandwidth-efficient than conventional FDM as sub-carriers can be
spaced very narrow and guard bands are not necessary
1/T
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OFDM Sub-carriers in Time and Frequency Domain (I)
t
f
Channel
bandwidth
frequency
sub-band
time
segment
Figure adopted from David A. Smith: Introduction to Digital
Broadcasting, Tektronix Europe
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DVB-T Modulation Schemes
Each sub-carrier can be modulated by QPSK with two bits per symbol,16-QAM with
four bits per symbol, or 64-QAM with six bits per symbol
Data rate of a DVB-channel is a result of
the number of bits per symbol of the used modulation scheme
the guard time between consecutive bits
the number of sub-carriers per 8-MHz channel (in DVB-T)
Number of sub-carriers, in turn, depends on the maximum range of DVB transmitters
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DVB-C Modulation Scheme
256-QAM in DVB-C (without OFDM, i.e., conventional single-carrier modulation):
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OFDM Sub-carriers in Time and Frequency Domain (II)
Sub-carriers are orthogonal to avoid neighbor-channel interferences between sub-
carriers (OFDM)
Problem: co-channel interferences in Single-Frequency Networks (SFNs)
t
f
OFDM
symbol
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Single Frequency Networks
Single Frequency Networks
Consist of transmitters which transmit exactly
identical data streams on the same frequency
channel in synchronism with each other
Density of the network is characterized by the
maximum permissible distance to the next
transmitter being in range
Transmitter spacing in
National SFNs: <67 km
Regional SFNs: 17 or 33 km
Local SFNs: 2, 4, or 8 km
Different distances between receiver and
transmitters being in range cause co-channel
interferences (even if in synchronism) as a
result of signal propagation velocity
Requires guard times after each symbol
during which no transmission is allowed
Maximum
distance between
transmitters
Transmitter
Receiver
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OFDM Sub-carriers in Time and Frequency Domain (III)
t
f
Useful symbol
duration
Guard Interval
duration
OFDM
symbol
Typical guard times
National SFNs: 224 and 122 ms
Regional SFNs: 56 and 28 ms
Local SFNs: 14 and 7 ms
Guard times
introduces a
loss in
transport
capacity
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Configuration of DVB Subcarriers
Two modes in DVB
8K-mode with 6817 sub-carriers for
national SFNs
4K-mode with 1704 sub-carriers for
regional/local SFNs
Given a fixed bandwidth (8 MHz)...
8K-mode has long symbol durations (good
for eliminating multipath and co-channel
interference), but suffers from expensive
receivers
4K-mode has short symbol durations and
requires high density of transmitters, but
results in less receiver complexity
Ratio between guard time and useful
interval (D=T
G
/T
U
):
1/4, 1/8, 1/16, or 1/32
Example: Parameters for 8K
Sampling rate for performing
inverse discrete fourier
transformation:
64/7 MHz=9.143 MHz
8K variant: 2
13
=8192 sub-carriers
Useful interval
T
U
=8192 9.143 MHz=896 ms
Spacing between sub-carriers:
1/896 ms =1.116 kHz
For placing sub-carriers in a common
8-MHz channel only 6817carriers are
actually used instead of 8192
Symbol duration
T
U
+T
G
=1120 ms
Bit rate for 8K systems with 64-
QAM:
6 bit 6817 carriers per 1120 ms=
36.52 MBps
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DVB Data Rates for different OFDM Configurations

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Mobile Communications 4. Multiplexing and Modulation v7.0.

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