Point-Mass Dynamics and A Aerodynamic/Thrust d i /Th t Forces F

Properties of the Atmosphere Frames of reference Velocity y and momentum Newtons laws Introduction to Lift, Drag, and Thrust Simplified longitudinal equations of motion

The Atmosphere

Air Density, y, Dynamic y Pressure, and Mach Number

= Air density, function of height
z e = sea level

sea level = 1.225 kg / m3; = 1 / 9,042m

V = [v
2 x

+v +v
2 y

2 1/ 2 z

= [v v ]
T

1/ 2

= Airspeed

1 2 V q Dynamic pressure = = 2
V M h number Mach b = ; a

a = speed d of f sound d, m / s

Properties of the Lower Atmosphere

Air density and pressure decay exponentially with altitude Air temperature p and speed p of sound are linear functions of altitude

Wind: Motion of the Atmosphere

Zero wind at Earths surface = Inertially rotating air mass Wind measured with respect to Earths Earth s rotating surface Airspeed = Airplanes speed with respect to air mass Inertial velocity = Wind velocity + Airplane velocity

Wi dV Wind Velocity l it Profiles P fil varyoverTi Time

T i lJetstream Typical J tt V l it Velocity

Contours of Constant Dynamic Pressure, q

In steady, cruising flight, Weight = Lift = C L

1 V 2 S = C L q S 2

Airspeed must increase as altitude increases to maintain constant dynamic pressure

Equations of Motion for a Point Mass

Newtonian Frame of Reference

Newtonian (Inertial) Frame of Reference
Unaccelerated Cartesian frame whose origin g is referenced to an inertial (non-moving) frame Right-hand rule Origin can translate at constant linear velocity y Frame cannot be rotating with respect to inertial origin

Position: 3 dimensions What Wh t is i a non-moving i frame? f ? r = y

Translation T l ti changes h the th position iti of f an object bj t

Velocity and Momentum

Velocity y of a p particle

& v x x dx & = y & = v y v= =x dt & z vz

Linear momentum of a particle

vx v p = mv = m y vz where m = mass of particle

Newtons Laws of Motion: Dynamics of a Particle

First Law
If no force acts on a particle, it remains at rest or continues to move in a straight line at constant velocity, as observed in an inertial reference frame -- Momentum is conserved

d (mv ) = 0 mv t1 = mv t2 dt

Newtons Laws of Motion: Dynamics of a Particle

Second Law
A particle of fixed mass acted upon by a force changes velocity with an acceleration proportional to and in the direction of the force, as observed b d in i an inertial i ti l reference f frame; f The ratio of force to acceleration is the mass of the particle: F = ma
fx d (mv ) = m dv = F ; F = f y dt dt fz 0 0 f x 1 / m dv 1 1 f = F = I 3F = 0 1 / m 0 y dt m m 0 1 / m 0 fz

Newtons Laws of Motion: Dynamics of a Particle

Third Law
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

Equations of Motion for a Point Mass: Position and Velocity

Rate of change of position

& x v x dr & = y & = v = v y =r dt & z vz

&x 0 0 fx v 1 / m dv 1 f & = v &y = F = 0 1/ m 0 =v m y dt fz &z 0 1 / m v 0 fx = F FI = f y gravity + Faerodynamics + Fthrust fz

Rate of change of velocity

Vector of combined forces

Equations of Motion for a Point Mass

Written as a single g equation q

& (t ) = x
With

dx(t ) = f [x(t ), F ] dt

Position r x = Velocity v

x y z = v x v y vz

Scalar Dynamic Equations for a Point Mass

& v x 0 x y & v y 0 z & v z 0 = = & x f x / m 0 v v & y f y / m 0 &z 0 v f z / m 0 0 1 0 0 x 0 0 0 y 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 fx 0 0 0 0 1 z 0 0 0 + f y 0 0 0 0 0 v x 1 / m 0 0 fz 0 0 0 0 0 v y 0 1 / m 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 / m 0 vz
Dynamic equations are linear

Gravitational Force: Flat-Earth Approximation pp

Approximation Flat earth reference is an inertial frame, e.g.,
North, , East, , Down Range, Crossrange, Altitude ()

g is gravitational acceleration mg is gravitational force Independent of position z measured down

(F

gravity I

) = (F

gravity E

0 = mg f = m 0 g0
g 0 9.807m / s 2 at earth earth' s surface

Aerodynamic Force
Inertial Frame Body-Axis Frame y Velocity-Axis Frame y

X C X = C 1 V 2 S FI = Y Y 2 Z I CZ I C X qS = C Y CZ I
Referenced to the Earth not the aircraft

C X C qS FB = Y CZ B

C D q S FV = C Y CL

Aligned with the aircraft axes

Aligned with and perpendicular to the direction of motion

Non-Dimensional Aerodynamic Coefficients

B d A i F Body-Axis Frame V l it A i F Velocity-Axis Frame

C X axial force coefficient C = side id f force ffi i coefficien t Y CZ normal force coefficient B

C D drag coefficient C = side id f force ffi i coefficien t Y CL Lift coefficient

Functions of flight condition, control settings, and disturbances, e.g., CL = CL(, M, E) Non-dimensional coefficients allow application of sub-scale model wind tunnel data to full-scale airplane

Thrust and Thrust Coefficient ThrustandThrustCoefficient

1 Thrust CT V 2 S 2
Non-dimensional thrust coefficient CT coefficient,

CT is a function of power/throttle setting, fuel flow rate, blade angle, Mach number, ...

Reference area, S, may be aircraft wing area, propeller disk area, or jet exhaust area

Sensitivity of Thrust to Airspeed SensitivityofThrusttoAirspeed

N min No i al l Thrust Th t = TN CTN 1 V N2 S 2
(.)N= Nominal (or reference) value

Turbojet thrust is independent of airspeed over a wide range

If thrust is independent of velocity (= constant)

T C 1 2 = 0 = T VN S + CT VV S V V 2 CT = CTN / VN V

Power
Assumingthrustisalignedwithairspeedvector  Assuming thrust is aligned with airspeed vector

1 Power = P = Thrust Velocity y CT V 3 S 2

 Ifpowerisindependentofvelocity(=constant)

P 3 CT 1 3 =0= V N S + CT VN2 S V V 2 2 CT = 3CTN / VN V

Velocity-independent power is typical of propellerdriven propulsion (reciprocating or turbine engine, with constant RPM or variable-pitch prop)

Longitudinal Variables LongitudinalVariables

=- (with wingtips level)

u(t ) : axial velocity w(t (t ) : normal l velocity l it V (t ) : velocity magnitude (t ) : angle of attack (t ) : flight path angle (t ) : pitch angle

along vehicle centerline perpendicular to centerline along net direction of flight angle between centerline and direction of flight angle between direction of flight and local horizontal angle between centerline and local horizontal

Lateral-Directional Variables Lateral-DirectionalVariables

= + (with wingtips level)

(t ) : sideslip angle (t ) : yaw angle (t ) : heading angle (t ) : roll angle

angle between centerline and direction of flight angle g between centerline and local horizontal angle between direction of flight and compass reference (e.g., north) angle between true vertical and body z axis

Introduction to Lift and Drag g

Lift and Drag are Oriented y Vector to the Velocity

1 C 1 V 2 S C L 0 + L V 2 S 2 2 Lift components sum to produce total lift Lift f = CL
Pressure differential between upper and lower surfaces Wi Wing Fuselage Horizontal tail

Drag = C D

1 2 1 V 2 S C D 0 + C L V 2 S 2 2

Drag g components p sum to p produce total drag g

Skin friction Base pressure differential Shock-induced pressure differential (M > 1)

Aerodynamic Lift
Lift = C L C 1 1 1 V 2 S C Lw + C L f + C L ht V 2 S C L 0 + L V 2 S 2 2 2

Streamlines

Chord Section

Fast flow over top + slow flow over bottom = Mean flow + Circulation Speed difference proportional to angle of attack Kutta condition (stagnation points at leading and trailing edges)

InwardOutwardFlow

2D vs. 3D Lift
TipVortices

Identical d i lChord h dSections i Infinitevs.FiniteSpan

Inward flow over upper surface Outward flow over lower surface y of wing g produces p tip p Bound vorticity vortices

Aerodynamic Drag
Drag = C D 1 1 2 1 V 2 S C D p + C Di + C Dw V 2 S C D 0 + C L V 2 S 2 2 2

Drag g components p
Parasite drag (friction, interference, base pressure differential) Induced drag (drag due to lift generation) Wave Wa e drag (shock-induced (shock ind ced pressure press re differential)

In steady, subsonic flight

Parasite (form) drag increases as V2 Induced drag proportional to 1/ V2 Total drag minimized at one particular airspeed

2-D Equations of Motion

2-D Equations q of Motion for a Point Mass

Restrict motions to a vertical plane (i.e., motions in y direction = 0)

& v x 0 x z & v z 0 = = v &x f x / m 0 & v f / m z z 0

0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0

0 x z 1 + 0 v x 0 v z

0 0 1 / m 0

0 0 fx f 0 z 1/ m

Transform Velocity from Cartesian to P l Coordinates Polar C di t

2 2 v2 + v2 x & & + z x z & v x V cos x V = = = & = 1 z z 1 v z sin & v V sin sin z V V

v2 + v2 & x z V d = 1 v z & dt sin i V

2 2 d vx + v z = dt d 1 v z sin dt V

Longitudinal Point-Mass Equations of Motion

Assuming thrust is aligned with the velocity vector

Th t Drag D mg sin i (t ) 2 & (t ) = Thrust V = m m 1 C L V (t ) 2 S mg cos (t ) Lift mg cos (t ) 2 & (t ) = = mV (t ) mV (t ) &(t ) = z & (t ) = v = V (t ) sin h i (t )
z

(CT CD ) 1 V (t ) 2 S mg sin (t )

&(t ) = x & (t ) = v x = V (t ) cos (t ) r

When airplane is in steady, level flight, CT = CD

V = velocity = flight path angle h = height (altitude) r = range

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