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CALCULUS REFERENCE
THEORY
DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
TM
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antiderivatives:
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f (x + h ) f (x ) h h 0
DERIVATIVE RULES
d f (x ) g (x ) = f (x ) g (x ) 1. Sum and Difference: dx d cf (x) = cf (x) 2. Scalar Multiple: dx d f (x )g (x ) = f (x )g (x ) + f (x )g (x ) 3. Product: dx
f (t) dt
a
4. Quotient:
Mnemonic: If f is hi and g is ho, then the product rule is ho d hi plus hi d ho. ) f (x )g (x ) f (x ) d = f (x)g ((x g (x)) 2 g (x ) dx
Part 2: If f (x) is continuous on the interval [a, b] and F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x), b f (x) dx = F (b) F (a) . then
a
Rn = x
3. Midpoint Rule:
Mn = x
x 2
n 1 k =0
xk + xk +1 2
4. Trapezoidal Rule: Tn =
y) dy = 3 dx 2y dx cos y + x d(cos , dx dx
cos y 3 . x sin y +2 y
5. Simpsons Rule: Sn =
COMMON DERIVATIVES
1. Constants:
TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION
1. Properties of Integrals Sums and differences: f (x) g (x) dx = f (x) dx g (x) dx
x
3
f (x0 )+4f (x1 )+2f (x2 )+ +2f (xn2 )+4f (xn1 )+ f (xn )
f (x 0 ) + 2 f (x 1 ) + 2 f (x 2 ) + + 2 f (x n 1 ) + f (x n )
=0
2. Linear:
d (mx dx
+ b) = m
3. Powers:
d (x n ) dx
4. Polynomials:
d (a n x n dx
+ + a2 x + a1 x + a0 ) = an nx
+ + 2a2 x + a1
d (a x ) dx
b a
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx
b
5. Exponential Base e:
d (ex ) dx
=e
Arbitrary base:
= a ln a
x
f (x) dx +
a
f (x) dx =
p
f (x) dx
a
6. Logarithmic Base e:
d (ln x) dx
1 x
Arbitrary base:
d (log a dx
x) =
1 x ln a
b a
f (x) dx
g (x) dx.
a
7. Trigonometric Sine:
d (sin dx
x) = cos x
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Tangent: Secant:
d (tan dx
x) = sec 2 x
d (sec dx
x) = sec x tan x
d (cos dx
d (cot dx
d (csc dx
8. Inverse Trigonometric
x) = csc x cot x
1 x) = 1 x2
x) = csc 2 x
x) = sin x
2. Substitution Rulea.k.a. u-substitutions: f g (x) g (x) dx = f (u) du f g (x) g (x) dx = F (g (x)) + C if f (x) dx = F (x) + C .
Arcsine:
d (sin 1 dx
x) =
ISBN 1-58663-896-3
Arctangent:
9 781586 638962
d (tan 1 dx
x) =
1 1 x2
Arccosine:
d (cos 1 dx
3. Integration by Parts Best used to integrate a product when one factor (u = f (x) ) has a simple derivative and the other factor (dv = g (x) dx ) is easy to integrate.
1 1+ x2
Arccotangent:
d (cot 1 dx
Arcsecant:
d (sec 1 dx
x) =
1 x x2 1
Arccosecant:
1 x) = 1+ x2
d (csc 1 dx
1 x) = x x 2 1
Definite Integrals:
b a
f (x)g (x) dx
a
a2 x2 .
f (x) dx is the signed area between the function y = f (x) and the
a
Expression
b a . n
Trig substitution
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Copyright 2003 by SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. SparkCharts is a registered trademark of SparkNotes LLC. A Barnes & Noble Publication 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
For each k = 0, 2, . . . , n 1 , n 1 f (x pick point x k) k in the interval [a + k x, a + (k + 1) x] . The expression x k =0 b n 1 f (x) dx is defined as lim x f (x k ) . is a Riemann sum. The definite integral
a n k =0
Expression becomes
Range of
a2 x2
x = a sin dx = a cos d
a cos
2 2 (a x a )
1 sin 2 = cos 2
x2 a2
a tan
0< <
2 3 2
sec 2 1 = tan 2
2
of f (x) if F (x) = f (x) . Antiderivative: The function F (x) is an antiderivative Indefinite integral: The indefinite integral f (x) dx represents a family of
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x2 + a2
x = a tan dx = a sec 2 d
a sec
<< 2
1 + tan 2 = sec 2
APPLICATIONS
GEOMETRY
Area: if f (x) g (x) on [a, b].
a b
obtained by revolving the region under the curve y = f (x) between x = a and x = b around the y -axis. b 2 1 + f (x) dx is the length of the curve y = f (x) from x = a Arc length:
out by the curve y = f (x) as it revolves around the x-axis on the interval [a, b]. b 2 2 f (x) g (x) dx is the volume of Volume of revolved solid (washer method):
a
f (x )
to x = b .
the solid swept out between y = f (x) and y = g (x) as they revolve around the x-axis on the interval [a, b] if f (x) g (x) .
Surface area:
2f (x)
a
MOTION
1. Position s(t) vs. time t graph: The slope of the graph is the velocity: s (t) = v (t) . The concavity of the graph is the acceleration: s (t) = a(t) . 2. Velocity v (t) vs. time t graph: The slope of the graph is the accleration: v (t) = a(t) . The (signed) area under the graph gives the displacement (change in position):
t
POSITION
x (p) Price elasticity of demand: E (p) = px (p) Demand is elastic if E (p) > 1 . Percentage change in p leads to larger percentage
Demand is inelastic if E (p) < 1 . Percentage change in p leads to smaller Formula relating elasticity and revenue: R (p) = x(p) 1 E (p)
percentage change in x(p). Increasing p leads to increase in revenue.
VELOCITY
s(t) s(0) =
v ( ) d
ACCELERATION
3. Acceleration a(t) vs. time t graph: The (signed) area under the graph gives the change t in velocity: a( ) d v (t) v (0) =
0
Demand function: p = D (x) gives price per unit Supply function: p = S (x) gives price per unit
units at price p . Market equilibrium is x (p) when x units available. = D ( x) = S ( x) .) (So p Consumer surplus: x x x = 0 (D (x ) p ) dx CS = 0 D (x) dx p PS = p x x
0
p = S(x)
p
0
( x, p)
p = D(x) x
1 ba
f (x) dx .
Producer surplus:
S (x) dx =
LORENTZ CURVE
x
0
( p S (x)) dx
Probability that X is between a and b: P (a X b) = ab f (x) dx xf (x) dx Expected value (a.k.a. expectation or mean) of X : E (X ) = X = 2 2 2 2 Variance: Var(X ) = X = x E (x) f (x) dx = E (X ) E (X ) Standard deviation: Var(X ) = X m f (x) dx = 1 . Median m satisfies f (x) dx = m 2 Cumulative density function (F (x) is the probability that X is at most x):
The Lorentz Curve L(x) is the fraction of income received by the poorest x fraction of the population. 1. Domain and range of L(x) is the interval [0, 1] . 2. Endpoints: L(0) = 0 and L(1) = 1 3. Curve is nondecreasing: L (x) 0 for all x 4. L(x) x for all x Coefficient of Inequality (a.k.a. Gini Index): 1 L=2 x f (x) dx . The quantity L is between 0 and 1. The closer L is to 1, the more equitable the income distribution.
0
y 1
y = L ( x)
completely equitable distribution
F (x ) = P (X x ) =
f (y ) dy
Covariance: Cov(X, Y ) = X Y =
COMMON DISTRIBUTIONS
g (x, y ) dy .
x E (X ) y E (Y ) f (x, y ) dx dy
g p
> 0.
MICROECONOMICS
COST
Cost function C (x): cost of producing x units. Marginal cost: C (x) x) : cost per unit when x units produced. Average cost function C (x) = C ( x Marginal average cost: C (x)
If the average cost is minimized, then average cost = marginal cost.
for x in
C (x ) x
= C (x ) .
REVENUE, PROFIT
The number of units x maximizes profit if R (x) = C (x) and R (x) < C (x) .
PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Perpetuity: PV =
P reff
P er 1
BIOLOGY
In all the following models P (t): size of the population at time t; P0 = P (0) , the size of the population at time t = 0; r : coefficient of rate of growth.
CURVE) MODEL
dP dt
= rP
P r>0 P0 r<0
0 t
Solution:
P (t) = P0 ert If r > 0 , this is exponential growth; if r < 0 , exponential decay.
A: long-term
= r (A P )
P P0 > A P0 < A
t
K : the carrying
capacity
= rP 1
P K
P P0 > k
k < P0 < k 2
P0 <
k 2
t
Solution:
P (t) = K
1+
K P0 P0
ert
Demand (or price) function p(x): price charged per unit if x units sold. Revenue (or sales) function: R(x) = xp(x) Marginal revenue: R (x) Profit function: P (x) = R(x) C (x) Marginal profit function: P (x)
The present value (PV ) of an amount (A ) t years in the future is the amount of principal that, if invested at r yearly interest, will yield A after t years. r mt Interest compounded m times a year: PV = A 1 + m Interest compounded continuously: PV = Aert
20593 38963
If C (x) > 0 , then to find the number of units (x) that minimizes average cost, solve
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2. -square distribution: with mean and variance 2 : x 1 f (x ) = x 2 1 e 2 22 2 Gamma function: (x) = 0 tx1 et dt
P ( 2 X + 2 ) = 95.5%
INTEREST
-2 -1 0 1 2
Simple interest: P (t) = P0 (1 + r )t Compound interest r mt Interest compounded m times a year: P (t) = P0 1 + m Interest compounded continuously: P (t) = P0 ert
Writer: Anna Medvedovsky Design: Dan O. Williams Illustration: Matt Daniels, Dan O. Williams Series Editor: Sarah Friedberg
1. Normal distribution (or Bell curve) with mean and (x )2 1 variance : f (x ) = e 2 2 2 P ( X ) = 68.3%
95% 68%
FINANCE
P (t): the amount after t years. P0 = P (0) : the original amount invested (the principal). r : the yearly interest rate (the yearly percentage is 100 r % ).
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